IGCSE, OL, AS and AL Sociology: Themes and perspectives These perspectives can be used across all boards/curriculum such as Edexcel, Cambridge, AQA. IB or AP.

1. Themes and
Perspectives
IGCSE, AS AND A LEVEL SOCIOLOGY
SOPHIA ABID

2. Positivism
AUGUST COMTE

3. SCIENCE AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD, WHICH RELY ON EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS, ARE THE SOLE
MEANS OF ACQUIRING RELIABLE INFORMATION.
THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIETY MAY BE BROKEN DOWN INTO THREE DISTINCT PHASES, EACH OF WHICH IS
CHARACTERISTIC OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN CIVILIZATION AS A WHOLE.
THEOLOGICAL STAGE
IT WAS THE TIME WHEN PEOPLE FIRST BEGAN TO ATTRIBUTE SUPERNATURAL CAUSES TO NATURAL EVENTS. AT
ONE TIME, IT WAS WIDELY BELIEVED THAT DIVINE POWERS ULTIMATELY CONTROLLED THE COSMOS.
EVERYTHING WAS CHALKED UP TO THE HAND OF THE GODS, OR SO THE THINKING WENT. FETISHISM,
POLYTHEISM, AND MONOTHEISM ARE THE SUB-STAGES OF THE THEOLOGICAL EPOCH.
METAPHYSICAL STAGE
THE PRECEDING STAGE, IN WHICH IT WAS THOUGHT THAT THE IMMATERIAL POWER OF FORCE DIRECTS AND
DETERMINES THE EVENTS THAT TAKE PLACE IN THE WORLD, WAS SUPERSEDED BY THIS STAGE, WHICH
REPRESENTED AN IMPROVEMENT. THE BELIEF IN A TANGIBLE DEITY IS NOT COMPATIBLE WITH A METAPHYSICAL
WORLDVIEW.
POSITIVE STAGE
THIS IS THE POINT AT WHEN ONE TAKES A PURELY SCIENTIFIC, METHODICAL, AND EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH TO
THEIR ANALYSIS OF THE WORLD. THUS, THE NATURE OF THE SOCIAL WORLD WAS DISCLOSED BY SCIENCE AND
REASON, AND RELIGION WAS SUPPLANTED AS THE FOUNDATION OF SOCIAL ORDER. EVERYTHING REACHES A
LOGICAL CONCLUSION AT THIS POINT.

4. Functionalism
HERBERT Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Robert
Merton and Talcott Parson

5. ALL OF SOCIETY'S COMPONENTS ARE SEEN TO DEPEND ON AND STRENGTHEN ONE ANOTHER. FAMILY AND RELIGION
ARE ONLY TWO EXAMPLES OF SOCIETAL INSTITUTIONS THAT CAN ONLY BE UNDERSTOOD IN THE CONTEXT OF THE
LARGER COMMUNITY. IN THE SAME WAY THAT BIOLOGISTS ANALYZE ORGANS LIKE THE HEART FOR THE ROLE THEY
PLAY IN KEEPING THE HUMAN BODY RUNNING, FUNCTIONALISTS ANALYZE INSTITUTIONS LIKE THE FAMILY FOR THE
ROLE THEY PLAY IN KEEPING SOCIETY RUNNING SMOOTHLY. IN ORDER FOR A SOCIETY TO THRIVE, IT MUST MEET A
SET OF FUNDAMENTAL DEMANDS OR PREREQUISITES. THESE NEEDS ARE OFTEN REFERRED TO AS FUNCTIONAL
PREREQUISITES OR FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS. PEOPLE IN A CIVILIZATION CAN'T REALLY OPERATE WITHOUT
ACCESS TO SOME KIND OF FOOD AND HOUSING PRODUCTION SYSTEM. SINCE SOCIAL EXISTENCE IS IMPOSSIBLE
APART FROM CULTURE, A SYSTEM FOR THE SOCIALIZATION OF NEW MEMBERS OF SOCIETY MAY ALSO BE CONSIDERED
A FUNCTIONAL NECESSITY. JUST AS THE CREATION OF FOOD AND SHELTER IS A MAJOR FUNCTION OF THE ECONOMIC
SYSTEM, SO TOO DOES THE FAMILY PLAY A VITAL ROLE IN SOCIALIZING NEW MEMBERS TO MAKE THEM BEST FIT IN
THE COMMUNITY.
THE IMPACTS OF SOCIAL COMPONENTS ARE DESCRIBED AS FUNCTIONAL OR DYSFUNCTIONAL BY FUNCTIONALISTS. IF
AN ELEMENT HELPS MAINTAIN SOCIAL HARMONY, IT IS CONSIDERED FUNCTIONAL; IF IT CAUSES SOCIETAL UNREST, IT
IS CONSIDERED DYSFUNCTIONAL. VIOLENCE, THE DESTRUCTION OF PROPERTY, AND THE INSTILLING OF FEAR ARE
ALL SYMPTOMS OF DYSFUNCTION, MAKING CRIME AN ILLUSTRATIVE CASE IN POINT.
SOCIOLOGISTS HAVE DISTINGUISHED BETWEEN MANIFEST AND LATENT FUNCTIONS. MANIFEST FUNCTIONS ARE
THOSE THAT ARE BOTH PLANNED AND GENERALLY ACKNOWLEDGED AS A RESULT. CONSEQUENCES MIGHT HAVE
UNEXPECTED, OR "LATENT," FUNCTIONS, WHICH ARE OFTEN NOT OBVIOUS TO THE OBSERVER. IT IS OBVIOUS THAT
ONE PURPOSE OF EDUCATION IS TO EQUIP THE NEXT GENERATION WITH VALUABLE INFORMATION AND ABILITIES.
HOWEVER, MANY WORKING PARENTS RELY ON PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR HIRING A
BABYSITTER. CHILDCARE DUTIES ARE A HIDDEN PURPOSE OF SCHOOLING SINCE THEY AREN'T ON THE RADAR OF
MOST EDUCATORS.

6. VALUE CONSENSUS, OR WIDESPREAD AGREEMENT ON MORAL PRINCIPLES, IS A CENTRAL TENET OF THE
FUNCTIONALIST WORLDVIEW. THESE PRINCIPLES ARE EMPHASIZED BELOW.
ECONOMIC SYSTEM
VARIOUS PRODUCTS ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE ECONOMIC SYSTEM, AND RISING PRODUCTIVITY IS
PRIORITISED.
EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPETENT PROFESSIONALS FOR THE PURPOSE OF INCREASING OUTPUT AND ITS
EFFICIENCY IS A PRIMARY FOCUS OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM.
POLITICAL SYSTEM
IT IS A GOAL OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM TO INCREASE MATERIAL PROSPERITY AND PRODUCTION. INTEGRATION
MAY BE CONSIDERED TO EXIST AMONGST VARIOUS FACETS OF SOCIETY IF THEY HAVE A SAME SET OF VALUES.
THE FAMILY
FAMILIES DRIVE UP THE DEMAND FOR PRODUCTION SINCE THEY BUY ALL THE THINGS THAT ARE PRODUCED.

7. Determinism
DAVID WALSH

8. MANY PEOPLE CONSIDER THE PERSPECTIVE THAT FUNCTIONALISM TAKES, WHICH IS THAT HUMAN BEHAVIOUR IS
PREDETERMINED, TO BE DETERMINISTIC. IT HAS BEEN ASSERTED BY THE THEORY'S DETRACTORS THAT,
ACCORDING TO THE FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE, HUMAN CONDUCT IS DEPICTED AS BEING DICTATED BY THE
SYSTEM. IN PARTICULAR, THE SOCIAL SYSTEM HAS NEEDS, AND THE CONDUCT OF ITS MEMBERS IS FORMED TO
SUIT THESE REQUIREMENTS. RATHER THAN BEING CONSIDERED AS THE CREATORS OF THE SOCIAL
ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH THEY LIVE, HUMANS ARE SEEN AS BEING CREATURES OF THE SYSTEM. ACCORDING TO
THE ARGUMENT PRESENTED BY DAVID WALSH, "PARSONS CONSIDERED HUMAN ACTIVITY AS DICTATED BY THE
PROPERTIES OF THE SYSTEM." HUMANITY IS PROGRAMMED IN TERMS OF THE NORMS AND VALUES OF THE
SOCIAL SYSTEM VIA THE PROCESS OF SOCIALISATION, AND IT IS MAINTAINED ON THE STRAIGHT AND NARROW
BY THE MECHANISMS OF SOCIAL CONTROL THAT EXIST TO SATISFY THE NEEDS OF THE SYSTEM. ITS BEHAVIOUR
IS ORGANISED IN TERMS OF SOCIAL ROLES, WHICH ARE CREATED TO FULFIL THE REQUIREMENTS OF SOCIETY IN
ORDER FOR IT TO OPERATE WELL. THE SYSTEM HAS HUMANITY COMPLETELY PROGRAMMED, GUIDED, AND
UNDER ITS CONTROL AT ALL TIMES.
WALSH DISAGREED WITH THIS ASSESSMENT OF PEOPLE. HE ARGUED, FROM A PHENOMENOLOGICAL
STANDPOINT, THAT PEOPLE FORM THEIR OWN SOCIAL REALITY BY INTENTIONAL ACTION, RATHER THAN
PASSIVELY ABSORBING THE NORMS OF A SOCIETY.
CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE
THE CONFLICT VIEWPOINT IS DISTINCT FROM FUNCTIONALISM DUE TO THE EXISTENCE OF BASIC INTEREST GAPS
ACROSS SOCIAL GROUPINGS. DISPUTES EMERGE AS A CONSEQUENCE OF THESE DISTINCTIONS. CONFLICT
THEORY WAS FIRST ARTICULATED IN KARL MARX'S SEMINAL PUBLICATIONS. MARX PROPOSED THAT THERE IS A
NATURAL PROGRESSION IN THE LEVEL OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT THAT ALL CIVILIZATIONS GO THROUGH.
THE EMPHASIS SHIFTS FROM SUBSISTENCE PRODUCTION TO PROFIT-SEEKING AS CULTURES DEVELOP FROM
RURAL TO INDUSTRIAL.

9. Marxism
KARL MARX

10. DUE TO THE FACT THAT IT ADDRESSES A VARIETY OF FACETS OF SOCIAL LIFE, INCLUDING AS ECONOMICS,
POLITICS, EDUCATION, AND CULTURE, IT HAS PROVEN TO BE ONE OF THE MOST SIGNIFICANT SOCIOLOGICAL
THEORIES IN THE HISTORY OF THE DISCIPLINE. IT HOLDS THE BELIEF THAT DISPARITIES BETWEEN THE
"BOURGEOISIE" (THE GOVERNING CAPITALIST CLASS) AND THE PROLETARIAT ARE THE FOUNDATION UPON
WHICH CAPITALIST SOCIETY IS BUILT (WORKING CLASS). IT IS CALLED A CONFLICT THEORY BECAUSE IT
PROPOSES THAT THESE DIFFERENT SOCIAL STRATA ARE ALWAYS AT ODDS WITH ONE ANOTHER IN SOCIETY.
ACCORDING TO MARX'S THEORY, THE ECONOMICS OF A SOCIETY IS THE DEFINING CHARACTERISTIC OF THAT
SOCIETY. THE ECONOMY SERVES AS THE FOUNDATION FOR ALL OTHER ORGANISATIONS AND SOCIETAL SYSTEMS.
WHOEVER IS IN COMMAND OF THE COUNTRY'S ECONOMY IS ALSO IN CHARGE OF THE POPULATION OF THE
COUNTRY. THE BOURGEOISIE, IN MARX'S OPINION, HAS POWER OVER THE ECONOMY AND IS RESPONSIBLE FOR
THE PROLETARIAT'S EXPLOITATION BY VIRTUE OF THEIR OWNERSHIP OF THE "MEANS OF PRODUCTION" AND
"RELATIONS OF PRODUCTION." THE BOURGEOISIE IS ABLE TO MAINTAIN ITS ABILITY TO PRODUCE PROFITS AND
ADVANCE CAPITALIST GOALS VIA THE PRACTISE OF EXPLOITATION. THE PRIVATE OWNERSHIP OF PROPERTY,
WHICH IS THE PRIMARY MEANS THROUGH WHICH PEOPLE MAY AMASS WEALTH, IS THE FUNDAMENTAL TENET OF
THE CAPITALISM SYSTEM. THE CONVENTIONAL FORM OF MARXISM IS ANOTHER NAME FOR MARX'S BASIC
THEORY. SINCE THEN, OTHER VARIATIONS OF MARXISM HAVE COME INTO EXISTENCE.

11. MARX ELUCIDATES THE EPOCHS DURING WHICH WESTERN CULTURES DEVELOPED. THESE ERAS WERE THE ONES
HE DESIGNATED.
Primitive Communism
Hunter-gatherers simply collected what they needed to live, hence there was no need for a caste system.
Because there was no overabundance of goods, no one was exploited.
Ancient Civilization
There was an initial phase of exploitation when the relationship between aristocracy and slaves defined social
order.
Feudalism
This distinction between landowners and tenants reflected a larger stratification of medieval society. Those in
possession of the property were taken advantage of by the owners.
Capitalist Society
Present-day culture. We are free to engage in commerce with anybody and to pursue our own financial goals.
However, Marx argues that this phase is unfair since the wealthy exploit the poor.
Advanced Communism
Marx's idealistic vision for the future of human civilization. Marx's ideal social order involves the widespread
distribution of the nation's riches and a commitment to economic equality.

12. Symbolic
Interactionism
GEORGE SIMMEL, CHARLES HORTON COOLEY,
George Herbert Mead, and Erving Goffman

13. BOTH FUNCTIONALISM AND MARXISM FALL UNDER THE UMBRELLA TERM MACRO THEORY AND HAVE A NUMBER
OF COMMONALITIES. ACCORDING TO TALCOTT PARSON'S INTERPRETATION OF FUNCTIONALISM, SOCIETAL
NORMS AND VALUES HAVE A SIGNIFICANT ROLE IN SHAPING INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR. ACCORDING TO MARXIST
THEORY, AN INDIVIDUAL'S ACTIONS ARE DICTATED BY THEIR SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS. INTERACTIONISM, IN
CONTRAST TO MARXISM AND FUNCTIONALISM, PLACES MORE EMPHASIS ON INDIVIDUAL INTERACTIONS THAN
ON SOCIETAL STRUCTURES. AS A RULE, IT DOES NOT ACCEPT THE EXISTENCE OF A SOCIAL ORDER. THE FOCUS IS
ON THE EMOTIONAL AND MENTAL STATE OF PEOPLE AS THEY INTERACT IN CLOSE QUARTERS. ACCORDING TO
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM, PEOPLE'S ACTIONS ARE SHAPED BY THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION AND
MAINTENANCE OF MEANINGS. W.I. THOMAS, A SOCIOLOGIST, UNDERLINED THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MEANING
AND DEFINITION IN SOCIAL ACTION AND ITS OUTCOMES IN 1966. HE HYPOTHESIZED THAT PEOPLE REACT LESS
TO THE ACTUAL CIRCUMSTANCES AROUND THEM AND MORE TO HOW THEY INTERPRET THOSE CIRCUMSTANCES.
AS A RESULT, THOMAS OBSERVED, THE OUTCOMES OF THE EVENTS WE ACCEPT AS REAL REFLECT THE REALITY OF
THOSE DEFINITIONS. A STUDENT WHO IS JUST STARTING OUT IN A NEW CLASSROOM, FOR INSTANCE, COULD SEE
THE ENVIRONMENT AS UNFRIENDLY AND DANGEROUS. DEPENDING ON HOW THEY INTERPRET THEIR
CLASSROOM INTERACTIONS, STUDENTS MAY AFFIRM, REFINE, OR REJECT THIS CONCEPT. THE STUDENT'S
PERSPECTIVE OF THE SITUATION MAY SHIFT IF HE OR SHE LEARNS TO SEE THE INSTRUCTOR AND OTHER
STUDENTS AS KIND AND COMPASSIONATE. ACTORS' DEFINITIONS OF CIRCUMSTANCES MATTER BECAUSE OF THE
IMPLICATIONS SUCH DEFINITIONS HAVE FOR THE PLAY. IF YOU LOOK AT THE WAY THEY ORGANIZE THEIR ACTS,
YOU CAN SEE HOW THIS SYMBOLIZES THEIR WORLD. SIMILARLY, THE THEORY OF SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
POSITS THAT SOCIAL INTERACTIONS IMPACT HOW WE SEE OURSELVES. HOW OTHER PEOPLE TREAT US AND
CATEGORIZE US INFLUENCES OUR OWN SENSE OF IDENTITY.

14. Social Action and
Interpretation
MAX WEBER

15. SOCIOLOGISTS WHO SUBSCRIBE TO THIS POINT OF VIEW OFTEN DISAGREE WITH THE NOTION THAT THERE
EXISTS WITHIN SOCIETY A DISTINCT FRAMEWORK THAT INSTRUCTS PEOPLE TO CONDUCT THEMSELVES IN A
CERTAIN MANNER. SOME PROPONENTS OF THE SOCIAL ACTION THEORY DO NOT CONTEST THE REALITY OF A
PREEXISTING SOCIAL STRUCTURE; RATHER, THEY BELIEVE THAT THIS PREEXISTING STRUCTURE IS THE PRODUCT
OF THE ACTIONS OF PEOPLE. ACCORDING TO THESE POINTS OF VIEW, SOCIOLOGISTS HAVE AN OBLIGATION TO
COMPREHEND AND ANALYSE HUMAN BEHAVIOUR IN ORDER TO UNEARTH THE HIDDEN MEANINGS THAT ARE
HIDDEN BENEATH IT. BY DEFINING THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN WHAT COULD AND COULD NOT BE EXPLAINED IN
SOCIOLOGICAL TERMS, THE GERMAN SOCIOLOGIST MAX WEBER, WHO IS CONSIDERED TO BE ONE OF THE MOST
IMPORTANT PIONEERS OF SOCIOLOGY, PROVIDED AN INTERPRETATIVE EXPLANATION OF SOCIAL ACTIVITY. HE
DID THIS BY STATING THE ASSERTION. ACCORDING TO WEBER, A SOCIAL ACTION WAS AN ACTIVITY THAT WAS
CARRIED OUT BY AN INDIVIDUAL AND TO WHICH THAT INDIVIDUAL ATTRIBUTED A MEANING. IT IS IMPOSSIBLE
FOR A PERSON TO PARTICIPATE IN A SOCIAL ACTIVITY THAT INVOLVES DOING SOMETHING THAT THEY HAVE NO
INTENTION OF DOING. FOR INSTANCE, A COLLISION BETWEEN BICYCLES THAT OCCURRED BY CHANCE; SUCH
EVENTS ARE NOT THE PRODUCT OF ANY KIND OF DELIBERATE MENTAL PROCESS. IN ADDITION, IF A PERSON
PRAYS IN A PRIVATE ROOM WHILE REMAINING ANONYMOUS, THIS CANNOT BE CONSIDERED A SOCIAL ACTION
SINCE NO ONE IS AWARE OF IT AND THE ACTOR COULD NOT POSSIBLY BE TAKING INTO CONSIDERATION THE
PROBABLE ACTIONS OF OTHERS.

16. THE ACTOR'S INTERPRETATION OF THE ACTION'S SIGNIFICANCE IS CRUCIAL TO UNDERSTANDING ITS CAUSE.
DIFFERENTIATING BETWEEN TWO FORMS OF COMPREHENSION, HE SAID
Aktuelles Verstehen
or direct observational knowledge, allows us to deduce emotions from external cues, like a person's facial
expression, for instance.
Arklarendes Verstehen
Explanatory comprehension IS which, sociologists need to attempt to decipher the significance of AN action by
examining the factors that led up to it. You need to know what motivated the woodcutter. Why did you do it? To
gain money? To get rid of your rage? Putting yourself in the other person's position is essential if you want to
comprehend their actions. One way to understand someone else's behavior is to put yourself in their shoes and
attempt to envision what they're going through.

17. Feminism
PAMELA ABBOTT, CLAIRE WALLACE
Melissa Tyler, Valerie Bryson

18. THE INTELLECTUAL WING OF THE FEMINIST MOVEMENT THAT FLOURISHED IN THE MIDDLE AND LATTER PART OF THE 20TH
CENTURY IS RESPONSIBLE FOR COINING THE PHRASE FEMINIST THEORY. IT REFERS TO THE PROCESS OF PRODUCING
SYSTEMATIC CONCEPTS THAT DETERMINE THE ROLE THAT WOMEN HAVE IN SOCIETY AND CULTURE, INCLUDING THE IMAGE
OF WOMEN, WHICH ARE, INDEED, VERY BIG CONCERNS.
RADICAL FEMINISM
HOLDS MALES RESPONSIBLE FOR WOMEN'S OPPRESSION. IT IS MALES, ACCORDING TO RADICAL FEMINISTS, WHO HAVE
GAINED THE MOST FROM WOMEN'S SUBJECTION. AS VALERIE BRYSON EXPLAINS, RADICAL FEMINISTS BELIEVE THAT
WOMEN ARE A HISTORICALLY DISADVANTAGED GROUP THAT HAS HAD TO FIGHT FOR THEIR EMANCIPATION AT THE HANDS
OF THEIR OPPRESSORS, MALES. SOME FEMINISTS, LIKE PAMELA ABBOTT, CLAIRE WALLACE, AND MELISSA TYLER, CLAIM
THAT GENDER EQUALITY ISN'T THE FOCUS OF FEMINISM, BUT RATHER WOMEN'S RIGHTS. IT DOES NOT AIM TO ERASE
DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN THE SEXES BUT RATHER TO FREE AND REVALUE A FEMALE OR FEMININE NATURE THAT HAS BEEN
SUPPRESSED OR MISREPRESENTED THROUGHOUT HISTORY.
GYNOCENTRISM
THE TERM GYNOCENTRISM IS USED TO DESCRIBE THIS BIAS TOWARD OR INTEREST IN WOMEN. ACCORDING TO RADICAL
FEMINISTS, MALES GOVERN AND CONTROL ALL ASPECTS OF SOCIETY. ACCORDING TO THIS IDEOLOGY, MALES MAKE UP THE
SUPERIOR CLASS, WHILE WOMEN REPRESENT THE INFERIOR SUBJECT CLASS. SOME EXTREME FEMINISTS SEE THE FAMILY AS
THE PRIMARY SOURCE OF WOMEN'S OPPRESSION IN TODAY'S COUNTRIES. MANY RADICAL FEMINISTS HOLD THE VIEW THAT
WOMEN HAVE ALWAYS BEEN OPPRESSED AND THAT ONLY RADICAL TRANSFORMATION CAN BRING ABOUT THEIR EVENTUAL
FREEDOM. SOME RADICAL FEMINISTS ARGUE THAT MALES HAVE ALWAYS MAINTAINED THEIR DOMINANCE BY MEANS OF
RAPE AND OTHER FORMS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN.
LIBERAL FEMINISM
LIBERAL FEMINISTS BELIEVE GENDER DIFFERENCES DIMINISH MEN'S AND WOMEN'S POTENTIAL. MANY WOMEN WITH THE
POTENTIAL TO BE GREAT EMPLOYEES DON'T HAVE THE OPPORTUNITY TO DEVELOP THEIR SKILLS, WHILE MALES ARE
DEPRIVED OF STRONG CHILD-PARENT BONDS. LIBERAL FEMINISTS SAY SOCIETY'S CULTURE AND INDIVIDUALS' OPINIONS
EXPLAIN THIS PROBLEM.