This document summarizes a paper presented at the 1st International Conference on Maritime Education and Training in Dalian, China. The paper introduces a conceptual model for maritime education and training (MET) institutes to improve student enrollment strategies. The proposed model builds upon Chapman's (1981) model of factors influencing student college choice by incorporating four additional components: college reputation, educational facilities, employment opportunities, and influence of other individuals. The model aims to help MET institutes better compete with other higher education institutions and improve overall quality standards in global MET.

1. 1st International Conference on Maritime Education and Training
DMU China Proceedings 15th October 2016
The Direction of Maritime Education and Training development:
A Conceptual Approach
Lalith Edirisinghe1,2*
, Lixin Shen1
，Zhihong Jin1
1
College of Transportation Management
Dalian Maritime University
No. 1 Linghai Rd, Ganjingzi
Dalian, Liaoning, China
2
Faculty of Management and Social Sciences
CINEC Campus, Malabe, Sri Lanka
* Corresponding author: Email: edirisinghe@cinec.edu
Telephone: + 94 777 562 505
ABSTRACT.
Maritime education and training (MET) is presently faced with many challenges thus sustaining a pool
of qualified and competent marine officers and engineers is at risk. A highly conceptualized systematic
approach (conceptual model) for maritime education and training institutes was introduced in this
paper, which may help MET institutes compete with other higher education institutes while improving
the overall quality standards of global MET. The proposed model is derived from the Chapman, (1981)
model incorporating 4 additional strategic components namely, college reputation; educational
facilities; employment opportunities; and influence of other individuals. It would benefit the MET
institutes implement new enrolment strategies based on the new conceptual model.
Keywords: Education, Conceptual Model, Enrolment Strategy, Maritime, Training
1. Introduction
Recognizing the significance of highly competent human resources at sea, maritime education and
training (MET) should be enhanced in terms of a pool of high qualified and competent marine officers
and engineers to man the world fleet [1]. On the other hand governments are opening up education to
private education institutes resulting heavy competition and higher education institutions (HEIs) face
increasing challenges in many countries. In particular, their operating environment is undergoing
major transformations, such as changing demand patterns, intensifying global competition and decline
in funding [2]. Therefore, MET institutes need a careful evaluation about the factors that influence
students’ selection of higher education institutes. However, the student college choice model varies
from one country to another country [3];[4]. The study further reiterated that trying to develop a single
model of important facts to apply cross-culturally might be a mistake. This scenario invites MET
institutes in various countries to revisit their present student enrolment process in order to compete with
other sectors of education and training before it is too late.
Mehta & Demirel, [5] suggest that the periods of sea-going training are of paramount importance in the

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development of the skills, knowledge and experience necessary by officers today for the safe and
secure operation of ships they will sail on as junior officers and ultimately as masters. While there is a
general perception in the society that seafaring and maritime industry provides highly lucrative job
opportunities attracting students for post secondary education has proved a challenge. IMO
Secretary-General Koji Sekimizu said in his 2015 World Maritime Day message that greater effort to
be made to bring new generations into seafaring as a profession[6]. This trend provides sufficient
insight to the challenge and the serious problem that MET institute face today. It is noted that the
natural growth (if at all persists) of maritime student enrolments is not in line with trade requirement. It
is found that the changing requirements within the maritime industry serve as the core factor in aspiring
practitioners to pursue postgraduate maritime degrees, while such programmes are pivotal in human
capital management through preparing and re-training maritime professionals to ensure ongoing
excellence and provisions of effective services within the ever-changing maritime industry[7].
Over the years, models of college choice have assisted college administrators in identifying the
pressures and influences that guide institutional recruiting policies. Chapman, [8] while introducing the
conceptual model alarms that without models, colleges may overlook ways to increase the
effectiveness of their recruiting or, conversely, overestimate the influence of recruiting in which they
do engage. Therefore, this paper attempts to explore the factors influencing students’ HEI choice
decision in Sri Lanka. The understanding of these factors in general would help MET institutes modify
the model that illustrates the influence of student college choice appropriately and revise their strategic
approach.
As it is explicit from the title the paper reflects a highly conceptual approach. Nevertheless, the authors
have conducted a comprehensive desk research and the findings serves to bridge certain fundamental
gaps in the literature in MET. The new model incorporates 4 new key components namely, college
reputation; educational facilities; employment opportunities; and influence of other individuals that
were missing in the original Chapman [8] model.
2. Higher education institute and student choice
Private universities (PU) mainly enrol student who have failed in admission into public universities and
a fierce competition can be seen among most of these institutions in winning students enrolment. The
increased public demand for tertiary education has led to higher education market becoming
monopolistically competitive [9]. This is a very good trend for the general public as it will create a
higher consideration for customer delight by private universities and a reasonable control in pricing of
courses. The institutes will be compelled to maintain high quality in their programs at highly
competitive prices. As a result the society will receive the value for the money they pay for education.
However, the lower pricing and higher quality is hardly come hand in hand in any business and the
private universities are no exceptions. Therefore, PU need a systematic focus in cutting costs in a bid to
improve their competitiveness, and sharpen their core competencies. The educational institutions rely
on money from tuition or other sources to finance its activities [10]. To substantiate this argument,
some researchers argue that, in contemporary societies, higher education is being marketed just like
any other product or service. In such scenarios it is highly relevant and important for private

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universities identity the gaps in their marketing approach through exploring the factors that influence
students’ choice of education at the undergraduate level.
Over the years, models of college choice have assisted college administrators in identifying the
pressures and influences that guide institutional recruiting policies. The Sri Lankan system of Higher
education had to adjust itself to meet the challenges that have emerged as a result of national and global
factors [11]. With respect to Sri Lanka that the study has been conducted, the private universities have
invested in the higher education system with the obvious assistance from the government authorities.
However, there has been no serious focus on research and development in the private education system
except ad hoc improvements of the basic infrastructure facilities. Accordingly it is hard to find a
suitable model of college choice that could assist college administrators to identify, satisfy and
anticipate customers (parents) and consumers (students) needs and wants at a profit. Despite the real
customer in theory is the parent, the student has a greater power in the final decision in choosing the
higher educational institute. In any case the marketing approaches by the PU have to be highly
comprehensive and professional. Without models, “colleges may overlook ways to increase the
effectiveness of their recruiting or, conversely, overestimate the influence of recruiting in which they
do engage” [8].
Accordingly, the paper primarily attempts to identify the factors that influence students’ choice of
university education in general. It also discusses those key factors in the context of MET while
providing directions to MET institutes redefine their business prepositions. It essentially considers and
proposes industry specific and country specific modifications that may require in the model foe
effective implementation.
3. Literature survey.
A student’s decision to acquire advanced knowledge is the culmination of a process of weighing cost
against benefits, and this is similar to the process applied when a customer selects a product or service
[10]. The student college choice is based on the interaction between the students’ characteristics of
socioeconomic status, aptitude, educational aspiration and achievement and a series of external
influences [9]. The high growth and increased demand also intensifies the competition within higher
education institutes’ to grab up more attention of the students[12]. According to Chapman, [8] the
students’ college choice is influenced by a set of student characteristics in combination with a series of
external influences.
According to the previous studies conducted in different countries show key variations while
appreciating the commonalities. For example, in Malaysia the students’ selection of a university was
mainly determined by types of academic programmes available, quality of education, administration
standards, faculty qualification, and convenient and accessible location (Baharun, 2002). Further,
Keling [13] found six (6) main institutional factors that attract students to study in Malaysian private
universities. The factors are namely reputation of the institution, future graduates’ job prospects, and
nature of the institutions, lower costs, and affiliation of the institutions, entry flexibility and
institutions’ campus environment. After two years, it was retreated (also in Malaysia) that availability
of required programme at the university/college, academic reputation of the university/college, quality

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of the faculty/lecturers and financial assistance offered by the university/college were the four most
important factors that prospective students expect before they enrol in university/college [14]. The
learning environment and other institutional facilities were found vital in Malaysia. According to
Khairani & Razak, [15] the universities should portray themselves as institutes that provide
comprehensive learning environment. The universities should equip themselves not only in teaching
and learning area but also other aspects associated with it such as facilities, environment, etc.
A research conducted in the USA revealed that most high school graduates would be admitted to some
four-year college of average quality, were they to apply; applicants do not necessarily prefer the
highest-quality school; high school class rank and SAT scores are equally important in college
admissions; federal scholarship aid has had only a small effect on enrolments at four-year colleges but
a much stronger effect on attendance at two-year colleges; the attention paid to SAT scores in
admissions is commensurate with the power of the scores in predicting persistence to a degree [16].
The order of importance for the USA students was academic reputation, cost/time issues and program
issues [4]. In the same study the New Zealand students ranked the importance of the factors as 1)
academic reputation, 2) career opportunities, and 3) program issues.
Garma & Moy [3] conducted a research to compare and contrast Australia and Malaysia. Accordingly,
they observed that differences exist between Australian and Malaysian of students in selecting a
university. For example, Malaysian students rated quality of teaching, research produced by academics
and academic qualification higher than Australian students. In Pakistan, the student desire and personal
interest, his aptitude & abilities induces them to attain higher education. The external factors influence
student decisions by developing an appealing stimulus and mainly based on or revolve around the
institutes, so most of the factors like Program/Courses offered, Location, Facilities, Financial aid,
offerings by the institute, Communication channels like Advertisement, Promotions and campus visit
Reputation of the institute, Cost and fee structure [12]. According to recent study, the top six important
factors that influence students’ choice of university in Ghana were courses offered and areas of
specialization, high calibre lecturers, recognition of qualification by employers, well stocked library
and internet facility, international accreditation by qualification and flexible lecture timetable [10].

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Student Characteristics
Socioeconomic
Level of
educational
aspiration
Aptitude High school
performance
External Influences
Significant Persons
· Friend
· Parents
· Highschool
Fixed college charachteristics
· Cost
· Location
· Availability of programme
College efforts to communicate with
students
· Written information
· Campus visits
· Admission recruitments
College choice of
students
Student’s choice of
college
General expectation
College life
Entry
to
college
Figure1: Influence of student college choice
(source: Chapman, 1981)
According to Chapman [8] the general conceptual model of student college choice is based on the
interaction between the students’ characteristics of socioeconomic status, aptitude, educational
aspiration and achievement and a series of external influences. The external influences fall into three
categories namely, significant persons (friends, parents, high school teachers, and counsellors); fixed
characteristics of the institution (cost, location, program availability); and communication efforts of the
college (campus visits, written information, admissions and recruiting activities).
3.1 Student characteristics
The prospective student’s personal aspirations may have an important impact on the decision to attend
college. Mehboob, Muhammad Shah, & Bhutto, [12] suggests that the students’ aspiration or the desire
and ambition to study at higher education institutes contribute highly to the selection choice thus
supporting the findings of [8]. In any country there exists certain popular higher education stream. For
example, in Sri Lanka, Engineering, Medicine, Accountancy, Information technology, and Marketing are
the most popular higher education streams. Therefore students’ aspiration will be limited to such sectors
only. It may need a long term strategic vision by MET institutes to systematically change the traditional
trends. MET institutes in Sri Lanka have taken initiatives to associate with school students at secondary
level education to develop interest among them. Some bold steps may require convincing the
governments to incorporate Maritime education in the school secondary education curriculum. The
psychological/individual factor, the second occupational factor, and secondary school specialisation
were shown to have a significant effect on the intention to pursue third level education [17]. According
to Hossler,[18] students who are aware of their ability to achieve academic success in college tend to
attempt post secondary education. This association of aptitude and tertiary education has also been
reiterated by Ming, [9]. High school activities were a positive predictor of a student’s predisposition to
attend college. Successful participation in high school activities are related to the predisposition and
achievement in college [16]. Therefore, if the MET institutes’ efforts in bringing Maritime as an
optional subject in the school curriculum help generate this predisposition. Socioeconomic status acts
as a backdrop that influences a series of other attitudes and behaviour that, in turn, are related to

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college choice [8].
3.2 External Influences
3.2.1Significant persons
In selecting a college, students are strongly persuaded by the comments and advise of their friends and
family [8]. Usually parents, particularly in Asian region, are reluctant to send their children to the sea.
For example, parents are looked after by children when they are old in traditional Sri Lankan family.
Therefore, parents highly depend on their grown up children with respect to taking care of them
physically. Therefore MET institutes should strategically consider the welfare aspect of those families
wherever necessary because money is not everything in many cultures. According to the study
conducted by Ceja, [19] advises given by the elders of the family particularly the elder sisters and
brothers are received serious consideration. Previous researchers suggest that there is a peer effect with
respect to student’s selection of a postsecondary education institute. Accordingly, the larger the
proportion of a student’s classmates plan to enrol in college, the greater tendency that he or she will
follow the same choice [20]; [16];[9];[21] suggest that the advice and recommendation from family
was the most important factor that impact on student’s choice of tertiary education. For example, the
parents in Sri Lanka finance their children even at the post secondary level and they obviously make
careful evaluation about the institutes. Therefore, while the parents consider the student’s preference to
some extent the influence of parents has a huge bearing on the final decision.
3.2.2 College Attributes
Financial aid offered by university as one out of four very important attributes expected from a
particular higher education institution of choice [14]; [9]. This would result most of students who
recieve such awards are more likely to enter college [22]; [16]; [9] emphasized that cost-related issues
seem to have more importance. Jackson, [23] suggests that price is a negative influence on college
choice while financial aid to reduce costs is a positive influence. Location of the college or university
can be a major factor for potential student’s decision to apply and enrol. This has a bearing on the
strategies adopted by many education institutes as to provide transport facilities to students from
multiple origins. Some students may be looking for a school close to their hometown or place of work
for convenience and accessibility [24]. Availability of academic programs is another important factor.
A study conducted in Kuala Lumpur and Selangor, Malaysia found that availability of the required
programme as “the very importance attributes” for first year university students to choose a particular
higher education institution [14]. Ford, Joseph, & Joseph, [4] proposed that program issues such as
range of programs of study, flexibility of degree program, major change flexibility and range of degree
options are the most important factors for students to choose higher education institutions. Absher &
Crawford,[24] are of the opinion that educational facilities such as classrooms, laboratories and
libraries are important in a student’s selection of a college or university. Good teaching practices are
positively related to undergraduate students’ aspirations for graduate education [25]. These behaviours
could be explained through the services marketing theory as well. Service organizations such as
education institute need high focus on physical evidences which is one of 7 Ps in the marketing mix
because the products (courses) are intangible and unable to sense and evaluate unless it is consumed. It
also describes another two components namely, People and Processes. The faculty, university
administration, and the customer service personnel fall under the people category. At the admission and
recruitments stage the student will carefully evaluate the process of the institute that he or she

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anxiously waiting to join. Fosu & Poku, [10] suggest that the courses offered; high calibre lecturers;
well stock library and internet; flexible lecture timetable are important factors that influence students’
choice of university.
3.2.3 Marketing communication by MET institutes
Marketing through the media has grown tremendously in the last ten years as college efforts to
communicate with students influence the selection of campus by students [9]. The campus visit is a
major factor in the decision-making process [26] and is often a college or university’s best recruiting
tools [9]. The representatives of the higher education institutes also play a major role as it may be the
place in which the “moment of truth” ignites. The students (and their parents for that matter) may get
the first impression of the human factor of the institute in this situation. With respect to MET, it is
important that institutes expand their scope of marketing communication to reach school students. To
encourage young people into choosing further education and careers in the maritime world and to raise
awareness, IMO’s London Headquarters opened its doors to more than 300 primary and secondary age
school children, from local and international schools(IMO, 2015).
3.3 Other contributing factors
3.3.1 Society and other individuals
Students are interested in outcomes [9]. Sevier, [27] explained that students are influenced by what
graduates are doing, what graduate schools they attend and contributions that they are making to
society. Accordingly, it is implied that the recognition in the society to the graduates of the respective
institute has a bearing in students’ choice. This factor has a significant bearing on MET because the
graduates in this sector usually entitle for a flourish living in the society. In addition to the factors
explained above there are some other influential people in the students’ selection of universities. They
are teachers, and industry experts in specific technical areas, guidance counsellors, and admissions
counsellors. For example if the student has an interest to follow an undergraduate program in transport
and logistics he/she would consult a senior professional in shipping or logistics industry through a
relative or friend. The hands on experience of the professional facilitates the student evaluate the
decision more realistically.
3.3.2 Post study job opportunities and remuneration
The key point the student may inquire could be the employment opportunities available in the
particular field and the likely remuneration levels. This factor may be highly relevant and important to
MET institutes attract students given the high remuneration packages. Students are often attracted to
post-secondary education because of the career opportunities it may provide [28]. Paulsen,[29]
suggests that students often make college choices based on existing job opportunities for college
graduates. Fosu & Poku,[10] suggest that recognition of qualification by employers were one of the top
important factors that influence students’ choice of university.
3.3.3 College reputation
Institutional image and reputation has a tremendous effect on college choice (Ming, 2011). Students
value the reputation of a college and it rates as an influential factor by students in the college choice
process [30];[31];[13]. Therefore, institutions are careful about their market “positioning”. This could

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react in two ways, i.e. the institute itself and the other (foreign) universities they are affiliated with. For
example, in Sri Lanka many educational institutes offer degree programs owned by foreign universities.
The students may judge the reputation of the local institute based on the world ranking of those foreign
universities. Also, the universities Act, No. 16 of 1978 Part IV of government of Sri Lanka[32]
formally recognizes different types of higher education institutes such as universities, campuses and
degree Awarding Institutes. Apart from the credibility and reputation an institute earned through its
own merits such as long standing history, fixed investment and other physical evidences, highly
respected faculty, results of past students, discipline and alumina the reputation of education institutes
in Sri Lanka is adjudged by the said government recognition. It is a powerful influence on potential
student and college reputation is extremely persuasive in the college search and selection
process[9].Students value the reputation of a college and it rates as an influential factor by students in
the college choice process [30]; [31]; [13].
3.3.4 Educational facilities
Absher [24] stated that educational facilities such as classrooms, laboratories and libraries are
important in a student’s selection of a college or university. Sampson, (2004) suggests that colleges in
less developed parts of the world face multiple disadvantages in terms of physical, human and
infrastructural resources. Not only were colleges hampered by the lack of resources directly at their
disposal, they were also affected by the level of economic and infrastructural resource in their national
context. Theoretically, this factor could be aligned with the “marketing mix” because the physical
evidences play a key role in services marketing. Sampson,[33] highlightes that the physical resource
that supports education and training includes the buildings, classrooms, laboratory facilities, simulation
equipment, audio and visual aids, libraries, computers, computer-based training programmes,
swimming pools, lifeboat and fire drill equipment available on site, or in an accessible location. The
intangible products such as education courses are usually made tangible through infrastructure facilities
and dramatized through the “people” factor. It primarily involves the faculty and non academic support
service staff members who contribute provide the education services. METs across the world vary
tremendously in the amount of resource available to them for direct investment in their teachers and
lecturers, in terms of wages and employment conditions, and crucially in terms of staff development
[33]. The “process” component in services marketing mix provides yet another key contribution with
respect to education. Accordingly, the students in MET (and even their parents who happen to be the
real customer who pay the tuition fees) are very keen about the delivery process of the course.
Therefore, reputed institutions those who value the quality standards play high emphasis on enrolment
process, course delivery such as class time tables, examinations, semester holidays, study breaks prior
to examinations, revision classes, availability of model questions papers and past examination papers,
issue of certificates and transcripts.
4. Conclusions
Maritime sector is not popular in tertiary education in many countries like many management,
accounting and engineering subjects and it is neither a buzz word in the primary of secondary
education. The literature on student college choice models particularly Chapman’s model indicated that
students from different countries may choose (and prioritize) different factors in selecting higher

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education institutes in general without any special reference to a particular academic stream. This paper
aims to develop a conceptual model on student’s choice of maritime education and training. The
examples brought in for discussion are predominantly from Sri Lanka. However, the conceptual model
is developed based on research done by Chapman,[8]. Certain factors relating to college attribute
namely, college reputation, educational facilities, employment opportunities, friends attending college
and influence of other individuals have been incorporated in the proposed model that suits MET
institutes that may influence the student’s choices of higher education institutes. Using the factors
mentioned above, MET institutes could re strategise their marketing approach in order to attract and
retain students.
5. Suggestions for future research
It would be vital that future empirical research be carried out to test the fitness of the conceptual model.
It may need to ascertain the appropriateness of the model with respect to the respective country as well
as the individual education stream (MET for this case). It is also important to recognize that other
variables or constructs that may possibly have an impact on student’s choice of MET institutes. For
instance, future research can explore other institutional characteristics that are not in the Chapman’s
model such as affiliation, entry flexibility, course duration, and accreditation whether it has an impact
student’s choice of MET institutes.
Acknowledgement ： This paper is partially supported by the Humanities and Social
Sciences Foundation of China Education Ministry (No.15JDGC009).
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This article can be cited as
L. Edirisinghe, J. Zhihong and L. Shen, "The Direction of Maritime Education and
Training development:," in Dalian Maritime University- International Conference on
Maritime Training and Education, Dalian, 2016.