This article aims to present the necessary strategies to save humanity from natural disasters caused by earthquakes, tsunamis and volcano eruptions that have contributed to the deaths of populations and destruction of buildings and infrastructure in many countries. With the exception of Japan that adopts advanced preventive and precautionary measures against earthquakes and tsunamis, humanity remains at the mercy of these natural disasters due to the lack of prediction of the occurrence of these events, plans to evacuate populations from the affected areas and measures of prevention and precaution to take in the face of catastrophes caused by earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions. This article presents Japan's experience in dealing with earthquakes and tsunamis and the advances in studies and research carried out by various researchers and scientific institutions that could be used in various parts of the world to deal with natural disasters caused by earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions. Additionally, this article proposes global actions to deal with disasters that span several countries and regions.

1. 1
HOW TO SAVE THE HUMANITY OF NATURAL DISASTERS CAUSED BY
EARTHQUAKES, TSUNAMIS AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
Fernando Alcoforado*
This article aims to present the necessary strategies to save humanity from natural
disasters caused by earthquakes, tsunamis and volcano eruptions that have contributed to
the deaths of populations and destruction of buildings and infrastructure in many
countries. With the exception of Japan that adopts advanced preventive and precautionary
measures against earthquakes and tsunamis, humanity remains at the mercy of these
natural disasters due to the lack of prediction of the occurrence of these events, plans to
evacuate populations from the affected areas and measures of prevention and precaution
to take in the face of catastrophes caused by earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions.
This article presents Japan's experience in dealing with earthquakes and tsunamis and the
advances in studies and research carried out by various researchers and scientific
institutions that could be used in various parts of the world to deal with natural disasters
caused by earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions. Additionally, this article
proposes global actions to deal with disasters that span several countries and regions.
Earth formation is estimated to have occurred approximately 4.56 billion years ago. As
for its shape, the Earth corresponds to a spheroid, with flat poles. Planet Earth is
composed of layers that go from the Earth's surface to the nucleus [1] [2]. All of these
layers are formed by different types of ores and gases, although the main ones are: iron,
oxygen, silicon, magnesium, nickel, sulfur and titanium. The Earth has its internal
structure divided into: Earth's crust, mantle and core (Figure 1).
Figure 1- Internal structure of planet Earth
Source: https://science4fun.info/composition-of-the-earth/
The Earth's crust is also known as the lithosphere and corresponds to the outermost layer
of the Earth, formed by rocks and minerals, such as silicon, magnesium, iron and
aluminum. It has an average of 10 kilometers under the oceans and between 25 and 100
kilometers under the continents. It contains continents, islands and the ocean floor. In
addition, it is observed that it is not a solid layer, as there are divisions that form large
rock blocks known as tectonic plates, which move and can cause tremors on the earth's
surface. The mantle is located between the earth's crust and the nucleus. It is known as
the intermediate layer, which is divided into an upper mantle and a lower mantle. It can
have a depth of about 30 to 2,900 km below the crust and, unlike this, the mantle is not
solid. With an average temperature of up to 2,000 °C, this layer is composed of magmatic
material (in a pasty state) composed mainly of iron, magnesium and silicon. The

2. 2
movement of magma, known as convection currents, causes the movement of rock blocks
that make up the earth's crust. The nucleus is the innermost layer of the Earth and is
divided into outer and inner nuclei. It is also the layer that has the highest temperature,
which can reach 6,000 °C. It is formed by iron, silicon, nickel and, despite the high
temperatures that should keep these compounds in a liquid state, the nucleus has high
pressure, which ends up grouping these substances, keeping them solid [3].
In addition to the internal structure, there is also the external structure that corresponds to
the lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and atmosphere which offer the conditions
favorable to the existence of life on planet Earth (Figure 2).
Figure 2- External structure of planet Earth
Source: https://eco-intelligent.com/2015/08/29/anthropizing-the-earth/
The outer layers of the Earth are biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere.
Biosphere corresponds to the set of ecosystems that comprise the Earth. Basically, it
concerns the groups of living beings that inhabit it. These ecosystems are found from the
highest points on the planet to parts of the ocean floor. Atmosphere corresponds to a gas
layer that surrounds the entire Planet Earth. It is formed by gases maintained by gravity,
whose main function is to protect the planet from the solar radiation emitted, filtering it,
in addition to maintaining the average temperature of the Earth (15 degrees centigrade
today), so that there is no great thermal amplitude. Atmosphere prevents the Earth from
being hit, too, by rock fragments coming from outer space. This layer is divided by sub-
layers: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere. The lithosphere
is the outermost solid layer of a rocky planet and consists of rocks and soil. In the case of
Earth, it is formed by the earth's crust and part of the upper mantle. Hydrosphere
corresponds to the layer that comprises the water bodies of Planet Earth. It covers not
only the oceans, but also the seas, rivers, lakes and groundwater [3].
The tectonic plates are some parts that make up the earth's crust and exist thanks to the
thin thickness of this layer and the great pressure exerted by the movement of the magma
located in the mantle region. The tectonic plates move thanks to the action of the so-called
cells or convection currents, which are the circular movements exerted by the magma and
which act as a kind of “mat” that, when rotating, causes the displacement of these plates.
There are several types of movement of the plates, but the most important are the
convergent (when they collide) and divergent (when they move in opposite directions).
The convergent movements called obducation involve the conflict between two plates,

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but without the sinking of one under the other, causing the formation of conservative
limits. A known effect of this occurrence was the formation of the San Andreas fault line
in North America. Divergent movements called subduction are responsible for the
formation of mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas, the Alps, the Pyrenees and the
Andes [4].
28 tectonic plates are identified on Earth. Tectonic plates are classified into three groups.
The large plates are North American, Eurasian, Indo-Australian, African, Antarctic,
Pacific and South American, where Brazil is located. The secondary plates are those of
Cocos, of the Caribbean, of Nazca, Filipina, Arabica, of Anatolia, of Scotland and Juan
de Fuca. The others are classified as microplates. The boundaries between the large plates
and the secondary plates mark the points of greatest risk of earthquakes on the planet. The
highest incidence of earthquakes around the planet is on the borders between plate
tectonics. Of all earthquakes recorded by humanity, approximately 90% of them are
distributed in these long borders between the plates. They happen when there is a collision
between the plates - the higher the speed at which the plate moves, the more severe the
seismic shock will be [4].
The regions most at risk of earthquakes are located on the borders of plate tectonics on
the American coast of the Pacific Ocean, from Chile to Canada, and in Japan. Central
Asia (from the Himalayas to Iran) and the Mediterranean (Morocco, Algeria and Turkey).
On the Pacific Coast of the United States and Canada, the so-called The Big One will take
place, the next major earthquake in the region, which is in the San Andreas fault. Of the
five major disasters resulting from earthquakes, the Himalayas were afflicted by three of
them. Records of an earthquake in 1556 report that 830,000 people died in China. In 1737
and 1976, respectively, 300,000 and 242,000 people were killed in India and China. The
2004 tsunami that hit the island of Sumatra in Indonesia was due to an earthquake (9.1 on
the Richter scale) in the Pacific Ocean, resulting from the shock of the Eurasian and Indo-
Australian plates, and killed 230,000 people. The last very high magnitude earthquake
occurred in Japan, in 2011, when a 9.0-point hit on the Richter scale was accompanied
by a tsunami with waves of 10 meters and winds that reached 800 km / h [20].
The following map shows the areas of the planet most susceptible to earthquakes:
Figure 3- The regions with the highest risk of earthquakes in the world
Source: U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY (In red, the regions with the highest risk of earthquakes and, in
white, those with the lowest risk).

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As for volcanoes, they are openings in mountains present on the Earth's surface that expel
gases, fire and lava. The planet Earth currently has many active volcanoes that are
fractures or openings in the Earth's surface through which materials that originate inside
the planet are expelled, such as lava, gases and other materials called "pyroclasts".
Volcanoes arise when the so-called tectonic plates that are part of the earth's crust collide,
moving the material present on them and leaving openings for deeper layers of the planet.
Volcanoes generally occur in places that have intense movement of tectonic plates.
Through these openings, magma can escape in the form of lava between the crust and the
mantle, the middle layer of the Earth. The volcano's structure consists of a magmatic
chamber, a volcanic crater, a cone, a chimney and, in some cases, there are lateral or
peripheral outlets (secondary chimneys) [5]. However, inactive volcanoes can return to
being active like the Japanese Shinmoe volcano, which erupted after 52 years asleep.
Other inactive volcanoes can still frighten and even threaten life on Earth, such as the
"supervolcano" Yellowstone, in Wyoming (United States), which can be catastrophic, as
they have been several times in the past. In the case of Yellowstone Park, which includes
much of the caldera area of the volcano of the same name, there is currently no active
volcanic building. What exists is the magmatic activity and underground magmatic
chambers, miles deep under the park, which may form new surface volcanic buildings in
the future. The park is also known for its geysers [6].
In the United States, about 130 volcanoes are active. Kilauea, Hawaii, is the best known
- and one of the most active in the world, since 1983. In addition to it, Mount St. Helena,
in Washington State, was known for a major eruption in 1980, which resulted in 57
deaths. The Yellowstone supervolcano is thousands of times more powerful than a normal
volcano. If it erupts, the ash cloud will cover regions in several states like Wyoming,
Montana, Idaho and Colorado, and may even reach cities like Los Angeles, San Francisco,
Portland and Seattle. In Indonesia there are about 120 active volcanoes. In Java
(Indonesia) alone, 140 million people live near 30 volcanoes and more than 500 million
people live near volcanoes (8% of the world population). Chile is one of the countries
with many active volcanoes in the world. There are about 95 active volcanoes. The
Chilean volcano Calbuco located 1,000 kilometers south of Santiago, the capital of Chile,
has resumed activity. Located at 2,015 meters above sea level, it has not erupted since
1972. It is considered dangerous due to its geological constitution and its proximity to
urban areas. Japan has about 66 active volcanoes, including Mount Fuji, which could
erupt soon, according to geological studies. Mount Fuji, Japan, has been inactive for more
than 300 years. The volcano could threaten the lives of some eight million people in the
Tokyo region. In Italy, in Sicily, Etna is the most active volcano in Europe whose last
eruption occurred in November 2013. More than 600,000 people live on the slopes and
surroundings of the Vesuvius volcano that buried Pompeii and Herculaneum in the year
79. Since then, it has erupted on about 30 occasions. In the 1906 eruption, about one
hundred people died, and in the last in 1944, it destroyed 88 American bombers during
World War II. Iceland is home to the Eyjafjallajökull volcano that closed European
airspace in 2010 and affected thousands of flights. In Russia, most volcanoes are
concentrated on the Kamtchatka peninsula in Siberia, in the country's easternmost region.
Haiti has no natural protection against storms, hurricanes and earthquakes [22].
The map below shows the Earth's seismic zones, which are the regions of the planet that
have the strongest earthquakes that are also very prone to the occurrence of volcanism.

5. 5
Figure 4- Earth's seismic zones
Source: https://mundoeducacao.uol.com.br/geografia/zonas-sismicas-terra.htm
A study published by the renowned magazine "Science" brings evidence that the intense
activity of volcanoes about 200 million years ago probably led to the extinction of about
half of the species of animals on Earth in the period, known as the end of the Triassic
which is a geological period that stretches from about 252 to 201 million years ago. The
research was carried out by scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT),
Columbia University, Rutgers University and Stony Brook University, all in the United
States. The intense volcanic activity released enormous amounts of gases into the planet's
atmosphere in the period, which abruptly changed the climatic conditions. The new
conditions have changed the species' habitat both in the oceans and on land, the
researchers say. Evidence suggests that climate change occurred so suddenly that animals
were unable to evolve and adapt. For scientists, the extinction that occurred at the end of
the Triassic probably paved the way for the emergence of dinosaurs, which dominated
the planet for the next 135 million years, until they reached extinction, approximately 65
million years ago [7].
Tremors, earthquakes, as they are better known, are vibrations in the outer layer of the
Earth caused by phenomena that happen inside our planet. Seismic shocks can occur due
to volcanic activities, the movement of tectonic plates and the collapse of the Earth's
internal structure. In all cases, an immense amount of energy accumulates, causing the
Earth to tremble. Due to the excessive temperature in the Earth's inner layers, some parts
of the mantle end up becoming lighter and rising to the surface. However, these parts
start to descend when they get close to the surface, probably due to the reduction in
temperature. This up and down movement ends up moving the tectonic plates, which
make up the outer layer of our planet. Sometimes these plates scrape or collide with each
other. When this happens, a large amount of energy is released, equivalent to thousands
of atomic bombs. The shock wave from this event causes the Earth's surface to shake,
causing earthquakes [4]. Seismographs are the equipment used to record seismic waves
that cross the terrestrial globe. They do this with the help of another equipment, the
seismometer, responsible for detecting the movement of the ground. With these records
it is possible to identify the hypocenter, the point of origin of the earthquake, and the
epicenter, the point on the Earth's surface that is directly above the hypocenter, usually
also the point that suffers the most damage [8].
The five strongest earthquakes ever recorded in the world to date have been those of the
Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia in 1952, Valdivia in Chile in 1960, Alaska in the United
States in 1964, Sumatra Island in Indonesia in 2004 and Oshika Peninsula in Japan in

6. 6
2011 The strongest earthquake in history, however, was that of Shensi, China, which
occurred in the year 1556 and left a trail of an incredible 830 thousand dead [9].
Volcanoes can lead to the extinction of species and life on the planet depending on the
scale of their eruption. According to the scientific publication Nature Geoscience,
Canadian researchers at the University of Calgary have found evidence to explain how
large volcano eruptions, which occurred 250 million years ago, ended a life cycle on
Earth. The volcanoes would have produced enough coal to form clouds of ash in the
atmosphere, which generated greenhouse gases and decimated 95% of marine life, in
addition to 70% of terrestrial living beings [6].
To deal with the movement of tectonic plates, tsunamis and the eruption of volcanoes,
there must be strategies such as those presented below:
1. Strategies for dealing with earthquakes and tsunamis caused by tectonic plate
movement
In order to deal with earthquakes and tsunamis caused by the movement of tectonic plates,
it is essential that both preventive and precautionary measures be adopted to avoid or
minimize the occurrence of catastrophic events such as the death of people and
destruction of buildings and infrastructure in cities and in the countryside. Prevention and
precaution are two sides of prudence that are faced in situations where there is the
possibility of damage. The distinction between potential risk and proven risk underlies
the parallel distinction between precaution and prevention. Precaution concerns potential
risks and prevention concerns proven risks. Earthquakes and tsunamis therefore require
preventive and precautionary measures as they incorporate potential and also proven
risks.
The prevention principle is intended, in a restricted sense to avoid immediate, imminent
and concrete dangers, according to an immediate logic, as it seeks, in a broad sense, to
rule out possible future risks, even if not yet entirely determinable, according to a logic
prospective of anticipation of future events. Past events of earthquakes and tsunamis
make it possible to know immediate, imminent and concrete dangers on the basis of which
precautionary measures can be taken to at least reduce the number of deaths and minimize
their losses.
In case of doubt or uncertainty, it is also necessary to act preventing based on the
precautionary principle. Its universe is uncertain, requiring actions to reduce them, based
on the comparison between different possibilities to choose one, of lower risk. Past events
of earthquakes and tsunamis make it possible to know immediate, imminent and concrete
dangers on the basis of which precautionary measures can be taken to, if possible,
eliminate the damage caused by them [10].
Therefore, attention should be paid to the existing distinction between risk, of a future
nature, on which the precautionary principle is based; and danger, of an immediate nature,
associated with the logic of prevention. Prevention means the act of anticipating and
precaution, in turn, is equivalent to the early admission of care. Economic calculation
should serve as a basis for decisions related to prevention and precaution [10]. In making
decisions about the alternatives to be adopted in the case of earthquakes and tsunamis,
one factor that greatly complicates the solution of the problem is uncertainty. Another
complicating factor is the lack of information.

7. 7
In making decisions about choosing the most appropriate alternative, the Maximin or
Minimax criteria can be adopted. The Maximin criterion is based on a pessimistic view
of the problem. The alternative to be chosen will be the one that is the best among the
worst options of all the alternatives considered. The Maximax criterion is based on an
optimistic view of the problem. It is assumed that the best possible event will occur. The
alternative to be chosen is the best among the best options of all alternatives. In both
criteria, the cost must be minimized. Finally, the Hurwicz criterion can be used, which is
the intermediate between the most pessimistic (Maximin) and the most optimistic
(Maximax) [10].
A country well advanced in the actions of prevention and precaution against earthquakes
is Japan, which is considered the country best prepared to face earthquakes. Japanese
territory is located in a seismic area and that is why the country has so many volcanoes,
some of which are still active. This, too, is the reason for being a region very affected by
earthquakes and tsunamis. These are events that happen at different intensities. The most
recent major earthquake was in 2011, which hit the northeast coast of Japan, with the
tsunami that devastated the Fukushima region and caused the nuclear accident. These
activities provoked by nature are very frequent in the country, they happen almost daily,
most of them on a much smaller scale. Often, small tremors occur and people don't even
notice them. With this scenario, Japan is constantly monitoring earthquakes and has
several measures of prevention and precaution [13].
Over the years, Japan has invested billions of dollars in developing new technologies that
help its citizens and infrastructure against quakes and tsunamis. The fact that Japan is
situated at the meeting of three tectonic plates (Pacific, Eastern Eurasia and the
Philippines) is the cause of the frequent seismic shocks that the country faces from time
to time. Basically, the movement and shock between these plates is what causes the
concussions, as well as landslides and tsunamis. And that is why the country needs to
invest in anti-earthquake technologies. Faced with these tremors, Japan presents strategies
for harm reduction and population protection. Training on how to act during earthquakes
is conducted free of charge by the fire department across the country. These trainings
contribute a lot to the protection of the Japanese, but the difference is in the engineering
[11].
The buildings have on their foundations a system of springs to absorb the tremors. At the
junctions between the columns, a special material is placed that dissipates energy when
the structure moves in opposite directions. When buildings are very close, a spring is
placed between them so that there is no impact. On all floors, internal steel structures on
the walls help support the building's weight. Another important technology is the use of
pendulums for inertial damping. A suspended and heavy sphere moves the building in the
opposite direction to the vibrations caused by the earthquake. Electronically controlled,
this mechanism reduces vibrations in buildings by up to 60%. The cost of these
earthquake technologies is high and only modern buildings have them. That is why the
Japanese government pays a percentage of the expenses for old buildings to be able to
adapt [11].
The high technologies of civil engineering developed years ago by the Japanese to
minimize the damages and deaths caused by natural disasters are the reasons why many
buildings remain standing in Japan, which is considered the country best prepared to deal

8. 8
with an earthquake. Buildings are conceived as a dynamic element, as they will always
be subject to movement in any direction. Electronic dampers are installed in the buildings
and can be controlled remotely. In simpler buildings, spring dampers are used that work
in a similar way to vehicle suspension. Engineers also use a special material to cushion
the joints between the columns, the slab and the steel structures that make up each floor.
This material helps to dissipate energy when the structure moves in opposite directions.
Thus, the building does not crush the intermediate floors [12].
All floors have, in addition to concrete walls, an internal steel structure, which helps to
support the weight of the building. These dampers absorb much of the impact caused by
the tremors. Thus, the likelihood of the building suffering from structural cracks or quakes
decreases. The cost for anti-seismic technology is not the cheapest, on the contrary, it has
a higher cost but less than the cost of rebuilding structures completely shaken by the
earthquake. The value becomes immeasurably cheaper when it comes to saving lives.
Although the damage caused by earthquakes and tsunamis still continues to occur, there
are those who are concerned with developing and optimizing the way of building so that,
in the near future, overcome natural disasters and offer residents of affected areas like
Japan a possible constructive stability. The earthquake and tsunami, which occurred on
March 11, 2015 in Japan, caused damage estimated at R$ 333 billion. The figure
corresponds to the destruction of infrastructure, houses and commercial properties in
northeastern Japan, devastated by a magnitude 9 earthquake and tsunami that left 23,000
dead or missing. Thanks to Japan's building code, one of the best on the planet, which,
stressing the importance of “smart design” and precautionary measures, may have saved
millions of lives [12].
The Japanese learn early on how to behave during an earthquake, with frequent training
that takes place in offices, schools etc. The country's TV and radio broadcasters have the
function of giving minutes notice in advance if a major earthquake is detected. So people
have time to leave the house and go to a safe place. Houses should always be prepared
for minor tremors. The most modern buildings are already built to resist earthquakes, with
dampers on the foundation and other technologies. Heavy objects never stay in high
places or can fall easily and every home must have a survival kit with water, food and a
flashlight for more extreme cases. During the tremors the recommendation is to take
shelter under a table to protect yourself in case something should fall. Right after that,
turn off the stove, heaters and gas, remove electrical appliances from the socket and leave
the entrance door open to guarantee an exit [13].
If they are on the train or inside commercial establishments, the Japanese follow the
instructions of the officials. They are trained to guide people in these situations. If they
are on the street, the Japanese seek a safe place and stay away from poles, walls and
buildings. The ideal is to stay in an open area such as parks or large squares. In coastal
regions, they go to a high place and as far away from the sea as possible, to protect
themselves in the event of a tsunami. It is necessary to pay attention after the tremor, as
aftershocks are quite common. The main thing is to remain calm during the event and
follow the guidelines. Japan is a country very prepared for these situations [13].
By law, any building erected in Japan in 1981 must withstand strong earthquakes.
Buildings and houses that were built before the law are advised to reinforce the structures.
The government finances part of the reform. The big danger is in old houses, many of
them made of wood. They spread across all cities. In the 1995 Kobe earthquake in central

9. 9
Japan, more than six thousand people died, most of whom were victims of the fires, which
spread easily because of this type of housing. According to estimates, in Tokyo, after a
major earthquake, 23,000 people will die, 16,000 from the fire! In addition to being
fragile, old houses would collapse more easily, interrupting escape routes in narrow
streets [14].
Based on Japan's experience, it is possible to adopt earthquake prevention and
precautionary measures. Prevention and precautionary measures must be taken because
it is not possible to know when earthquakes will occur. According to Professor of the
Department of Geology and Natural Resources at the State University of Campinas
(Unicamp), Ticiano José Saraiva dos Santos, it would be impossible to predict the
occurrence of earthquakes. According to Saraiva dos Santos, due to the difficulties, all
the advances in the area are concentrated in the monitoring of earthquakes, and not in the
forecasts. Along the San Andreas fault, which borders the western United States and
passes through San Francisco, there are several monitoring. There are some works with
high precision GPS equipment, in which they can see the movements of plates. Studies
have sought to monitor the cracks. But there is no forecast for equipment to point out
where the tremors will happen [16].
In 2008, scientists working at the San Andreas Fault in California published studies on a
supposed method that would be able to detect subtle geological changes that would occur
hours before an earthquake. The research said that small fractures formed in the rocks
before an earthquake, denoting stress in the earth's crust. Using wells up to 1 km deep
dug at the site, the equipment used by scientists recorded seismic waves before, during
and after two small tremors. But the changes were not confirmed as part of a general
physical process that occurs before earthquakes. Another study widely criticized by the
scientific community is the "VAN" method, named after the initials of the surnames of
its inventors, physicists Panayotis Varotsos, Caesar Alexopoulos and Kostas Nomikos,
from the University of Athens. For theorists, certain minerals emit characteristic electrical
signals when they are under tension. These signals would be detected by measuring
stations, which consist of a pair of electrodes placed under the surface, amplifiers and
filters. Again, the results were not conclusive [16].
As for the tsunamis caused as a result of earthquakes, they can be predicted quickly and
efficiently with the help of seismographs, according to professor at the State University
of Campinas (Unicamp), Ticiano José Saraiva dos Santos. When the earthquake occurs,
it is possible to quickly define the epicenter of this tremor, which is the projection of it
on the surface. With this intensity, it is possible to make the modeling with which this
wave will come out, check its speed and check how long it will reach several places, says
the geologist [16]. This information is essential to trigger evacuation plans of the
populations in the event of tsunamis.
2. Strategies for dealing with volcanic eruptions
There is a lot of research aimed at making more accurate predictions about volcanic
eruptions. British and American researchers designed a drone to collect data from
volcanoes. The technology, which has been tested in Papua New Guinea, could provide
valuable information about the carbon cycle on Earth and allow local communities to
make more accurate eruption predictions. The project was presented in the journal
Science Advances. In the article, the scientists explain that volcanic emissions are part of

10. 10
a critical stage of the carbon cycle on the planet. However, CO2 measurements already
made are limited to a relatively small number of volcanoes: 500. One difficulty involved
in this task is the need to collect data in deeper locations. This makes drones the only way
to safely take samples from the most dangerous volcanoes [17].
To collect this data, the scientists added miniaturized gas sensors and spectrometers (light
meters) to a traditional drone. The device flew two kilometers high and six kilometers
away, enough to reach the summit of the Manam volcano, one of the most active in Papua
New Guinea, and took gas samples. What was collected has not yet been studied in detail,
but one can reach much richer conclusions, says one of the study's authors. The creators
of the solution believe that it can also help in the calculation of sulfur levels, another
fundamental data to determine the likelihood of an eruption occurring [17].
A doctoral thesis involving the monitoring of volcanoes with satellite images has the
novelty of having been developed in Brazil, when it is usually Europeans and Americans
who study active volcanoes in South America and in other parts of the world. The work
of Samuel William Murphy, supervised by Professor Carlos Roberto de Souza Filho, has
already resulted in the publication of two articles in the most important magazines in the
areas of remote sensing and volcanology, the Remote Sensing of Environment and the
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. According to Murphy, there are about
60 eruptions a year in the world (at least 20 simultaneously) and most active volcanoes
do not have specific monitoring. The time intervals between periods of activity and
volcanic quiescence are often at the limit or exceed the life span of a human being.
Vesuvius, for example, has not erupted in about 70 years. In addition, volcanoes are at
different locations on the planet, at various latitudes from the South Pole to the North
Pole [18].
The aim of the study was to develop methods for monitoring volcanoes using satellite
images, focusing on the detection and quantification of thermal anomalies. The
investigation of these anomalies, using algorithms developed during the research, allows
the identification of signals that precede lava flows in certain volcanoes. Therefore, they
are methods that assist in the prediction of volcanic activities. Satellite monitoring is the
safest way to study volcanoes, taking advantage of the opportunity of synoptic vision,
from a distance, covering large areas. The difficulty of obtaining information in the field
leads the vast majority of researchers to choose remote sensing. Sam Murphy observed
volcanoes Láscar (Chile), Kilauea (Hawaii), Erta’Ale (Ethiopia), Erebus (Antarctica) and
Kliuchevskoi (Russia), even going into the field in the first two. In the tests carried out
on the Kliuchevskoi (in Russia), for example, a mapping was carried out, with good
accuracy, of the evolution of the thermal anomalies until the moment when the lava
flowed out of the crater [18].
Professor Carlos Roberto de Souza Filho explains that a time series of analysis was
carried out, detecting both normal behavior and anomalies in the studied volcanoes. This
required the collection of thousands of images in each of them, in resolutions ranging
from 15 to 90 meters for Aster sensor data (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and
Reflection Radiometer), and 250 to 1000 meters for Modis sensor data (Moderate
Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer). From this collection, the size and intensity of
anomalies were quantified for more than a decade. Based on these histories, which
correspond to the reality of the thermal evolution of the volcanic building, prediction

11. 11
models were developed to analyze what should happen in a volcano whose behavior is
not well known [18].
According to Souza Filho, the most used sensor was the Aster, which makes it possible
to observe the crater's geometry (up to 15m) and thermal anomalies (up to 90m), followed
by Modis and the Hyperion hyperspectral sensor. The sensors are becoming more and
more complete and sophisticated. New sensors are expected to launch between 2013 and
2020, offering unprecedented spatial and spectral coverage. It is a very open field for
research. Souza Filho states that satellite monitoring is the safest way to study volcanoes,
taking advantage of the opportunity of synoptic vision, from a distance, covering large
areas. The difficulty of obtaining information in the field leads the vast majority of
researchers to choose remote sensing. There is no need to risk your life [18].
Monitoring volcanoes is an important activity. To prevent a disaster of catastrophic
proportions, researchers at the Alaska Volcano Observatory began using the Google Earth
tool to compile the eruption data based on a small program that uses KML, an alternative
that allows Google Earth to display customized images. The software analyzes the data,
aggregates the level of danger and displays the result as a triangular icon. An orange
triangle, for example, indicates a high level of danger, while a red triangle means an even
greater risk, probably an eruption that is already occurring or is to come [19].
Scientists have long used data from satellites, seismic sensitive equipment and other
sources to detect eruptions that are about to happen. The United States Geological Survey
Center is using Google Earth to show data that indicates the relative likelihood of a future
tsunami in various coastal areas [19].
3. Conclusions
From the above, it is concluded that, under the current conditions, it is not possible to
predict the occurrence of earthquakes, but it is possible to adopt preventive and
precautionary measures to eliminate or reduce the damage caused by them to populations,
buildings and infrastructure as the Japanese do. The Japanese experience of earthquake
prevention and precaution should be disseminated and adopted worldwide. As for
tsunamis, they can be predicted quickly and efficiently with the help of seismographs,
because, when the earthquake occurs, it is possible to quickly define the epicenter of this
tremor, which is the projection of it on the surface and it is possible to do the modeling
with which wave will come out, check its speed and check how long it will reach various
locations on the planet and trigger population evacuation plans. Scientists have long used
data from satellites, seismic sensitive equipment and other sources to detect volcanic
eruptions that are about to happen. Google Earth can be used to show data that indicates
the relative likelihood of a future tsunami in various coastal areas as the United States
Geological Survey Center does. As for volcanic eruptions, it is possible to predict their
occurrences with constant monitoring of volcanoes to prevent disasters of catastrophic
proportions with the adoption of plan to evacuate populations in the areas covered by the
volcanoes.
All of the measures proposed above must be adopted mainly in countries where there are
more earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanoes in the world. In each of these countries,
structures to monitor earthquakes, tsunamis and volcano eruptions need to be set up and
plans to evacuate populations in places that could be affected by these catastrophic events.

12. 12
In addition, a global structure, a World Organization for the Defense of Natural Disasters
of global scope, similar to WHO (World Health Organization), which has the capacity to
technically coordinate the actions of countries in the face of earthquakes, tsunamis and
eruption of volcanoes whose consequences have local, regional and global scope,
especially of volcanoes that can lead to the extinction of life on the planet such as the
great eruptions of volcanoes that occurred 250 million years ago that ended a life cycle
on Earth.
The aforementioned world organization should be linked to a democratic world
government to be created that is capable of coordinating all actions of all national
governments in adopting the necessary measures to evacuate human beings to safe places
and even, if necessary, out of planet Earth in habitable places in the solar system (Mars,
the moon of Saturn, Titan, and Jupiter, Callisto) in the event that the eruption of volcanoes
could lead to the threat of extinction of humans as has occurred in the past. No national
government, no matter how powerful, will be able to carry out the herculean task of saving
humanity from this type of threat. In addition, national governments, especially the most
powerful, would favor the survival of their populations and not all of humanity. There is
an urgent need for a world democratic government and a world parliament to carry out
the noble task of saving humanity from this and other threats against their survival.
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* Fernando Alcoforado, 81, awarded the medal of Engineering Merit of the CONFEA / CREA System,
member of the Bahia Academy of Education, engineer and doctor in Territorial Planning and Regional
Development by the University of Barcelona, university professor and consultant in the areas of
strategic planning, business planning, regional planning and planning of energy systems, is author of the
books Globalização (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1997), De Collor a FHC- O Brasil e a Nova (Des)ordem
Mundial (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1998), Um Projeto para o Brasil (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2000), Os
condicionantes do desenvolvimento do Estado da Bahia (Tese de doutorado. Universidade de
Barcelona,http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/1944, 2003), Globalização e Desenvolvimento (Editora
Nobel, São Paulo, 2006), Bahia- Desenvolvimento do Século XVI ao Século XX e Objetivos Estratégicos
na Era Contemporânea (EGBA, Salvador, 2008), The Necessary Conditions of the Economic and Social
Development- The Case of the State of Bahia (VDM Verlag Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG,
Saarbrücken, Germany, 2010), Aquecimento Global e Catástrofe Planetária (Viena- Editora e Gráfica,
Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2010), Amazônia Sustentável- Para o progresso do Brasil e combate
ao aquecimento global (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2011), Os Fatores
Condicionantes do Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2012), Energia no
Mundo e no Brasil- Energia e Mudança Climática Catastrófica no Século XXI (Editora CRV, Curitiba,
2015), As Grandes Revoluções Científicas, Econômicas e Sociais que Mudaram o Mundo (Editora CRV,
Curitiba, 2016), A Invenção de um novo Brasil (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2017), Esquerda x Direita e a sua
convergência (Associação Baiana de Imprensa, Salvador, 2018, em co-autoria) and Como inventar o futuro
para mudar o mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2019).