Hollywood and US Media Histories

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http://wethemedia.edublogs.org

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FRAMING NEWS
Highlights of Weeks 1-14
Film Genre, Narratives and Ideologies in the Hollywood Representation of U.S. News Broadcast Journalism
ALAN TAYLOR
The John F. Kennedy Institute of North American Studies,
The Free University of Berlin, Spring/Summer 2007

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Summer 2007: MA Kultur
Film Studies. Course Leader: Alan Taylor
As based on…

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Openings…
“Well, now home entertainment was my baby’s wish
So I hopped into town for a satellite dish
I tied it to the top of my Japanese car
I came home and I pointed it to the stars
A message came back from the great beyond
There’s fifty-seven channels and nothin’on”
57 Channels

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Core Argument
‰Genre analysis as a means of exploring corporate mainstream appropriation of oppositional values and beliefs. Core Issues: ‰the power and influence of corporate media ‰the scope of public understanding & debate ¾Film as a rhetorical tool, an instrument to persuade ¾‘Hollywood’ as a linked corporate platform

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On the Shoulders of Others…
Standard research on this subject since 1970s, including:
1.David Croteau & William Hoynes, The Business of Media, 2001
2.Dean Alger, The Media and Politics, 1996
3.Daniel Hallin, We Keep America On Top Of The World, 1996
4.Bonnie J. Dow, Prime Time Feminism, 1996
5.Benokraitis & Feagin, Modern Sexism -1995
6.Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, 1971
7.Ted Nace, The Gangs of America..The Rise of Corporate Power, 2004
8.Herman & Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent, Political Economy of the Mass Media, 1994

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Rhetoric, Ideology & Hegemony
Gramsci
Hegemony as a site of contestation, cultural appropriations, the principle of consent…
Burke
Organisational personae, new markets, identity shaping

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Who Said this? When? And Why?
“I think we’re probably watching something that is somewhat historic. We’re having a conflict at a time in our history when we have 24-hour-a-day television, radio, media, Internet, and more people in the world have access to what is taking place. You couple that with the hundreds - literally hundreds of people in the free press -the international press, the press of the United States, from every aspect of the media who have been offered and accepted an opportunity to join and be connected directly with practically every aspect of this campaign.”
(in Stanley, The New York Times. 23.03.2003: A1)

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“…an opportunity to join and be connected directly
with practically every aspect of this campaign.”
Donald Rumsfeld,23rdMarch, 2003

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The Genre Film
ƒDetective/Western/Science Fiction / War
ƒThe principle of “same… but different”
9Common narrative characteristics
9Themes
9Locations
9Character relationships (gender/race/ age changes)
9Intertextual star performers –carryover
9Expected Iconic Moments/Scenes

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The Broadcast Genre
-Dramatic Oppositions -
‰Subjectivity ‰Cynicism ‰Private interest ‰Social interest
‰Objectivity
‰Idealism
‰Public interest
‰Industry interest

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Core Films 1970s -1990sNetwork, 1976, Sidney LumetUp, Close and Personal, 1996, Jon Avnet
Broadcast News, 1987, James L. Brooks
The Insider, 1999, Michael Mann

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Core Questions –from the Films!
What exactly do we mean by ‘democracy’?
What does it depend on?
How is it guaranteed?
Who is responsible for this?

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The Changing Corporate Personae, From Nace, Gangs of America, 2004Multiple lines of business, mergers & acquisitionsCharter restrictionsAdaptabilityUnlimitedLimitedLifespanSteady acquisition of rights from 5th-1stAmendmentFunctional OnlyConstitutional RightsFree to acquire in“open market” Not allowed to own stockin other companies‘Shape Shifting’Easy, general incorporation, limited accountability. Limited, needing Charter approvalBirthMODERNISTsince 1900CLASSICALbefore 1860Attributes

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The Corporation, Joel Bakan, 2005
The Corporation as an individual before the law? So what kindof individual?

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The U.S. Television
PublicNews Broadcasters
From Radio (1920s) to TV (1950s) ‰NBC (The National Broadcast Corporation) ‰-from Marconi, to Signal Corps(1919), RCA, now owned by General Electric ‰CBS (Columbia Broadcast System) ‰-Westinghouse in 1980s, now owned by Viacom ‰ABC (American Broadcast Corporation) -since 1995 owned by the Disney Corporation

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Early Days…

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OVERVIEW
1.General Electric RCA beginnings
2.1920s –Hooray Hollywood & Washington
Silent to Sound, ERPI & RCA
3.1930s & 1940s:
the Technological Tangle
3.1950s Consolidation –
Radio is Film & Becomes TV
4.GE Today
5.Summary & Epilogues

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GE + Signal Corps = RCA
BEGINNINGS
1917. Marconi patents transferred to the Navy Department
1919. RCA created to secure the Marconi patents
from the Defense Department
“Unable to convince Congress to keep control within the government, but still concerned about the deployment of its radio system, the Navy urged General Electric, largest of the radio manufacturers, to buy outthe British backed Marconi company... General Electric’s acceptance of the Navy’s suggestion resulted in the formation in October 1919 of the Radio Corporation of America. In this country, RCA became owner of practically all the commercial high-power wireless telegraph facilities.”
Bensman, 2000, p.13-14

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1924 Concerns
Onhow the intertwined corporate network had,
“…combined and conspired for the purpose of…restraining competition and creating a monopoly in the manufacture, purchase and sale of interstate radio devices…and in domestic and transoceanic communicating and broadcasting.”
Federal Trade Commission 1924

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1926: RCA National PR Statement“Any use of radio transmission which causes the public to feel that the qualityof the programs is not the highest, that the use of radio is not the broadest and best in the public interest, that it is used for political advantage or selfish power, will be detrimental to the public interest in radio, and therefore to the Radio Corporation of America.”

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U.S. Radio Networks Station Numbers: 1927-194105010015020025019271929193119331935193719391941 NBC CBS MUTUAL

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1927 Lobbying Success in Washington D.C.
Radio is: “…any intelligence, signal, power, picture,or communication of any nature transferred by electrical energy from one point to another without the aid of any wire connecting the points.”
The Radio Act of 1927 &
Communications Act, 1933

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The Radio Act, 1927
“The careful inclusion of “picture”is vitally revealing since it clearly signals a powerful subtext emphasizing how well
present ‘radio’laws…
anticipated and helped channel future developments
in television broadcasting that…
would favour the-then corporate interests of the present radio manufacturers and broadcasters and who, at the same time…
were already taking the initiative in creating sound pictures in Hollywood”.
(“We, the media…”, p. 65)

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TIMELINES OVERVIEW 1926 -1936
The Radio & TV Mix(Depending Who You Ask) 1926 -David Sarnoff of RCA created the National Broadcasting Network (NBC) for national radio broadcasting. 1927 -Farnsworth televises from Green Street, San Francisco1928 -May GE began regular TV broadcastingin New York1928 -William S. Paley createsCBSfor radio broadcasting 1931 -July 21 CBS broadcasting 28 hours per week on W2XAB in NY 1936 -June 29 NBC broadcasts from the Empire State Building1936 -Philcoshow a 345-line system on a screen 9 1/2 by 7 1/2 inches. 1936 -Broadcastthe Berlin Olympic Games 1936 -Nov. 30, AT&T used the first coaxial cable to speak by telephonewith FCC officials in Washington.

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AIMING FOR HOLLYWOOD
Sound on film
David Sarnoff & Owen Young
RCA/NBC
Photophone
Westinghouse
Disc Recording
ŠJohn E. Otterson
ŠWestern Electric
ŠERPI -
Electrical Research Products, Inc
ŠVitagraph
ŠAT&T

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Sample Discs & Projection

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VITAPHONE DISC ADVANCES
-from east to west -
June 1926:The VitaphoneCompany opensNew York recording studio.
Aug. 6, 1926:Don Juan,Warners first public performance of Vitaphone
Dec. 1926:The Vitaphonecorporation gave Fox a sublicense to use Western Electric equipment in sound pictures.
Dec. 31, 1926:WE equip 12 theatres for Vitaphone.
Jan. 1, 1927:Electrical Research Products, Inc. (ERPI) formed as a subsidiary of Western Electric and AT&T to commercializeequipment for the sound motion picture field
“Vitaphone”retained by Warners for their sound picture system.
Spring 1927:Vitaphonerecording established in Hollywood.

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But… “ using disc sound in the theater was trouble-prone. A projectionist had to possess keen eyesight and a steady hand to place the stylus on the correct start-point. If he missed by only one groove the movie was grotesquely out of sync, which generally caused the audience to laugh or to yell angrily and throw things…” Bernds

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SOUND ON FILM:
implications on the studio floor
Same aspect, but LESS working frame, hence camera adjustment during actual filming to allow for loss of dramatic space…

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1928: GE -RCA & RKO1928:The sound picture work of GE and Westinghouse nowcombined and handled by a new subsidiary of the RCAcalled RCA Photo- phone Inc. RCA Photophoneannounces perfection of sound on filmandequipingtheaters. Oct. 1928:RCA acquiresthe B. F. Keith and Orpheumchain of theaters and the FBO Producing Company. Radio-Keith-OrpheumintroducesPhotophoneto the public. first picture was "The Perfect Crime", which included some dialogue sequences. stage plays were acquired by the RKO, ie:"Rio Rita"

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1929: From RKO to NBC
Feb. 9, 1929: RKO Productions, Inc.,
announced that they had selected
"Radio Pictures" as the trade name for
RKO Productions
This was the motion picture producing
and distributing unit of the
Radio-Keith-OrpheumCorporation…
sponsoredby the General Electric
Company, the Westinghouse Electric
and Manufacturing Company,
and National Broadcasting Company.
(TIME cover, July 15th, 1929)

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Wired Theatres USA, 1926 -193102000400060008000100001200014000192619271928192919301931ERPIOtherTotal

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1920s Boom Time at the Movies0100200300400500600700800192223242526272829attend, milBO, $ mil

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FILM RELATED STOCKS
Sept& Nov1929, source Film Daily Financial Tables10.54.13208.52811.8836.1314.560.530.2562.53697.1354.7510128217.75153396.25168.13050100150200250300350400PátheUniversalFox TheatersRKOWarnersLoew´sFox FilmRCAEastmanKodakGE

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RCA Stocks“The arrival of sound pictures in the public theatre made the possibility of receiving live television broadcasting in the home even more credible and likely; indeed, for Sarnoff at RCA, it was just a matter of five years before radio broadcasters would become television broadcasters. His optimistic forecasts to shareholders and the public were reflected in the surgent march of RCA stocks that rosefrom 85 cents in early 1928 to 500 cents in the summer of 1929 (Barnouw, 1982, p. 67).” “We, the media…”p. 66010020030040050060019281929

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U.S. Broadcasters’Station Affiliates: 1949-1959050100150200250194919511953195519571959NBCCBSABCDuMont

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Studio Production Lines 1928 -192905010015020025030019281929SilentSound TotalPart TalkiesMus, Effects onlyAll Talkie

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The Communications Act, 1934
The Federal Communications Commission
Guiding Principles under Toll Broadcasting:
Public interest,
Convenience
& Necessity

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NBC: From Radio to TV
FCC Alliance Sets Industry Quality Benchmarks- 1939 -Jan. 1 Zworykinand NBC finally were granted a patent for the image orthicon tube after 15 years of litigation with Frarnsworthwho still controlled the basic electronic television tube patent. 1939 -April 30 FDR opened the New York World's Fair on W2XBS1939 -first RCA commercial TV, the mirror-in-the-lid TRK-12, $6001940 -National Television Standards Committee (NTSC) created by GE's Dr. Walter R. G. Baker and FCC Chairman James Lawrence Fly to standardize competing television technical standards. 1941 -March 8thThe first NTSC committee of 168 members issued the standards that were then FCC approved on April 30, and have remained in effect to the present day.

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Media Baron at War 1941-1945
David Sarnoff
Brigadier General
Signal Corps

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RCA at War Developed…
…wideband radar & radio antennas setinto hulls of high-speed airplanes
…infrared "sniperscope" “that accounted for 30 percent of Japanese casualties in the early months of the battle of Okinawa.”
…an improved acoustical depth charge “which played a key role in defeating the threat of German and Japanese submarines”
…the electron multiplier tube was used as the source of pure white noise in radar-jamming systems
…radio–frequency heating in the bulk dehydration of penicillin
…the image orthicon camera tube, reducing the size and delicacy of television cameras & improving light sensitivity over the pre-war iconoscope by a factor of 1,000 percent.
Combined with the $375 630TS RCA Victor television set in 1946, the image orthicon tube helped launch the post-war boom in television that David Sarnoff tried to initiate in 1939and which then remainedthe basis for all television cameras into the early 1960s.(source, GE Website)

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The View From 1929
“...the film industry, once powerful and arrogant, is rapidly being reduced to the position of a ‘subsidiary’...It will be part of that vast and superbly organized scheme by which entertainment is to be delivered, free of charge, to the multitude”
Robert Sherwood, Scribners Magazine, July 1929

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RCA & HOLLYWOOD
-Synergies of the 1950s & 1960s -

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Towards the 1960s…

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Towards the Broadcaster Zero Sum Profit Margin01020304050607080901001941-91950195119521953195419551956195719581959TVs sold to date,millionsTV Household millionsHousehold TV %

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NBC Radio, TV Station Development& Hollywood Studio Profits & BO Attendances050100150200250 19271929193119331935193719391941194319451946194719491951195319551957195919601965 NBC Radio StationsHollywood Profits ($ mill)Film Attendances ($ mill)NBC TV Stations

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The FCC “Freeze”
of New Operators 1948-1952
“Columbia and NBC, with the most established records in network radio, easily cajoled those with licenses -many held by owners of local radio outlets with CBS or NBC agreements -to affiliate
with them.”
(Baughman, 1990, p. 95)

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The Scarcity Principle
WORKING PRINCIPLES FOR NEWS BROADCASTERS
1.The airwave frequencies are limited…
2.They are owned by the public…
3.Regulated by the FCC…
4.Which allows licensesto the broadcasters…
5.Who have increasing rights to free speech as based on the First Amendment…
6.BUT they must provide space for range of voices
and points of view…based on… “the public interest, convenience or necessity…” (1934!)

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Maximizing Profit, Minimizing the Risk
Horizontal & Vertical IntegrationRCA –Radio & Television ProductionNBC –Radio and Television TransmissionTelevision now requires product: 1950s: Hollywood soundfilm back catalogues1960s: Towards video recordings1970s: Colour

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U.S. Film and TV Comparative Figures: 1935-1985010203040506070809019351940194519501955196019651970197519801985Weekly Film Attendance, millionsTV Households, millions

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Television Impacts on U.S. Cinema Attendance-40-20020406080100MASSNEW YORKARIZONAMISSMONTANACALIFTelevision % Density% Cinema Attendance Change

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Hollywood ‘Above the Line’Retrenchment020040060080019461957actorsdirectorsproducers

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Films Sold or Leased (*) to Television:
1955-1958(Stuart, 1982, p. 304) 750104800390770205001002003004005006007008009001955195619561956195619571958RKOColumbiaWarners20th C FoxMGM (*)UniversalParamount

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Studio Releases in Widescreen and Colour: 1948-1967020406080100120140160 19481949195019511952195319541955195619571958195919601961196219631964196519661967 Widescreen (#)Colour ( %)

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Film Sequence Analysis
All That Heaven Allows
Douglas Sirk
1955
Universal Pictures

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Total Hollywood Studio Profits ($ millions): 1935 -1965020406080100120140 1935193719391941194319451947194919511953195519571959196119631965

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Universal Profits and Losses: 1945 -1964 in $ Millions-4-2024681945194719491951195319551957195919611963

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Universal Pictures -Colour and Totals: 1946-196005101520253035404550194619471948194919501951195219531954195519561957195819591960colourtotal

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Universal and Paramount -Profits and Losses: 1945-1964-505101520253035401945194719491951195319551957195919611963Universal -$ millionsParamount - $ millions

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Cultivating FriendsRevue premiered General Electric TheaterBy 1954it was hosted by Ronald Reagan who in time extended his profile from star to become the show producer and thus became a multi- millionaire by the time the show closed in 1963.

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U.S. TV Advertising Spot Rates in $ million: 1949-19590100200300400500600194919511953195519571959

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U.S. Private Investment Abroad: 1950s-1960s0100002000030000400005000019451950195519601965

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Drawn Curtain -1970s
“Throughout the 1960s and well into the 1970s, the rate at which the networks telecast first-run feature films far outstripped Hollywood’s capacity to replenish that supply…
With the theatrical market diminished, Hollywood devoted itself more and more to producing filmed television programming.”
(Lafferty, 1990, p. 247)

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Newton Minow, 1961 The “Vast Wasteland”
“I invite you to sit down in front of your television set when your station goes on the air and stay there without a book, magazine, newspaper, profit-and-loss sheet, or rating book to distract you—and keep your eyes glued to that set until the station signs off. I can assure you that you will observe a vast wasteland.
You will see a procession of game shows, violence, audience participation shows, formula comedies about totally unbelievable families, blood and thunder,mayhem, violence, sadism, murder, western bad men, western good men, private eyes, gangsters, more violence and cartoons. And, endlessly, commercials—many screaming, cajoling, and offending. And, most of all, boredom. True, you will see a few things you will enjoy.But they will be very, very few. And if you think I exaggerate, try it…”

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MAKING MOVIES
FILM STUDIES
Genre, Audiences,
Codes and Conventions

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Opening Rules for Scriptwriters
Films “…must have situations plainly visible…a clearly defined story…the complications should start immediately and the developments come with the proper regard to sequence…too many notes and subtleties interrupt the story anddetract from the interest…let your stories, though they both strong in plot… be convincing, the situations not merely possible but probable…”….Abstract?

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For the Writers
“To anticipate the anticipations of
your audience you must master your
genre and its conventions….”
Robert McGee, STORY

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The Genre Film
ƒDetective/Western/Science Fiction/War
ƒThe principle of “same… but different”
9Common narrative characteristics
9Themes
9Locations
9Character relationships (gender/race/ age changes)
9Intertextual star performers –carryover
9Expected Iconic Moments/Scenes

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GENRE THEORY
The Principleof Repetition and Differencein1.narrative conventions 2.visual, aural codesAUDIENCE 1.pleasureand control2.recognitionPRODUCER 1.marketing and distribution2.standardisation of outputTEXT

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HISTORICAL
CYCLE
Model One
Growth
Development
Decay
Model TwoExperimentalClassicElaborationSelf-Referential

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From 1950s Hero to
1960s Anti-Hero
John Wayne
Alan Ladd
Clint Eastwood

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LIMITING THE RISK
The Historical War Epic
The Principleof Repetition and Differencein
1.narrative conventions
2.visual, aural codes
AUDIENCE
1.pleasureand control
2.recognition
PRODUCER
1.marketing and distribution
2.standardisation of output

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Prelude: Redford & Hoffman
STAR THEORY -the polysemic iconAll The President’s Men, 1976REDFORD•The Candidate, 1972•Up, Close & Personal, 1996•Quiz Show, 1994 (D, P) HOFFMAN•Mad City, 1997•Wag the Dog, 1997

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Narrative Terms –A Sample
Antagonist
Catharsis
Causal Relationship
Character
Climax
Complication
Conflict
Crisis
Dénouement
Dialogue
Epiphany
Exposition
Foreshadow
Genre
Hero & Hubris
Irony
Point of View
Plot
Protagonist
Reversal
Story
Subplot
Subtext
Suspense
Theme

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Technical Terms –A Sample
Angle
Blocking
Close up
Colour codes
Composition
Continuity system
Cross-cutting
Expressive space
Eye line matching
Frame
Impact editing
Long shot
Medium shot
Mise en scene
Montage
Point of view shot
Shot-reverse shot
Three-point lighting
Tracking shot
Voice over
Zoom

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The Classic
Narrative ParadigmACT 1 ACT 2ACT 3ORDERCHAOSORDER / 2The inciting incident
HOOK 30 min 60 min 90min 120 min

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The Broadcast Genre
-Dramatic Binary Oppositions -
‰Subjectivity ‰Cynicism ‰Private interest ‰Social interest
‰Objectivity
‰Idealism
‰Public interest
‰Industry interest

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Contrasting Models of Journalism
CitizensConsumersAudiences are… Diverse, substantive and innovative content, even if not always popularWhatever is popularPublic interest defined by… Public and government representativesOwners and ShareholdersAccountableto… Serving the public interestProfitsCriteria ofsuccess… The PUBLIC SPHEREThe MARKETRatings +Advertisers
(from Croteau and Hoynes, 2001, p. 37)

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NETWORK (1976) -Satire
•D: Sidney Lumet•W: Paddy Cheyefsky•A: William Holden –News Producer•A: Peter Finch –News Anchor•A: Faye Dunnaway –Head of Entertainment•A: Robert Duvall –Station Boss•The pressure on the news division to run its own budget –profits from viewing numbers & then advertising revenue. •The news anchor responds! •The Axis of Marketing Evils: The terrorists, the programmers & the advertisers

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Hollywood’s Declining Market: 1929-197005101520253019291933193719411945194919531957196119651969 Leisure $ % to Film

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Film & Network Revenues 1935 -198002000400060008000100001935194019451950195519601965197019751980Film Box Office - $ millionsTV Network Revenues - $ millions

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NETWORK (1976)
‰Representing the news broadcasters - Faye Dunnaway/Diana Christensen (gender/genre) ‰Develops the synergy between entertainment division as terrorist groups -who supply raw footage of bank raids ‰A critical satire -extending to logical absurdity present truths. But what of the future…?

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Prelude: Redford & Star Power / Theory
All The President’s Men(1976)
•Producer: Robert Redford
•Directed: Alan J. Pakula
•S: Redford, Hoffman
•Based on how journalists Woodward & Bernstein uncovered the Watergate scandal that destroyed the republican presidency of Richard Nixon in 1972
•4 Oscars
•The film text as trusted narrative frame

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Review on Network(1976)
Genre Ingredients
Standard Scenes
Sequence Analysis
Reading, 1970s

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Genre & The Standard Situation
1.News creation -morning meetings, new technologies
2.The ‘live’ event -performance of the anchor
3.Representation of TV audiences (direct/implied)
4.Terrorism / war
5.Professional & personal conflicts -news ethics
6.Career arcs of female journalists/producers
7.Changing working conditions, Corporate America

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The 1980s -wars, presidencies and “other superficial things”

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The 1stAmendment
™“Congress shall make no law…abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press…”
ASSUMES
™…that freedom of speech already exists as if naturally and external to the operations of government.
™Thus, the less government regulations =
the more freedom.
™But: What is the legal status of the individual?

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Deregulation of The 1980s
-film narrative content -
•Ronald Reagan Presidency•Freedom of the individual•Government “off the backs of people” •Opening of “free markets” •Mergers, acquisitions = conglomerates•Cross-ownership across media film, TV, radio, newspapers. •The corporation as a legally defined ‘individual’…with free speech rights: •The commercial / advertisement AS ‘information’

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Broadcast News (1987)
•Made by 20thCentury Fox, 1987•D: James. L. Brookes•S: Hunter -Studio Producer•S: Brooks -News journalist•S: Hurt -Cable Sports Anchor to News Anchor•Satire to Romantic Melodrama•VIEWING EXTRACT –10 minutes

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Broadcast News(1987) -Sequence Analysis
Set-up of oppositions to inciting moment… •Opening pre-credit sequence -introductions•Establishing personal & professional•Selection/assembly of news•Defining the historical moment -the conference speech (Jane/Hunter) •Tonal shift from satire (1970s) to mix of sharp knowingness & romantic melodrama (1980s)

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The Changing Corporate Personae
Multiple lines of business, mergers & acquisitionsCharter restrictionsAdaptabilityUnlimitedLimitedLifespanSteady acquisition of rights from 5th-1stAmendmentFunctional OnlyConstitutional RightsFree to acquire in“open market” Not allowed to own stockin other companies‘Shape Shifting’Easy, general incorporation, limited accountability. Limited, needing Charter approvalBirthMODERNISTsince 1900CLASSICALbefore 1860Attributes

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Wheeling & Dealing in the Media30114276373050100150200250300350400Communication Industry Deals1981198519901995
(in Alexander, Owers and Carveth, 1998, p. 97, evaluations in $ billions)

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FCC Allowed Media Mergers 1980s, $ billions1.51.623.56.48.314.40246810121416Turner-MGMNewsCorps- MetroSony-CBSCap Cities- ABCGE- RCA/NBCViacom- ParamountTime-Warner(a sample from from Croteau and Hoynes, 2001, p. 75-76)

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Profits at the Major U.S. TV Networks: 1982-19860100200300400500600ABC: 1982 - 86CBS: 1982 - 86NBC: 1982 - 86From Dunnett, 1990, p. 83

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The View from ABC, CBS & CNN
¾Television is commercial
¾News is part of television
¾So…news must…
¾employ same stylistic formats as advertisers to get across its own ‘information’
¾But what IS information?

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The Fairness Doctrine
RESPONSIBILITY & ACCESS in NEWS & DOCUMENTARIES ‰FCC: 1949 –to “operate in the public interest” 1. Reasonable time to controversial issuesof public importance+ 2. A fair contrast of viewpointson these issues in any one programme/documentary

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What Happened to Fairness?
The FCC, Washington D.C., & Reagan
The Scarcity Argument:
New technologies: cable, satellite, Internet
From ‘viewers/citizens’to…
‘information rich’ ‘consumers’(!)
SO…
The Fairness Doctrine no longer needed!
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
-Five members, three former ABC employees…
-1987, Abolishes the Fairness Doctrine
Alternative proposal from House (3-1) & Senate (2-1)
Reagan Veto –the Doctrine is rescinded/abolished

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Possible Discussion Areas
The Fairness Doctrine
Activist Groups USA
www.fair.org
Advertising
as ‘information’, as ‘news’
Democracy
Free Speech
& The Constitution
Hollywood
Studio Histories
War Reporting
1960s -2005
The Federal Communications
Commission
The Communications Act 1996
News Formats
& Style
The Legal Status of the Corporation
New technologies and the ‘rich’ consumer
News Corps/
Fox News
Hollywood
Star Theory
Media Ownerships
Film Genre
US Media Histories
Radio -TV-film

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BENCHMARK YEAR:1996
WASHINGTON
‰The Communications Act
ƒownership of stations from 12 to unlimited
ƒnational coverage from 25% to 35%
ƒNo limit on radio station ownerships
HOLLYWOOD
ƒIndependence Day
(20thCentury Fox)
ƒUp,Close & Personal
(Touchstone Pictures)

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Film as RhetoricOwner: News Corps… •Fox News (October 1996) •Sky News –UK•Product Placement•Representation of news credibility from these sources…
Independence Day, 1996, 20thCentury Fox

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Deregulation: FCC Rulings, 1980s
YEARSELECTED RULINGS1982Removal of anti-trafficking three -year-rule1983Removal of regulations on children’s advertising1984Removal of regulations on the length of advertisements1984Replaces 7-7-7 rule with 12-12-12 rule (TV, Am & FM)* 1984Betamaxdecision allows home taping1985Citizens permitted to own satellite dishes1987Fairness Doctrine abolished

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Film Studies 1950s…
OVERVIEW

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The Auteur Theory -
Wheeling & Dealing with the Conventions
¾A personal style ¾A meaningful coherence ¾Stylistic consistency ¾An increasingly maturevision

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The Auteur‘s MISE EN SCENE
1.A personal style in and around genre conventions
2.A gap between stated scenenarrative
and stylistic emphasisof camera
3.The manipulationof scenic elements
4.Lighting, camera, lens, movement, pace
5.Imagery, colour, framing, composition
6.Blocking, performance, dramatic weight

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Auteurial THEMES
1.A line of recurring motifs, tensions, ideas
2.Relationships acrosscharacters
3.Subtextual featuresin the narrative
4.A maturingof thematic understanding & exploration

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ARTISTIC VISION
The consciousand unconscious
development of an artist, exploring
and deepening givenpersonal
themes made meaningfulto an
audience overtime.

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Auteur Theory - CONSEQUENCES
RE-APPRAISAL OF STUDIO DIRECTORS & GENRES
ie: Howard Hawks 1896 -1977
Bringing Up Baby, 1938
Screwball Comedy
Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, 1953
Musical
Red River, 1948
Western
Land of the Pharoes, 1955
Biblical Epic

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Or...HITCHCOCK
1.52 films
2.Personal vision within given genres
3.Self-defined auteur
4.Director and producer
5.Consistent collaborators
6.Developmental motifsand themes

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Sidney Lumet: Director…Auteur?
12 Angry Men (1957)
The Hill (1965)
Network (1976)
The Verdict (1982)
Deathtrap (1982)
The Murder on the Orient Express (1974)
Dog Day Afternoon (1975)
Q & A (1990)

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Auteur Theory -Problems
1.Filmmakinga collaborative process
2. Genius....or repetition?
3.Meaningand value....in who‘s eyes?
4.Corporate appropriation bythe industry for marketing
5.Structuralist theory, the problemof meaning
6.and the deathof the author, (1970s -1980s).

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1968 -Paris -Structuralism 1
Disillusionment over Paris ‘revolution’
Workers / masses duped against their own interests…How?…
Conformity through Institutional State Apparatus (ISAs –Althusseur)
-Explicit -police, military
-Implicit -schooling / media…
mainstream films…ie:
U.S./ Hollywood Realism

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1968 -Structuralism 2: Key Names
From Ferdinand de Saussure (1917), meaning is structured in a given language, t
Jacobson (Moscow, Prague, New York)
Vladimir Propp(1928, 58, 68) -narrative plot analysis
Levi Strauss (myths / binary oppositions)

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The Western & Levi Strauss
STRUCTURALIST BINARY OPPOSITIONSWILDERNESSCIVILIZATIONIndividualcommunityfreedomrestrictionhonourinstitutionsself knowledgeillusionintegritycompromiseselfsocial

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1968 -Structuralism 3: Key Points
An affront to established / Romantic notions of creative work, ‘reading’ and artistic ‘value’
Society creates its own narratives through/despite the artist: “the mind which does all this thinking is not that of the individual subject: myths think themselves through people, rather than vice versa…” Eagleton, p. 104

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1968 -Structuralism 4: Key Points
An affront to established / Romantic notions of creative work, ‘reading’ and artistic ‘value’
The structuralist method is analytical, not evaluative: Myths emerge through binary systems of meaning and duplicated across ALL forms of communication -so no distinction between literary/artistic ‘merit’. It’s the same story with the same effect. The issue of ‘value’ is redundant. As is the ‘artist’ -and reader...
We are all functions of the text.

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Structuralism 5: Impact…
. FILM STUDIES 1970s
Spectatorship Positioning (from Realism / film technique)
Based on close textual analysis
Meaning & identity formation is production-led
Assumes a passive/accepting viewer, where
Effects / social myths are unconsciously accepted
= A pessimistic account of hegemonic power, so,
= No opening for resistance…the text wins.

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Dramaturgie: Textual Analysis Review
on Network(1976)
The scene as a classic 3 act structure
Realist -film technique
Classic reversal of dramatic forces
The reversal of point of view shots
Superior to inferior role of female
Male / ‘omnipotent’ gaze as final ‘statement’.
Blocking reversal complete

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Structuralism 6: Impact…1970s
. FILM STUDIES Theory
From Freud to Lacan…
Laura Mulvey: Visual Pleasure & Narrative Cinema, 1975 (13 pages, totemic article).
Realist technique serves ideological interests
Dominant / castrating woman exposed & suffer the male gazeand male narrative constructs
Mainstream cinema supports/upholds male hegemony
This myth is unconsciously accepted as ‘the norm’.

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U.S. Media of the 1990s
CORPORATE
SYNERGIES

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BENCHMARK YEAR:1996
WASHINGTON ‰The Communications Act ƒownership of stations from 12 to unlimited ƒnational coverage from 25% to 35% ƒNo limit on radio station ownershipsHOLLYWOOD ƒIndependence Day(20thCentury Fox) ƒUp,Close & Personal(Disney, Touchstone Pictures…ABC)

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Corporate Intertextualities
Independence Day, 1996, 20thCentury Fox
Narrative:
The opening Act 1 sequence,
-setting binary oppositions

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Up, Close & Personal (1996)
Structural Narrative Analysis
Vladimir Propp•Morphology of the Folktale, 1928•French 1958, English, 1968•Basic DNA of 28 folktales•Spheres of Action•31 plot functions•Not all used, but those that are -in the same sequence

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Up, Close & Personal(1996)
Structural Narrative Analysis -Propp 1
Stages and Functions
A.PREPARATION
1.A family member leaves home
2.A prohibition is imposed on the hero
3.The rule is broken
4.The villain makes an attempt at reconnaissance
5.The villain learns something about his victim
6.The villain tries to deceive the victim
7.The victim unknowingly helps the villain by being influenced or deceived
Atwater’s mother dies.She is responsible her younger sisterr.
Despitethis she breaksexpectations that she waits for the perfect man to save her.
She has a goal to succeed by her own account.
She breaks the rule by faking her own past history and moving toMiami

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Stages and Functions
B.COMPLICATION
8. The villain harms a member of the family
9. A member of the family lacks or desires something and
the hero is given a request, is sent on a mission
10. The seeker, hero, plans an action against the villain
….in Miami she must work for Warren Justice, with two former wivesand a reputation “for not staying around for breakfast”. He functions as her villain, the man she must confront, oppose and defeat.
…Once employed as a secretary, Atwater is motivated to become a news anchor.
She secures the job of weather girl and is then picked by Justice as a ‘beat’news reporter.
Proving his professional intentions, his function shifts from negative villain to positive.
Her move to news anchor is a threat to the established (male) anchor lead, who now becomes the real villain.

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C.TRANSFERENCE
11. The hero leaves home
12.The hero is tested, attacked interrogated, receives magical agent or helper
13.The hero reacts to the actions of the donor
14.The hero uses the magical agent
15.The hero is transferred to the location of the quest
The Miami news channel becomes a second.
Butshe must leave to the prestigious Philadelphia
She is testedby two women -another lead anchor -and Justice’s former wife
and ex-colleague.
The villain function shifts to women. Warren Justice becomes more the Helper.
Assisting Atwater to be more ‘herself’against the station expectations(big hair)
The Magical Agent is his his camera operator Ned who is black.

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D.STRUGGLE
16.The hero and villain join in direct combat
17.The hero is branded
18.The villain is defeated
19.The initial misfortune is set right
The struggle for on-air recognition is complete when lead anchor Marcia McGrath decides to move.
Atwater marries Warren Justice with Ned who is on hand to play the organ and take the photograph.

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E. THE RETURN
20.The hero returns
21.The hero is pursued
22.The hero is rescued from pursuit
23.The hero arrives home, but not recognised
24.The false hero makes false claims
25.A difficult task is set for the hero
26.The task is accomplished
Atwater has attained her aim, but must earn it as a real journalist. Her inside war report on the Holmsville prison riot provides the opportunity.
The ordeal becomes a national event. Her performance -dressed in appropriate pale green andgreykhaki -is clear evidence to the American public of her professionalism and personal commitment to her chosen career.
She wins on her own terms.

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F. RECOGNITION
27.The hero is recognised
28.The false hero/villain is exposed
29.The false hero is transformed
30.The villain is punished
31.The hero is married and crowned
Atwater is promoted to the network atWashington IBS as weekend anchor.
The false heroes and villains have been vanquished. Her husband has died heroically reporting from a war zone. She is crowned at the annual conference of broadcasters. Her last words are ‘hers’.
Performance and self merge.
No longer an orphan, she is accepted into the corporate family of unthreatening, respectful but still powerful males. She is applauded as the best example of the “new generation”of crusading reporters out to get “their story”.
In her own words, she is happily “home”.

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The Classic Narrative Paradigm, & Lacanian Theory
Independence Day& Up, Close & Personal(1996) & EDtv (1998) ACT 1/ July 2 ACT 2, July 3 ACT 3, July 4LACAN: ORDER / 1 / IMAGINARY ORDER / 2 CLOSURE‘OVERCOMING’ LACKCHAOS/ Lacan’s ‘SYMBOLIC’, Law of the FatherHOOK 30 min 60 min 90min 120 minThe inciting incident. Where audience and character share the same POV/identification…the Mirror stage of dislocation, the beginning of Lack…orphans in search of a home…

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Genre Trends
1990s -Touchstone Pic / Disney (ABC)
‰Mainstream appropriation of the critical threat
‰To re-establish the credibility of the corporate news broadcasters:
Act One –Acknowledgement of problem of market journalism
Act Two –response: Combine with the best of the past (1970s)
Act Three –the new Corporate regime is now justified
USING…
oThe star power of Robert Redford from All the President’s Men(1976) to Up, Close & Personal(1996)
oGender representation

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‘Monster’ / 1998
John Gregory DunneThe making of UCP/961987 -1995/6J.G. Dunne & Joan DidionDisney/ABC/TouchstoneThe corporate “story parameters? Jessica Savitch…

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Analysis of Narrative Form & Representation in Deep Impact(1998, 121 min) •St: Teá Leoni…“…they trust you…” •Dir: Mimi Leder•Production: DreamWorks & VIACOM•staggered 30/ 20 min sequences & •pacy 5 min observations ie: “I noticed…” •A class list of observations that will build as we watch the whole film…

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Wag the Dog(1997):
Screenwriter: David Mamet“The work of the director is the work of constructing the shot list from the script. The work on the set is nothing… I don’t have any experience with film schools. I suspect they’re useless, because I’ve had experience with drama schools, and have found them to be useless… What should film schools teach? An understanding of the technique of juxtaposition of uninflected images to create in the mind of the viewer the progression of the story…” Page 5, On Directing Film

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Fox News Sequence, One More Time:
2001 pre-Afghanistan Invasion
Metonymy
“…the substitution of a word/imagein place of an idea or a thing…”
“…he’s on the bottle”.
Synechdoche
“a figure of speech/imagein which the part is substituted for the whole, or the whole is substituted for the part...”
“The crown”(the King himself)

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Denouement 1998 -2001
1990s News Delivery, Docu Extract
1998: Reflective Sequence Analysis
2001: Fox News extract
2001: Special Guest Choir , USA
Thanks & Adios

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Wagging from the White House:
1970s -1980s
“They’ve got to write their stories every day. You give them their story, they’ll go away. As long as you come in there everyday, hand them a well-packaged, premasticulated story in the format they want, they’ll go away”.
Leslie Janka
Press Officer, Nixon & Reagan White House Administrations
in The Terrorism Spectacle (Livingstone, 1994, p. 8)

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1997 U.S. Public Concerns
about Market Journalism
The 1997 Roper Center survey revealed that although 80% of recipients thought that the press was crucial to the functioning of society, however,
1.82%….thought that reporters were insensitive to people’s pain
2.64%considered news too sensationalized
3.64%thought reporters aired their own views too often
4.63%regarded news as too manipulated by powerful interests, ie,
5.…………….(83%)elected officials
6.…………….(87%)big business and corporate media owners
(Foerstel, 2001, p. 2)

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Deep Impact(DreamWorks/VIACOM, 1998)
Reflective Analysis: film text & context

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Deep Impact(1998).
Sequence AnalysisSh2. Cam B/1 MS•Blocking•Camera Setup/Shot•Reverse angle•Eye line matching•Point of view (POV) •Dramatic conflict/beat•Text / Subtext•Foreshadowing•Theme / Dialogue•180 Degree line* Ch 1* Ch 2Sh. 1 Cam: A/1 LS

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The Classic Narrative Paradigm, Deep Impact (1998)
FILM FORM –THE CONTENT AND THE STRUCTURE
“Life is lived into the future,
but only understood through the eye of the past” ACT 1ACT 2 ACT 3 LACAN: ORDER 1 / ORDER / 2IMAGINARY CLOSURE/OVERCOMING LACKCHAOS/ SYMBOLICHOOK 30 min 60 min 90min 120 minThe inciting incident. Where audience and hero/character share the same POV/identification…the Mirror stage of dislocation, the beginning of Lack…the ‘BACKSTORY’emerges…the future hero is splitThe AntagonistText & subtext combine, the hero unified, narrative complete, ideology in place

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Corporate Rhetorics via The Representation of the Female News Producer / Journalist1976 -1999FILMACTORROLECHARACTERISTICSNetwork, 1976Faye DunawayProducer, Entertainment DivisionAggressive, ambitious, cut throat, corporate winner, erratic personal lifeBroadcast News,1987Holly HunterStudio News Producer toWashington.D.CUnthreatening, team player, supporter, idealist, articulate, informed, audience winner, singleUp, Close &Personal, 1996Michelle PfeifferWeather Girl to prize-winning network anchor, Washington, D.CNaïve, learner, moral, professionalintegrity,brave, committed to “getting the story”, wins husband, loses husband, corporate & audience winner, then singleDeep Impact, 1998Téa LeoniResearcher toLead Anchor for Global AudienceMoralcentre,no romantic ties, committed to “the truth”, sacrifices herself to save families, dies with father

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Fox News Sequence, One More Time:
2001 pre-Afghanistan Invasion
“We hope you depend on us for the truth, because we are going to report the situation in Iraq without an agenda or any ideological prejudice”
The O’Reilly Factor, Fox News, 17.01.2003

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So, endlich…
ADIOS AMIGOS
a.taylor@balliol.oxon.org
•http://kinowords.edublogs.org

Hollywood and US Media Histories

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Hollywood and US Media Histories