This document provides an overview of neurofeedback. It begins by discussing how understanding brain functions can improve mental health treatment. It then discusses advances in neuroimaging technology and brain plasticity. Several significant researchers in neurofeedback are mentioned, including their studies on EEG brainwave training. Neurofeedback is defined as using EEG to train individuals to control their brain activity. Research applications and controversies are reviewed, as well as gaps that require more investigation. The document provides background on neurofeedback history, techniques, applications and current perspectives.

1. Neurofeedback
Presented by:
Holly Foote
Jeanette Stott
Sue Roh

2. Introduction
Understanding certain functions of the
brain and factors that affect its
development has major implications on
how we approach assessment,
treatment and attitudes towards those
considered to be psychologically
dysfunctional or impaired.
Why is this important?
It is only when we have a better
understanding of the complex inter-
workings of the brain that more effective
approaches to treatment and prevention
within the mental health service delivery
system can best serve the general
public, which, in turn, has ripple effects
in other public service arenas.

3. Neuroimaging and advances in
computerized neurophysiology
(QEEG)
Imaging technology
(functional magnetic
resonance imaging, in vivo
imaging and PET scans) have
advanced researchers’ ability
to “apprehend brain activity
during cognitive tasks”
(Masterpasqua & Healy, 2003, p. 652)

4. Refers to the concept that neural connections or brain synapses
are constantly being created or eliminated, all depending on how
often they are used and largely depending on individual actions or
experiences.
Cells in the hippocampus (associated with long and short-term
memory and spatial navigation) continue to form neurons
throughout one’s lifetime.
∗estimated ten billion cells form in each hemisphere in the cerebral
cortex
∗formation is rapid and at its peak and most critical developmental
period, is believed to produce 250,000 neurons per minute.
Brain plasticity/“Neuroplasticity”

5. Brain plasticity/“Neuroplasticity” cont.
The multitudes of synaptic formation within the cerebral
cortex (more than 100,000 trillion) leads most
researchers to conclude such formations are not the
sole product of genetic programming
∗ The influence of the environment on the
development and direction of synapses adds to the
complexity and differences in cerebral circuitry
within all human beings
(Kolb & Gibbs, 2011, n.p.)
“We are constructed from a genetic blueprint and
born into a world of circumstances about which
we have no choice in our most formative years.
The complex interactions of genes and
environment means that the citizens of our
society possess different perspectives,
dissimilar personalities and varied capacities for
decision making; these are not free-willed
choices of the citizens, these are the hands of
cards we’re dealt.”
(Eagleman, 2011, n.p.)

6. Connectome
Map of connections between
neurons inside a nervous
system
(Gross, 2012)
Perceptions and behaviors are
controlled by inaccessible subroutines
that can be easily perturbed
(Eagleman, 2011, n.p.)

7. In the 1970s and '80s scientists
mapped out all 7,000 connections
between its 300 neurons.
The one and only organism where
entire connectome has been
mapped.
Human Brain-estimated 100
billion neurons in human brain
(Gross, 2012)
C. Elegance worm (one long) millimeter

8. ∗ Current imaging methods use measurements of highly processed blood
flow signals
∗ covers tens of cubic millimeters of brain tissue
∗ estimated 100 million synaptic connections between neurons in a single
cubic millimeter of brain tissue
∗ lacks resolution for scientists to examine individual connections and
microcircuitry
(Eagleman, 2011, n.d.)
Neuroimaging Still Remains “crude” Technology

9. Alternative, non-evasive techniques should be a major consideration
in how mental health treatment services are provided
Individual experiences have significant
impacts on brain development.
Recent studies- psychoactive
medication alters brain development
(Kolb & Gibb, 2011, n.p.)
Like the human body, genetics
provide constructive tools in basic
composition.
Factors- genetic
predispositions/abnormalities +
environmental experiences/exposure +
occurrences of illnesses/injuries = whole
self
Can be modified throughout one’s
lifetime.
(Eagleman, 2011, n.p.), (Kolb & Gibb, 2011, n.p.)

10. The human brain is composed of a
“team of rivals”
(Eagleman, 2011, n.d)
Decisions (major/minor) are made
and based on the outcome of
competition for dominance among
different neural populations
The strength of each neural
population depends on the
strength of the individual
“players” within that population

11. Outcome of the competition can be “tipped”
(Eagleman, 2011, n.d.)

12. ∗ Neurofeedback is an electroencephalographic
(EEG) operant-conditioning training technique that
helps individuals learn to control or change their
brain activity.
∗ “exercise for the brain”
∗ The brain is conditioned to function more
efficiently and effectively using
neurofeedback.
What is Neurofeedback?

13. ∗ Neurofeedback uses a feedback EEG to show the
current electrical patterns in the cortex of the brain.
∗ EEG produced by postsynaptic potentials of
thousands of neurons to reflect specific brain
sources and functions.
∗ Utilizes a baseline EEG to identify abnormal
patterns.
Neurofeedback Defined

14. ∗ Biofeedback is a mind-body therapy.
∗ Biofeedback instruments measure muscle activity,
skin temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, brain
electrical activity and brain blood flow
∗ Biofeedback therapies guide the individual to
facilitate the learning of voluntary control over body
and mind.
Biofeedback vs. Neurofeedback

15. ∗ Neurofeedback is a
specialty field within
biofeedback.
∗ Neurofeedback devotes
itself to training control
over electro-chemical
processes in the human
brain.
Biofeedback vs. Neurofeedback

16. ∗ Neurofeedback is used to treat various neurological
and psychological conditions.
∗ Increases Cognitive Performance.
∗ Most common conditions treated with
Neurofeedback:
∗ Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
∗ Anxiety
∗ Epilepsy
∗ Addictive Disorders
Neurofeedback as Treatment

17. Hans Berger/physician, neurologist
∗ 1920’s- invented electroencephalogram (EEG), first to record human
brain waves
∗ discovered alpha rhythm (associated with relaxed/awake frequency) first
identified signature of the EEG
Joe Kamiya/psychologist
∗ 1960’s- first to study EEG’s in relation to “felt states” to measure human
awareness regarding their own alpha activity
∗ 1950’s- tested effects of active reinforcement on active alpha rhythm
activity, first form of neurofeedback
∗ Presented findings in Psychology Today (1968, Nov.), “Conscious
control of brain waves”
∗ Research findings not credible by general psychology community due to
reliance on subjective states of awareness/feeling
Significant Researchers

18. Maurice Barry Sterman, PhD/psychologist and neurologist
∗ Used animals in research- removed subjectivity of felt states
∗ Focused on sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) and spindle-burst (high frequency) EEG
activity in animal subjects’ sensorimotor cortex- observable in waking, but physically
still, state.
∗ Form of beta (associated with alertness/vigilenge) training
∗ First to strengthen inhibit functions on behavioral stillness using conditioning methods,
rewards based on SMR spindles levels rising above background activity
∗ Even though human waking EEG activity, in regards to SMR spindle levels, not
replicated as with animal subjects, training philosophy carried over
Joel Lubar, PhD/biopsychologist
∗ First to strengthen inhibit functions with the objective of training toward more normal
frequency activities.
∗ Differed from reward-based training, more non-conditional appeal to the brain
∗ Presented findings in Brain Research (1967)
∗ Promoted EEG normalcy as guiding principle to the use of EEG reinforcement, had
major implications for development of NF.
(Brain and Body Solutions, n.d.), (Othmer, 2008, pp.4,5), (Scarpa & Raine, 2003, pp.217,
218)
Significant Researchers, cont.

19. Relevant Researchers
Adrian Raine, PhD/psychologist & Angela Scarpa, PhD/psychologist
∗ One of the first to research biosocial interactions and
consider the cumulative effects of biological and social
risk factors and how they can result in adverse
psychosocial functioning
∗ Propose that well functioning nervous system is
protective factor that allows for reception towards social
conditioning. Even subtle non-detectable impairments in
frontal lobe functioning can cause deficits in ability to
regulate emotions and executive cognitive functioning
(planning, decision making, future-oriented decision
making)
∗ Called for both biological and psychosocial variables to
“form more complete models of antisocial behavior”
∗ Raine & colleagues: “Social push” hypothesis- if no
concrete psychosocial factors found to contribute to
antisocial behavior, causes most likely biologically rather
than socially based. “Are relatively resistant to socializing
influence”
(Eagleman, 2011), (Scarpa & Raine, 2003, pp.209, 213)

20. Relevant Researchers, cont.
Sebastian Seung, PhD/neuroscientist
∗ Brain wiring pattern/”connectome”
constantly changes as influenced by new
memories and emotional experiences.
∗ Wiring individualistic, theoretically possible
to diagram
“Even doing small parts of the brain now is
going to tell us a lot about brain function.
So one kind of study we would like to do is
to search for these connectopathies, these
abnormal patterns of connection that are
hypothesized to underlie mental disorders
like autism and schizophrenia…My goal is
simply to see what's wrong. That's not, in
itself, a cure, but obviously it's a step
towards finding better treatments.”
∗ Author of "Connectome: How the Brain's
Wiring Makes Us Who We Are"
(Gross, 2012)

21. ∗ William E. Pelham Jr., director of the Center for Children and Families at
Florida International University, called neurofeedback “crackpot charlatanism.”
He warned that embellished claims for neurofeedback may mislead parents to
favor it over other proven options like behavioral therapy and medication
∗ Russell A. Barkley, a professor of psychiatry at the Medical University of
South Carolina and an expert on attention problems, has long denied claims
that neurofeedback can help
∗ Opponents believe that the task itself can become boring, repetitious and lead
to resistance. They do not believe that the results are permanent; can be
costly
∗ Require a well-trained clinician/coach
∗ Is not as well accepted as most pharmaceutical solutions
∗ Is still not very widespread
∗ Some researchers think that there are better ways to control brain waves
other than forcing the waves into new patterns
∗ Not covered by insurance
Differences in Perspectives/Controversy

22. ∗ National Institute of Mental Health recently sponsored its first study of
neurofeedback for ADHD
∗ Better visuals, improved feedback readings
∗ now being offered at various chemical dependency treatment facilities as an
evidence based treatment method; also offered as treatment for co-occurring
addiction and eating disorders
∗ used by athletes to train their brains to function better during competition
∗ The New Mind Brain Mapping System
∗ integrated Bio-Psycho-Social Assessment system
∗ Within the last 5–10 years, neurofeedback has taken a new approach, in taking a
second look at deep states.
• Alpha-theta training has been used in the treatment of alcoholism and anxiety
• Most recent development is the Coordinated Allocation of Resource Model
(CAR) of brain functioning
∗ This approach showed improved auditory memory, reading memory in
individuals with learning disabilities and traumatic brain injury
Recent Findings

23. ∗ In 2010, a study provided the first
evidence of neuroplastic changes
occurring directly after natural brainwave
training. Half an hour of voluntary control
of brain rhythms was shown to be
sufficient to induce a lasting shift in
cortical excitability and intracortical
function
∗ Ros et al. observed that the cortical
response to transcranial magnetic
stimulation (TMS) was significantly
enhanced after neurofeedback and
persisted for at least 20 minutes
Recent Findings

24. ∗ Most of the research on Neurofeedback is
centralized around the treatment of ADHD.
∗ Neurofeedback is viewed at times as lacking
efficacy or not being empirically supported.
∗ More research is needed on issues such as
response rates, predictors of positive response, the
role of specific and nonspecific treatment effects in
outcome, and side effects of Neurofeedback
treatment.
Gaps/future directions for research

25. ∗ Expense, time and labor intensive nature of
Neurofeedback makes the treatment unappealing
(typical course of TX is 20-40 visits or sessions).
∗ Neurofeedback treatment would benefit from more
targeted treatment and measurements, as well as
better overall brain mapping.
∗ Improve Data Collection and Analysis.
Gaps/Future Research

26. ∗ Brain and Body Solutions. (n.d.). The history of neurofeedback - Sterman/Lubar studies.
Retrieved August 8, 2012, from
http://www.brainandbodysolutions.com/the-history---stermanlubar-studies.html
∗ Digital Journal. (2012). The new mind brain mapping system revolutionizes the
way clinicians and neurofeedback practicioners work with clients [Press release].
Retrieved from http://www.digitaljournal.com/pr/797607
∗ Eagleman, D. (2011). Blameworthiness- wrong question. In Eagleman, D. (Ed.), Incognito:
The Secret Lives of the Brain. [Electronic version]. United States: Pantheon Books
∗ Ellison, K. (2010). Neurofeedback gains popularity and lab attention. The New York Times.
Retrieved from
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/05/health/05neurofeedback.html?pagewanted=all
∗ Gevensleben, H., Holl, B., Albrecht, B., Vogel, C., Schlamp, D., Kratz, O., et al. (2009). Is
neurofeedback an efficacious treatment for ADHD? A randomized controlled clinical trial.
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(7): 780–789.
∗ Gross, T. (Host, Co-Executive Producer). (2012, February 29). Fresh Air: The man working
to reverse-engineer your brain. [Radio Broadcast]. Philadelphia, Pa: WHYY-FM/National
Public Radio
∗ Kolb, B. & Gibb, R. (2011, November). Brain plasticity and behaviour in the developing
brain. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 20(4): 265–
276
References

27. ∗ Masterpasqua, F. & Healey, K. N. (2003). Neurofeedback in psychological
practice. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 34(6): 652-656.
∗ Othmer, S. (2008). Introduction to QEEG and neurofeedback: Advanced theory
and applications. In Budzynski, T., Evans, J. R., & Abarbanel, A. (Eds.),
Neuromodulation Technologies: An Attempt at Classification (4th
, pp. 3-26).
Amsterdam: Elsevier.
∗ Ros T., Moniek, M., Ruge, D., Gruzelier, J., & Rothwell, J. C. (2010).
Endogenous control of waking brain rhythms induces neuroplasticity in
humans. European Journal of Neuroscience, 31 (4).
∗ Thornton, K. E., & Carroll, C. (2010). The coordinated allocation of resource
(CAR) model intervention for reading problems. Neuroconnections, 8-16.
References (cont)