We report the first genetic analysis of archeological maize specimens from the site of San Lorenzo (1,500-700 BP) (Azapa valley, Arica, Chile). Ancient DNA was successfully isolated from 11 archeological maize grains. The Alcohol dehydrogenase 2 (Adh2) gene was analyzed because it has a highly variable region due to the presence of a microsatellite region around -28 to -8, which consists of GA repeats that may be present in three types GAn, GAnTA and GA1AA1GAn, which is used as an informative region of the routes of initial dispersion of maize. Five Adh2 alleles were obtained and the alignment of these sequences according to the variable region revealed the presence of the three types of GA repeated. Our results do not provide sufficient evidence to reject any maize spread model proposed. This is the first report focused on genetic analysis of maize associated with an archeological site in Chile.
Fingerprinting, assessment of genetic diversity of cassava (manihot esculenta...CIAT
- Cassava is an important food crop for food security in many African, Asian and Latin American countries. It is cultivated primarily by small-scale farmers.
- The study analyzed genetic variability in cassava varieties cultivated by small farmers in Colombia's Atlantic Coast region, using Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) markers. Samples were collected from 400 farms representing 1045 accessions.
- Cluster analysis identified 6 genetically distinct groups among the accessions, explaining 81% of the observed variation. Genetic diversity exists primarily within rather than between groups.
Gene flow and cross-incompatibility in maize and teosintejrossibarra
This document discusses adaptive and non-adaptive introgression between maize and its wild ancestor teosinte. It describes how strong sexual selection can reduce genetic differentiation between populations by increasing mating opportunities for rare males. A two-locus population genetic model is used to show how trait and preference frequencies in two diverged populations decrease with stronger sexual selection after contact is reestablished through migration. The document also reviews evidence of maize domestication from archaeological sites in Mexico and genetic studies tracing the flow of alleles from teosinte into maize and vice versa.
Analysis Of World Strains Of Anaplasma MarginaleLuis Carlos Reza
This document analyzes the genetic diversity of Anaplasma marginale, the causative agent of bovine anaplasmosis, using sequences of the major surface protein 1a (MSP1a) from 131 strains collected worldwide. MSP1a is involved in host-pathogen and tick-pathogen interactions and varies in sequence and number of repeats among strains. Phylogenetic analysis of MSP1a repeat sequences from strains in the Americas, Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia found 78% of sequences were specific to a single geographic region, with strong clusters of sequences from Italian, Spanish, Chinese, Argentinean and South American strains. The results suggest tick-pathogen co-evolution and multiple worldwide introductions
Population genetics of maize domestication, adaptation, and improvementjrossibarra
The domestication of maize ~10,000 years ago resulted in dramatic differentiation from its wild ancestor teosinte. Subsequently, maize spread rapidly across the Americas, adapting to a number of new environments. Beginning in the 20th century, maize has also been subjected to intensive artificial selection by breeders. Each of these periods of adaptation have left their mark on patterns of genetic diversity. I will discuss some of our recent work using population genetics to learn about the history and process of adaptation in maize.
Molecular characterization of the genetic variability of soursop (Annona muri...CIAT
The document summarizes a study that used AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism) markers to characterize the genetic variability of soursop (Annona muricata) and related Annonaceae species accessions in a germplasm bank in Colombia. The study found:
1) Low genetic diversity and no clear geographical grouping among the 37 soursop accessions, possibly due to historical seed exchange.
2) Nine genetic groups were detected among the 39 total Annonaceae accessions, with low similarity between groups.
3) Soursop showed low similarity (<0.22) with other Annonaceae species, suggesting limited potential for conventional breeding through interspecific hybridization.
Farming of the giant kelp macrocystis pyrifera in southern chile forIvan Vera Montenegro
This study explored farming giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) in southern Chile for novel food products. The study found that the collection site of parent kelp affected successful cultivation, with kelp from wave-exposed sites not surviving. Ropes needed to be seeded with 10,000-40,000 spores depending on method. Seeded ropes needed to be placed in the sea by April to reach harvesting size by December. A pilot farm yielded over 14 kg/m of kelp, with over 70% of suitable quality for food products. Farming M. pyrifera could provide a sustainable source of biomass for food and other uses.
Study of the genetic diversity of the genus Passiflora L. and its distributio...John Ocampo
This study aimed to characterize the genetic diversity of the Passiflora genus in Colombia using molecular markers. The study:
1) Analyzed 213 Passiflora individuals representing 151 species and 15 subgenera using chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA markers. This identified 280 chloroplast and 372 mitochondrial haplotypes.
2) Chloroplast DNA provided better resolution of relationships than mitochondrial DNA, separating the Decaloba subgenus and revealing geographic structuring of some groups.
3) Results only partially agreed with morphology-based taxonomy, suggesting divergence between genomes and mixed modes of organelle transmission in the genus. The study helped elucidate the evolution and systematics of Passiflora but also highlighted remaining questions
Fingerprinting, assessment of genetic diversity of cassava (manihot esculenta...CIAT
- Cassava is an important food crop for food security in many African, Asian and Latin American countries. It is cultivated primarily by small-scale farmers.
- The study analyzed genetic variability in cassava varieties cultivated by small farmers in Colombia's Atlantic Coast region, using Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) markers. Samples were collected from 400 farms representing 1045 accessions.
- Cluster analysis identified 6 genetically distinct groups among the accessions, explaining 81% of the observed variation. Genetic diversity exists primarily within rather than between groups.
Gene flow and cross-incompatibility in maize and teosintejrossibarra
This document discusses adaptive and non-adaptive introgression between maize and its wild ancestor teosinte. It describes how strong sexual selection can reduce genetic differentiation between populations by increasing mating opportunities for rare males. A two-locus population genetic model is used to show how trait and preference frequencies in two diverged populations decrease with stronger sexual selection after contact is reestablished through migration. The document also reviews evidence of maize domestication from archaeological sites in Mexico and genetic studies tracing the flow of alleles from teosinte into maize and vice versa.
Analysis Of World Strains Of Anaplasma MarginaleLuis Carlos Reza
This document analyzes the genetic diversity of Anaplasma marginale, the causative agent of bovine anaplasmosis, using sequences of the major surface protein 1a (MSP1a) from 131 strains collected worldwide. MSP1a is involved in host-pathogen and tick-pathogen interactions and varies in sequence and number of repeats among strains. Phylogenetic analysis of MSP1a repeat sequences from strains in the Americas, Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia found 78% of sequences were specific to a single geographic region, with strong clusters of sequences from Italian, Spanish, Chinese, Argentinean and South American strains. The results suggest tick-pathogen co-evolution and multiple worldwide introductions
Population genetics of maize domestication, adaptation, and improvementjrossibarra
The domestication of maize ~10,000 years ago resulted in dramatic differentiation from its wild ancestor teosinte. Subsequently, maize spread rapidly across the Americas, adapting to a number of new environments. Beginning in the 20th century, maize has also been subjected to intensive artificial selection by breeders. Each of these periods of adaptation have left their mark on patterns of genetic diversity. I will discuss some of our recent work using population genetics to learn about the history and process of adaptation in maize.
Molecular characterization of the genetic variability of soursop (Annona muri...CIAT
The document summarizes a study that used AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism) markers to characterize the genetic variability of soursop (Annona muricata) and related Annonaceae species accessions in a germplasm bank in Colombia. The study found:
1) Low genetic diversity and no clear geographical grouping among the 37 soursop accessions, possibly due to historical seed exchange.
2) Nine genetic groups were detected among the 39 total Annonaceae accessions, with low similarity between groups.
3) Soursop showed low similarity (<0.22) with other Annonaceae species, suggesting limited potential for conventional breeding through interspecific hybridization.
Farming of the giant kelp macrocystis pyrifera in southern chile forIvan Vera Montenegro
This study explored farming giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) in southern Chile for novel food products. The study found that the collection site of parent kelp affected successful cultivation, with kelp from wave-exposed sites not surviving. Ropes needed to be seeded with 10,000-40,000 spores depending on method. Seeded ropes needed to be placed in the sea by April to reach harvesting size by December. A pilot farm yielded over 14 kg/m of kelp, with over 70% of suitable quality for food products. Farming M. pyrifera could provide a sustainable source of biomass for food and other uses.
Study of the genetic diversity of the genus Passiflora L. and its distributio...John Ocampo
This study aimed to characterize the genetic diversity of the Passiflora genus in Colombia using molecular markers. The study:
1) Analyzed 213 Passiflora individuals representing 151 species and 15 subgenera using chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA markers. This identified 280 chloroplast and 372 mitochondrial haplotypes.
2) Chloroplast DNA provided better resolution of relationships than mitochondrial DNA, separating the Decaloba subgenus and revealing geographic structuring of some groups.
3) Results only partially agreed with morphology-based taxonomy, suggesting divergence between genomes and mixed modes of organelle transmission in the genus. The study helped elucidate the evolution and systematics of Passiflora but also highlighted remaining questions
Study of the genetic diversity of the genus PassifloraL. and its distribution...CIAT
This study aimed to characterize the genetic diversity and biogeographic distribution of the genus Passiflora in Colombia. Researchers from CIRAD and Bioversity International mapped the spatial distribution of Passiflora species using geographic information systems and collected 555 samples from 17 Colombian departments. They found the highest diversity in the Andean region, with 167 reported species, 26 of which were new to Colombia. The study involved morphological and molecular characterization of the diversity to inform conservation strategies.
This document reports on several cases of anomalous scutation and morphology in turtles and lizards:
1) A three-toed box turtle with only one vertebral scute, representing an anomalous reduction.
2) A Brazilian slider turtle exhibiting kyphosis, or dorsal curvature of the carapace, representing the first reported case in this species.
3) Observations of predation including a centipede preying on a whiptail lizard, representing the first record of this predator-prey relationship, and a six-lined racer snake attempting to swallow a six-scaled tegu, providing a rare example of saurophagy in this genus of lizard.
This document summarizes research on adaptation in maize during and after domestication. It discusses how maize adapted through standing genetic variation, regulatory changes, and polygenic adaptation using multiple mutations and alleles from teosinte. It describes the origins and spread of maize from its ancestor teosinte in Mexico around 9,000 years ago to other regions of Mexico, South America, and beyond. The differences between lowland and highland maize populations are also summarized.
Introgression and the origin of maize in Mexico and the Southwest USjrossibarra
This document summarizes research on the origins and domestication of maize. It finds that maize originated from teosinte in Mexico and that ancestral reconstruction methods are needed to resolve origins due to gene flow between wild and domesticated populations. Introgression from an extinct wild grass adapted maize to high altitude environments in Mexico. Ancient DNA evidence shows that maize arrived in the Southwest US via the highlands of Mexico with subsequent gene flow from the Pacific coast. Key domestication genes like teosinte branched1 were under selection during maize's spread and adaptation.
This document summarizes research on the selection and demography of maize evolution. It discusses how maize was domesticated from its wild ancestor, teosinte, through selection for traits like ear size. The document presents several genetic studies that analyzed differences between maize and teosinte genomes and identified genes underlying key domestication traits. It also describes the spread of maize from its origin center in Mexico to other regions in Mexico and South America and genetic differences between lowland and highland maize varieties.
This document summarizes a study on the bycatch of franciscana dolphins in artisanal gillnet fisheries in Uruguay. The study was conducted in two stages from 2004-2006 to update estimates after a 12-year data gap. In the first stage, 13 fisheries along the Uruguayan coast were monitored monthly to identify those interacting with franciscanas. In the second stage, five fisheries, including in the Rio de la Plata estuary and Atlantic Ocean coastal region, were selected for monitoring. 26 fishermen recorded fishing effort and any franciscana bycatch. Estimates of bycatch per unit effort were calculated based on fishing effort in linear units multiplied by hours and also per
- The document discusses research on the evolution and adaptation of maize and its wild relatives like teosinte. It summarizes several studies that mapped genes controlling traits like prolificacy (branching) that were selected during domestication, finding selection at the gene gt1.
- Studies find evidence of both hard and partial sweeps during selection for traits like increased branching, with convergent evolution occurring through both multiple mutations and standing variation at gt1.
- Research also examines the adaptation of maize as it spread from Mexico to the highlands and South America, finding evidence of introgression between wild and domesticated populations that aided this adaptation.
The potential of different fruit species as food for harmonia axydirisbgomez1971
The study analyzed the potential of Harmonia axyridis, an invasive ladybug species first detected in Brazil in 2002, to feed on different fruit species when its preferred food of aphids is scarce. Experiments tested H. axyridis preference and use of apples, grapes, and pears. Results showed H. axyridis adults did not damage undamaged fruit but showed statistically higher preference for damaged Gala apples, Niagara grapes, and Williams pears over undamaged fruit or other cultivars. This indicates H. axyridis may feed on fruits when aphids are unavailable, which could potentially cause damage to fruit crops.
Current systematic of Ancylinae in South America based on morphological dataLuizEduardoLacerda1
This document summarizes a study on the systematics of Ancylinae freshwater molluscs in South America based on morphological data. 18 species are currently described in South America with more than 25 nominal species being revised and 4 new species under description. A cladistic analysis of 76 morphological characters from shell, external morphology, and internal morphology was performed which identified several groups. Preliminary results support Gundlachia as a valid genus distinct from other genera. New data on morphology combined with molecular analysis is revealing greater diversity with some cryptic species. Further studies on species with wide distributions are needed.
Molecular and cytogenetic phylogeography of h. malabaricuscmvolcker
Claudio Michael Völcker
Jorge A. Dergam
Molecular and karyotypic phylogeography in the Neotropical Hoplias malabaricus (Erythrinidae) fish in eastern Brazil
Spatial distribution of nests of Paratrigona subnuda Moure, 1947 (Apidae, Me...Label-ha
1) The study examined the spatial distribution of nests of the stingless bee Paratrigona subnuda in a nature reserve in São Paulo, Brazil.
2) A total of 34 nests were found, with a density of 2.36 nests per hectare. Analysis showed the nests were aggregated rather than randomly distributed.
3) The clustering of P. subnuda nests resembles the chamber pattern of nests of leafcutter ants of the genus Atta found in the area. This suggests P. subnuda occupies abandoned ant nests.
Anolis pentaprion relatives revision, a. charlesmyersi sp. nMichael Castillo
This document describes a revision of seven species of anoles related to Anolis pentaprion in Central America based on differences in coloration, morphology, and scalation. It resurrects the name A. beckeri and describes a new species found in Costa Rica and Panama. The new species has a red male dewlap with widely spaced scales, distinguishing it from A. pentaprion which has a pink dewlap with many small, closely spaced scales. It also provides standardized descriptions of A. beckeri, A. pentaprion, and the new species.
Agroforestry systems restoration of semiaridCharlieSC4
Se revisó información ecológica y etnobotánica sobre bosques y sistemas agroforestales del Valle de Tehuacán, en el
centro de México, con el fin de analizar la utilidad de las técnicas de manejo tradicional para la restauración de zonas
semiáridas de México. Los sistemas agroforestales de la región involucran el uso de múltiples recursos vegetales por la
gente del área, promoviendo la conservación de la diversidad biológica en los sistemas agrícolas. Estimamos que estos
sistemas mantienen en promedio 57% de las especies presentes en las comunidades de cactáceas columnares, y cerca
del 94% de la diversidad genética de las especies de cactáceas columnares dominantes. Entre las especies mantenidas en
estos sistemas se incluyen algunas especies de árboles y arbustos de valor cultural y económico, los cuales son además
reconocidos por ecólogos como plantas nodrizas cruciales para el reclutamiento de plántulas de numerosas especies de
plantas nativas. El mantenimiento de elementos nativos de la vegetación en general y de plantas nodrizas en particular
favorece la conservación de la biodiversidad y de interacciones bióticas importantes para la restauración de la vegetación
y de la fertilidad del suelo tanto en ecosistemas naturales como transformados a nivel de paisaje.
Battle train station is proposed as a filming location for its alleyway, country road, open train crossing, and station architecture. Most of the music video for the song "A Drop in the Ocean" will be filmed in Battle to capture shots fitting the song. Battle Abbey is also proposed for its visually pleasing ruins and architecture to relate to the lyrics and planned visuals. Benches will be incorporated into shots there. Additional shots are proposed in Brighton at the sea front for its ability to express oneself and relate to starting university, capturing the tide rolling in and sunlight reflecting on waves to tie in with lyrics.
This document summarizes several empirical studies on the relationship between asset prices and foreign exchange risk. The studies analyzed data from various stock markets and time periods. Key findings include:
1) Exchange rate risk was found to significantly impact asset returns in Canada, especially after the beginning of the flexible exchange rate regime. Exchange rates and inflation risk were the most important factors pricing Canadian assets.
2) Two studies found that exchange rate risk, as measured by contemporaneous exchange rate changes, may not actually be priced in the US stock market. Industry portfolios and more robust methods of estimating exchange rate sensitivity were needed to properly test for pricing of exchange rate risk.
3) A study of developed and emerging Asian markets found
Amir Tawfik wrote a document on February 16, 2016 about a Restricted Substances Stewardship Program. The document likely discusses policies or procedures related to managing substances that are regulated or banned from certain products and applications. Further details about the specific goals or activities of the program are not provided in the limited information given.
The song lyrics describe saying goodbye to a friend and having to leave them, as tomorrow's weather may bring rain. The singer says they must go and follow the sun, and though they will lose a friend, in the end the friend will understand why they had to leave. The lyrics repeat that one day the friend will find that the singer has gone, but they had to follow the sun due to the potential of rain tomorrow.
Amanda Natalicchio has over 5 years of experience in retail merchandising management. She has a Bachelor's degree in Fashion Merchandising Management from FIT. Currently, she works as an Associate Product Manager for knits and sweaters at Macy's, where her responsibilities include monitoring merchandise performance, presenting at best seller meetings, and communicating with vendors. Previously, she held internships at Tommy Hilfiger and Brahmin, and participated in Macy's Executive Development Program, where she learned about product development, trend analysis, and business strategy.
Study of the genetic diversity of the genus PassifloraL. and its distribution...CIAT
This study aimed to characterize the genetic diversity and biogeographic distribution of the genus Passiflora in Colombia. Researchers from CIRAD and Bioversity International mapped the spatial distribution of Passiflora species using geographic information systems and collected 555 samples from 17 Colombian departments. They found the highest diversity in the Andean region, with 167 reported species, 26 of which were new to Colombia. The study involved morphological and molecular characterization of the diversity to inform conservation strategies.
This document reports on several cases of anomalous scutation and morphology in turtles and lizards:
1) A three-toed box turtle with only one vertebral scute, representing an anomalous reduction.
2) A Brazilian slider turtle exhibiting kyphosis, or dorsal curvature of the carapace, representing the first reported case in this species.
3) Observations of predation including a centipede preying on a whiptail lizard, representing the first record of this predator-prey relationship, and a six-lined racer snake attempting to swallow a six-scaled tegu, providing a rare example of saurophagy in this genus of lizard.
This document summarizes research on adaptation in maize during and after domestication. It discusses how maize adapted through standing genetic variation, regulatory changes, and polygenic adaptation using multiple mutations and alleles from teosinte. It describes the origins and spread of maize from its ancestor teosinte in Mexico around 9,000 years ago to other regions of Mexico, South America, and beyond. The differences between lowland and highland maize populations are also summarized.
Introgression and the origin of maize in Mexico and the Southwest USjrossibarra
This document summarizes research on the origins and domestication of maize. It finds that maize originated from teosinte in Mexico and that ancestral reconstruction methods are needed to resolve origins due to gene flow between wild and domesticated populations. Introgression from an extinct wild grass adapted maize to high altitude environments in Mexico. Ancient DNA evidence shows that maize arrived in the Southwest US via the highlands of Mexico with subsequent gene flow from the Pacific coast. Key domestication genes like teosinte branched1 were under selection during maize's spread and adaptation.
This document summarizes research on the selection and demography of maize evolution. It discusses how maize was domesticated from its wild ancestor, teosinte, through selection for traits like ear size. The document presents several genetic studies that analyzed differences between maize and teosinte genomes and identified genes underlying key domestication traits. It also describes the spread of maize from its origin center in Mexico to other regions in Mexico and South America and genetic differences between lowland and highland maize varieties.
This document summarizes a study on the bycatch of franciscana dolphins in artisanal gillnet fisheries in Uruguay. The study was conducted in two stages from 2004-2006 to update estimates after a 12-year data gap. In the first stage, 13 fisheries along the Uruguayan coast were monitored monthly to identify those interacting with franciscanas. In the second stage, five fisheries, including in the Rio de la Plata estuary and Atlantic Ocean coastal region, were selected for monitoring. 26 fishermen recorded fishing effort and any franciscana bycatch. Estimates of bycatch per unit effort were calculated based on fishing effort in linear units multiplied by hours and also per
- The document discusses research on the evolution and adaptation of maize and its wild relatives like teosinte. It summarizes several studies that mapped genes controlling traits like prolificacy (branching) that were selected during domestication, finding selection at the gene gt1.
- Studies find evidence of both hard and partial sweeps during selection for traits like increased branching, with convergent evolution occurring through both multiple mutations and standing variation at gt1.
- Research also examines the adaptation of maize as it spread from Mexico to the highlands and South America, finding evidence of introgression between wild and domesticated populations that aided this adaptation.
The potential of different fruit species as food for harmonia axydirisbgomez1971
The study analyzed the potential of Harmonia axyridis, an invasive ladybug species first detected in Brazil in 2002, to feed on different fruit species when its preferred food of aphids is scarce. Experiments tested H. axyridis preference and use of apples, grapes, and pears. Results showed H. axyridis adults did not damage undamaged fruit but showed statistically higher preference for damaged Gala apples, Niagara grapes, and Williams pears over undamaged fruit or other cultivars. This indicates H. axyridis may feed on fruits when aphids are unavailable, which could potentially cause damage to fruit crops.
Current systematic of Ancylinae in South America based on morphological dataLuizEduardoLacerda1
This document summarizes a study on the systematics of Ancylinae freshwater molluscs in South America based on morphological data. 18 species are currently described in South America with more than 25 nominal species being revised and 4 new species under description. A cladistic analysis of 76 morphological characters from shell, external morphology, and internal morphology was performed which identified several groups. Preliminary results support Gundlachia as a valid genus distinct from other genera. New data on morphology combined with molecular analysis is revealing greater diversity with some cryptic species. Further studies on species with wide distributions are needed.
Molecular and cytogenetic phylogeography of h. malabaricuscmvolcker
Claudio Michael Völcker
Jorge A. Dergam
Molecular and karyotypic phylogeography in the Neotropical Hoplias malabaricus (Erythrinidae) fish in eastern Brazil
Spatial distribution of nests of Paratrigona subnuda Moure, 1947 (Apidae, Me...Label-ha
1) The study examined the spatial distribution of nests of the stingless bee Paratrigona subnuda in a nature reserve in São Paulo, Brazil.
2) A total of 34 nests were found, with a density of 2.36 nests per hectare. Analysis showed the nests were aggregated rather than randomly distributed.
3) The clustering of P. subnuda nests resembles the chamber pattern of nests of leafcutter ants of the genus Atta found in the area. This suggests P. subnuda occupies abandoned ant nests.
Anolis pentaprion relatives revision, a. charlesmyersi sp. nMichael Castillo
This document describes a revision of seven species of anoles related to Anolis pentaprion in Central America based on differences in coloration, morphology, and scalation. It resurrects the name A. beckeri and describes a new species found in Costa Rica and Panama. The new species has a red male dewlap with widely spaced scales, distinguishing it from A. pentaprion which has a pink dewlap with many small, closely spaced scales. It also provides standardized descriptions of A. beckeri, A. pentaprion, and the new species.
Agroforestry systems restoration of semiaridCharlieSC4
Se revisó información ecológica y etnobotánica sobre bosques y sistemas agroforestales del Valle de Tehuacán, en el
centro de México, con el fin de analizar la utilidad de las técnicas de manejo tradicional para la restauración de zonas
semiáridas de México. Los sistemas agroforestales de la región involucran el uso de múltiples recursos vegetales por la
gente del área, promoviendo la conservación de la diversidad biológica en los sistemas agrícolas. Estimamos que estos
sistemas mantienen en promedio 57% de las especies presentes en las comunidades de cactáceas columnares, y cerca
del 94% de la diversidad genética de las especies de cactáceas columnares dominantes. Entre las especies mantenidas en
estos sistemas se incluyen algunas especies de árboles y arbustos de valor cultural y económico, los cuales son además
reconocidos por ecólogos como plantas nodrizas cruciales para el reclutamiento de plántulas de numerosas especies de
plantas nativas. El mantenimiento de elementos nativos de la vegetación en general y de plantas nodrizas en particular
favorece la conservación de la biodiversidad y de interacciones bióticas importantes para la restauración de la vegetación
y de la fertilidad del suelo tanto en ecosistemas naturales como transformados a nivel de paisaje.
Battle train station is proposed as a filming location for its alleyway, country road, open train crossing, and station architecture. Most of the music video for the song "A Drop in the Ocean" will be filmed in Battle to capture shots fitting the song. Battle Abbey is also proposed for its visually pleasing ruins and architecture to relate to the lyrics and planned visuals. Benches will be incorporated into shots there. Additional shots are proposed in Brighton at the sea front for its ability to express oneself and relate to starting university, capturing the tide rolling in and sunlight reflecting on waves to tie in with lyrics.
This document summarizes several empirical studies on the relationship between asset prices and foreign exchange risk. The studies analyzed data from various stock markets and time periods. Key findings include:
1) Exchange rate risk was found to significantly impact asset returns in Canada, especially after the beginning of the flexible exchange rate regime. Exchange rates and inflation risk were the most important factors pricing Canadian assets.
2) Two studies found that exchange rate risk, as measured by contemporaneous exchange rate changes, may not actually be priced in the US stock market. Industry portfolios and more robust methods of estimating exchange rate sensitivity were needed to properly test for pricing of exchange rate risk.
3) A study of developed and emerging Asian markets found
Amir Tawfik wrote a document on February 16, 2016 about a Restricted Substances Stewardship Program. The document likely discusses policies or procedures related to managing substances that are regulated or banned from certain products and applications. Further details about the specific goals or activities of the program are not provided in the limited information given.
The song lyrics describe saying goodbye to a friend and having to leave them, as tomorrow's weather may bring rain. The singer says they must go and follow the sun, and though they will lose a friend, in the end the friend will understand why they had to leave. The lyrics repeat that one day the friend will find that the singer has gone, but they had to follow the sun due to the potential of rain tomorrow.
Amanda Natalicchio has over 5 years of experience in retail merchandising management. She has a Bachelor's degree in Fashion Merchandising Management from FIT. Currently, she works as an Associate Product Manager for knits and sweaters at Macy's, where her responsibilities include monitoring merchandise performance, presenting at best seller meetings, and communicating with vendors. Previously, she held internships at Tommy Hilfiger and Brahmin, and participated in Macy's Executive Development Program, where she learned about product development, trend analysis, and business strategy.
The document discusses Intel's Product Security Maturity Model (PSMM) which is used to measure how well product security is implemented across Intel. It provides an overview of ISO 27034 for application security, agile software development lifecycles, and how security is integrated into each phase. The PSMM uses 20 parameters across operational and technical categories to assess maturity on a scale of 1 to 5. Product teams self-score against the parameters which are then aggregated to provide metrics on security posture at multiple organizational levels.
The document describes the production of bio-grease from scrap aluminum. It discusses that bio-grease is more environmentally friendly than traditional grease and provides various desirable properties. Aluminum-based bio-grease is a good example as its raw materials of aluminum scrap, stearic acid, and vegetable oil are all natural products. The document then outlines the experimental method for producing bio-grease which involves pretreating aluminum scrap through chemical cleaning before reacting it with sulfuric acid to produce aluminum sulfate, a thickening agent.
The document describes a device called Pixeom, which aims to offer privacy-focused alternative cloud services. Pixeom is a small device that connects to the internet and allows users to store, access, and share content without third-party surveillance. It provides distributed storage without external mediators and can expand storage by connecting multiple Pixeoms or external hard drives. The document outlines some limitations of existing cloud services and how Pixeom aims to address privacy and control concerns by giving each user their own storage device.
La difusión histórica del camote, la patata dulce.
La Kumara, el camote peruano llegó a Nueva Zelanda en tiempos precolombinos. Enlace: https://www.pnas.org/content/110/6/2205
Genetic analysis of cavefish reveals molecular convergencein.docxbudbarber38650
Genetic analysis of cavefish reveals molecular convergence
in the evolution of albinism
Meredith E Protas1, Candace Hersey2, Dawn Kochanek3, Yi Zhou2, Horst Wilkens4, William R Jeffery5,
Leonard I Zon2, Richard Borowsky3 & Clifford J Tabin1
The genetic basis of vertebrate morphological evolution has
traditionally been very difficult to examine in naturally
occurring populations. Here we describe the generation of a
genome-wide linkage map to allow quantitative trait analysis of
evolutionarily derived morphologies in the Mexican cave tetra,
a species that has, in a series of independent caves, repeatedly
evolved specialized characteristics adapted to a unique and
well-studied ecological environment. We focused on the trait
of albinism and discovered that it is linked to Oca2, a known
pigmentation gene, in two cave populations. We found
different deletions in Oca2 in each population and, using
a cell-based assay, showed that both cause loss of function
of the corresponding protein, OCA2. Thus, the two cave
populations evolved albinism independently, through
similar mutational events.
The relatively closed, often nutrient-poor, and lightless environment
of caves represents a marked change in ecological conditions to which
several entrapped species have adapted. Obligate cave-dwelling ani-
mals, called troglobites or troglodytes, are characterized by a remark-
able convergence of eye and pigment loss across diverse species such as
spiders, isopods, salamanders and fish1.
There are 86 known troglodytic species of fish2. The best studied is
the Mexican tetra, identified by some authors as Astyanax mexicanus
and others as Astyanax fasciatus; the two names should be considered
synonymous in the present context and the species will be referred to
herein as Astyanax. This species has 29 cave populations in the karst
region of the Sierra de El Abra of northeast Mexico and one additional
population in Guerrero (Fig. 1a)3,4. A surface, or river-dwelling, sister
population of the cave morph lives in southern Texas and northeastern
Mexico and can still interbreed with the cave morph. Phenotypically,
the cave and surface morphs are very different; among other char-
acteristics, the cave morph has a greater weight per unit length, less
pigment, regressed eyes, larger nostrils, more maxillary teeth, more
cranial neuromasts and more taste buds, as well as differences in
feeding, schooling and aggressive behaviors (Fig. 1b–d)4,5. Molecular
phylogenetic studies indicate that several cave populations indepen-
dently evolved these characteristics6–8.
To provide a framework in which to study the genetics of this
species, we made a microsatellite linkage map. We have isolated and
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2014 REVISTA MEXICANA DE CIENCIAS GEOLÓGICAS - Study of Cedral Horses and the...Ruben LLumihucci
Se realizó un estudio detallado de un depósito único de huesos de caballo en Cedral, San Luis Potosí, centro de México. Se usaron caracteres morfológicos y morfométricos, así como análisis estadísticos bivariantes y multivariantes de los restos del cráneo y del esqueleto postcraneal y se compararon con restos de otras localidades del Pleistoceno mexicano. Se suministran las medidas del material estudiado así como la estimación de la masa corporal de cada una de las especies. Tres especies de caba- llo están representadas en varios depósitos del Pleistoceno superior de México, correspondientes a la edad de mamíferos Rancholabreana, los cuales pueden haber sido contemporáneos: un caballo de gran tamaño Equus mexicanus Hibbard, 1955 conocido desde la porción occidental de Estados Unidos de América hasta México y América Central; un caballo de tamaño mediano ampliamente distribuido Equus conversidens Owen, 1869 que se encuentra en la mayor parte de América del Norte y Central; y un nuevo caballo de pequeño tamaño Equus cedralensis sp. nov., conocido hasta ahora sólo en localidades mexicanas. El conocimiento de la presencia conjunta de estas tres especies en el Pleistoceno tardío de México (género Equus sp.) es importante para entender los modelos de diversidad y extinción en los primeros tiempos de la presencia humana en el continente. Adicionalmente, se proponen algunas inferencias ambientales, pero se requerirá de más estudios para ponerlas a prueba.
Palabras clave: taxonomía; Equus; especie nueva; Pleistoceno Tardío; México; Cedral.
Alarcón e peixoto,2008 etnobotânica bertholletiaIane Gomes
This document summarizes an ethnobotanical study of the plant use by caboclos (mixed indigenous and European descendants) in the village of Caicubi, Brazil. The study analyzed plant use in a 1 hectare plot of terra firme forest, identifying 189 tree and vine species used by 11 informants. The caboclos used 98% of the plant species and 99% of individuals identified. The most commonly used plant parts were wood, leaves, spines, and exudates. The families with the highest use values were Arecaceae, Lecythidaceae, and Sapotaceae. Bertholletia excelsa had the highest use value and most reported uses. Common
The Archaic and Formative Periods of MesoamericaMichael Love.docxmattinsonjanel
The Archaic and Formative Periods of Mesoamerica
Michael Love
Note: this piece is an article that I’m preparing for the Cambridge Encyclopedia of World
Prehistory, edited by Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn. It presents a very different perspective on
domestication, agriculture, and sedentism than the scenario found in your textbook. I, of course,
think that my synthesis of the data is much better, but your textbook gives the generally accepted
viewpoint. You can also note my points of disagreement with Jared Diamond. The dates in the
article are all calibrated radiocarbon dates; the presentation and your textbook both use
uncalibrated dates, so there are bound to be differences. The Cambridge Encyclopedia uses BCE
(before common era) and CE (common era) instead of BC/AD. I haven’t inserted the images into
this article, but most of the referenced items are found in the Powerpoint presentation.
Mesoamerica is one of the six or seven areas of the world where independent
domestication of plants and animals lead to the emergence of food production, and subsequently
civilization (Bellwood 2005; Smith 1998). Mesoamerica was once considered to have lagged
behind other regions of the world in agricultural origins, but evidence now places the beginnings
of food production soon after the onset of Holocene conditions. Similarly, the origins of
urbanism and state formation are now placed much earlier than would have been the case a
decade ago. Once thought to be hallmarks of the Classic Period (AD 250-900), both urban
settlements and state-level polities are now well attested before the end of the first millennium
BCE.
The time of first domestication and the development of social complexity are called the
Archaic and Formative periods. The Archaic begins with the onset of Holocene conditions about
10,000 years ago and continued up to the time of the adoption of pottery, ca 2000 BCE. The
Formative period (also called the Preclassic) succeeds the Archaic and ends at 250 CE. The
criteria for defining both periods have shifted in recent times, and the divisions have become
blurred. It was once thought that the joint appearance of agriculture, sedentism and pottery
defined the beginning of the Formative, but earlier placement of first domestication and
sedentism leaves only early pottery as the sole criterion. The end of the Formative period is also
very arbitrarily placed at 250 CE, as many traits previously used to define the succeeding Classic
period, including writing, calendrics and urbanism, were well attested in the Late Formative (400
BCE-250 CE).
The Archaic Period
The Archaic period was the time during which domestication, food production, and
sedentism developed from the preceding Paleo-Indian Period (Stark 1981). In contrast to the Old
World and South America, domesticated animals placed only a minor role in the development of
food production in Mesoamerica. Although domesticated mammals and birds including ...
2016 REVISTA MEXICANA DE CIENCIAS GEOLÓGICAS - Feeding ecology and habitat of...Ruben LLumihucci
This study analyzed carbon and oxygen stable isotopes in three Late Pleistocene horse species (Equus mexicanus, E. conversidens, and E. cedralensis) from two sites in Mexico to evaluate their diets and habitats. The results show:
1) At La Cinta-Portalitos, there were two feeding groups - E. mexicanus had a mixed C3/C4 plant diet, while E. conversidens and E. cedralensis consumed more C4 plants, indicating some resource partitioning.
2) At La Piedad-Santa Ana, only one feeding group was present where all three horse species mainly ate C4 plants, suggesting a
Head Combs for Delousing in Ancient Arican Populations: Scratching for the Evidence
Peines para el Despiojamiento en las Antiguas Poblaciones de Arica: Rascando la Evidencia
Bernardo Arriaza, Vivien G. Standen, Jorg Heukelbach, Vicki Cassman and Felix Olivares
Dos saurópodos del Cretácico Superior de La Rioja revelan dispersión titanosa...Eduardo Nelson German
Los titanosaurios sudamericanos han sido fundamentales para el estudio de la evolución de los dinosaurios saurópodos del Cretácico. A pesar de su notable diversidad, la condición fragmentaria de varios taxones y la escasez de registros fuera de la Patagonia y el suroeste de Brasil han obstaculizado el estudio de las relaciones paleobigeográficas a escala continental. Describimos dos nuevos titanosaurios del Cretácico Superior de Quebrada de Santo Domingo (La Rioja, Argentina), que ayudan a llenar un vacío entre estas principales zonas del continente. Nuestro análisis filogenético recupera nuevas especies, y varios taxones brasileños, dentro de Rinconsauria. Los datos sugieren que, hacia el final del Cretácico, este clado se extendió por todo el sur de América del Sur. En la misma localidad, descubrimos numerosas acumulaciones de huevos titanosaurios, probablemente relacionados con los nuevos taxones. Con huevos distribuidos en tres niveles a lo largo de tres kilómetros, el nuevo sitio es uno de los más grandes jamás encontrados y proporciona más evidencia de la filanda del sitio de anidación entre Titanosauria.
The document discusses new evidence that corn was domesticated in both Mexico and the Amazon rainforest. While domestication began in Mexico, genetic analysis shows that one lineage of corn was fully domesticated in the Amazon region of Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru between 5,000-3,000 years ago. This challenges the previous view that corn domestication occurred solely in Mexico. The Amazon region has emerged as a major center of early agricultural domestication, along with the Fertile Crescent and Southeast China. Despite being domesticated independently in distant regions, both Amazon and Mexican corn are genetically recognized as the same species due to shared genetic changes in their original domestication event.
Evidence for morphological evolutionary stasis in a Middle Miocene Inselbergs...AndressaCabral18
This study examines the phylogeny, biogeography, and taxonomy of the Barbacenia group of plants found on inselbergs in the Atlantic Forest region. Phylogenetic analysis recovered two major clades of Barbacenia, one containing species endemic to Atlantic Forest inselbergs and the other containing species from campo rupestre rocky grasslands. Divergence time estimates indicate the diversification of Barbacenia likely occurred in the Middle Miocene. Ancestral area reconstruction supports the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado as the areas of origin. The inselberg endemic clade exhibits low morphological diversity and long-term morphological stasis, possibly due to niche conservatism and geographical isolation on the mountain tops.
This document reports two ladybird beetle species, Toxotoma guerini and Epilachna bistriguttata, as new records for Peru. It describes the female of both species for the first time based on specimens collected in Peru's Cusco and Puno regions. An updated distribution map shows both species now occur in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru, inhabiting forests in the Andean-Amazon region.
539ReportsCultural Cannibalism as a PaleoeconomicSys.docxalinainglis
539
Reports
Cultural Cannibalism as a Paleoeconomic
System in the European Lower Pleistocene
The Case of Level TD6 of Gran Dolina (Sierra
de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain)
Eudald Carbonell, Isabel Cáceres, Marina Lozano,
Palmira Saladié, Jordi Rosell, Carlos Lorenzo,
Josep Vallverdú, Rosa Huguet, Antoni Canals, and
José Marı́a Bermúdez de Castro
Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social
(IPHES), Unidad Asociada al Consejo Superior de
Investigaciones Cientı́ficas (CSIC). Universitat Rovira I
Virgili (URV), Campus Catalunya, Avinguda de Catalunya,
35, 43002 Tarragona, Spain (Carbonell, Cáceres, Lozano,
Saladié, Rosell, Lorenzo, Vallverdú, Huguet, Canals)
(icaceresprehistoria.urv.cat)/Visiting professor, Institute of
Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology of Beijing
(IVPP; Carbonell)/Centro Nacional de Investigación sobre
Evolución Humana (CENIEH), Paseo Sierra de Atapuerca,
s/n, 09t002 Burgos, Spain (Bermúdez de Castro). 19 III 10
Human cannibalism is currently recorded in abundant ar-
chaeological assemblages of different chronologies. The TD6
level of Gran Dolina (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos), at more
than 800 ka, is the oldest case known at present. The analysis
of cranial and postcranial remains of Homo antecessor has
established the presence of various alterations of anthropic
origin (cut marks and bone breakage) related with exploita-
tion of carcasses. The human remains do not show a specific
distribution, and they appeared mixed with lithic tools and
bones of other taxa. Both nonhuman and human remains
show similar evidence of butchering processes. The strati-
graphic evidence and the new increment of the collection of
remains of Homo antecessor have led us to identify a succession
of cannibalism events in a dilated temporal sequence. These
data suggest that hunting strategies and human meat con-
sumption were frequent and habitual actions. The numerous
evidences of cannibalism, the number of individuals, their age
profile, and the archaeostratigraphic distribution suggest that
cannibalism in TD6 was nutritional. This practice, accepted
and included in their social system, is more ancient cultural
cannibalism than has been known until now.
� 2010 by The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research.
All rights reserved. 0011-3204/2009/4901-0005$10.00 DOI: 10.1086/
653807
Cannibalism is by definition the act of consuming tissues of
individuals of the same species, and it occurs among a wide
variety of living organisms. From an ethological point of view,
there are different mechanisms that determine this behavior.
However, why humans process and consume other humans
is a complex question, and moving away from purely ethologic
causes, the answer may encompass nutritional, economic, cos-
mogonic, social, and political purposes. Because these con-
ditions can sometimes intermingle, cannibalism must be
viewed not as something unitary or simple (Sanday 1986) but
rather as a complex activity that has.
Cereals such as rice, wheat, maize, and barley are economically important crop plants. Rice was chosen as the first cereal genome to sequence due to its small genome size and importance as a food crop. The sequencing of the rice genome established it as a model for studying cereal genomes. Comparative genomics using rice and other sequenced cereal genomes can provide insights into crop improvement and maintaining high quality crops, with significant impacts on global quality of life.
This document provides a synopsis of the 15 species and subspecies of the genus Cypholoba beetles that are known to occur in the Republic of South Africa. It includes a key and illustrations to aid in identifying the species. Field observations in Kruger National Park provide notes on the natural history and behaviors of some species. The taxonomy of the genus has been complex with different researchers disagreeing on species and subspecies designations. This synopsis aims to clarify the taxonomy of the South African species and support conservation and monitoring efforts.
Climate changes during the last ice age played a critical role in shaping the evolutionary histories of many North American species, including the Northern Goshawk. This study analyzed genetic data from goshawks across North America to test whether populations were historically isolated in forest refugia during the Pleistocene. The results found that goshawks exhibited strong genetic differentiation among three main regions- the Pacific coast, Southwest, and Eastern regions- suggesting isolation in multiple refugia during the last glacial period. Populations in Southeast Alaska, the Rocky Mountains, and Great Lakes showed signs of post-glacial expansion from surrounding refugia. The findings provide insights into how climate change influenced the population dynamics and genetic structure of a widely
Extensive simple sequence repeat genotyping of potato landraces supports a ma...Frank Guzman
This study analyzed 742 potato landraces and 8 wild relatives using 50 nuclear SSR markers and a chloroplast DNA marker to reevaluate the genetic structure and classification of the potato gene pool. The results supported separating the landraces into three main groups based on ploidy level, though there were exceptions. Strong statistical support was only found for S. ajanhuiri, S. juzepczukii, and S. curtilobum. Combining these results with morphological analyses, the researchers proposed reclassifying cultivated potatoes into four species - S. tuberosum with two cultivar groups, S. ajanhuiri, S. juzepczukii, and S. curtilob
Extensive simple sequence repeat genotyping of potato landraces supports a ma...Frank Guzman
This study analyzed 742 potato landraces and 8 wild relatives using 50 nuclear SSR markers and a chloroplast DNA marker to reevaluate the genetic structure and classification of the potato gene pool. The results supported separating the landraces into three main groups based on ploidy level, though there were exceptions. Strong statistical support was only found for S. ajanhuiri, S. juzepczukii, and S. curtilobum. Combining these results with morphological analyses, the researchers proposed reclassifying cultivated potatoes into four species - S. tuberosum with two cultivar groups, S. ajanhuiri, S. juzepczukii, and S. curtilob
Development of Agriculture in Early Mesoamerican SocietiesAmanda Tetz
This document discusses the development of early agriculture in Mesoamerican societies. It focuses on evidence of plant domestication and agricultural strategies from an Early Archaic site in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico representing over 10,000 years of human occupation. The document examines how changes in climate around 10,000-8,000 BC affected subsistence patterns and led humans to begin cultivating plants like maize and domesticating crops. It also analyzes how early cultivation and cooperation among groups in places like Guila Naquitz cave led to more permanent settlements and complex societies centered around agriculture by the Late Archaic period in Mesoamerica.
Technical Research Paper-04242013_DSN-1-finalDanielle Nisan
This study analyzed genetic diversity in Short-tailed, Black-footed, and Laysan albatross using ancient and historic mitochondrial DNA samples. The researchers sequenced two mitochondrial DNA regions, cytochrome b and the d-loop region, from museum specimens and ancient bones to identify haplotypes. They found low haplotype diversity in cytochrome b across all three species, and in d-loop regions in Short-tailed albatross, which experienced a population bottleneck. D-loop regions showed greater diversity in Black-footed and Laysan albatross. This suggests reduced genetic diversity in Short-tailed albatross following its near extinction due to overhunting in the early 1900s.
Los estudios sobre joyería indígena de Patagonia han privilegiado las colecciones procedentes de Araucanía (centro-sur de Chile), considerando en menor escala la producción platera de la vertiente oriental de los Andes en el siglo diecinueve. Este artículo pre- senta los resultados obtenidos del estudio de los aros de plata reunidos en 1896 por Henry de La Vaulx en la toldería del cacique Valentín Saygüeque (1830-1903), famoso por el tesoro monetario y platero acumulado antes de su derrota militar en 1882, cuan- do encabezaba un grupo de orígenes mixtos huilliche, pehuenche, pampa y tehuelche que controlaba el “País de las Manzanas” (provincia de Neuquén, Argentina). El análisis formal, tecnológico y físico-químico de la colección conservada en el Musée du quai Branly de Paris ofrece una primera síntesis sobre una producción platera contextualizada geográfica y cronológicamente, así como criterios analíticos para la datación de la joyería indígena.
El trabajo aborda las epistemes decoloniales como prácticas antagónicas al estado de relaciones (inter)culturales impuestos por la colonialidad. A partir de un análisis semiótico aplicado a dos obras del pensamiento mapuche, se propone la dimensión epistémico decolonial como basal en su organización de sentidos, comprendiendo que son sistemas de conocimientos en oposición a las formas de dominación que desde el mundo moderno-colonial se han ejercido en desmedro del pueblo mapuche. Se concluye proponiendo que este tipo de epistemes contribuyen a re-escribir la interculturalidad, construyendo, así, un nuevo marco de convivencia humana.
El poder en las ciudades coloniales latinoamericanas ha sido representado como “blanco” y “masculino”. Por medio de este texto nos aproximaremos a las transformaciones experimentadas en las representaciones raciales, de clase y género en la ciudad de Cuenca (Ecuador) a partir del análisis comparativo de la elección de las reinas y cholas cuencanas, en un contexto social marcado por la reivindicación del mestizaje cultural.
Presentamos los resultados de un estudio exploratorio y cualitativo acerca de las transformaciones agrarias y los conflictos hídricos que han emergido en las últimas tres décadas entre localidades históricamente agrícolas y grandes empresas mineras en el norte de Chile. Investigamos en tres casos de estudio: Quillagua (comuna María Elena, Región de Antofagasta), Peine (comuna San Pedro de Atacama, Región de Antofagasta) y Los Loros (comuna Tierra Amarilla, Región de Atacama). A partir del discurso de los entrevistados, efectuamos una reconstrucción histórica de los cambios centrándonos en tres dimensiones interrelacionadas que permiten abordar el problema: características de las actividades agropecuarias, presencia y vínculos con la minería, y situación de los recursos hídricos.
El análisis antracológico realizado en el sito de El Caño (provincia de Coclé, Panamá) nos permite hacer una primera aproximación a las posibilidades que este tipo de análisis arqueobotánico proporciona para el estudio de las sociedades de jefatura, y específi- camente de sus contextos funerarios. La identificación de los recursos leñosos utilizados, y el establecimiento de hipótesis acerca de su posible función en relación con el ritual mortuorio, es fundamental para poder profundizar en la comprensión del ritual y de la gestión de los recursos realizada por las jefaturas en el istmo de Panamá.
El presente trabajo examina variaciones dietéticas asociadas a diferencias de estatus al interior de comunidades jerarquizadas utilizando indicadores de patología oral. En los Andes Centrales, a pesar de la existencia comprobada de profundas divisiones sociales, la etnohistoria sugiere pocas diferencias dietéticas durante periodos tardíos, pero los datos bioarqueológicos que sustenten esta afirmación son escasos. Se analizaron 145 individuos exhumados del cementerio Los Pinos del valle de Huaura, costa central peruana (ca. 1200-1300 d.C.). Este conjunto de individuos fue clasificado en tres grupos de estatus social de acuerdo con la riqueza en ofrendas de los entierros. En dicha muestra se estudiaron 14 indicadores de patología oral. Los resultados muestran que todos los individuos de Los Pinos, independientemente de su grupo de estatus, estaban expuestos a una dieta considerablemente cariogénica y exhiben un patrón de lesiones común en el que predominan caries oclusales y una altísima proporción de caries cervicales (que parece estar estrechamente asociada al consumo de chicha), remanentes radiculares y abundantes pérdidas dentales en vida (con una mayor propensión en mujeres). Los datos de patología oral sugieren que el estatus social no condicionó el consumo diferenciado de carbohidratos y confirman el carácter extendido del hábito de coqueo en todos los grupos sociales, con un ligero predominio en individuos masculinos de estatus superior.
Se presenta el análisis zooarqueológico de los restos de guanacos (Lama guanicoe) recuperados de la ocupación Arcaica Tardía del sitio MAU085, emplazado en el valle de Mauro, Norte Semiárido chileno. Este análisis tuvo por objetivo entender la organización espacial del sitio, el cual corresponde a un campamento de cazadores-recolectores orientado al procesamiento de animales, entre otras actividades. El conjunto de análisis realizados apunta a una ocupación no estival y reiterada del sitio desde el 3.200 hasta los 2.500 años a.p., con una organización espacial relacionada a actividades de procesamiento, descarte y transporte principalmente de guanacos, junto a la confección y preparación de artefactos líticos de apropiación.
Presentamos los resultados de la investigación arqueológica de un sitio fechado hacia el Holoceno Medio en los Andes del Norte Semiárido de Chile. La escasez de este tipo de evidencias pone de relieve la importancia de dar cuenta cabal del contexto estudiado y los conjuntos ahí recuperados. Las características del sitio como una estación de tareas de tipo avistadero hacen que Techo Negro se integre de forma significativa al conjunto de información regional disponible y permite confrontarla con el actual estado de algunos modelos de ocupación que incluyen la distribución diferencial de sitios y los cambios ambientales a escala de milenios.
Este trabajo discute la secuencia de desarrollo histórico prehispánico en el Norte Semiárido de Chile a partir del estudio de las dinámicas espaciales y temporales de las ocupaciones humanas en la cuenca hidrográfica del río Limarí. A partir del estudio de asentamientos, materiales depositados en colecciones y arte rupestre se observa una secuencia de transformaciones y desarrollo desde el Arcaico Temprano hasta el período Incaico que diverge de lo tradicionalmente planteado para la región, reconociéndose ritmos de cambios sociales diferenciales dentro de la misma zona, especialmente en relación con la tradicional asociación entre incorporación de cerámica y la constitución de un modo de vida agrícola. La incorporación del arte rupestre permite articular sus características espaciales y representacionales con procesos más amplios, discutiéndose las relaciones establecidas entre dinámi- cas y cambios sociales con los flujos de información que producen las representaciones rupestres y sus respectivas audiencias.
En las últimas décadas los arqueólogos han tendido a examinar la problemática Tiwanaku fuera del núcleo altiplánico, principal- mente en términos de acceso a recursos y/o complementariedad ecológica y religiosa, entre un centro y su periferia. Sin embargo, dominados por las ideas de Estados o imperios, estas reconstrucciones adolecen de reduccionismo económico e iconográfico, en perjuicio del entendimiento de los fenómenos políticos andinos. Dentro de esta problemática, retomamos la relación entre Tiwanaku y San Pedro de Atacama a partir de un nuevo estudio de la cerámica negra pulida de los cementerios de Solcor y Coyo, en razón del carácter fundacional que Le Paige y Tarragó le imprimieron a esta alfarería para abordar el impacto altiplánico en la región. Este análisis, en conjunto con la reciente evidencia bioarqueológica obtenida por este equipo y otros, nos permiten repensar este vínculo y avanzar hacia la compresión de una realidad social mucho más dinámica, heterogénea y desigual.
Será hasta la Vuelta de Año: Bailes Chinos, Festividades y Religiosidad Popular en el Norte Chico.
Rafael Contreras Mühlenbrock y Daniel González Hernández. Primera edición. Edición Consejo Nacional de la Cultura y las Artes de Chile, Santiago, 2014
La identificación de las comunidades a partir de la organización socioespacial de su territorio es un interés clásico, pero no menos problemático de los estudios regionales en arqueología. Dentro del contexto andino, el problema es particularmente dificultoso debido a la flexibilidad de escala demográfica e identitaria del concepto vernáculo de ayllu tal como aparece en las fuentes etno- históricas y etnográficas, así como por el hecho de la paradigmática espacialidad discontinua e interdigitada del poblamiento de los territorios descritos por las mismas fuentes.
El análisis del poblamiento prehispánico tardío (siglo XI a siglo XVI d.C.) del valle del Apurímac (Cusco, Perú) es una oportunidad para contribuir en esta discusión a partir de informaciones inéditas referentes a la estructura territorial de las comunidades aldeanas asentadas en uno de los más profundos valles interandinos ubicado al pie de la cordillera de Vilcabamba. El estudio combina análisis espacial, ecología cultural, arqueología del paisaje y analogía etnográfica para proponer una lectura multifactorial y multiescalar de los patrones de asentamiento prehispánicos. A escala local, el estudio pone en evidencia un tipo de red de asentamientos re- currente que podría corresponder al esquema socioespacial de comunidad aldeana. A escala regional, el estudio muestra, desde una perspectiva bottom-up, la heterogeneidad del poblamiento del valle, el mismo que ilustra la compleja situación geopolítica expresada por las fuentes etnohistóricas sobre este espacio territorial intermedio vecino al corazón del Tawantinsuyu. Desde el punto de vista teórico, los datos permiten desarrollar una reflexión acerca de los fundamentos territoriales de las comunidades aldeanas prehispánicas tardías.
Los estudios sobre la presencia de límites sociales o de diferentes sociedades y poblaciones en el humedal del Paraná inferior (Argentina) fueron siempre inferidos a partir de la base material del registro arqueológico, ya sea por diferencias estilísticas o bien por la presencia/ausencia de ciertas características arqueológicas materiales. El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo complementar dichos estudios mediante el análisis de rasgos epigenéticos craneofaciales. Para esto se analizaron 39 indivi- duos provenientes, por un lado, del norte y sur del Paraná Guazú y, por el otro, de los subsectores ambientales denominados Planicies inundables y Delta inferior. Los resultados obtenidos muestran diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre estas dos últimas unidades ambientales, dadas por la presencia de la foramina infraorbital múltiple y del hueso wormiano epiptérico entre los individuos de Planicies inundables y su completa ausencia entre aquellos del Delta inferior. Estos resultados, si bien preliminares, son un gran avance para la arqueología regional, ya que es la primera vez que la existencia de diferencias bio- lógicas puede ser interpretada como la coexistencia de diferentes sociedades a través de análisis que exceden la comparación intrarregional de la variabilidad artefactual.
La presente investigación explora el grado de estrés sistémico al que estaban sometidas las poblaciones de San Pedro de Atacama durante los períodos Medio e Intermedio Tardío mediante el análisis de cortisol en el cabello de restos humanos de estos períodos. Los niveles similares de cortisol encontrados en los individuos de San Pedro de Atacama y en individuos actuales sugieren que, si bien las condiciones ambientales y sociales de las poblaciones prehispánicas fueron muy distintas a las actuales, la población prehispánica en San Pedro de Atacama no estaba sometida a niveles de estrés sistémico mayores que la actual, posiblemente debido a la larga historia de ocupación en la región que permitió que dichas poblaciones se adaptaran a sus condiciones particulares. Los niveles de cortisol de los individuos analizados del período Medio mostraron una tendencia a ser menores que los del Intermedio Tardío, congruente con las diferencias en la calidad de vida sugeridos por marcadores osteológicos y con los cambios culturales y ambientales asociados a ambos períodos. Aunque diversos factores pueden afectar los niveles de cortisol encontrados en muestras arqueológicas, este marcador muestra el potencial para complementar los resultados obtenidos sobre las poblaciones de San Pedro de Atacama utilizando otros enfoques.
El artículo explora la vinculación entre las condiciones de vida que enfrentan los y las inmigrantes en la ciudad de Santiago, con las formas de habitar que ellos mismos despliegan en un espacio público específico: una esquina ubicada en el centro histórico y cívico de la ciudad de Santiago, en la que los migrantes concurren cotidianamente a buscar trabajo y compartir con los connacionales. Se sostiene que estas formas de vivir y habitar la esquina se vuelven modos de vivir el proyecto migratorio, en un contexto de sobre- vivencia cotidiana donde el trabajo alcanza máximos niveles de precarización. El encuentro, reconocimiento y apropiación de un lugar público posibilita el desarrollo de procesos identitarios que configuran un “nosotros” que se desarrolla a partir de procesos de diferenciación, los que a su vez revierten estigmatizaciones y reafirman posiciones de poder dentro de la propia comunidad de migrantes. De este modo se sostiene que la generación de identidades colectivas se construye a partir de las formas de habitar el lugar y de los procesos de distinción que se generan respecto de la población local y respecto de la propia comunidad de migrantes.
Este documento presenta los resultados de una etnografía escolar realizada en una escuela rural mapuche en la región de la Araucanía en Chile. La escuela se gestiona de manera autónoma por la comunidad mapuche local y busca implementar un modelo educativo vinculado a la identidad y cultura mapuche. Aunque la escuela se define como "no intercultural", la investigación encontró que funciona como una comunidad de práctica donde conviven elementos culturales mapuches y no mapuches. Esto proporciona a los estudiantes mapuches una experi
Este documento analiza las celebraciones indígenas de los mocovíes en la reducción de San Javier durante el siglo XVIII desde una perspectiva etnobotánica histórica. Las celebraciones fortalecían los lazos sociales y las alianzas políticas, pero los misioneros las veían negativamente por el consumo de bebidas fermentadas. Estas bebidas se elaboraban con especies vegetales de la región y tenían un significado cultural importante, aunque los europeos buscaban desterrar las celebraciones. El documento identifica las
Este documento analiza el desarrollo del trabajo de metales en la Araucanía entre 1550 y 1850 d.C., un período de transición entre dos tradiciones: la tradición El Vergel (prehispánica) y la Platería Mapuche (poscontacto). Usa registros arqueológicos e históricos para examinar cambios en materias primas, piezas, individuos y contextos. Propone que hubo un cambio desde el cobre al uso casi exclusivo de plata, y un cambio completo en la morfología de las piezas.
En este trabajo se presentan los resultados de una investigación sobre el asiento de mineral de Pan de Azúcar (sur de Pozuelos, Puna de Jujuy, Argentina), desarrollada en el marco de un proyecto más amplio sobre minería y metalurgia colonial en la región. Se detallan las menciones que sobre Pan de Azúcar hallamos en las fuentes escritas, las evidencias arqueológicas registradas en el campo, y los resultados de los análisis arqueométricos realizados sobre ellas. La explotación del yacimiento se habría iniciado a principios del siglo XVII y continuado de forma intermitente a lo largo de todo el período colonial, generando un poblado que no alcanzó la relevancia de otros centros mineros cercanos, pero que se destaca en el contexto del sur de Pozuelos en relación con la ocupación contemporánea, de carácter básicamente rural y sin acceso a bienes foráneos de raigambre europea.
El fracaso de los enfoques semiológicos aplicados al arte rupestre tiene su origen en el intento de atribuirle un carácter fonémico, es decir, la reducción de la expresión visual a su contenido o expresión verbal. En tanto que la mayoría de los casos rupestres el significado es inaccesible, es claro que el punto de partida debe necesariamente descansar en el significante. En el presente artículo exploramos en una nueva vía de análisis, que apela a un lenguaje intersemiótico que se nutre tanto de la semiótica como de la arqueología. Fundados en este diálogo o arqueosemiótica, consideramos aquí los estilos de arte rupestre como un sistema, como una configuración de significantes distintivos organizados en relaciones, vínculos que constituyen una estructura visual culturalmente significativa. Estas soluciones definen la arquitectura de modos de ver determinados histórica y socialmente, arreglos que distinguen a dos estilos de pintura rupestre de la región atacameña que nos sirven de casos de estudio: los estilos Confluencia (Formativo Temprano 4.000-2.400 a.p.) y Cueva Blanca (Formativo Tardío 2.400-1.600 a.p.).
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GENETIC ANALYSIS OF ARCHEOLOGICAL MAIZE FROM THE SITE OF SAN LORENZO (AZAPA, CHILE): A CONTRIBUTION TO THE PREHISPANIC MAIZE PROBLEM
1. Volumen 47, Nº 4, 2015. Páginas 565-573
Chungara, Revista de Antropología Chilena
GENETIC ANALYSIS OF ARCHEOLOGICAL MAIZE FROM
THE SITE OF SAN LORENZO (AZAPA, CHILE):
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE PREHISPANIC MAIZE PROBLEM
ANÁLISIS GENÉTICO DE MAÍCES ARQUEOLÓGICOS
DEL SITIO SAN LORENZO (AZAPA, CHILE): UN APORTE A
LA PROBLEMÁTICA DEL MAÍZ PREHISPÁNICO
Wilson Huanca-Mamani1*, Iván Muñoz2, Delia Laime3 and Elizabeth Bastías1
We report the first genetic analysis of archeological maize specimens from the site of San Lorenzo (1,500-700 BP) (Azapa valley,
Arica, Chile).Ancient DNA was successfully isolated from 11 archeological maize grains. The Alcohol dehydrogenase 2 (Adh2) gene
was analyzed because it has a highly variable region due to the presence of a microsatellite region around -28 to -8, which consists
of GA repeats that may be present in three types GAn, GAnTA and GA1AA1GAn, which is used as an informative region of the
routes of initial dispersion of maize. Five Adh2 alleles were obtained and the alignment of these sequences according to the variable
region revealed the presence of the three types of GA repeated. Our results do not provide sufficient evidence to reject any maize
spread model proposed. This is the first report focused on genetic analysis of maize associated with an archeological site in Chile.
Key words: Ancient DNA (aDNA), archeological maize, San Lorenzo, northern of Chile.
Este trabajo reporta el primer análisis genético de maíces arqueológicos del sitio San Lorenzo (1.500-700 BP) (Valle de Azapa,
Arica, Chile). Se aisló de forma exitosa el ADN antiguo de 11 granos de maíces arqueológicos. Se analizó el gen de la Alcohol
dehydrogenase 2 (Adh2), debido a que posee una región altamente variable por la presencia de un microsatélite entre el -28 y -8,
la que consiste de un repetido de GA que puede estar presente en tres tipos; GAn, GAnTA y GA1AA1GAn, esta es utilizada como
una región informativa de la ruta inicial de la dispersión del maíz. Se obtuvieron cinco alelos del gen Adh2 y el alineamiento de
dichas secuencias, de acuerdo con la estructura de la región variable, reveló la presencia de los tres tipos de repetido de GA.
Nuestros resultados no proveen suficientes evidencias para rechazar ningún modelo propuesto de dispersión del maíz. Este es el
primer trabajo en Chile enfocado en el análisis genético de maíces procededentes de contextos arqueológicos.
Palabras claves: ADN antiguo (ADNa), maíz arqueológico, San Lorenzo, norte de Chile.
1 Departamento de Producción Agrícola, Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica, Chile.
* Corresponding author: whuanca@uta.cl; ebastias@uta.cl
2 Departamento de Antropología, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales y Jurídicas, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica, Chile.
imunoz@uta.cl
3 Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica, Chile. dlaime@uta.cl.
Recibido: mayo 2014. Aceptado: septiembre 2015.
Maize (Zea mays ssp. L. mays) is a principal
domesticated crop of the Americas, originated
from one or more varieties of teosinte.Although its
origin in Mesoamerica has been established, its time
of arrival and trajectory of spread through South
America is still uncertain (Benz 2001; Matzuoka et al.
2002a; Lia et al. 2007; Staller and Thompson 2002).
According to the archeological record maize was
present in Central America around 6,250 years BP
(Benz 2001; Piperno and Flannery 2001). However,
its presence in South America has not been clearly
established; direct archeological evidence indicates
that its presence has been estimated between 4,500
years BP (Freitas et al. 2003; Pope et al. 2001).
In South America, the spread pattern of maize
has been inferred from cytogenetic and genetic
studies with several results (McClintock et al. 1981;
Matzuoka et al. 2002a; Freitas et al. 2003; Lia et al.
2007;Babot2011;Grimaldo2011).Usingcytogenetic
studies based on the calculation of the frequencies
and distribution of chromosome components, such
as B-type chromosome, abnormal chromosome 10
and chromosome knobs, McClintock et al. (1981)
suggested that maize was initially introduced into
the central Andes and from there it spread to other
highlands and lowlands in the continent, without
being supplemented by other types of maize until
new genotypes spread along the eastern Brazilian
http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0717-73562015005000050. Publicado en línea: 15-noviembre-2015.
2. Wilson Huanca-Mamani, Iván Muñoz, Delia Laime and Elizabeth Bastías566
coast in recent times. Structural and phylogenetic
analysis based on 193 and 752 maize accessions
from eastern Canada to northern Chile using 99 and
96 microsatellites, performed by Matzuoka et al.
(2002b) and Vigouroux et al. (2008) respectively,
indicated a second model in which maize was spread
into South America via Colombia and Venezuela
and the Andes were populated from Colombia
(Vigouroux et al. 2008).
Ancient DNA (aDNA) from maize recovered
from archeological remains may play a role in our
inference of its spreading. Genetic analysis of the
short segment of Alcohol dehydrogenase 2 (Adh2)
fromprimitive landracesandpreservedmaizeremains
from eastern Brazil, Peru and northern Chile shows
the presence of three allele groups differentially
distributed within South America, supporting a
third model with two separate expansions of maize
spreading. One expansion came from highlands
Central America into the Andean region and a
second expansion along lowlands of the northeast
coast of the continent (Freitas et al. 2003).
On the Pacific side the maize cultivation reached
a large part of Chile, morphological analysis has
been performed in some of these archeological
samples; unfortunately, maize from Cabuza, a burial
site on the northern coast of Chile, has only been
analyzed genetically (Goloubinoff et al. 1993). In
Chile the earliest evidence of maize comes from
Tiliviche Site 1b, located in the Tiviliche ravine 35
km from Pacific coast (Núñez 1986).According to
Núñez and Moragas (1977), stratigraphic evidence
initially suggested that leaves and cobs of maize
were found dated around 7,850 BP and 6,060 BP
(uncalibrated), corresponding to the Piricinco coroico
complex, linked to tropical lands of eastern Bolivia
(Núñez and Moragas 1977). However this kind of
indirect dating is becoming a significant problem
because the association between the material used
for dating, such as wood charcoal, and the maize
macro remains are not always secure (Long et al.
1989). Performing direct dating through accelerated
mass spectrometry (AMS) approach on maize macro
remains from early deposits of the Tiliviche site,
Unit-2, showed that these were dated around 1,000
BP (Rivera 2006).
Currently in Chile 23 maize races have been
identified, most of them grow in the northern regions
such as Harinoso Tarapaqueño, Limeño, Chulpi,
Polulo, Capio chileno grande, Capio chileno chico,
Chutucuno, Morocho Amarillo, Negrito chileno,
Marcane and Curagua among others (Paratori
et al. 1990).
Since maize samples recovered from
archeological sites are not always well-enough
preserved for a morphological or racial identification,
ancient DNA is an important tool for understanding
the history of the domestication and spreading of
maize cultivation in South America (Lia 2007;
Schlumbaum et al. 2008).
In northern Chile there is an enormous variety
of maize landraces and several archeological sites
with maize samples directly dated up to 2,210 years
BP (Blake 2006), however there is only one genetic
study on ancient maize (Goloubinoff et al. 1993).
In this study we analyzed archeological maize
seeds associated with funerary remains from the site
of San Lorenzo (1,500-700 BP (Muñoz 2004)) and
local modern maize landraces were analyzed for
the short and highly variable region (microsatellite)
present in the Adh2 gene. The site of San Lorenzo,
in theAzapa valley (Arica, Chile), is probably first
administrative site of all northern Chile (Muñoz
2004; Muñoz and Focacci 1985). San Lorenzo
maize samples could contribute new evidence to
unravel which maize expansion model into South
America occurred.
Methods
Archeological and modern maize seed
description
Collection sites, ID, age, type of remains and
context of the individuals examined in archeological
and modern maize landraces are described inTable 1.
ThelocationofarcheologicalsiteisshowninFigure 1.
Archeological samples were dated between 1,200
-1,000 BP (Muñoz 2004). The samples correspond
to 20 maize grains found in funerary remains in San
Lorenzo site 11 (SL) located in the Azapa valley
(Arica, Chile).These grains show differences in seed
coat colors, suggesting that they come from different
types of maize (Figure 2). The modern samples
correspond to grains of local maize landrace from
the Lluta, Socoroma and Camiña valleys (Chile) and
Pachía valley (Peru) (Figures 1 and 2).
DNA analysis
The ancient DNA extraction and PCR setup were
performed in a laminar flow hood (ESCO laminar
3. 567Genetic analysis of archeological maize from the site of San Lorenzo (Azapa, Chile)…
Table 1. Maize samples used in this work.
Muestras de maíz utilizados en este trabajo.
Collection site IDa Altitude (m.a.s.l.) Age (years BP) Type of remains Contextb
Archaeologycal maize samples
San Lorenzo, Valle de Azapa, Arica, Chile SL 400 1,200-1,000 grain F
Modern maize samples
Valle de Lluta, Región de Arica y Parinacota, Chile Ll <250 – – –
Valle de Socoroma, Región de Arica y Parinacota, Chile Soc 3060 – – –
Valle de Camiña, Región de Tarapacá, Chile Cam 4124 – – –
Valle de Pachía, Departamento de Tacna, Tacna, Perú. Pa <1500 – – –
a SL, San Lorenzo sitio 11; Ll, lluteño maize; Soc, Socoroma maize: Cam, Camiña maize; Pa, Pachía maize.
b Context from which samples were recovered: F, funerary.
Figure 1. Location of the archaeological site and the valleys
where modern maize landraces were collected. ★ San Lorenzo
site-11; n Lluta valley; u Socoroma valley; Camiña valley;
¢ Pachía valley.
Ubicación del sitio arqueológico y de los valles donde las razas
de maíces modernos fueron colectados. ★ San Lorenzo sitio-11;
n Valle de Lluta; u Valle de Socoroma; Valle de Camiña;
¢ Valle de Pachía.
Figure 2. Archaeological and modern maize analyzed. A-C,
archeological grains and D-I, modern grains. A, SL-1; B SL-2;
C, SL-3; D, Socoroma-15; E, Socoroma-16; F, Socoroma-10;
G, lluteño; H, Camiña; I, Pachía.
Maíces arqueológicos y modernos analizados. A-C, granos
arqueológicos D-I, granos modernos. A, SL-1; B SL-2; C, SL-3;
D, Socoroma-15; E, Socoroma-16; F, Socoroma-10; G, lluteño;
H, Camiña; I, Pachía.
flow) in a laboratory dedicated to this purpose. All
equipment was first wiped with bleach (10%) and
then exposed to UV light for at least 1 h inside the
laminar flow hood. Stringent measures were taken
to prevent contamination with modern maize DNA.
To remove external contaminant sources of DNA,
archeological seeds were washed in 10% bleach for
5 minutes, rinsed with sterile and deionized H2O
and dried at room temperature under laminar flow
hood. The seed coat was removed using a scalpel;
following this each seed was powdered in a mortar
and placed in an Eppendorf tube. Nucleic acids
from archeological grains were extracted using
the Qiagen DNA extraction kit and Insect DNA kit
(Omega-BioTek), according to the manufacturers’
instructions with minor modifications (unpublished
results). Elution of DNA was repeated twice with
50 ml of ddH2O each time.
Nucleic acid extraction from modern
maize landraces were performed using the
4. Wilson Huanca-Mamani, Iván Muñoz, Delia Laime and Elizabeth Bastías568
cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) method
as described by Doyle and Doyle (1990).The modern
DNA was extracted in a separate laboratory.
PCR conditions
The PCR setup was performed in the same
laminar flow hood used for the aDNA extraction,
using dedicated pipettes and aerosol barrier tips.
Equipment was wiped with bleach and then the
equipment and reagent tubes were exposed to UV
light for at least 1 h before setting up the mix.
PCR reactions were performed in a final
volume of 20 ml. Each reaction contained 3 ml
of DNA extract, 10 rmoles of each Adh2 primer
(Table 2), 2.5 mM of each dNTP, 2 mM MgCl2,
1X PCR buffer ((NH4)2SO4), 5 units of Taq DNA
polymerase (Fermentas) and sterile double distilled
water. Cycling conditions were: 10 min at 94 oC;
40 cycles of 1 min at 94 oC; 1 min at 48 oC; 1 min
at 72 oC and a final elongation step of 10 min at
72 oC. PCR reactions incorporated one PCR blank
reaction for each primer. Five ml of each PCR product
was visualized on 2% agarose gels stained with
gel-red (Biotium). Reactions containing fragments
of the expected size were directly sequenced by
a commercial facility (Macrogen, South Korea);
samples SL-2.2 and SL-3.2 were re-amplified using 1
ml of the PCR reaction under the following conditions:
10 min at 94 oC; 35 cycles of 30 sec at 94 oC; 40
sec at 50 oC; 40 sec at 72 oC and final elongation
step of 2 min at 72 oC. Modern maize samples were
amplified using 200 ng of DNA andAdh2UM-long
primers under the following conditions: 5 min at
94 oC; 35 cycles of 30 sec at 94 oC; 30 sec at 55
oC; 30 sec at 72 oC and a final elongation step of
2 min at 72 oC. Reactions containing fragments
of the expected size were directly sequenced by
a commercial facility (Macrogen, South Korea).
All sequences were edited and then aligned by the
CLUSTAL W method implemented in MEGA 6
(Tamura et al. 2013).
Results
Twenty archeological maize grains from funerary
remains in San Lorenzo site were used for ancient
DNA extraction, Figure 2. Two DNA extraction
kits were used to isolate aDNA and better results
were obtained with the Bio-Tec protocol with minor
modifications (unpublished results).Ancient DNA
was successfully amplified by PCR in 11 grains,
obtaining amplicons of the expected size; these
samples were selected for direct sequencing. Good
sequences were obtained from 5. In the remaining 6
samples it was not possible to reconstruct the Adh2
fragment. DNA extracted had a low molecular weight
under 150 bp, because PCR amplification fragments
were obtained using either Adh2UM or Adh2-S2
primers, which amplify fragments of 108 and 143
bp, respectively; we did not detect PCR products
using theAdh2UM-long primer, which amplifies a
fragment of 220 bp. No PCR products were obtained
in any negative control (data not shown).
Six modern maize landraces (Figure 2) cultivated
in the Lluta, Camiña and Socoroma valleys (Chile)
and in the Pachía valley (Peru), located around the
San Lorenzo archaeological site, were analyzed by
PCR usingAdh2-S2 primers and a fragment of 143
bp was sequenced for each sample.
Short Adh2 fragments from the archeological
samples and modern landraces were aligned. A
feature of the sequence amplified is the presence of a
microsatellite region around -28 to -8, which consists
of GA repeats that may be present in three types GAn,
GAnTA and GA1AA1GAn (Goloubinoff et al. 1993;
Freitas et al. 2003). All three types of repeats were
found in the samples examined (Figure 3).
Table 2. Primers sequences and predicted product lenghts.
Secuencia de los iniciadores y longitud de los productos esperados.
Name Sequence Annealing (oC) Product lenght (bp)
Adh2-UM1 TCGTGTTCTTGGAGTGGTCCATCG 48 103
ACGCACGCACCTCTGCACTT
Adh2-S22 GCAAAAGGATTCCATTCTCGTG 48 143
CACGAAAGGTGGAGGTAGAAG
Adh2-UM-long1 TGCGAAGAAGCAGTAGCAAA 55 220
GCAGAGGGATCCAAGAACAA
1 From Grimaldo (2011).
2 This research.
5. 569Genetic analysis of archeological maize from the site of San Lorenzo (Azapa, Chile)…
Figure 3.Alignmentof11Adh2sequencesobtainedfromfivearcheologicalandsixmodernmaizesamples.Thestretchofmicrosatelliterepeatappearshighlightedinyellow.Lettersinred
correspondtopolymorphisms.
Alineamientodelas11secuenciasdeAdh2obtenidasdecincomuestrasdemaízarqueológicoyseismuestrasdemaízmoderno.Laregióndelmicrosatélitesemuestraresaltadoenamarillo.
Lasletrasencolorrojocorrespondenapolimorfismos.
6. Wilson Huanca-Mamani, Iván Muñoz, Delia Laime and Elizabeth Bastías570
Three archeological maize grains SL-1.1,
SL-2.1 and SL-3.1 presented the dinucleotide
GA repeat type GA5; one grain SL-2.2 and one
grain SL-3.2 showed the dinucleotide GA repeats
type GA1AA1GA7 and GA4TA1, respectively
(Figure 3). Additionally, archeological sequences
reveled sequence variations at a total of three single
nucleotide positions and another three positions
where it was not possible to identify the correct
nucleotide (Figure 3).
The modern maize sample from CamiñaValley
presented the GA4TA1 type dinucleotide repeat;
maize from Socoroma valley had the GA5, GA4TA1
andGA1AA1GA7 types; the maize from Lluta valley
presented the GA8 type and maize from Pachía valley
showed the GA4TA1 type (Figure 3).
Discussion
AccordingtoMuñozandFocacci(1985)consider
to settlement of San Lorenzo as a large village
who would have been an administrative center in
the lower area of Azapa Valley. This hypothesis is
due to San Lorenzo is placed in a strategic location
in the valley, its architectural features, its square,
territorial expansion, large number of venues,
perimeter walled, cemeteries and road networks
among other. These make it a nuclear space of
multiple economic and social relations. San Lorenzo
agricultural development peaked between 1,210-
1,020 BP (Muñoz 2004).
Apart from being an administrative center,
San Lorenzo was also a passage where various
goods were transported, including maize, from
the Peruvian coast (Núñez 1976). Good water
quality of the Azapa valley may have been the
principal interest for initiating maize cultivation,
for example, the Tiwanaku culture used these water
resources for fruit farming development, which
did not occur in other valleys located in the area
that have salty water.
Currently evidence suggest that maize is
grown in the coastal valleys of the Pacific,
during the Formative period, around 3,000 B P.
According to Rivera (1980) during this period is
the beginnings of peasant farming process and the
introduction of Capio maize race. During 1,400
to 1,200 BP, the maize would have constituted
the basis of the late village sedentary populations
and addition, a probable center of diversification
in meridional Andean area, from which Northern
Chile was part (Rivera 1980). These events may
have initiated the interest of San Lorenzo’s
farmers to cultivate maize in this semitropical
valley, which gave rise economic development
and the appearance of an administrative center.
According to maize cobs analysis, these were
identified as Piricinco/Coroico race (Muñoz
2004), a floury maize race widely distributed
in South America (Grobman 2013).
Ancient DNA
The recovery of DNA from archeological
maize grains from funerary remains demonstrated
good genomic DNA preservation and is quite
encouraging for future research. The results also
indicate that it is highly unlikely that any of the data
derived from contamination from external modern
maize DNA. No PCR control showed any cross
contamination. Independent replication of aDNA
analyses is suggested to ensure the quality of data
and conclusions (Cooper and Poinar 2000; Pääbo
et al. 2004), however we subscribe to the view
of Gilbert et al. (2005), in which aDNA research
should be validated using a cognitive approach.
As the PCR controls did not show evidence of any
contamination, including control re-amplification
reactions, and the samples clearly yielded maize
genomic DNA sequences, it is very unlikely that
our results derive from contamination, thus they
do not require independent validation. It was not
possible to obtain amplification products greater
than 145 bp in archeological samples, which
agrees with previous reports, because DNA in
archeological samples is generally degraded
to small sizes (Jaenicke-Després et al. 2003),
besides the amplification of alleles by amplicon
size circumvents problems caused by diagenetics
modifications when nucleotides polymorphisms are
typed in aDNA (Lia et al. 2007; Pääbo 1989). The
sizes of Adh2 fragments amplified were consistent
with the sizes previously reported (Freitas et al.
2003; Grimaldo 2011).
Threearcheologicalsamplesshowedthepresence
of the simple dinucleotide GA repeat type GA5, one
sample presented the type GA1AA1GA7 and one
sample had the type GA4TA of this microsatellite.
There was not relation between the seed coat color of
the maize grain associated to a specific microsatellite.
The three types of this GA repeat were also found in
the six modern land races analyzed. Maize from the
7. 571Genetic analysis of archeological maize from the site of San Lorenzo (Azapa, Chile)…
Lluta and Socoroma valleys had the type GAn (n=5-
8). A second maize sample from Socoroma valley
showed the type GA1AA1GA7 and maize samples
from Socoroma and Pachía valleys presented the type
GA4TA (Figure 3). In relation to Adh2 sequences,
the microsatellite analysis, suggests lightly a linking
between archeological and modern samples from the
highlands.Analysis of archeological samples from
other sites around Azapa valley will be necessary
for evaluate this linking.
Modern maize samples show differences
between lowland and highland maize. The Lluta
valley is a coastal valley, while the Pachía valley is
over 1500 m elevation; the Socoroma and Camiña
valleys are in the Andes region at around 2,000 m.
Lluteño maize has the longer dinucleotide GA repeat
type GA8, while Andean maize has the three types
GA5, GA1AA1GA7 and GA4TA1. The type GA8 is
associated mainly with samples from near the coast
(Goloubinoff 1993; Freitas et al. 2003; Grimaldo
2011). Lluteño maize presents the allele GA8 type
is similar to archeological maize from coastal Peru
(Goloubinoff 1993; Grimaldo 2011).
Adh2 and maize cultivation expansion into
South America
The three AG repeat types present in Adh2
gene described above have different distributions
within South America and have been found in
modern maize cultivars from North America. In
addition, the presence of the GAn and GAnTA
types in the teosinte varieties Z. m. mexicana and
Z. m. parviglumis suggests that the presence of
these three repeat types in South America is due
to introduction of these genotype to the highland
from Central America rather than diversification
of an ancestral genotype within South America
(Freitas et al. 2003; Goloubinoff et al. 1993). A
different view was proposed by Freitas (2003), who
suggested that two introduction events of maize
into South America occurred, one from highland
of Central America into the Andes region and a
second event along the lowlands from Central
America into lowlands of the northeast coast of
South America (Freitas et al. 2003). This model
was supported by Vigouroux et al. (2008), through
a more comprehensive study of microsatellites in
modern landraces.
The model proposed by Freitas et al. (2003) is
supported by the unequal Adh2 allele distribution
in South America. The GAn allele was identified
mainly in western sites, while the GAnTA and
GA1AA1GAn alleles were found along eastern area
of SouthAmerica. Nonetheless, in a subsequent study
analyzing a larger number of archaeological sites
in western areas Grimaldo (2011) reported a wide
distribution of all three AG repeat types, however
the type GAn was associated mainly with samples
from the western area and the types GAnTA and
GA1AA1GAn were found along eastern area of South
America. Currently, in modern maize these alleles
are widely distributed in SouthAmerica, except the
type GAn which is present at low frequency at the
eastern side of South America (Freitas et al. 2003
and Grimaldo 2011).
In our study, Adh2 gene analysis is still not
enough to assign clearly the ancient samples to a
modern variety probably the small ancient sample
size is an inevitable constraint of this kind of
studies (Lia et al. 2007) and because there is not
genetic analysis available to ensure these modern
landraces have not been affected by movement of
commercial germplasm or interbreeding between
landraces during post-Columbian period. However,
our results are pertinent and useful to establish
the implications for the maize cultivation spread
into South America. In the archeological maize
samples from the site of San Lorenzo we found
all 3 AG repeat types described for Adh2 gene.
Our results support and complement the model
proposed by McClintock (1981), in which maize
was initially introduced in the central Andes and
then spread extensively throughout the highland
and lowland areas of South America. Also, our
results are concordant with two maize expansion
model proposed by Freitas et al. (2003), which there
was mixing of genotype between east and west of
South America, the meeting ground of theses two
expansions, between the northern Chile, where the
samples under study come from and Paraguay. This
meeting ground is supported by the results of Lia
et al. (2007) forAndean origin of someArgentinean
races who, analyzing three microsatellite loci, found
that archaeological samples from Northwestern
Argentina possessed alleles specific toAndean races.
Our results do not provide sufficient evidence to
overturn any maize spread model proposed.
Archeological evidence suggests that in Chile
maize may have appeared between 7,850 and 3,000
BP, but agriculture did not become established until
1,600 BP (Núñez and Moragas 1977; Pope et al.
8. Wilson Huanca-Mamani, Iván Muñoz, Delia Laime and Elizabeth Bastías572
2001; Freitas et al. 2003). The discrepancies in the
dating to establish the presence of maize on Chile
is due to the first measurements were performed
by indirect stratigraphic approaches (Núñez
1986; Núñez and Moragas 1977; Schiappacasse
and Niemeyer 1984). Indirect dating involves a
significant problem because the association between
the material used for dating and the maize macro
remains are not always secure (Long et al. 1989).A
new chronological history should be reconfirmed
with new radiometric dating obtained directly from
maize and evaluate the stratigraphy where these
samples were found.
This is the first report focused on genetic analysis
of maize associated with an archeological site in
Chile. Due to the large number of archeological
sites in northern Chile where maize remains may
be found (Rivera 2006), these types of studies are
necessary for understanding the ancestral route of
maize cultivation in Chile.
Acknowledgments: We are especially grateful
to Claudia Grimaldo Giraldo for critical comments
on the manuscript. This research received support
from Fondecyt 11100492, Fondecyt 1130249, UTA-
Mayor 4710-13 and Convenio de Desempeño en
Educación Superior Regional UTA-1401. Finally,
we would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for
their relevants comments which were very helpful
and enhanced this work.
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