This document provides an overview of general biology topics including introductions to modern technologies, biological study tools and methods, biomolecules, cell structure and functions, reproduction, genetics and technology, animal tissue development, and human physiology. Key points covered include the structure and functions of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids as important biomolecules, as well as methods used in biological studies such as microscopes, centrifuges, and incubators.

1. General BiologyGeneral Biology
ชีววิทยาทั่วไปชีววิทยาทั่วไป
Adisri Charoenpanich, PhD
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science,
Silpakorn University
1
ดร. อดิศรี เจริญพานิช
ภาควิชาชีววิทยา คณะวิทยาศาสตร์
มหาวิทยาลัย ศิลปากร
acharoe@ncsu.edu

2. TopicsTopics
• Introductions: Today Technologies
• Tools and Method in Biological Studies
• Biomolecules
• Structure and functions of cells
• Reproduction
• Genetics and Technology
• Animal Tissue and Development
• Human Physiology
2

3. 3
http://www.burpee.com/fruit-
plants/melon/watermelon/watermelon-seedless-
big-tasty-hybrid-prod000552.html
http://waynesword.palomar.edu/hybrids1.htm
http://www.publicdomainpictures.net/view-image.php?image=6750
http://www.mpimp-golm.mpg.de/6893/1bock
http://www.interiordesigninspiration.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Hy

4. DNA FingerprintDNA Fingerprint
4
ใช้เอนไซม์ตัดจำาเพาะ (restriction
enzyme) แยกโดยขนาดที่ต่างกัน
จากการตัดได้ที่ตำาแหน่งต่างกัน
http://www.veteranstoday.com/2012/07/25/breaking-dna-news-elvis-pressley-was-
not-a-turk/dna-fingerprint/
http://www.citylabatucla.org/dnafingerp.html
http://geneed.nlm.nih.gov/topic_subtopic.php?tid=37&sid=38

5. 5
1997
Human ear on a mice, 1997 Human ear grown
on an arm, 2012

6. Bioprinting-3D printingBioprinting-3D printing
6
http://mariakonovalenko.files.wordpress.com/2010/10/bio-
printing-image.jpg
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-20972018
http://elitedaily.com/news/technology/coolest-3d-
print/
http://www.hangthebankers.com/3d-printing-join-effs-effort-to-keep-
this-game-changing-technology-alive/

7. Bioprinting – 3D printingBioprinting – 3D printing
7http://www.clemson.edu/centers-institutes/ibioe/images/research/bioprinting

8. 8
Aug 5, 2013
Cultured Beef
Cell culture = Expensive,
Antibiotics, Fetal calf serum
Colored red by adding beet juice,
why?  no blood supply
Maastricht University
Netherlands

9. 9
http://yclickit.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/vlcsnap-2013-02-12-12h01m01s86.png
Cultured Meet

10. GraftsGrafts การปลูกถ่ายการปลูกถ่าย
อวัยวะอวัยวะ
• Autografts จากผู้ป่วยเองจากส่วนอื่นในร่างกาย มา
ซ่อมแซมส่วนที่เสียหาย เช่น การใช้กระดูดซี่โครงส่วน
ปลายหรือกระดูกจากใบหู ในการศัลยกรรมใบหน้า หรือ
ผิวหนัง
• Allografts จากผู้ให้บริจาค (human donors) เช่น การปลูก
ถ่ายไต
• Xenografts จากสัตว์ เช่น ลิ้นหัวใจจากหมู วัว
• Synthetic biomaterials วัสดุสังเคราะห์ เช่น titanium bone,
การฟอกไต, pace maker
• Tissue engineering เป็นการสร้างเนื้อเยื่อขึ้นมาใหม่ โดย
10

11. Inert Graft
Bioactive Graft
(Graft + Bioactive Factors)
Synthetic Cell-Free
Approaches
Grafts
Autograft
Combination
Morbidity at donor site Immunogenicity/ Disease
Transmission/ Variable
efficiency
Allograft
Immunogenicity/ Complex
material property problems
Rejection
Tissue Engineering

12. Why Tissue Engineering?Why Tissue Engineering?
12
http://biomed.brown.edu/Courses/BI108/BI
108_2007_Groups/group12/Homepage.html
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
414/n6859/fig_tab/414118a0_F1.html

13. Stem CellsStem Cells
and Tissueand Tissue EngineeringEngineering
(เซลล์ต้นกำาเนิด และวิศวกรรมเนื้อเยื่อ)
13
http://www.theracellinc.com
/
http://blog.mediligence.com/2010/06/17/cell-therapy-tissue-engineering-and-two-means-to-one-end/

14. Stem Cells Isolation and PreservationStem Cells Isolation and Preservation
การคัดแยกและเก็บรักษาเซลล์ต้นกำาเนิดการคัดแยกและเก็บรักษาเซลล์ต้นกำาเนิด
14
http://www.genengnews.com/gen-news-highlights/fda-grants-510-k-clearance-for-
life-technologies-mesenchymal-stem-cell-medium/81244813/
http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/bbs/learning/exsitu/exsitu.htm
www.yalescientific.org

15. 15
http://midwestresearchswine.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/decellularization-organ-
comparison.gif
PERFUSION DECELLULARIZATION
The appropriate microenvironment required for the introduction of
organ specific cells, along with an intact vascular network and outer
capsule capable of maintaining physiological pressures.

16. Different Types ofDifferent Types of
Prosthetic ValvesProsthetic Valves
16
Bileaflet mechanical valveBileaflet mechanical valve
(St Jude)(St Jude)
Monoleaflet mechanical valveMonoleaflet mechanical valve
(Medtronic Hall)(Medtronic Hall)
Caged ball valve (Starr-Caged ball valve (Starr-
Edwards)Edwards)
Stented porcine bioprosthesis
(Medtronic Mosaic)
Stented pericardialStented pericardial
bioprosthesis (Carpentier-bioprosthesis (Carpentier-
Edwards Magna)Edwards Magna)
Stentless porcine bioprosthesisStentless porcine bioprosthesis
(Medtronic Freestyle)(Medtronic Freestyle)
Percutaneous bioprosthesisPercutaneous bioprosthesis
expanded over a balloonexpanded over a balloon
(Edwards Sapien);(Edwards Sapien);
Self-expandable percutaneousSelf-expandable percutaneous
bioprosthesis (CoreValve).bioprosthesis (CoreValve).
http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/119/7/1034.full

17. Engineering of Skin Tissue
17
http://www.mdbiosciences.
com/in-vitro/3d-human-
skin-equivalent-model/
Culture of Human Skin Equivalent (HSE)

18. 18
http://www.agilethinkers.com/johanna_rothman_qa/
http://blueeyednightowl.blogspot.com/2011/07/q.html

19. Tools and Methods in Biological StudiesTools and Methods in Biological Studies
19http://apps.pathology.jhu.edu/blogs/pathology/tissue-microarrays
http://www.genscript.com/images/Figure1-IP.jpg?src=dm
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/picture-
galleries/7397841/Creepy-crawlies-Amazing-
Scanning-Electron-Microscope-pictures-of-insects-
and-spiders.html
http://fineartamerica.com/featured/1-hacat-
culture-cells-light-micrograph-dr-torsten-
wittmann.html
http://www.gala-instrumente.de/images/deben_CCD_Cilia.jpghttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/php.2012.88.issue-4/issuetoc

20. Light MicroscopeLight Microscope
20
http://www.olympusmicro.com/primer/techniques/polarized/polmicroalignment.html
http://sligoschneider.files.wordpress.com/2011/09/elodia_cells_0011.jpg
http://microanatomy.net/bone/intramembranous_bone_development.htm

21. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.21

22. Copyright © The McGraw-
Hill Companies, Inc.
22

23. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.23

24. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.
24

25. Copyright © The McGraw-
Hill Companies, Inc.
25

26. 26

27. Phase-contrast microscopePhase-contrast microscope
27
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cho_cells_adherend2.jpg

28. Laminar flow hood

29. Incubator

30. Microcentrifuge

31. Vortex

32. Water bath

33. Centrifuge

34. เครื่องมือเครื่องมือ
Digital scale

35. เครื่องมือเครื่องมือ
Hot air oven

36. Historically biochemists would reduce a protein to its
most simple structure..
1. Isolate, fractionate tissue
2. Purify, column chromatography
3. Reduce large protein to smaller fragments by
attacking the protein with chemicals or enzymes
that would cleave at specific regions
4. Analyze, chromatography, gel electrophoresis,
amino acid analysis, peptide separations, sequence
analysis

44. 44

46. 46
http://www.rsc.org/ejga/NR/2010/c0nr00322k-
ga.gif

47. 47
BiomoleculesBiomolecules ชีวโมเลกุลชีวโมเลกุล
http://nanomedicine.ucsd.edu/research/tissue-engineering

48. BiomoleculesBiomolecules ชีวโมเลกุลชีวโมเลกุล
• Organic สารอินทรีย์ / Inorganic สารอนินทรีย์
• สารอนินทรีย์ = นำ้า และ แร่ธาตุ
• สารอินทรีย์ = มี คาร์บอน และ ไฮโดรเจน เป็น
องค์ประกอบสำาคัญ
o Carbohydrate คาร์โบไฮเดรต เช่น นำ้าตาล
แป้ง
o Protein โปรตีน เช่น กรดอะมิโน คอลลาเจน
เอนไซม์
o Lipid ไขมัน ได้แก่ Fat, Oils, Phospholipids,
Steroids, Waxes
o Nucleic acid กรดนิวคลีอีก ATP, DNA, RNA 48

49. Inorganic VS Organic MoleculesInorganic VS Organic Molecules
49
http://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/359/flashcards/551359/jpg/inorganic_versus_organic_molecules1306681267242.jpg

50. BiomoleculesBiomolecules
50
From Carbon atom (4 electron at the outer valence shell = 4 bonds
with H, N, O, P, S or C itself… to make stable)
http://d1jqu7g1y74ds1.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/c-atom_e.gif
http://bilingualbiology11a.blogspot.com/2010/09/lesson-2-chemistry-of-life-organic.html

51. Functional GroupsFunctional Groups
51
http://guweb2.gonzaga.edu/faculty/cronk/CHEM198pub/L11-index.cfm?L11resource=functional_groups

52. CarbohydrateCarbohydrate
52
• แหล่งพลังงาน เช่น นำ้าตาล แป้ง ไกลโคเจนแหล่งพลังงาน เช่น นำ้าตาล แป้ง ไกลโคเจน
• โครงสร้างเซลล์ เช่น เซลลูโลสในผนังเซลล์พืชโครงสร้างเซลล์ เช่น เซลลูโลสในผนังเซลล์พืช,, ไคตินไคติน
ในกระดองปู หรือ เปปทิโดไกลแคนในกระดองปู หรือ เปปทิโดไกลแคน (peptidoglycan)(peptidoglycan)
ในผนังเซลล์ของแบคทีเรียในผนังเซลล์ของแบคทีเรีย
• องค์ประกอบหลัก คือ คาร์บอนองค์ประกอบหลัก คือ คาร์บอน,, ไฮโดรเจนไฮโดรเจน,, และและ
ออกซิเจนออกซิเจน
• อัตราส่วนของอัตราส่วนของ C:H:OC:H:O ส่วนใหญ่เป็นส่วนใหญ่เป็น 1:2:11:2:1
• Monosaccharide, Disaccharide, PolysaccharidesMonosaccharide, Disaccharide, Polysaccharides
http://cnx.org/content/m46008/latest/?collection=col11540/latest

53. CarbohydrateCarbohydrate
53
Monosaccharide, Disaccharide, PolysaccharidesMonosaccharide, Disaccharide, Polysaccharides
http://cnx.org/content/m46008/latest/?collection=col11540/latest

54. ProteinProtein
C, H, O, N plus S, PC, H, O, N plus S, P
• ประกอบด้วยกรดอะมิโน
• เซลล์ทั่วไป มีโปรตีนเป็นองค์ประกอบมากกว่า 50%
ของนำ้าหนักแห้ง
• โครงร่างและคำ้าจุน keratin, collagen
• เอนไซม์ ควบคุมการทำางานของร่างกาย เช่น
phosphatase, insulin, hemoglobin
• Peptide bond เกิดจาก dehydration ของ หมู่
carboxyl กับหมู่ amiono
http://www.clinicares.com/clinical_data.hthttp://www.whitetigernaturalmedicine.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/amino-acid-
structure.jpg

55. ProteinProtein
Shape and StructureShape and Structure
• Primary Structure: Polypeptide ที่เรียงตัวต่อกัน
ลำาดับตามที่ถอดรหัสจากพันธุกรรม
• Secondary Structure: มีการขดเกลียว (alpha
helix) หรือพับไปมาเป็นจีบ (Beta pleated sheet)
• Tertiary structure: โครงสร้างสามมิติที่เกิดจากพันธะ
ต่างๆ
• (H-bond, ionic, covalent, disulfide)
หรือhydrophobic interaction ของ R-group ใน
กรดอะมิโน
• Quaternary structure ประกอบด้วยมากกว่า หนึ่ง

56. ProteinProtein
56
Amino Acid, Polypeptide, Enzyme, HemoglobinAmino Acid, Polypeptide, Enzyme, Hemoglobin
http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-iii/cellular-
macromolecules/proteins.php
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/the-basics-of-general-organic-and-biological-
chemistry/section_21.html
http://themedicalbiochemistrypage.org/protein-structure.php

57. Protein: CollagenProtein: Collagen
http://www.1234yourhealth.com/collagen_body.php

58. LipidLipid• มีมี C, H, OC, H, O เหมือน คาร์โบไฮเดรต แต่อัตราส่วนของเหมือน คาร์โบไฮเดรต แต่อัตราส่วนของ
ธาตุและคุณสมบัติต่างกันธาตุและคุณสมบัติต่างกัน
• ไม่ละลายนำ้า แต่ละลายได้ดีในตัวทำาละลายอื่นไม่ละลายนำ้า แต่ละลายได้ดีในตัวทำาละลายอื่น
• Fat, Oils, Phospholipids, Steroids, WaxesFat, Oils, Phospholipids, Steroids, Waxes
http://www.yumsugar.com/Burning-Question-How-Come-Recipes-Call-Oil-Butter-7124992
http://stilettosontheglassceiling.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/good-fat.jpg

59. Fat and OilsFat and Oils
http://www.citycollegiate.com/biochemistry5.htm
• ประกอบด้วย กรดไขมันและ
กลีเซอรัล (fatty acid +
glycerol)
• สายไฮโดรคาร์บอน ที่มี –
COOH (carboxyl group)
อยู่ที่ปลายสุดของโมเลกุล
• กรดไขมันอิ่มตัว
(saturated fatty acid)
• กรดไขมันไม่อิ่มตัว
(unsaturated fatty acid)

60. PhospholipidsPhospholipids
http://www.shmoop.com/biomolecules/lipids.html
• องค์ประกอบหลักของเยื่อหุ้ม
เซลล์ (plasma membrane)
• มีหมู่ฟอสเฟต เข้ามาแทนที่
กรดไขมันโมเลกุลหนึ่ง ทำาให้
โมเลกุลมีขั้ว
• Polar head และ
non-polar tale

61. SteroidsSteroids
http://www.web-books.com/MoBio/Free/Ch1B3.htm
• โครงสร้างต่างจาก lipid
ชนิดอื่น
• องค์ประกอบหลักคือ 4
cycloalkane rings ที่
เชื่อมต่อกัน
• เช่น cholesterol,
testosterone, estrogen

62. WaxesWaxes
• สายยาวของกรดไขมันจับ
กับสายยาวของแอลกอฮอล์
• เป็นของแข็งที่อุณหภูมิปกติ
ไม่ละลายนำ้า
http://www.candles.org/elements_wax.ht
ml
http://www.sweetbeez.org/blog.htm
l
http://www.jojobanaturals.com/images/im_chemistry3_b.jpg
http://thatsortofthing.blogspot.com/2012/08/be
e-week-wax-bees-in-art.html

63. Nucleic AcidNucleic Acid
63
RNA DNA
ATP:
Adenosine triphosphate
Ribonucleic acid Deoxyribonucleic acid

64. 64

65. 65http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/GG/dna_molecule.php

66. CellsCells
66
http://sligoschneider.files.wordpress.com/2011/09/elodia_cells_0011.jpg
http://itshumour.blogspot.com/2010/07/cells-under-electron-microscope.html
http://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/jan/28/stem-cell-
scientists-rebuild-hearts

67. Examples of human cells: Variations in shapes and sizes
http://iesbscience.files.wordpress.com/2013
/04/blood-cells.jpg
http://www.theoslotimes.com/not-all-sperm-are-able-to-successfully-fertilise-an-egg-
but-protein-could-give-ivf-couples-hope/
http://images.sciencedaily.com/2007/05/0705200
91842-large.jpg
Red Blood cell
Nerve
cell
Sperm and
egg

68. Eukaryotes vs.Eukaryotes vs.
ProkaryotesProkaryotes
• Eukaryotes (animals,
plants, fungi, protists) and
prokaryotes (bacteria)
differ greatly in structure.

69. Examples ofExamples of
Unicellular OrganismsUnicellular Organisms
• Amoeba
• Bacteria
• Some algae
• Yeasts
• Paramecium
http://www.microscopy-
uk.org.uk/mag/imgsep01/amoebaproteus450.j
pg
http://cdn.thedoctorschannel.com/wp-
content/uploads/2013/12/Bacteria-1.jpg
http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/images/9/9a
/Saccromyces.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/thumb/c
/cb/Paramecium.jpg/610px-
Paramecium.jpg
http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB4/PCD2851/C/11.jpg

70. MulticellularMulticellular
OrganismsOrganisms
http://jonlieffmd.com/wp-
content/uploads/2013/11/plants-1.jpg
http://www.hdpaperwall.com/wp-
content/uploads/2013/11/japanese_white_eyed_birds-1920x1200-660x330.jpg
http://www.afranko.com/wp-
content/uploads/2013/11/aee9bb382b8847123fc9e5fb6ff272f53.jp
g
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thu
mb/7/77/Puffer_Fish_DSC01257.JPG/701px-
Puffer_Fish_DSC01257.JPG
http://wallike.com/growing-plant.html

71. • http://www.geologycafe.com/images/surface_area.jpg

72. Surface area increases while
total volume remains constant
5
1
1
Total surface area
(height × width ×
number of sides ×
number of boxes)
Total volume
(height × width × length
× number of boxes)
Surface-to-volume
ratio
(surface area ÷ volume)
6
1
6
150
125
1.2
750
125
6
Surface-to-
volume ratio
(6:1) (1.2:1) (6:1)
is set by the logistics required to carry out m

73. Smaller size of cellSmaller size of cell
 increase surface areaincrease surface area
• What is the surface of cells?
*** Cell membrane***
What would be the function of cell membrane?
*Selective Barrier* allow only selected molecules to
move across (in or out)

74. Unicellular usuallyUnicellular usually
lives in lake, sea, orlives in lake, sea, or
river.river.
Why????
What is the common
feature of these places?

75. Water, a major substanceWater, a major substance
in living organismin living organism
• Stay in water- some unicellular organism
• Exchange water with environment
• Protect body from water lost
. ( skin, mucus, hard shell, wax)

76. DiffusionDiffusion
• Movement of the molecules from the region of a
high concentration to the region of a lower
concentration.
http://cellspd5spering.wikispaces.com/file/view/diffusion.gif/45870401/diffusion.gif

77. DiffusionDiffusion
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Blausen_0315_Diff
usion.png

78. Diffusion for nutrition/gasDiffusion for nutrition/gas
exchangesexchanges
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-8vhPOBiovaY/UJaais2IeUI/AAAAAAAAAAk/cnj_uolsh3c/s1600/Screen+shot+2012-11-

79. 2007-2008
The Special Case ofThe Special Case of
WaterWater
Movement of waterMovement of water
acrossacross
the cell membranethe cell membrane

80. OsmosisOsmosis
• Net movement of water molecules across
semipermeable membrane
• From higher water potential to lower water
potential
http://estebanwhitmore.wordpress.com/2010/07/27/learning-by-osmosis/

81. • Hypotonic Solution –lower conc. solution (more water
conc.)
• Isotonic Solution - same
• Hypertonic Solution -higher
http://leavingbio.net/OSMOSIS%20AND%20DIFFUSION_files/image009.jpg

82. 82
Cytolysis & PlasmolysisCytolysis & Plasmolysis
Cytolysis Plasmolysis
copyright cmassengale

83. Water lossWater loss
https://www.dmt-nexus.me/forum/default.aspx?
g=posts&m=415268

84. Egg OsmosisEgg Osmosis
• One of the cup has
syrup another one
has water. Can you
match them with
the egg?

85. Cells and Cell StructureCells and Cell Structure
85
เซลล์เซลล์
สัตว์สัตว์ แบคทีเรีแบคทีเรี
ยย
http://zeroinfections.blogspot.com/2012/07/cellular-
structure-of-bacteria.html

86. ส่วนประกอบพื้นฐานของเซลล์
(Basic features of all cells)
- Plasma membrane
- Semifluid substance
called the cytosol
- Genetic material
- Ribosomes

87. Cell membraneCell membrane เยื่อหุ้มเยื่อหุ้ม
เซลล์เซลล์
87
http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/lab-
rat/files/2013/01/CellMembraneDrawing.jpg
Phospholipid Bilayers : Selective MembranesPhospholipid Bilayers : Selective Membranes เยื่อเลือกเยื่อเลือก
ผ่านผ่าน

88. 88
NucleusNucleus นิวเคลียสนิวเคลียส ,,
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/nucleus/nucleus.h
tml
นิวเคลียส:
ศูนย์กลางของ
เซลล์ เป็นที่
เก็บสาร
พันธุกรรม
(DNA)
ER :

89. Golgi ApparatusGolgi Apparatus
89
http://www.mitochondrialdnatesting.com/mitochondrial-dna.html
มีโครงสร้างเป็นถุงเมมเบรน
ซ้อนกัน เพื่อนำาส่งสารต่อจาก
Rough ER ออก นอกเซลล์

90. Endoplasmic reticulum
: เป็นออร์กาเนลล์ที่มีเยื่อหุ้มบาง 2
มีลักษณะเป็นถุงแบนหรือเป็นท่อข
ไปมาเป็นโครงข่าย
: เชื่อมต่อถึงกันกับ nuclear enve
: มีทั้งชนิด
Rough ER (RER)
Smooth ER (SER)
: เกี่ยวข้องกับการสังเคราะห์และ
ลำาเลียงสาร (เช่น โปรตีน และไขม
ไปสู่ที่ต่างๆ ภายในและภายนอกเซpytreeflash.com/campbell-chpter-12-tour-of-the-cell

91. Rough ER (RER) : เกี่ยวข้องกับ*
1. การสังเคราะห์โปรตีนบางชนิด
2. การเปลี่ยนแปลงโปรตีนที่สังเค
เสร็จ
3. การลำาเลียงสาร (เช่น โปรตีน
ไขมัน)ไปสู่ที่ต่างๆ ภายในและภายนอ
(* ขึ้นกับชนิด

92. Smooth ER (SER) : เกี่ยวข้องกับ*
1. metabolism ของคาร์โบไฮเดร
2. สังเคราะห์ไขมัน (เช่น phosph
steroids)
3. การกำาจัดสารพิษ
(* ขึ้นกับชนิด
ของเซลล์)
The main SER tasks
include synthesis of
lipids, maintenance of
calcium homeostasis and
detoxification reactions
necessary for the
conversion of harmful
water-insoluble
substances into water-

93. cis face
(“receiving” side of
Golgi apparatus)
Vesicles move
from ER to GolgiVesicles also
transport certain
proteins back to ER
Vesicles coalesce to
form new cis Golgi cisternae
Cisternal
maturation:
Golgi cisternae
move in a cis-
to-trans
direction
Vesicles form and
leave Golgi, carrying
specific proteins to
other locations or to
the plasma mem-
brane for secretionVesicles transport specific
proteins backward to newer
Golgi cisternae
Cisternae
trans face
(“shipping” side of
Golgi apparatus)
0.1 0 µm1
6
5
2
3
4
Golgi apparatus: organelle actives in
modification, sorting, secretion of cell
products and manufactures
polysaccharides secreted by cell (pectin,
hyaluronic acid)
: มีลักษณะเป็นถุงเยื่อหุ้มแบน
หลายถุง (cisternae)
เรียงซ้อนกัน
w.biologyjunction.com/06-%20Cell%20text.ppt#295,16
: เซลล์ที่สร้างสารหลั่ง จะมี Golgi apparatu

94. Lysosome : digestive organelle where
macromolecules are hydrolyzed
: เป็นออร์กาเนลล์ที่มีเมมเบรน 1 ชั้น ส่วนใหญ่
พบในเซลล์สัตว์
: ภายในมีเอนไซม์หลายชนิด เช่น lipases,
nucleases และ proteases เป็นต้น
: เป็นถุงเมมเบรนที่หลุดจาก tran face ของ
Golgi apparatus
//www.pleasanton.k12.ca.uhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ekdIEpSf-1I

95. : เกี่ยวข้องกับการย่อยสารต่างๆ
ทั้งภายในและภายนอกเซลล์

96. ความสัมพันธ์ระหว่าง organelle ต่างๆ
ใน endomembrane system ที่ประกอบ
ด้วย nuclear envelope, ER, Golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles และ
plasma membrane

97. MitochondriaMitochondria ไมโทคอนเดไมโทคอนเด
รียรีย
97
Energy Source แหล่งสร้าง
พลังงานMitochondrial DNA or mtDNA about
16,500 DNA building blocks (base pairs)
Mitochondrial DNA contains 37 genes, all
of which are essential for normal
mitochondrial function, instructions for
making enzymes involved in oxidative
phosphorylation,making molecules called
transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA
(rRNA).
Mitochondrial genes are among the
estimated 20,000 to 25,000 total genes in
the human genome.

98. เกี่ยวข้องกับ
กระบวนการหายใจระดับ
เซลล์ (cellular
respiration)
1. บริเวณ cristae ของ
เยื่อหุ้มชั้นในมี เอ็นไซม์ที่
เกี่ยวข้องกับ electron
transport chain และ การ
สังเคราะห์ ATP
2. ใน matrix มีเอ็นไซม์ที่
เกี่ยวข้องกับ Kreb’s cycle

99. Chloroplast : photosynthetic organelle;
converts energy of sunlight to
chemical energy stored in sugar molecules
: รูปร่างกลมรี มีเมมเบรน 2 ชั้น เมมเบรนชั้นใน
ยื่นเข้าไปเป็นถุงแบนๆ เรียก
thylakoid
เรียงซ้อนเป็นตั้งเรียก grana เกี่ยวข้องกับ
การ
สังเคราะห์ด้วยแสงแบบ light reaction
w.biologyjunction.com/06-%20Cell%20text.ppt#295,16
Chloroplast
Chloroplast
DNA
Ribosomes
Stroma
Inner and outer
membranes
Thylakoid
1 µm
Granum

100. Ribosome
: nonmembranous organelle ที่ประกอบด้วย
หน่วยย่อย (subunit) 2 หน่วย
pytreeflash.com/campbell-chpter-12-tour-of-the-cell

101. 1. free ribosomes ทำำหน้ำที่สร้ำงโปรตีนที่
ใช้ใน cytosol
2. bound ribosomes เป็น ribosome ที่
เกำะอยู่ด้ำนผิวนอกของ ER ทำำหน้ำที่สร้ำงโปรตีน
ที่จะถูกส่งไปรวมกับ organelles อื่นๆ และโปรตีน
ที่จะถูกส่งออกไปใช้นอกเซลล์
: เกี่ยวข้องกับกำรสังเครำะห์โปรตีน พบเป็นอิสระ
ในไซโทพลำซึม (free ribosomes)
หรือติดอยู่กับ ER ชนิด RER (bound ribosomes)

102. Peroxisomes : ลักษณะเป็นถุงกลมหรือรูปไข่มี
เยื่อหุ้ม 1 ชั้น ภำยในมีเอนไซม์หลำยชนิด เช่น
oxidase และ catalase เป็นต้น
Chloroplast
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion
1 µm
: มีเอ็นไซม์ที่ทำำหน้ำที่เกี่ยวข้องกับกำรสร้ำงหรือ
ทำำลำย hydrogen peroxide (H2
O2
)
RH2
+ O2
oxidase
R + H2
O2
2H2
O2
catalase
2H2
O + O2

103. Cytoskeleton : reinforces cell’s shape,
function in cell movement;
components are made of proteins
Microtubule : มีลักษณะ
เป็นท่อกลวงยำว
เกิดจำกกำรจับกันของ
tubulin subunit
(α: β subunit)
Microfilament
: หรือ actin filament
ประกอบขึ้น
ด้วยโปรตีน actin
(globular
protein)
ที่จับกันเป็นสำยยำว 2
Intermediate
filament
: เป็นเส้นใยบำงๆ มี
ขนำดอยู่ระหว่ำง
microtubule และ
microfilament
: มีหลำยชนิดแตก http://www.noble.or

105. Microtubule
0.25 µm Microfilaments
Intermediate filament

106. Diagram comparing the morphologic effects of
strongylophorine-26 with those of other inhibitors of
cell motility and angiogenesis. A, migrating cells with a
lamellipodium extending in the direction of cell
migration, focal adhesions, a meshwork of
lamellipodial actin filaments and actin stress fibers. B,
dihydromotuporamine C and several inhibitors of cell
motility and angiogenesis disrupt cell polarity and
prevent cell migration by stabilizing focal adhesions
and actin stress fibers (14, 15). C, strongylophorine-26
disrupts cell polarity and prevents cell migration by
stabilizing focal adhesions and inducing the formation
of radial protrusions resembling lamellipodia that
contain a dense meshwork of peripheral actin filaments
and few stress fibers.
http://mct.aacrjournals.org/content/4/5/772/F6.expansion
Vinculin Containing Focal Adhesions and
Actin Stress Fibers in a Fibroblast-like Cell
The picture shows vinculin (green)
containing focal adhesions and actin stress
fibers (red) in a fibroblast like cell
http://www.pediatrics.wisc.edu/research/research-
groups/huttenlocher/

107. : Microfilaments that function in cellular motility
oMuscle contraction
Actin filament
Myosin filament
Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction.(a)
Muscle cell
Myosin arm
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zQocsLRm7_A&feature=fvwrel

108. - Cytoplasmic streaming
Nonmoving
cytoplasm (gel)
Chloroplast
Streaming
cytoplasm
(sol)
Parallel actin
filaments
Cell wall
(b) Cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells
/www.youtube.com/watch?v=9gfP-_frDUk&feature=

109. - Amoeboid movement
(actin and myosin filaments)
Cortex (outer cytoplasm):
gel with actin network
Inner cytoplasm: sol
with actin subunits
Extending
pseudopodium
(b) Amoeboid movement
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7pR7TNzJ_pA

110. ออร์กำเนลล์หรือโครงสร้ำงที่เกิดจำกกำร
จัดเรียงตัวของ microtubule
ww.google.co.th/imglanding?q=centriole&imgurl
triole เป็นออร์กำเนลล์ที่ไม่มีเยื่อหุ้ม
ประกอบด้วยกลุ่มของ microtubule 9 ชุด
มำจัดเรียงเป็นวงกลมแบบ 9+0

111. agella มีโครงสร้ำงคล้ำยกัน (ต่ำงกันที่จำำนวน ควำมยำว
กอบด้วยกลุ่มของ microtubule 9 ชุด มำจัดเรียงเป็นวงก
crotubule อีก 2 อัน (9+2)
www.bothbrainsandbeauty.com/acad...ella

112. • Flagella beating pattern
(a) Motion of flagella. A flagellum
usually undulates, its snakelike
motion driving a cell in the same
direction as the axis of the
flagellum. Propulsion of a human
sperm cell is an example of
flagellatelocomotion (LM).
1 µm
Direction of swimming
(b) Motion of cilia. Cilia have a back-
and-forth motion that moves the
cell in a direction perpendicular
to the axis of the cilium. A dense
nap of cilia, beating at a rate of
about 40 to 60 strokes a second,
covers this Colpidium, a
freshwater protozoan (SEM).

113. • Primary Cilia as cell’s attenna
Veena Singla, et al., Science 313, 629 (2006);

114. Central
vacuole
of cell
Plasma
membrane
Secondary
cell wall
Primary
cell wall
Middle
lamella
1 µm
Central
vacuole
of cell
Central vacuole
Cytosol
Plasma membrane
Plant cell walls
Plasmodesmata
ละ Cell coat
ซลล์พืช: ประกอบด้วยเซลลูโลส (cellulose) เป็นส่วนใหญ
lamella
)
y cell wall
ose + hemicellulose)
ary cell wall
ose + lignin)
ซลล์ของรำและ ยีสต์: ประกอบด้วย cellulose และ chitin
ซลล์ของสำหร่ำย: ประกอบด้วย cellulose และ siliga

115. 115
er and Hausman, 2007
เซลล์สัตว์ไม่มี cell wall แต่มีสำรที่ถูกสร้ำง
ออกมำอยู่ด้ำนนอกของเยื่อหุ้มเซลล์ เรียกว่ำ
extracellular matrix พบว่ำองค์ประกอบและ
โครงสร้ำงของ ECM จะแตกต่ำงกันในเซลล์
แต่ละชนิด
Cell coat หรือ Extracellular matrix
(ECM) ของเซลล์สัตว์

116. Glycocalyx: ประกอบด้วย glycoprotein
(collagen, fibronectin, proteoglycans)
Collagen
Fibronectin
Plasma
membrane
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
Micro-
filaments
CYTOPLASM
Integrins
Polysaccharide
molecule
Carbo-
hydrates
Proteoglycan
molecule
Core
protein
Integrin
A proteoglycan
complex
http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/18/1
หน้ำที่: จดจำำเซลล์ที่อยู่ชิดกัน
และยึดเซลล์ให้ติดกัน
1. Collagen fiber ฝังตัวอยู่ในร่ำงแหของ
proteoglycans ซึ่งประกอบด้วยคำร์โบไฮเดรต 95 %
2. Fibronectin เป็น glycoprotein ที่เกำะอยู่กับ
receptor protein ที่อยู่ที่เยื่อหุ้มเซลล์ (integrin)
3. Integrin จะเชื่อมโยงระหว่ำง ECM กับ

117. RGD peptides (Arg-Gly-Asp)
The RGD ( L-arginine, glycine, and L-aspartic acid) tripeptide motif can be found in extracellular
matrix (ECM) proteins such as fibronectin, fibrinogen, prothrombin, tenascin, thrombospondin,
vitronectin, von Willebrand factor, Adenovirus penton base protein, bone sialoprotein, collagen,
decorsin, disintegrins. The exposed RGD motif constitutes a major recognition site for integrin
binding. Integrin, a transmembrane heterodimeric protein, is an adhesion protein consisting of an
alpha and a beta subunit.
http://www.anaspec.com/products/promotions.asp?id=67&col=2&row=2

118. The use of RGD peptides (Arg-Gly-Asp) for drug delivery

119. 13. Cell junction
13.1 Animal cells:
Tight junctions
Desmosomes
Gap junctions
1.1 Adhering junction : Tight junctions และ Desmo
1.2 Communicating junction: Gap junctions

120. Animal
cells:
TIGHT JUNCTIONS
ยึดเซลล์และอุดรอยต่อระหว่ำง
เซลล์ กั้นไม่ให้สำรผ่ำนระหว่ำง
เซลล์ พบภำยในลำำไส้ เยื่อบุท่อไต
และกระเพำะปัสสำวะDESMOSOMES
เชื่อมเยื่อหุ้มเพื่อให้เกิดควำมแข็ง
แรง มีเส้นใยยึดติดอยู่ พบใน
เซลล์เนื้อเยื่อทุกชนิด
GAP JUNCTIONS
เป็นช่องติดต่อระหว่ำงเซลล์ โดยมี
ควำมกว้ำงประมำณ 20 Ao
บริเวณ
นี้เป็นที่ให้โมเลกุลของสำรต่ำงๆที่มี
ขนำดเล็กผ่ำนไปมำได้ พบได้ใน
skin epithelium, endocrine gla
nds, smooth muscle, cardiac m

121. 121
13.2 Plant cell: Communicating
junctions
Plasmodesmata : มีลักษณะเป็นช่องกว้ำง
ประมำณ 20-200 nm
: เป็นช่องที่เชื่อมต่อระหว่ำงไซ
โทพลำซึมของเซลล์ที่อยู่ติดกัน
Interior
of cell
Interior
of cell
0.5 µm Plasmodesmata Plasma membranes
Cell walls

122. Cytoplasmic Inclusion
- เซลล์สัตว์
N
Glycogen Lipid droplets
N
pigments

123. Calcium oxalate crystal
Starch granule
- เซลล์พืช

124. 124
Animal TissueAnimal Tissue
http://apbrwww5.apsu.edu/thompsonj/Anatomy%20&%20Physiology/2010/2010%20Exam
%20Reviews/Exam%201%20Review/CH04%20General%20Terms%20and%20Membranes.htm

125. 125
Germ Layer TheoryGerm Layer Theory
http://www.carteret.edu/keoughp/LFreshwater/NEO/blackboard/EmbDev/germ_layers.jpg

126. 126
Animal TissueAnimal Tissue
http://apbrwww5.apsu.edu/thompsonj/Anatomy%20&%20Physiology/2010/2010%20Exam
%20Reviews/Exam%201%20Review/CH04%20General%20Terms%20and%20Membranes.htm

127. Tissues – IntroductionTissues – Introduction
• a group of similar cells specialized to carry
on a particular function
• tissue = cells + extracellular matrix
o nonliving portion of a tissue that supports cells
• 4 types
o epithelial = protection, secretion, absorption
o connective = support soft body parts and bind
structures together
o muscle = movement
o nervous = conducts impulses used to help
control and coordinate body activities

128. Animal TissueAnimal Tissue เนื้อเยื่อสัตว์เนื้อเยื่อสัตว์
• Epithelial Tissue เนื้อเยื่อบุผิว จัดจำำแนกกำรเรียงตัว (ชั้น
เดียวหรือมำกกว่ำหนึ่ง) และรูปร่ำงของเซลล์ Simple or Stratified –
squamous, cuboidal, columnar
• Connective Tissue เนื้อเยื่อเกี่ยวพัน ทำำหน้ำที่เชื่อมยึด และคำ้ำจุน
เนื้อเยื่ออื่นๆ
o เนื้อเยื่อเกี่ยวพันโปร่งบำง แทรกและทำำหน้ำที่ยึดเหนี่ยวเนื้อเยื่ออื่นๆ
เช่น พังผืดที่ยึดมัดกล้ำมเนื้อ
o เนื้อเยื่อไขมัน มี adipose tissue เป็นที่เก็บสะสมไขมัน เช่น ใต้ชั้น
ผิวหนัง ในช่องท้อง เซลล์ไขมันขยำยใหญ่ได้ รับแรงกระแทก เป็น
ฉนวนป้องกันกำรสูญเสียควำมร้อนของร่ำงกำย
o เนื้อเยื่อเกี่ยวพันแน่นทึบ มี Collagenous fiber หนำแน่น จัดเรียง
ตัวอย่ำงมีทิศทำง เช่น เอ็นที่ยึดกล้ำมเนื้อและกระดูก
o กระดูกและกระดูกอ่อน
o เลือด
• Muscle Tissue เนื้อเยื่อกล้ำมเนื้อ ได้แก่ กล้ำมเนื้อลำย
กล้ำมเนื้อเรียบ และกล้ำมเนื้อหัวใจ
128

129. 129
Cross-SectionCross-Section of Skinof Skin
ภำพตัดขวำงเนื้อเยื่อผิวหนังภำพตัดขวำงเนื้อเยื่อผิวหนัง

130. 130
Tissue SectioningTissue Sectioning
1. Preparation of histological specimens
o fixation
o sections
o mounted on slides & stained
2. Sectioning (slicing) an organ or tissue reduces a 3-
dimensional structure to a 2-dimensional slice (see
the next 3 slides)

131. 1 2 3 4 5
1
2
3
4
5
•Slices 1 & 5
miss the
yolk / cell
nucleus
•Cell nucleus
is smaller in
sections 2 & 4
Tissue Sectioning
131

132. 132
Tissue SectioningTissue Sectioning
• Image A is a cross
section of elbow
macaroni,
resembling a blood
vessel, piece of
gut, or other
tubular organ.
• Image B is a
longitudinal section
of a sweat gland.
Notice what a
single slice could
look like
A B

133. 133
Types of Tissue SectionsTypes of Tissue Sections
• Longitudinal section
o tissue cut along the
longest direction of
an organ
• Cross section
o tissue cut
perpendicular to the
length of an organ
• Oblique section
o tissue cut at an angle
between a cross &
longitudinal section

134. 134
Types of Tissue SectionsTypes of Tissue Sections
• Would you classify
the egg sections
as longitudinal,
cross, or oblique
sections?
• How would the
egg look if
sectioned in the
other two planes?
Practice at home.

135. 135
Epithelial Tissue
http://www.proprofs.com/quiz-
school/story.php?title=tissue-quizhttp://memorize.com/epithelial-tissue-
images/rixikifa
H&E Staining Blue for nuclei, Pink for cytoplasm

136. Epithelial ClassificationsEpithelial Classifications
• classified based on shape and # of cell
layers
• shape
o squamous = thin, flat cells
o cuboidal = cube-shaped cells
o columnar = tall, elongated cells
• number
o simple = single layer
o stratified = 2 or more layers

137. Stratified
Simple
Apical surface
Basal surface
Apical surface
Basal surface
Classification based on number of cell layers.

138. Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Classification based on cell shape.

139. Epithelial TissueEpithelial Tissue
• Epithelial Tissue เนื้อเยื่อบุผิว ปกคลุมหรือห่อหุ้มผิวนอกของ
ร่ำงกำยและบุผิวของช่องหรือโพรง (body cavity) จัดจำำแนก
ตำมรูปร่ำงและกำรเรียงตัว (ชั้นเดียวหรือมำกกว่ำหนึ่ง)และรูป
ร่ำงของเซลล์ Simple or Stratified – squamous, cuboidal, columnar
139https://www.boundless.com/physiology/tissues/epithelial-tissue/classifications-of-epithelial-tissue/
ปอ
ด
ไ
ต
ลำำ
ไส้
หลอดอำ
หำร
ต่อมนำ้ำลำย
ต่อมนำ้ำนม
หลอดลม (mucus
secretion)
ทำงเดิน
ปัสสำวะ

146. Exocrine glandsExocrine glands
• merocrine = release watery, protein-rich fluid
by exocytosis
o salivary glands, sweat glands
• apocrine = lose small portions of their cell body
during secretion
o mammary glands, ear wax
• holocrine = entire cell lysis (breaks apart) during
secretion
o sebaceous glands of the skin

147. Exocrine vs. EndocrineExocrine vs. Endocrine
• exocrine = secrete sub. into ducts that open onto
surfaces
o skin or linings of digestive tract
• endocrine = secrete sub. into tissue fluid or blood
o hormones

149. Serous vs. MucousSerous vs. Mucous
• serous = typically watery with lots of enzymes
o lubrication
• mucous = mucus
o digestive and respiratory systems
o protection

150. Muscle Histology

151. Functions of muscle tissue
 Movement
 Maintenance of posture
 Joint stabilization
 Heat generation

152. Special functional characteristics of muscle
 Contractility
 Only one action: to shorten
 Shortening generates pulling force
 Excitability
 Nerve fibers cause electrical impulse to travel
 Extensibility
 Stretch with contraction of an opposing
muscle
 Elasticity
 Recoils passively after being stretched

153. Types of Muscle TissueTypes of Muscle Tissue
• Skeletal muscle
• Cardiac muscle
• Smooth muscle

154. Types of Muscle TissueTypes of Muscle Tissue
Skeletal
•Attach to and move skeleton
•40% of body weight
•Fibers = multinucleate cells
(embryonic cells fuse)
•Cells with obvious striations
•Contractions are voluntary
Cardiac: only in the wall of the
heart
•Cells are striated
•Contractions are
involuntary (not
voluntary)
Smooth: walls of hollow organs
•Lack striations
•Contractions are involuntary (not voluntary)

155. Similarities…Similarities…
• Their cells are called fibers because they are
elongated
• Contraction depends on myofilaments
o Actin
o Myosin
• Plasma membrane is called sarcolemma
o Sarcos = flesh
o Lemma = sheath

156. Skeletal muscleSkeletal muscle
Epimysium: surrounds whole muscle
Perimysium is
around fascicle
Endomysium is
around each muscle
fiber

157. SkeletalSkeletal
MuscleMuscle
• Each muscle: one nerve, one
artery, one vein
o Branch repeatedly
• Attachments
o One bone to another
o Cross at least one movable joint
o Origin: the less movable
attachment
o Insertion: is pulled toward the
origin
o Usually one bone moves while
the other remains fixed
o In muscles of the limb, origin lies
proximal to the insertion (by
convention)
o Note: origin and insertion may
switch depending on body
position and movement
produced

158. Attachments continuedAttachments continued
• Many muscles span two or more joints
o Called biarticular or multijoint muscles
o Cause movements at two joints
• Direct or “fleshy” attachments
o Attachments so short that muscle appears to
attach directly to bone
• Indirect: connective tissue extends well
beyond the muscle (more common)
o Tendon: cordlike (most muscles have tendons)
o Aponeurosis: flat sheet
o Raised bone markings where tendons meet
bones
• Tubercles, trochanters, crests, etc.

159. Some sites showing animationsSome sites showing animations
of muscle contractionof muscle contraction
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WVuW560nRII
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l-_fgHwHN-E

160. Skeletal muscleSkeletal muscle
• Fibers (each is one
cell) have striations
• Myofibrils are
organelles of the
cell: these are made
up of filaments
• Sarcomere
o Basic unit of
contraction
o Myofibrils are long
rows of repeating
sarcomeres
o Boundaries: Z discs
(or lines)
This big cylinder is
a fiber: 1 cell -an organelle

161. MyofibrilsMyofibrils
• Made of three types of filaments (or myofilaments):
o Thick (myosin)
o Thin (actin)
o Elastic (titin)
______actin
_____________myosintitin_____

162. Sliding Filament ModelSliding Filament Model
__relaxed sarcomere__ _partly contracted_
fully contracted
“A” band
constant because
it is caused by
myosin, which
doesn’t change
length
Sarcomere
shortens because
actin pulled
towards its
middle by myosin
cross bridges
Titin resists overstretching

163. Another pic

164. EM (electronEM (electron
microscope): partsmicroscope): parts
of 2 myofibrilsof 2 myofibrils
Labeled and unlabeled

165. • Sarcoplasmic reticulum is smooth ER
o Tubules surround myofibrils
o Cross-channels called “terminal cisternae”
o Store Ca++ and release when muscle stimulated to contract
o To thin filaments triggering sliding filament mechanism of
contraction
o T tubules are continuous with sarcolemma, therefore whole
muscle (deep parts as well) contracts simultaneously

166. NeuromuscularNeuromuscular
JunctionJunction
Motor neurons innervate
muscle fibers
Motor end plate is where
they meet
Neurotransmitters are
released by nerve signal:
this initiates calcium ion
release and muscle
contraction
Motor Unit: a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates (these all contract
together)
•Average is 150, but range is four to several hundred muscle fibers in a motor unit
•The finer the movement, the fewer muscle fibers /motor unit
•The fibers are spread throughout the muscle, so stimulation of a single motor unit causes a
weak contraction of the entire muscle

169. Types of skeletal muscle fibersTypes of skeletal muscle fibers
• Fast, slow and intermediate
• Whether or not they predominantly use oxygen to
produce ATP (the energy molecule used in muscle
contraction)
o Oxidative – aerobic (use oxygen)
o Glycolytic – make ATP by glycolysis (break down of
sugars without oxygen=anaerobic)
• Fast fibers: “white fibers” – large, predominantly
anaerobic, fatigue rapidly (rely on glycogen reserves);
most of the skeletal muscle fibers are fast
• Slow fibers: “red fibers” – half the diameter, 3X slower, but
can continue contracting; aerobic, more mitochondria,
myoglobin
• Intermediate: in between

170. • A skeletal muscle contracts when its motor
units are stimulated
• Amount of tension depends on
1. the frequency of stimulation
2. the number of motor units involved
• Single, momentary contraction is called a
muscle twitch
• All or none principle: each muscle fiber
either contracts completely or not at all
• Amount of force: depends on how many
motor units are activated
• Muscle tone
o Even at rest, some motor units are active: tense
the muscle even though not causing
movement: “resting tone”

171. • Muscle hypertrophy
o Weight training (repeated intense workouts): increases
diameter and strength of “fast” muscle fibers by increasing
production of
• Mitochondria
• Actin and myosin protein
• Myofilaments containing these contractile proteins
• The myofibril organelles these myofilaments form
o Fibers enlarge (hypertrophy) as number and size of myofibrils
increase
[Muscle fibers (=muscle cells) don’t increase in number but
increase in diameter producing large muscles]
• Endurance training (aerobic): doesn’t produce
hypertrophy
• Muscle atrophy: loss of tone and mass from lack of
stimulation
o Muscle becomes smaller and weaker
Note on terminology: in general, increased size is hypertrophy; increased number

172. Cardiac muscleCardiac muscle
• Bundles form thick
myocardium
• Cardiac muscle cells are
single cells (not called
fibers)
• Cells branch
• Cells join at intercalated
discs
• 1-2 nuclei in center
• Here “fiber” = long row of
joined cardiac muscle
cells
• Inherent rhythmicity: each
cell! (muscle cells beat
separately without any
stimulation)
Intercalate
d
disc______
____

173. Smooth muscle
•Muscles are spindle-shaped cells
•One central nucleus
•Grouped into sheets: often running
perpendicular to each other
•Peristalsis
•No striations (no sarcomeres)
•Contractions are slow, sustained and
resistant to fatigue
•Does not always require a nervous signal:
can be stimulated by stretching or hormones
6 major locations:
1. inside the eye 2. walls of vessels 3. respiratory tubes
4. digestive tubes 5. urinary organs 6. reproductive organs

174. This is included because troponins are measured clinically inThis is included because troponins are measured clinically in
heart attacks…but be careful because the colors are oppositeheart attacks…but be careful because the colors are opposite
Calcium attaches to troponin/
tropomyosin; they roll away,
exposing the active site on actin.

175. nective tissue : เชื่อมยึดและคำ้ำจุนเนื้อเยื่ออื่นๆ
se (areolar) connective tissue (delicate thin layers between
ues; present in all mucous membranes)
pose tissue (fat)
se connective tissue (tendons/ligaments)
line cartilage (nose/ends of long bones/ribs)
tic cartilage (outer ear/epiglottis)
ocartilage (between vertebrae/knee joints/pubic joint)
e (skeletal system)
od (bloodstream)

176. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Connective tissues.
(a) Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, areolar
Description: Gel-like matrix with all
three fiber types; cells: fibroblasts,
macrophages, mast cells, and some
white blood cells.
Function: Wraps and cushions
organs; its macrophages phagocytize
bacteria; plays important role in
inflammation; holds and conveys
tissue fluid.
Location: Widely distributed under
epithelia of body, e.g., forms lamina
propria of mucous membranes;
packages organs; surrounds
capillaries.
Photomicrograph: Areolar connective tissue, a
soft packaging tissue of the body (300x).
Epithelium
Lamina
propria
Fibroblast
nuclei
Elastic
fibers
Collagen
fibers

177. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Areolar connective tissue: A prototype (model) connective tissue.Areolar connective tissue: A prototype (model) connective tissue.
Macrophage
Fibroblast
Lymphocyte
Fat cell
Mast cell
Neutrophil
Capillary
Cell types Extracellular matrix
Fibers
• Collagen fiber
• Elastic fiber
• Reticular fiber
Ground substance

178. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Loose connective tissues.
(b) Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, adipose
Description: Matrix as in areolar,
but very sparse; closely packed
adipocytes, or fat cells, have
nucleus pushed to the side by large
fat droplet.
Function: Provides reserve food
fuel; insulates against heat loss;
supports and protects organs.
Location: Under skin in the
hypodermis; around kidneys and
eyeballs; within abdomen; in breasts.
Photomicrograph: Adipose tissue from the
subcutaneous layer under the skin (350x).
Nucleus of
fat cell
Vacuole
containing
fat droplet
Adipose
tissue
Mammary
glands

179. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Loose connective tissues, reticularLoose connective tissues, reticular
(c) Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, reticular
Description: Network of reticular
fibers in a typical loose ground
substance; reticular cells lie on the
network.
Function: Fibers form a soft internal
skeleton (stroma) that supports other
cell types including white blood cells,
mast cells, and macrophages.
Location: Lymphoid organs (lymph
nodes, bone marrow, and spleen).
Photomicrograph: Dark-staining network of reticular
connective tissue fibers forming the internal skeleton
of the spleen (350x).
Spleen
White blood
cell
(lymphocyte)
Reticular
fibers

180. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Dense connective tissues, dense regularDense connective tissues, dense regular
(d) Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, dense regular
Description: Primarily parallel
collagen fibers; a few elastic fibers;
major cell type is the fibroblast.
Function: Attaches muscles to
bones or to muscles; attaches bones
to bones; withstands great tensile
stress when pulling force is applied
in one direction.
Location: Tendons, most
ligaments, aponeuroses.
Photomicrograph: Dense regular connective
tissue from a tendon (500x).
Shoulder
joint
Ligament
Tendon
Collagen
fibers
Nuclei of
fibroblasts

181. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
(e) Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, dense irregular
Description: Primarily
irregularly arranged collagen
fibers; some elastic fibers;
major cell type is the fibroblast.
Function: Able to withstand
tension exerted in many
directions; provides structural
strength.
Location: Fibrous capsules of
organs and of joints; dermis of
the skin; submucosa of
digestive tract.
Photomicrograph: Dense irregular
connective tissue from the dermis of the
skin (400x).
Collagen
fibers
Nuclei of
fibroblasts
Fibrous
joint
capsule
Dense connective tissues, dense irregularDense connective tissues, dense irregular

182. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
(f) Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, elastic
Description: Dense regular
connective tissue containing a high
proportion of elastic fibers.
Function: Allows recoil of tissue
following stretching; maintains
pulsatile flow of blood through
arteries; aids passive recoil of lungs
following inspiration.
Location: Walls of large arteries;
within certain ligaments associated
with the vertebral column; within the
walls of the bronchial tubes.
Elastic fibers
Aorta
Heart
Photomicrograph: Elastic connective tissue in
the wall of the aorta (250x).
Dense connective tissues, elasticDense connective tissues, elastic

183. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
(g) Cartilage: hyaline
Description: Amorphous but firm
matrix; collagen fibers form an
imperceptible network; chondroblasts
produce the matrix and when mature
(chondrocytes) lie in lacunae.
Function: Supports and reinforces;
has resilient cushioning properties;
resists compressive stress.
Location: Forms most of the
embryonic skeleton; covers the ends
of long bones in joint cavities; forms
costal cartilages of the ribs; cartilages
of the nose, trachea, and larynx.
Photomicrograph: Hyaline cartilage from the
trachea (750x).
Costal
cartilages
Chondrocyte
in lacuna
Matrix
Hyaline cartilageHyaline cartilage

184. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
(h) Cartilage: elastic
Description: Similar to hyaline
cartilage, but more elastic fibers
in matrix.
Function: Maintains the shape
of a structure while allowing
great flexibility.
Location: Supports the external
ear (pinna); epiglottis.
Photomicrograph: Elastic cartilage from
the human ear pinna; forms the flexible
skeleton of the ear (800x).
Chondrocyte
in lacuna
Matrix
Elastic cartilageElastic cartilage

185. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
(i) Cartilage: fibrocartilage
Description: Matrix similar to
but less firm than that in hyaline
cartilage; thick collagen fibers
predominate.
Function: Tensile strength
with the ability to absorb
compressive shock.
Location: Intervertebral discs;
pubic symphysis; discs of knee
joint.
Photomicrograph: Fibrocartilage of an
intervertebral disc (125x). Special staining
produced the blue color seen.
Intervertebral
discs
Chondrocytes
in lacunae
Collagen
fiber
FibrocartilageFibrocartilage

186. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
(j) Others: bone (osseous tissue)
Description: Hard, calcified
matrix containing many collagen
fibers; osteocytes lie in lacunae.
Very well vascularized.
Function: Bone supports and
protects (by enclosing);
provides levers for the muscles
to act on; stores calcium and
other minerals and fat; marrow
inside bones is the site for blood
cell formation (hematopoiesis).
Location: Bones
Photomicrograph: Cross-sectional view
of bone (125x).
Lacunae
Lamella
Central
canal
Bone: Osseous tissueBone: Osseous tissue

187. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
(k) Others: blood
Description: Red and white
blood cells in a fluid matrix
(plasma).
Function: Transport of
respiratory gases, nutrients,
wastes, and other substances.
Location: Contained within
blood vessels.
Photomicrograph: Smear of human blood (1860x); two
white blood cells (neutrophil in upper left and lymphocyte
in lower right) are seen surrounded by red blood cells.
Neutrophil
Red blood
cells
Lymphocyte
Plasma
Connective tissues: BloodConnective tissues: Blood

188. What kind of tissue does this represent?
Where in the body can you find this tissue?
Bone
skeletal system

189. Adipose TissueAdipose Tissue เนื้อเยื่อไขมันเนื้อเยื่อไขมัน
189

190. Bone and Cartilage TissueBone and Cartilage Tissue
เนื้อเยื่อกระดูก และ กระดูกอ่อนเนื้อเยื่อกระดูก และ กระดูกอ่อน
190
http://histologyolm.stevegallik.org/node/12
2
http://megansobscurities.blogspot.com/2010_04_01_archive.ht
ml

191. BloodBlood เลือดเลือด
191
http://www.uchospitals.edu/images/nci/CDR0000526219.jpg

192. MuscleMuscle กล้ำมเนื้อกล้ำมเนื้อ
192
http://apbrwww5.apsu.edu/thompsonj/Anatomy%20&
%20Physiology/2010/2010%20Exam%20Reviews/Exam%203%20Review/CH
%2009%20Smooth%20and%20Cardiac%20Muscle.htm

193. Nervous TissueNervous Tissue เนื้อเยื่อประสำทเนื้อเยื่อประสำท
193
http://www.stegen.k12.mo.us/tchrpges/sghs/ksulkowski/MuscleNerveTiss
ueSlides.htm
http://encyclopedia.lubopitko-bg.com/Nervous_Tissue.html

194. 194

195. 195
Cross-SectionCross-Section of Skinof Skin
ภำพตัดขวำงเนื้อเยื่อผิวหนังภำพตัดขวำงเนื้อเยื่อผิวหนัง

196. Wound Dressing/SkinWound Dressing/Skin
GraftGraft
196
Hydrogel Wound DressingHydrogel Wound Dressing
http://img.chinamedevice.com/product/897/1466897
.jpg
http://littlestinker06.tripod.com/id3.html

197. 197
http://www.agilethinkers.com/johanna_rothman_qa/
http://blueeyednightowl.blogspot.com/2011/07/q.html

198. 198
GeneticsGenetics พันธุศำสตร์พันธุศำสตร์

199. 1.1 Traits and heredity1.1 Traits and heredity
Parents and Kids
Case Study: Sue case in Chinese
Rumor or Real?

200. • Husband won 125,000 USD sue the wife for ugly
baby
• Firstly, sue for cheating evidence from ugly child
• Turn out wife spent 100,000 USD for plastic surgery
http://www.examiner.com/article/man-sues-wife-

201. From the case studyFrom the case study
• General concept: offspring (kids/ children) always
inherit their traits (appearances, the look) from
parents
http://movie.sanook.com/gallery/gallery/29321/1
08277/
http://newmediarockstars.com/2013/04/the-nive-nulls-a-husband-
making-goofy-videos-with-his-hot-wife-and-cute-kid-youtube-
nextup-creator-profiles/

202. Human Genome ProjectHuman Genome Project
202
http://boydfuturist.wordpress.com/tag/human-genome-
project/
http://www.lifesciencesfoundation.org/printer_eve
nts-The_Book_of_Life.html

203. 203
The human genome contains over 3 billion base pairs,
only approximately 20,000 protein-coding genes.
The rest is associated with non-coding
RNA molecules, regulatory DNA sequences, introns, and
sequences to which no function has yet been assigned.
สารพันธุกรรมในคนมีมากกว่า 3 พันล้านคู่
เบส มีเพียง 20,000 ยีนที่ถูกถอดรหัสในการสร้างเป็น
โปรตีน (1.5%) ที่เหลือทำาหน้าที่ในการควบคุมการ
แสดงออกของยีน, สร้าง non-coding RNA, และที่ยังไม่
Human Genome ProjectHuman Genome Project

204. การสืบพันธุ์แบบอาศัยการสืบพันธุ์แบบอาศัย
เพศเพศ
oFemale produces homogametic sex เพศหญิง สร้างเซลล์สืบพันธุ์เพศหญิง คือ
Ovum (ไข่)
oMale produces heterogametic sex เพศชาย สร้างเซลล์สืบพันธุ์เพศชาย คือ
Sperm (อสุจิ)
204
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:General_cell_cycle.jpg

205. Fertilization**Fertilization**
205

206. 206
Sex-linked gene:
Hemophilia โรคเลือดออกไม่
หยุด,
Color Blindness ตาบอดสี
Autosomal Recessive Trait
ยีนด้อยบนโครโมโซมเพศ

207. Genotype/PhenotypeGenotype/Phenotype
• Genotype/Phenotype ลักษณะทางพันธุกรรม และ
ลักษณะที่แสดงออก
• เช่น Genotype เป็น XY แต่มียีนที่ทำาให้ร่างกายไม่ตอบ
สนองต่อฮอร์โมนเพศชายให้ลักษณะภายนอกที่แสดงออก
เป็นผู้หญิง
CAIS (complete androgen insensitivity syndrome)
207
XY Female ผู้หญิงที่มีโครโมโซมเพศ
ชาย

208. GenesGenes สารพันธุกรรมสารพันธุกรรม
208
• DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid
• RNA: Ribonucleic acid

209. ChromosomesChromosomes
• Cell structure : cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus

210. ChromosomesChromosomes
• Genetic materials: DNA in the form of chromatin
(loosen strands)

211. ChromosomesChromosomes
• During division condense to form chromosome
http://someinterestingfacts.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Cell-Division.jpg

213. • Total of 46
chromosomes
• Diploid (2n) =
46
• Haploid = 23 in
gamete
• 22 pairs of
autosome
• 1 pair of sex
chromosome
http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL

214. Diploid chromosome (2n)Diploid chromosome (2n)
• Crucial for cell division, especially, sexual reproduction.
• Gamete has half genetic material from parent (n)
• Zygote has half genetic material from each parent (n
+n = 2n)
• What do you think would happen with the gamete
from 3n parent? What would the offspring be?

215. Cell CycleCell Cycle
215
http://legacy.owensboro.kctcs.edu/gcaplan/songbook/B3.%20%20Mitosis.htm

216. 3n plant = Seedless Fruit3n plant = Seedless Fruit
/waynesword.palomar.edu/hybrids1.htm

217. Seed or Seedless GrapesSeed or Seedless Grapes

218. 2n Normal plant vs 4n2n Normal plant vs 4n plantsplants
(Polyploid)(Polyploid)

219. 1.3 DNA and gene1.3 DNA and gene
• DNA = Deoxyribonucleic Acid
• Chromosome = DNA + (wrapping) protein
• 1 gene = 1 peptides
• Peptide is a building block of proteomics
• Protein is a major inorganic substance in the body
such as collagen.
• Protein called enzyme controls cellular activities.

220. DNA:DNA:
LadderLadder
of lifeof life
220
• DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid
• RNA: Ribonucleic acid
Structure of DNA

221. หลักการแสดงออกของยีนในหลักการแสดงออกของยีนใน
ระดับเซลล์ระดับเซลล์
221
http://compbio.pbworks.com/w/page/16252897/Introduction%20and%20Basic%20Molecular%20Biology
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Class/MLACourse/Modules/MolBioReview/central_dogma.
html

222. การสังเคราะห์คอลลาเจนการสังเคราะห์คอลลาเจน
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Extracellular Matrix
http://herkules.oulu.fi/isbn9514272374/html/x183.html

223. Cell CycleCell Cycle
223

224. Cell CycleCell Cycle
224
http://legacy.owensboro.kctcs.edu/gcaplan/songbook/B3.%20%20Mitosis.htm

225. DNA ReplicationDNA Replication การสร้างการสร้าง DNADNA
225ใช้เอนไซม์ใช้เอนไซม์ DNA polymerase, etc.DNA polymerase, etc.
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/esp/2001_saladin/folder_structure/le/m7/s1/

226. PCR: Polymerase Chain ReactionPCR: Polymerase Chain Reaction
226
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1993/illpres/pcr.ht
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:
PCR_tubes.png
เป็นการเพิ่มจำานวนเป็นการเพิ่มจำานวน copycopy
ของของ DNA/RNADNA/RNA เพียงเพียง
ให้เพียงพอต่อการนำาไปให้เพียงพอต่อการนำาไป
ใช้ต่อใช้ต่อ

227. DNA FingerprintDNA Fingerprint
227
ใช้เอนไซม์ตัดจำาเพาะ (restriction
enzyme) แยกโดยขนาดที่ต่างกัน
จากการตัดได้ที่ตำาแหน่งต่างกัน
http://www.veteranstoday.com/2012/07/25/breaking-dna-news-elvis-pressley-was-
not-a-turk/dna-fingerprint/
http://www.citylabatucla.org/dnafingerp.html
http://geneed.nlm.nih.gov/topic_subtopic.php?tid=37&sid=38

228. DNA profilingDNA profiling
228
http://www.ohwatch.co.za/sheryls-oh-watch-blog/2010/01/09/can-dna-profiling-be-the-answer-to-reduced-crime/
The designations D3, vWA and
FGA represent three different
chromosomal locations (STRs)
under analysis.
Based on PCR and uses
short tandem repeats
(STR)
Different numbers of repeat
units in different people

229. Genetic EngineeringGenetic Engineering การตัดต่อการตัดต่อ
พันธุกรรมพันธุกรรม
229
http://kalicurrypuff.files.wordpress.com/20
10/07/btcorn1.gif
GMOs (Genetically modified organism): BT cornGMOs (Genetically modified organism): BT corn
Bacillus thuringiensis : BT

230. 230
Insulin Production in BacteriaInsulin Production in Bacteria การผลิตอินซูลินในการผลิตอินซูลินใน
แบคทีเรียแบคทีเรีย
http://www.biocyclopedia.com/index/images/Biotechnology/chapter05/04
4_large.jpg
http://www.betacell.org/content/articlepanelview/article_id/1/panel_id/1

231. RNA interference (RNAi)RNA interference (RNAi)
231
http://gmoevidence.com/usda-rna-interference-pesticides-will-need-special-safety-
testing/

232. Gene TherapyGene Therapy
232

233. 233
http://www.agilethinkers.com/johanna_rothman_qa/
http://blueeyednightowl.blogspot.com/2011/07/q.html

234. ReproductionReproduction การสืบพันธุ์การสืบพันธุ์
Asexual reproduction การสืบพันธุ์แบบไม่อาศัยเพศ
Sexual reproduction การสืบพันธุ์อาศัยเพศ
234
http://saburchill.com/ans02/chapters/chap051.h
tml
www.biologycorner.com
http://topicstock.pantip.com/jatujak/to
picstock/2006/11/J4891304/J4891304.ht
ml
www.tutorvista.com http://en.wikinoticia.com/culture-
science/Science/132990-animal-reproduction-types
http://www.newsrt.co.uk/news/sexual-nature-
let-your-animal-instincts-guide-you-for-valentine-
s-day-48220.html

235. การสืบพันธุ์แบบอาศัยการสืบพันธุ์แบบอาศัย
เพศและการกำาหนดเพศเพศและการกำาหนดเพศ
• Genetic Determinants กำาหนดโดยสารพันธุกรรม
o Distinctive of male/female form (prevent self-fertilization)
o 46 chromosomes - 22 pairs of autosome
- 1 pair of sex chromosome
o Female produces homogametic sex เพศหญิง สร้างเซลล์สืบพันธุ์เพศหญิง
คือ Ovum (ไข่)
o Male produces heterogametic sex เพศชาย สร้างเซลล์สืบพันธุ์เพศชาย คือ
Sperm (อสุจิ)
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_edexcel/cells/mitosisrev2
.shtml
235

236. Caster Semenya
http://www.psdgraphics.com/file/male-and-female-relationship-sign.jpg
Sex Determination
Feminine
Masculine

237. Scientific research shows every male on this planetScientific research shows every male on this planet
was once a female!was once a female!
http://www.pcgerms.com/scientific-research-shows-every-
male-on-this-planet-was-once-a-female-video/ 237

238. Genetic determinantsGenetic determinants
• Sex determination by XX or XY
o XX develop ovary
o XY develop testis
• XY female & XX male?!?!
o Y alone is sufficient to determine gonadal sex
• SRY region – sex determining region on the Y chromosome
o Y is small and heterochromatic (dense& incapable of synthesis RNA)
o Y function as “switching”, encoded DNA-binding protein (controller gene that
influence downstream gene)
• XY female – deletion or mutation on Y chromosome
• XX male – translocate of critical piece of Y to one of
autosome or X
238

239. Caster Semenya
Hermaphroditism/Intersex กะเทย หรือ
เพศกลาง

240. True HermaphroditismTrue Hermaphroditism
• Have both testicular and ovarian tissue
240
Left gonad showing ovarian follicles
Right gonad showing seminiferous tubule

241. SecondarySecondary
HermaphroditismHermaphroditism
• Intersex
XY
• AIS = Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome
• AKA (also known as) testicular feminization (Tfm)
XX
• Adrenogenital syndrome
o Fetal adrenal gland is hyperactive  secrete large quantities of steroids
with strong androgenic activity
o Development of the Wolffian ducts  Male with penis and scrotum, have
genitalia of both sexes (No MIH secrete)
241

242. The brain, behavioralThe brain, behavioral
dimorphism, and genderdimorphism, and gender
242

243. Non-primateNon-primate
• Sexually dimorphic behavior พฤติกรรมที่ต่างกันในต่าง
เพศ
- Urination patterns in dog, cocked leg/ squatting
• Courtship behavior
- Mounting
243

244. 244
HumanHuman
Childhood play – doll play, or athletic interest

245. Gene TherapyGene Therapy
245

246. 246
PhysiologyPhysiology
(Blood&Gut)(Blood&Gut)
สรีรวิทยาสรีรวิทยา

247. Circulatory SystemCirculatory System
Definition
•It is a fluid-filled network of tubes (or vessels) through
which materials move between the environment and
the cells of a multicellular animal.
Characteristics
•It connects all parts of an organism in a way that
allows individual cells to thrive as well as for organisms
to function as a unit
•It is an entirely closed system in human

248. ทางเดินอาหารทางเดินอาหาร
248
http://www.zo.utexas.edu/faculty/sjasper/images/f30.9.jpg
http://montanahan.blogspot.com/2012_11_01_archive.html
http://visual.merriam-webster.com/human-being/anatomy/digestive-system.php
http://heartsfortheclass.blogspot.com/2012/07/bio-202-renal-system-
key.html
• Exchanges of O2, CO2, water, nutrition andExchanges of O2, CO2, water, nutrition and
wastewaste

249. Multicellular NeedsMulticellular Needs
• Unicellular organisms don’t need a
circulatory system, because the cell is in
direct contact with the environment and
oxygen, nutrients and wastes can easily
diffuse across the cell membrane by
diffusion.
• Multicellular organisms need a circulatory
system to transport substances made in one
part of the body to sites where they are
needed in another part of the body.

250. Circulatory systemCirculatory system• Open circulatory system (ระบบไหลเวียนแบบเปิด)
ระบบไหลเวียนที่มีของเหลวแทรกซึมอยู่ทั่วร่างกาย มีท่อของหลอดเลือด
เปิดเข้าสู่ช่องในลำาตัว
• Closed circulatory system (ระบบไหลเวียนแบบปิด)
ระบบไหลเวียนที่ของเหลวมีการไหลเวียนอยู่ในท่อของหลอดเลือดเท่านั้น
• Mollusks and arthropods have a heart that circulates fluid in
an open circulatory system (open circulatory system = no
vessels).
• One exception - cephalopods, such squids and octopuses,
are molluscs that have a closed circulatory system. Annelids
such as earthworms have multiple hearts and closed
circulatory system. 250http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-iv/circulation-animals/circulatory-system-types.php

251. 251
Open circulatory system
(ระบบไหลเวียนแบบเปิด)
• An open circulatory system is common in most molluscs and
anthropods. In this type of ciruclatory system, a fluid called
hemolymph ( a mix of blood and lymph), is bathed on organs
and body tissues in a cavity called the homecoel.
• Hemolymph travels through circulatory vessels into cavities or
sinuses, which are open spaces surrounding an organ. The
reason why this fluid is bathed on organs is so the tissues
receive oxygen and nutrients directly.
• The circulation of hemolymph is done with muscle
contractions because there is no blood pressure, which is the
nature of an open system like this.

252. 252
http://w3.shorecrest.org/~Lisa_Peck/MarineBio/syllabus/ch7invertebrates/Invertwp/2007/josh/Circ.ht
Open circulatory system
(ระบบไหลเวียนแบบเปิด)

253. 253http://www.bio.miami.edu/tom/courses/bil265/bil265goods/18_cardiac.ht
ml

254. Closed systemClosed system
• Vertebrates, annelid
worms, and a few
mollusks have a
closed circulatory
system.
• Blood is moved
through blood vessels
by the heart’s action.
It does not come in
direct contact with
body organs.

255. Closed Circulatory SystemClosed Circulatory System

256. FunctionFunction
• Transport materials needed by cells
o Oxygen
o Glucose
• Remove waste materials from cells
o Carbon dioxide
o urea

257. Major ComponentsMajor Components
• Pump (heart)
o Continuously circulates blood
• Network of tubes
o Arteries- blood away from heart
o Veins- blood back to the heart
• Blood
o Fluid that fills the circulatory system

258. Specific partsSpecific parts
• Pulmonary arteries- transport blood to lungs
• Pulmonary veins- transport oxygenated
blood to hear
• Aortic arch and trunk- main arteries from
heart
• Common carotid artery- carries blood to
brain
• Renal vein and artery- connects to kidneys
• Mesenteric veins- connects to intestine

259. Accessory OrgansAccessory Organs
• Lungs- organ where oxygen is taken up and CO2 is
released
• Kidneys- organ where wastes are removed from
blood; critical in regulating fluids in the body
• Small intestine- digestion
• Large intestine- water absorption

260. The Vertebrate HeartThe Vertebrate Heart
• Vertebrate hearts are separated
into two types of chambers
o Atria (singular: atrium): receive blood from body or
lungs. Contractions of the atria send blood through
a valve to the ventricles.
o Ventricles: receive blood from atria, contract to
send blood to body or lungs.

261. Two-chambered heartTwo-chambered heart
• The simplest vertebrate heart is the two-
chambered heart, seen in fishes.
• A single atrium receives blood from the body cells.
A ventricle sends blood to the gills to collect
oxygen.

262. Three-chambered heartThree-chambered heart
• Separate atria allow some
separation of oxygenated
and deoxygenated
blood, which was an
advantage for land
organisms (reptiles,
amphibians).
• Though blood can mix in
the ventricle, mixing is
minimal. Some reptiles
have partial separation of
the ventricle.

263. Four-chambered heartFour-chambered heart
• The four-chambered
heart, seen in birds and
mammals, allows
complete separation of
oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood.
• Complete separation is
necessary to support a
fast metabolism found in
homeotherms.

264. The HeartThe Heart
• Located near the center of your chest
• A hollow organ about the size of your fist composed
of cardiac muscle.
• Enclosed in a protective sac of tissue called the
pericardium
• Inside there are two thin layers of epithelial and
connective tissue
• Contractions of the myocardium, a thick cardiac
muscle, pump blood through the circulatory system
• The heart contracts about 72 times a minute
• Each contraction pumps about 70 mL of blood

265. The HeartThe Heart
• The human heart has four chambers
o Left and right ventricle
o Left and right atrium
• The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood
to the body while the right side of the heart pumps
deoxygenated blood to the lungs where oxygen
can be absorbed by the hemoglobin carrying red
blood cells

266. HeartHeart• Septum, or wall,
separates the right side
form the left side
preventing mixing of
oxygen-rich blood and
oxygen-poor blood
• Flaps of connective
tissue called valves
divide each side into 2
chambers: totaling 4
chambers
o Upper chambers receive
blood = atrium
o Lower chambers pump
blood out of heart =
ventricle

267. ““Dual pump” operationDual pump” operation
The four-chambered heart acts as two pumps.

268. Heart Anatomy

269. Keeping TimeKeeping Time
• The sinoatrial (SA)
node is nervous tissue
that times heart
beats.
• The SA node causes
atria to contract, and
sends the signal to the
atrioventricular (AV)
node to signal the
ventricles to contract.

270. BloodBlood

271. ComponentsComponents
• Blood is made up of four major
components.
• What do each of these do?
o Plasma: the liquid portion.
o Red blood cells.
o White cells.
o Platelets.

272. Red blood cellsRed blood cells
• RBCs lose their
nucleus at maturity.
• Make up about 99%
of the blood’s cellular
component.
• Red color is due to
hemoglobin.

273. HemoglobinHemoglobin
• Hemoglobin is a
complex protein
made up of four
protein strands, plus
iron-rich heme groups.
• Each hemoglobin
molecule can carry
four oxygen atoms.
The presence of
oxygen turns
hemoglobin bright
red.

274. RBC lifespanRBC lifespan
• RBCs live about 4
months. Iron from
hemoglobin is
recycled in the liver
and spleen.
• The hormone
erythropoeitin, made
by the kidneys,
stimulates the
production of RBCs in
red bone marrow.

275. • One of the illegal drugs that some top Olympic
athletes have been caught using is erythropoetin.
What would this hormone do that would give
athletes an edge in competitions?

276. White cellsWhite cells
• White blood cells
defend against
disease by
recognizing proteins
that do not belong to
the body.
• White cells are able
to ooze through the
walls of capillaries to
patrol the tissues and
reach the lymph
system.

277. PlateletsPlatelets
• Platelets are cell
fragments used in
blood clotting.
• Platelets are derived
from megakaryocites.
Because they lack a
nucleus, platelets
have a short lifespan,
usually about 10 days.

278. • Platelets aggregate
at the site of a
wound.
• Broken cells and
platelets release
chemicals to
stimulate thrombin
production.
• Thrombin converts
the protein fibrinogen
into sticky fibrin,
which binds the clot.
Blood clottingBlood clotting

279. Which blood cells transportWhich blood cells transport
oxygen?oxygen?
1. White cells
2. Red cells
3. Platelets
4. All blood cells

280. Blood VesselsBlood Vessels

281. Classes of blood vesselsClasses of blood vessels
• Blood vessels fall into three major classes:
o Arteries and arterioles carry blood away from the heart.
o Veins and venules carry blood to the heart.
o Capillaries allow exchange of nutrients, wastes and
gases.

282. ArteriesArteries
• Arteries are thick-
walled, and lined
with smooth
muscle.
• How does the
structure of an
artery help with its
function?

283. ArteriolesArterioles
• Arterioles branch off of arteries.
• Arterioles can constrict to direct and control blood
flow. They may, for example, increase or decrease
blood supply to the skin.
• How might arterioles be involved when:
o Your skin turns red when you are hot.
o A person’s face turns pale with fright.

284. CapillariesCapillaries
• Body tissues contain a
vast network of thin
capillaries.
• Capillary walls are only
one cell thick, allowing
exchange of gases,
nutrients, and wastes.
• Capillaries are so fine
that RBCs must line up
single-file to go
through them.

285. VenulesVenules
• Venules are thin-walled collectors of blood.
• Low pressure in the venules allows the capillary
beds to drain into them.

286. VeinsVeins
• Veins have thinner
walls than arteries.
• Veins have fewer
smooth muscle cells,
but do have valves.
How do valves and
the skeletal muscles
help veins function?

287. • Besides the ability to contract and move blood,
why do arteries need to be so thick and strong?
• Varicose veins are veins in the legs that are
swollen, stretched, and painful. What factors
could lead to this condition, and how can
varicose veins be prevented?

288. AtherosclerosisAtherosclerosis
• LDL cholesterol forms
plaques in arteries,
triggering
inflammation.
• The immune system
forms a hard cap over
the plaque, partially
blocking the artery.
Caps can rupture,
creating clots that
can close off an
artery.

289. Preventing heart attacksPreventing heart attacks
• Both genetic and environmental factors contribute
to atherosclerosis.
• Blood LDL cholesterol can be reduced by a low-fat
diet that emphasizes high-fiber foods, antioxidants,
and “good” fats (monounsaturated fats, omega-3
oils), and reduce trans-fats.
• Regular exercise also contributes significantly to
LDL cholesterol reduction.

290. What is always true of arteries?What is always true of arteries?
1. Always carry
oxygenated blood.
2. Always carry
deoxygenated blood.
3. Always carry blood to
the heart.
4. Always carry blood
away from the heart.

291. Besides having to constrict to move blood,Besides having to constrict to move blood,
why are artery walls so thick and strong?why are artery walls so thick and strong?
1. Arteries must move
oxygenated blood.
2. Arteries must
withstand very high
blood pressure when
the heart contracts.
3. Arteries must move
blood out to all parts
of the body.

292. Why are capillary walls so thin?Why are capillary walls so thin?
1. Because capillaries
are thin and narrow
2. To allow exchange of
gases and nutrients.
3. To force RBCs to
move through in
single file.

293. • Some people who are at high risk for heart
attacks may be advised by their doctors to take
low doses of aspirin daily. What effects does
aspirin have that would help prevent heart
attacks?

294. Blood pressureBlood pressure
• Systolic pressure =
pressure when the
heart contracts.
• Diastolic pressure
= pressure
between heart
beats.

295. • Hypertension (high blood pressure) puts people at
risk for heart disease. What long-term effects
would an increase in blood pressure have on the
heart?
• What other organ system is involved in
hypertension?

296. From lungs
After passing through the capillaries of the lungs, theAfter passing through the capillaries of the lungs, the
blood which is now oxygenated returns to the heart in theblood which is now oxygenated returns to the heart in the
pulmonary veins.pulmonary veins.

297. Respiratory and Circulation SystemRespiratory and Circulation System
ระบบหายใจ และ ระบบหมุนเวียนเลือดระบบหายใจ และ ระบบหมุนเวียนเลือด
297http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/hlw/system.html

298. 298
http://www.zo.utexas.edu/faculty/sjasper/images/f30.9.jpg

299. Types of CirculationTypes of Circulation
• Pulmonary circulation = from right side of the heart
to lungs where carbon dioxide leaves the blood
and oxygen is absorbed
• Systemic circulation = from left side of the heart to
organs
o Coronary circulation = through heart tissue

300. Pulmonary CirculationPulmonary Circulation
• The right side of the heart pumps blood
from the heart to the lungs
• In the lungs, carbon dioxide leaves the
blood while oxygen is absorbed.
• The oxygen-rich blood goes into the left side
of the heart

301. Systemic CirculationSystemic Circulation
• The oxygen-rich blood
from the left side of the
heart is pumped to the
rest of the body
• Oxygen-poor blood
returns to the right side of
the heart
• This blood is oxygen-poor
because the cells
absorbed the oxygen
and released carbon
dioxide into the blood
• The oxygen-poor blood is
ready for another trip to
the lungs to get oxygen
again

302. ระบบหมุนเวียนเลือดระบบหมุนเวียนเลือด:: หัวใจ ปอด ไต หลอดหัวใจ ปอด ไต หลอด
เลือดเลือด
302http://www.teachpe.com/anatomy/circulatory_system.php#a http://renalcare.in/functions.html

303. Digestive SystemDigestive System ระบบย่อยระบบย่อย
อาหารอาหาร
303
http://www.fortheloveofbody.com/wp-
content/uploads/2013/04/digestive_system_functio
ns.jpg
http://www.docstoc.com/docs/32118246/Digestive-Enzymes-Table-11-2_-page-365-
Enzyme-Place-Substrate

304. What do animals need toWhat do animals need to
live?live?
O2
food
ATP
• Animals make energy
using:
o food
o oxygen
• Animals build bodies
using:
o food for raw materials
• amino acids, sugars,
fats, nucleotides
o ATP energy for synthesis

305. Nutritional requirementsNutritional requirements
• Animals are heterotrophs
o need to take in food
o Why? fulfills 3 needs…
• fuel = chemical energy for production of ATP
• raw materials = carbon source for synthesis
• essential nutrients = animals cannot make
o elements (N, P, K, Fe, Na, K, Ca...), NAD, FAD, etc.

306. How do animals get theirHow do animals get their
food?food?
filter (suspension) feeding substrate feeding
fluid feeding bulk feeding

308. Different diets;Different diets;
different livesdifferent lives
• All animals eat other organisms
o Herbivores
• eat mainly plants
o gorillas, cows,
rabbits, snails
o Carnivores
• eat other animals
o sharks, hawks, spiders, snakes
o Omnivores
• eat animals & plants
o cockroaches, bears, raccoons, humans
o humans evolved as hunters, scavengers & gatherers

310. Getting & Using FoodGetting & Using Food
• Ingest
o taking in food
• Digest
o mechanical digestion
• breaking up food into smaller pieces
o chemical digestion
• breaking down food into molecules
small enough to be absorbed into cells
• enzymes (hydrolysis)
• Absorb
o absorb across cell membrane
• diffusion
• active transport
• Eliminate
o undigested extracellular material
passes out of digestive system
intracellular
digestion
extracellular
digestion

311. Digestive systemsDigestive systems
Everybody’s got one!

312. Human digestive systemHuman digestive system
Alimentary CanalAlimentary Canal

313. DigestionDigestion
• Digestion – The process of changing food into
simple components which the body can absorb
• Digestive tract or Gastrointestinal tract- where
digestion & absorption take place
• Mouth->esophagus->stomach->small intestine-
>large intestine
• Accessory glands
o salivary glands, pancreas, liver & gall bladder
• secrete digestive juices (enzymes & fluid)

314. DigestionDigestion
• Muscular action helps to propel liquefied food
through the G.I. tract by:
1. Peristalsis – push food along by rhythmic waves
of smooth muscle contraction in walls of digestive
system
2. Segmentation – inward squeezing for
greater mixing of secretions
3. Sphincter contractions - muscular ring-like valves,
regulate the passage of material between sections
of digestive system

315. PeristalsisPeristalsis

316. SegmentationSegmentation

317. Sphincter ContractionsSphincter Contractions

318. GI Tract AnatomyGI Tract Anatomy

319. DigestionDigestion
• Mouth – ingestion of food; chewing (mastication) &
swallowing
1. Bolus – portion of food swallowed
at one time
2. Saliva - water, salts, enzymes,
mucus secreted by salivary glands
to:
a. Moisten food & aids swallowing
b. Begins carbohydrate digestion

320. Secretions of DigestionSecretions of Digestion

321. Swallowing (&Swallowing (& notnot choking)choking)
• Epiglottis
o problem: breathe & swallow through same orifice
o flap of cartilage
o closes trachea (windpipe) when swallowing
o food travels down esophagus
• Esophagus
o move food along to stomach by peristalsis

322. IngestionIngestion
• Mouth
o mechanical digestion
• teeth
o breaking up food
o chemical digestion
• saliva
o amylase
• enzyme digests starch
o mucin
• slippery protein (mucus)
• protects soft lining of digestive system
• lubricates food for easier swallowing
o buffers
• neutralizes acid to prevent tooth decay
o anti-bacterial chemicals
• kill bacteria that enter mouth with food

323. mouth
break up food
moisten food
digest starch
kill germs

324. DigestionDigestion
• Esophagus – connects mouth to stomach
1. Epiglottis – closes airway
2. Bolus moved along by peristalsis
3. Cardiac sphincter – keeps food from
backing up into esophagus

325. StomachStomach
• Functions
ofood storage
• can stretch to fit ~2L food
odisinfect food
• HCl = pH 2
o kills bacteria
o breaks apart cells
ochemical digestion
• pepsin
o enzyme breaks down proteins
o secreted as pepsinogen
• activated by HCl
But the stomach is made out of protein!
What stops the stomach from digesting itself?
mucus secreted by stomach cells protects
stomach lining

326. stomach
kills germs
store food
break up food
digest proteins
cardiac
sphincter
pyloric
sphincter
mouth
break up food
moisten food
digest starch
kill germs

327. DigestionDigestion
• Stomach – collecting & churning
1. Gastric glands secrete: gastric juice
(water, enzymes, hydrochloric acid) that
kills most bacteria and begins protein
digestion and mucus to protect lining
2. Chyme – semi-liquid mass of partially
digested food
3. Pyloric sphincter – regulates passage
of chyme into small intestine

328. • Used to think ulcers
were caused by
stress
o tried to control with
antacids
• Now know ulcers
caused by
bacterial infection
of stomach
o Helicobacter pylori
o now cure with
antibiotics
UlcersUlcers
inflammation of
stomach
inflammation of
esophagus
Colonized by
H. pylori
Free of
H. pylori
white blood cells
cytokines
inflammatory
proteins
(CagA)
cell damaging
proteins
(VacA)
helper T cells
neutrophil cells
H. pylori
Coevolution of parasite & host

329. RevolutionizingRevolutionizing
healthcarehealthcare"for their discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in
gastritis and peptic ulcer disease"
J. Robin Warren
Barry Marshall
1982 | 2005
Helicobacter pylori

330. Secretions of DigestionSecretions of Digestion

331. Small intestineSmall intestine
• Function
o major organ of digestion & absorption
o chemical digestion
• digestive enzymes
o absorption through lining
• over 6 meters!
• small intestine has huge surface area = 300m2
(~size
of tennis court)
• Structure
o 3 sections
• duodenum = most digestion
• jejunum = absorption of nutrients & water
• ileum = absorption of nutrients & water

332. DuodenumDuodenum
• 1st section of small intestines
o acid food from stomach mixes with digestive juices from accessory
glands:
 pancreas
 liver
 gall bladder

333. PancreasPancreas
• Digestive enzymes
o peptidases
• trypsin
o trypsinogen
• chymotrypsin
o chimotrypsinogen
• carboxypeptidase
o procarboxypeptidase
o pancreatic amylase
• Buffers
o reduces acidity
• alkaline solution rich in
bicarbonate (HCO3-)
• buffers acidity of material from
stomach
Explain how this is a
molecular example of
structure-function theme.
Explain how this is a
molecular example of
structure-function theme.
small intestines

334. stomach
kills germs
break up food
digest proteins
store food
pancreas
produces enzymes to
digest proteins & starch
mouth
break up food
moisten food
digest starch
kill germs

335. LiverLiver
• Digestive System Functions
o produces bile
• stored in gallbladder until needed
• breaks up fats
o act like detergents to breakup fats
Circulatory System
Connection
bile contains
colors from old
red blood cells
collected in liver
=
iron in RBC rusts &
makes feces brown

336. pancreas
produces enzymes to
digest proteins & starch
stomach
kills germs
break up food
digest proteins
store food
liver
produces bile
- stored in gall bladder
break up fats
mouth
break up food
moisten food
digest starch
kill germs

337. Digestive enzymesDigestive enzymes

338. Absorption by SmallAbsorption by Small
IntestinesIntestines
• Absorption through villi & microvilli
o finger-like projections
• increase surface area for absorption

339. Absorption of NutrientsAbsorption of Nutrients
• Passive transport
o fructose
• Active (protein pumps) transport
o pump amino acids, vitamins & glucose
• against concentration gradients across intestinal cell membranes
• allows intestine to absorb much higher proportion of nutrients in
the intestine than would be possible with passive diffusion
oworth the cost of ATP!

340. small intestines
breakdown all foods
- proteins
- starch
- fats
- nucleic acids
absorb nutrients
stomach
kills germs
break up food
digest proteins
store food
pancreas
produces enzymes to
digest proteins & starch
liver
produces bile
- stored in gall bladder
break up fats
mouth
break up food
moisten food
digest starch
kill germs

341. Large intestines (colon)Large intestines (colon)
• Function
o re-absorb water
• use ~9 liters of water every
day in digestive juices
• > 90% of water reabsorbed
o not enough water absorbed
back to body
• diarrhea
o too much water absorbed back to body
• constipation

342. Flora of large intestinesFlora of large intestines
• Living in the large intestine is a rich
flora of harmless, helpful bacteria
o Escherichia coli (E. coli)
• a favorite research organism
o bacteria produce vitamins
• vitamin K; biotin, folic acid & other B vitamins
o generate gases
• by-product of bacterial
metabolism
• methane, hydrogen sulfide

343. RectumRectum
• Last section of colon (large intestines)
o eliminate feces
• undigested materials
oextracellular waste
• mainly cellulose from plants
• roughage or fiber
• salts
• masses of
bacteria
appendix

344. Colon - concludeColon - conclude
• Large intestine (colon) - reabsorbing &
eliminating
1. Fermentation of undigested
residues by bacteria occurs
2. Terminates at rectum, where water
some minerals are absorbed
3. Anus – sphincter that controls
defecation (excretion of fiber
residue, wastes and some water)

345. stomach
kills germs
break up food
digest proteins
store food
small intestines
breakdown food
- proteins
- starch
- fats
absorb nutrients
pancreas
produces enzymes to
digest proteins & carbs
liver
produces bile
- stored in gall bladder
break up fats
large intestines
absorb water
mouth
break up food
moisten food
digest starch
kill germs

346. The Final StageThe Final Stage

347. Absorption & TransportAbsorption & Transport
• End-products of digestion:
1. CHO >>> Monosaccharides
2. Fats >>> Glycerol + fatty acids
3. Proteins >>> Amino acids
4. Vitamins, minerals & water – no
digestion

348. AbsorptionAbsorption

349. Absorption & TransportAbsorption & Transport
• Absorption occurs in the small intestine
1. Wall of small intestine covered with 100s of folds
2. Each fold covered with 1000s of villi
3. Each villi contains 100s of microvilli

350. The Small Intestine VillaThe Small Intestine Villa

351. Absorption & TransportAbsorption & Transport
• Absorbed nutrients enter either the:
1. Vascular system – water-soluble
nutrients (monosaccharides, amino
acids, water-soluble vitamins,
minerals, water) enter the blood via
the portal vein for transport to the
liver

352. Absorption & TransportAbsorption & Transport
2. Lymph system – fat-soluble nutrients
(lipids, fat-soluble vitamins) enter here,
eventually entering the blood near the
heart
3. Transport of lipids – since fats are insoluble in
water, they must be packaged for transport as
lipoproteins (triglyceride, phospholipid, protein,
cholesterol)

354. Absorption & TransportAbsorption & Transport
4 basic types of lipoprotein:
1. Chylomicrons – very, very low density
(85% triglyceride); absorbed from small
intestine into lymph & circulated to cells
where some of lipid material is picked off
& remnants return to liver
2. VLDL – very low density lipoprotein
(50% triglyceride); made by liver &
travels to cells

355. Absorption & TransportAbsorption & Transport
3. LDL – low density lipoprotein (50%
cholesterol); remains of VLDL; high
levels increase risk of heart attack
4. HDL – high density lipoprotein (50%
protein); removes cholesterol from blood
for return to liver; high levels decrease
risk of heart attack

356. Upper GI ProblemsUpper GI Problems
Dysphagia – difficulty swallowing with
tendency to choke/aspirate
1. Foods that are soft texture & smooth
consistency critical to avoid aspiration
(i.e. pudding consistency or pureed)
2. Thickened liquids using commercial
thickeners are easier to swallow
3. Tube feeding into duodenum may be
indicated

357. Upper GI ProblemsUpper GI Problems
Reflux esophagitis (“heartburn”) which often
occurs due to a hiatal hernia and
Gastritis (inflammation of stomach lining) and
Peptic Ulcers (erosions of the lining of stomach
or
duodenum) require a bland diet to
reduce
gastric secretions and eliminate foods
that
cause pain or discomfort
1. Avoid chocolate, garlic/onions, caffeine,
spicy & fatty foods, mint, alcohol

358. Gastroesophageal RefluxGastroesophageal Reflux

359. Digestive ProblemsDigestive Problems
Delayed Gastric Emptying – may be delayed
temporarily following surgery or chronically
due to Diabetes Mellitus
1. Low fiber, low fat speeds gastric
emptying
& prevents bezoars that may form a
blockage
Constipation – prevent with a high fiber diet
and treat by drinking plenty of fluids
including prune juice, get regular exercise &
add laxatives (hydrophilic colloids), as
needed

360. Digestive ProblemsDigestive Problems
Diarrhea/dehydration – treat underlying
cause and replace fluids & electrolytes to
prevent dehydration
1. Mild cases use juices, sports drinks,
caffeine-free sodas, tea, broth, oral
rehydration formulas (e.g. Pedialyte)
Diverticular Disease
1. Avoid nuts, seeds, hulls (e.g. okra,
strawberries, popcorn) which may
get trapped & cause diverticulitis

361. Diverticula in the ColonDiverticula in the Colon

362. Malabsorption SyndromesMalabsorption Syndromes
Dumping Syndrome
Carbohydrate malabsorption that occurs due
to removal of pyloric sphincter from partial
gastrectomy causing osmotic diarrhea
1. Symptoms include weakness, dizziness,
rapid heartbeat, diarrhea, abdominal pain
2. Avoid concentrated sweets, drink fluids
between meals, eat small, frequent meals

363. Malabsorption SyndromesMalabsorption Syndromes
Lactose Intolerance
Carbohydrate malabsorption due to a lack of
the enzyme lactase that splits lactose into
glucose + galactose
1. Incidence assoc. with aging, certain ethnic
groups, and G.I. disease or surgery
2. Symptoms include cramping, distention,
diarrhea after consuming products
containing
milk or lactose
3. Lactose-Restricted Diet or enzyme tablets &
treated milk are also available

364. Malabsorption SyndromesMalabsorption Syndromes
Fat Malabsorption – caused by disorders of the
stomach, intestine, pancreas & liver
1. Steatorrhea (fatty, loose, foamy, foul
smelling stools) with subsequent loss of
energy, essential fatty acids, and fat-soluble
vitamins
2. Limit fat intake to 35-40 gms/day
3. Supplementation with fat-soluble vitamins (water-
miscible forms available)
4. Enzyme replacement to aid digestion
& absorption

365. Malabsorption SyndromesMalabsorption Syndromes
Pancreatitis – inflammation of the pancreas,
resulting in impaired digestion/absorption
1. Symptoms include severe abdominal pain,
and nausea & vomiting
2. Initially, N.P.O. (nothing by mouth) to rest
the pancreas using I.V. fluids to maintain
fluid & electrolyte balance
3. Avoiding alcohol is imperative as diet
progresses
4. Chronic pancreatitis may lead maldigestion
of fats, chronic abdominal pain, weight loss
& diabetes

366. Malabsorption SyndromesMalabsorption Syndromes
Cystic Fibrosis – hereditary disease
characterized by thick mucus affecting many
body organs, including lungs & pancreas, and
abnormally high electrolyte concentration in
sweat
1. Energy & nutrient needs 120-150% of normal
2. Fat needed to meet high energy needs so
enzyme replacements used to control
steatorrhea
3. Liberal use of fluids & salt

367. Malabsorption SyndromesMalabsorption Syndromes
Celiac Disease (Gluten-sensitive enteropathy)
– sensitivity to gliadin, part of the protein
gluten, found in wheat, rye, barley & oats
1. Symptoms include weight loss, diarrhea,
fatigue, anemia (iron, folate, Vit. B12),
generalized malabsorption, bone disease
2. Avoiding foods containing gluten requires
reading labels!

368. An Overview
Noah Hoffman, 2006
Urinary SystemUrinary System

369. Functions of the Kidney:Functions of the Kidney:
Maintaining balanceMaintaining balance
• Regulation of body fluid volume and
osmolality
• Regulation of electrolyte balance
• Regulation of acid-base balance
• Excretion of waste products (urea,
ammonia, drugs, toxins)
• Production and secretion of hormones
• Regulation of blood pressure

371.
A. Renal Vein
B. Renal Artery
C. Ureter
D. Medulla
E. Renal Pelvis
F. Cortex
1. Ascending loop of
Henle
2. Descending loop of
Henle
3. Peritubular capillaries
4. Proximal tubule
5. Glomerulus
6. Distal tubule
The Kidney and the Nephron

372. The NephronThe Nephron
• Functional unit of the kidney (1,000,000)
• Responsible for urine formation:
o Filtration
o Secretion
o Reabsorption

373. •Glomerulus
•Afferent and
Efferent arterioles
•Proximal Tubule
•Loop of Henle
•Distal Tubule
•Collecting Duct
Components of
the nephron

374. From http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookEXCRET.html
Overview of nephron function

375. Filtration

376. THE GLOMERULUS

377. •Components of plasma cross the three layers of the
glomerular barrier during filtration
•Capillary endothelium
•Basement membrane (net negative charge)
•Epithelium of Bowman’s Capsule (Podocytes –filtration
slits allow size <60kD)
•The ability of a molecule to cross the membrane depends on
size, charge, and shape
• Glomerular filtrate therefore contains all molecules not
contained by the glomerular barrier - it is NOT URINE YET!
Plasma is filtered through the
glomerular barrier

378. Glomerular Filtration RateGlomerular Filtration Rate
(GFR)(GFR)
• Measure of functional capacity of the kidney
• Dependent on difference in pressures between
capillaries and Bowman’s space
• Normal = 120 ml/min =7.2 L/h=180 L/day!! (99% of
fluid filtered is reabs.)

379. Reabsorption
and secretion

380. ReabsorptionReabsorption
• Active Transport –requires ATP
o Na+, K+ ATP pumps
• Passive Transport-
o Na+ symporters (glucose, a.a., etc)
o Na+ antiporters (H+)
o Ion channels
o Osmosis

381. Factors influencingFactors influencing
ReabsorptionReabsorption
• Saturation: Transporters can get saturated
by high concentrations of a substance -
failure to resorb all of it results in its loss in
the urine (eg, renal threshold for glucose
is about 180mg/dl).
• Rate of flow of the filtrate: affects the time
available for the transporters to reabsorb
molecules.

382. What is ReabsorbedWhat is Reabsorbed
Where?Where?
Proximal tubule - reabsorbs 65 % of filtered Na+
as well as Cl-
, Ca2+
, PO4, HCO3
-
. 75-90% of H20.
Glucose, carbohydrates, amino acids, and small
proteins are also reabsorbed here.
Loop of Henle - reabsorbs 25% of filtered Na+.
Distal tubule - reabsorbs 8% of filtered Na+.
Reabsorbs HCO3-.
Collecting duct - reabsorbs the remaining 2% of
Na+ only if the hormone aldosterone is present.
H 0 depending on hormone ADH.

384. SecretionSecretion
• Proximal tubule – uric acid, bile salts, metabolites,
some drugs, some creatinine
• Distal tubule – Most active secretion takes place
here including organic acids, K+, H+, drugs, Tamm-
Horsfall protein (main component of hyaline casts).

385. Loop of HenleLoop of Henle
o Goal= make isotonic filtrate
into hypertonic urine (don’t
waste H20!!)
o Counter-current multiplier:
• Descending loop is permeable to
Na+, Cl-, H20
• Ascending loop is impermeable to
H20- active NaCl transport
• Creates concentration gradient in
interstitium
• Urine actually leaves hypotonic
but CD takes adv in making
hypertonic

386. 386http://renalcare.in/functions.html
Renal Anatomy

388. Digestive SystemDigestive System ระบบย่อยระบบย่อย
อาหารอาหาร******
388
http://www.fortheloveofbody.com/wp-
content/uploads/2013/04/digestive_system_functio
ns.jpg
http://www.docstoc.com/docs/32118246/Digestive-Enzymes-Table-11-2_-page-365-
Enzyme-Place-Substrate

389. 389
MusculoskeletalMusculoskeletal
โครงร่างกระดูกและกล้ามเนื้อโครงร่างกระดูกและกล้ามเนื้อ
http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/bone_joint_and_muscle_disorders/b
iology_of_the_musculoskeletal_system/muscles.html

390. 390
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bone_cross-section.svg
http://kids.britannica.com/comptons/art-117500/A-longitudinal-section-of-the-humerus-reveals-the-
bones-interior
กระดูกกระดูก

391. Bone and Muscle TrainingBone and Muscle Training
• Low bone mass in astronauts or bed-rest patients
การสูญเสียมวลกระดูก ในนักบินอวกาศ หรือ ผู้ป่วยที่ต้องนอน
พักฟื้นบนเตียงเป็นเวลานาน
• Gain of bone mass and muscle in a tennis player
391
http://www.fanpop.com/clubs/rafael-nadal/images/10818467/title/rafa-hot-body-photo
Rafael Nadal,
left handed tennis player
www.confessionsofanotsowillingworkaholic.com

392. 392http://renalcare.in/functions.html
Renal Anatomy

393. 393
http://www.agilethinkers.com/johanna_rothman_qa/
http://blueeyednightowl.blogspot.com/2011/07/q.html