futuristic urban transit system for small cities_the dissertation

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FUTURISTIC URBAN TRANSPORTATION
SYSTEM FOR SMALL CITIES
NAME : MRIDUL BHANDARI
( X – SEM. | V – YEAR )
ROLL NO. : 10EBGAR008
DISSERTATION GUIDE : AR. JASMINDER K. VYAS
BUDDHA INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTURE & TOWN PLANNING, UDAIPUR.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Background
Definitions
Aims
Objectives
Challenges & opportunities
Community location
Community form
Demographic changes
Community culture
Public health
Community resources
Strategies
Multi-modal strategies
Active transportation
Concepts of transportation in small urban areas
Urban lift sharing service Transportation management associations
Public bicycles Local taxes or charges, ring-fenced for transport
Call a bus service City-wide campaigns
Inner-city night delivery
Policy strategy for clean vehicles

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DEFINITIONS
 Transportation System :
The textbook definition of a transport system or a mode is a system for moving persons
or goods consisting of three components :
(a) The vehicle ( equipment ) is what moves objects or traffic ( people, goods ). The
vehicle consists of a container and some type of motive power, either onboard or
elsewhere.
(b) The guide way is what the vehicles move along. The guide way consists of links and
nodes that together form a network. A sequence of links is called route. A terminal
is a node where traffic is transferred from one vehicle to another.
(c) The operation plans is a set of procedures by which the traffic and vehicles are
moved over the guide way, including schedules or timetables, crew assignments and
control systems.
Transportation systems, either existing or envisaged for the future, can be classified
according to these components and their relations to the larger economic, social and
physical system in which they occur. Guide ways often reside on or within the Earth’s
surface and are therefore described as surface or ground transportation system. e.g.
highways and railways. Some systems, however, have their guide ways in the air or on
the water. In this case, their principal facilities are the ports, either airports or harbors.
Vehicles operating over these guide ways may be similarly classified. Automobiles and
trucks operate on highways. Locomotives and various types of railroad cars operate on
railways and airplanes and ships operate in air and water respectively. Operation plans
provide the timetable, crew schedules, control systems, protocols that enables these
vehicles to operate safely and efficiently.
Other ways to categorize modes are also useful. One categorization differentiates
between public and private. E.g. freight railroads in U.S. are generally owned and
operated by private organizations, but in many countries they are publically owned and
operated. Passenger railroads generally consist of publically owned vehicles and
operation plans, but may operate over private railways. Airline services are provided

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privately owned airplanes operating between publically owned and operated airports
under the control of a public air traffic control system.
Urban transit systems are increasingly public in their guide ways, vehicles and operation
plans. This mode illustrates another dichotomy of modes: urban vs interregional. Some
transit modes only serve one urban region, others connect many urban regions into an
interregional system. e.g. an urban bus system vs an interregional bus network.
Each transportation system operates within a larger economic, social and physical
environment, as noted above. Accordingly, each system generates certain external
effects or externalities on its environment. Among these are emissions, noise and
damage to properties and persons, both those using the system and those adjacent to
it. Emissions, largely from vehicles, degrade the air, water and soil through their exhaust
and spills of hazardous materials. Noise from vehicle operations impact society within
hearing distance. Passengers and bystanders are injured or killed when crash occurs,
and accidents also damage or destroy goods and property.
 AIM :
To understand the future of urban transportation system at small cities.
 OBJECTIVES :
To understand the challenges and opportunities of transport facilities.
To understand new concepts of transit systems for small cities.
 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES :
COMMUNITY LOCATION :
A community’s location, particularly in relation to its neighbors, can define
its transportation context. Small or rural communities close to larger cities
may be growing quickly with a lot of commuting activity, and may be concerned with
preserving residents’ access to employment and educational opportunities. They may be
able to “piggyback” on public transit or other services based in the urban area.

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At the same time, more remote communities face the challenge of retaining
younger residents who are seeking a career or post-secondary education.
However, they can maximize opportunities for residents by partnering with
neighboring communities to create or improve options for travel both
within and among themselves.
COMMUNITY FORM :
As they seek to become more sustainable, many communities are growing
more aware of the importance of reconsidering conventional approaches to
land use and infrastructure. They are conscious of the need to rebalance
development patterns that encourage travel by car. Dispersed, very low-
density land uses make it harder for transit, active transportation and
ridesharing strategies to succeed.
In contrast, traditional village cores have a concentration of shops,
businesses and housing that makes them practical places to walk or cycle,
and that can make them a potential hub for public transit services between
communities. However, many towns are struggling with deteriorating
downtowns that are being slowly replaced by new retail on the outskirts.
This form of growth increases automobile use by increasing trip lengths for
in-town residents; frequently, it does not provide basic connectivity for
walking or cycling trips. A new “big box” store on the edge of one town may
also replace several small shops in nearby communities, increasing the travel
required by residents to meet their daily needs.
DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGES :
For many communities, population trends will be a major driver for efforts
to develop new transportation solutions.
Many young people who cannot drive or afford a car also find it hard to
reach jobs in rural areas, but can eliminate this barrier to employment by

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moving to an urban centre. This is likely among the reasons that many small
and rural communities have found themselves with a smaller proportion of
young adults than urban centres, a situation that can make it hard for
employers to find the skilled workers they need. Small towns and rural areas
that make it easier for young people to travel within and between
communities — whether on foot, in a carpool, or by bike or bus—can increase
the number of youth who choose to live and work there.
This is especially true in retirement and resort communities. As seniors age and face
a reduced ability to drive, they become more dependent on other travel
options to meet personal needs like shopping, medical care and social
engagements.
COMMUNITY CULTURE :
For very good reasons, many small and rural communities are “car-first”
places where the habits and attitudes of the most influential citizens tend to
be automobile-focused. This means that efforts to improve travel options in
small and rural communities must first overcome a culture of decision-
making that favours cars and people that have access to them, while it
disadvantages residents who cannot use cars, such as children, the elderly,
and persons with disabilities. Fortunately, these same communities benefit
from a strong culture of neighborliness that is an important resource for
volunteer-based programs that can improve travel options for those who
need it.
PUBLIC HEALTH :
Residents of rural areas are also much more likely to be injured or die in
motor vehicle collisions. At least in part, this situation arises from their
tendency to drive longer distances on higher-speed roads than urban
residents. Therefore, reducing the amount of driving in rural communities is
one way to reduce death and injury from collisions. Encouraging active modes of
transportation like walking and cycling is one strategy to combat this trend.

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Staying healthy is one concern, but maintaining good access to healthcare is another. A
trend towards centralization and specialization of health services means that some
communities are losing local healthcare options. Residents are increasingly obliged to
travel between communities to obtain the care they need—and this is a particular
constraint for individuals who cannot drive or do not have access to a car, yet who must
travel longer distances. They need better options, which could include volunteer ride
arrangements, door-to-door Para transit, regular scheduled transit or (as in some
communities) a hybrid model that integrates aspects of each.
COMMUNITY RESOURCES :
While economic constraints do vary from place to place, they loom large in
many small and rural communities. Where the local property tax base is
weak due a lack of population growth or declining employment, it can be
difficult to secure funds for new transportation initiatives that must compete
with day-to-day priorities like road repairs and safety improvements. Even
though many communities are eligible for capital funding support from
federal and provincial governments, the onus remains on supporters of new
initiatives to demonstrate positive returns, which is challenging when
benefits are only prospective (such as increasing tourism, attracting retirees
or keeping youth in the community).
In smaller communities, municipal staff often have many roles and are too
busy with day-to-day concerns to devote time and energy to more
experimental projects. It is also hard for them to remain fully aware of the
growing array of transportation funding programs offered by provincial and
federal governments, and to find the time to prepare and submit
applications. They also may not have a strong sense of where to best invest
scarce dollars to maximize their return on investment.
Similarly, non-governmental organizations in smaller communities can play
critical roles as champions that create awareness, shape public opinion, instill

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a sense of ownership, and harness community energy. However, they
typically lack the transportation-related expertise that would help them tap
funding sources and develop innovative transportation initiatives.
One way to begin to overcome these serious limitations on financial, human
resource and community capacity is through a focus on better coordination
of the community’s current resources. Many small towns and rural areas
have a variety of transportation services and resources that are geared toward special
populations—seniors, persons with disabilities, schoolchildren or tourists. Re-examining
those systems with an eye to maximizing overall community benefits can lead to greater
cooperation and coordination that reduce gaps and eliminate inefficiencies.
By bringing together different sectors (such as education, health, recreation,
social services and tourism), smaller communities can also shift focus from
their individual responsibilities to a more collective view of how best to meet
the travel needs of individuals.
Finally, small communities have the inherent benefit of flexibility. Their
municipal administrations have fewer layers of management, streamlined
processes and more direct access to senior decision-makers, making it easier
to get new directions approved. It is also more likely that one person with a
good idea can be an effective champion, building the attention and support
they need to move forward with it.
 STRATEGIES :
MULTIMODAL STRATEGIES :
Many drivers rely almost entirely on their cars, which offer great flexibility
and convenience, for their personal mobility. However, some drivers as well
as most non-drivers rely on multiple travel options—walking or cycling for
some trips, carpooling occasionally, and taking transit when it works for
them. This section of the guide discusses strategies that offer broad support

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for this “suite of alternatives” to driving; subsequent sections discuss
strategies more suited to improving specific travel options.
Smart growth : In recent years, many of larger urban centres have adopted
“smart growth” strategies (which integrate long-term views on land use,
transportation and other sectors) to tackle issues such as a shortage of
developable land, spiraling infrastructure costs, traffic congestion and other
threats to economic and environmental health. In their own way, smaller
communities (many of which face their own growth pressures) are also
increasingly recognizing that an integrated approach to community
development is a key to long-term prosperity and quality of life.
Communities that may particularly benefit from integrated plans include:
 exurban communities near metropolitan centres that want to improve
access to jobs
 destination communities that want to attract tourists and new residents
production communities that face industrial decline and want to
improve access to markets, retain services and diversify their economy
By fostering more compact development linked by a well connected
transportation system, even small and rural communities can reduce their
reliance on automobiles while improving their sustainability in other ways.
Integrated transportation planning : A plan is the first step in successful
implementation. The creation of a transportation plan is an effective way to address
multiple challenges like infrastructure deficits, social equity, economic development and
environmental concerns. It also provides an avenue to evaluating alternative projects
and identifying priorities that can attract funding from federal, provincial and territorial
governments. It is relatively uncommon for small and rural communities to tackle a
comprehensive transportation plan, but by doing so they can actively integrate
considerations around various modes (car use, walking, cycling, transit), as well as
strengthen support for land use plans and economic development goals. Transportation

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plans also provide a forum for coordinating interests and actions with other
governments (either adjacent municipalities or provincial/territorial jurisdictions).
Context-sensitive roads : Roads are important to travellers in small and
`rural communities, regardless of whether they are car drivers, transit passengers,
pedestrians or cyclists. Best practices in road design have evolved greatly in the last
decade or so, and the “one-size-fits-all” convention has been replaced with a “context
sensitive” approach. Roads, particularly those in developed areas, are now seen as
public spaces that motivate desirable forms of development and support quality of life.
Wherever pedestrians and cyclists want to travel, roads should accommodate them with
at least basic levels of safety and comfort. Experience has shown that preferred design
features often have significant secondary benefits—for example, paved shoulders on
rural roads have been found to extend road life and improve safety for drivers.
Information, education and promotion : Transport Demand Management (TDM)
measures are an effective complement to supply-side changes—and although they are
more common to urban centres, smaller communities are starting to explore them.
Some TDM measures are particular to one mode, and are discussed later in this guide.
Others provide a platform for addressing multiple modes at once, such as:
 workplace travel plans, which reduce reliance on car-based commutes and can
help workplaces attract and retain younger workers by making it easier to
commute without a car.
 information tools, like traveller information pages on a municipal or community
Web site, that help people get around as efficiently as possible by walking,
cycling, carpooling, transit and driving.
 special events like the national Commuter Challenge, a one-week competition
that involves entire communities in finding alternatives to driving to work.
Another emerging TDM tool that has had significant results in larger urban cities is
individualized marketing; this involves giving customized travel information to people
based on their needs and interests, and can reduce car use by up to 10%. There is one

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caveat to the use of TDM tools like special events and individualized marketing: they
require the travel options being promoted to be feasible, at the very least. It is wasteful
and counterproductive to try to motivate individuals to use travel options that do not go
where or when they need to travel, or that are inherently unsafe.
ACTIVE TRANSPORTATION :
DEFINITION :
Active transportation is human-powered travel. The term refers primarily to walking and
cycling, but also to wheel chairing, in-line skating, skateboarding, cross-country skiing,
snowshoeing and even kayaking or canoeing.
BENEFITS :
 It improves public health by fighting obesity and chronic illnesses like heart
disease and Type 2 diabetes.
 It offers independent mobility to children, youth, seniors, low-income families
and persons with disabilities—all of whom can be left out when cars are
required to get around.
 It brings economic benefits by reducing the social costs of transportation,
supporting local stores and services, and attracting tourists who wish to get
around without a car.
 It enhances street life, increasing citizen interaction and improving personal
security.
 It is emissions-free, making it a powerful weapon against climate change and air
pollution.
In view of the demographic trends facing many smaller communities, the rewards of
active transportation for older and younger persons are especially notable.
Communities that support walking are more likely to be attractive places to live for
aging adults and families with young children—as well as youth who are developing
independent lives but do not have access to a car. These are important

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considerations for communities where the population is both aging and either
stagnant or declining.
CHALLENGES :
While the benefits of active transportation are real, so also are various challenges.
Only relatively short trips are practical for pedestrians, and even many cyclists are
unlikely to regularly travel more than a few kilometers. Communities that have
dispersed land uses may lack corridors of strong travel demand that would warrant
better facilities for walking or cycling. Harsh climatic conditions including wind, rain,
snow, heat and cold can dampen enthusiasm for active transportation.
The key to making active transportation a more viable option for community
residents is to focus where opportunities are greatest. Compact communities like
traditional small towns are ideal environments for active transportation, given the
short lengths of many trips. Neighboring communities separated by only a few
kilometers can work together to foster walking and cycling between them,
increasing opportunities for residents and businesses of each. Communities with a
strong base of practitioners or interest groups in the health sector may find that
health concerns are a strong motivator for action by both government and
individuals.
SUPPORTIVE LANDUSE :
Supportive land use is critical to making active transportation a practical choice for
individuals. This is true not only of overall community form and growth
management, but of individual developments.
Community form : Compact, mixed-use community cores do much to make
walking and cycling more practical by increasing the potential for short trips.
Because distance is a barrier to active transportation, homes should be as close as
possible to schools, offices and stores. Sprawling subdivisions discourage active

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travel, while higher densities bring friends, stores and restaurants within reach.
Mixed uses let people do several errands at once. Because improvements to land
use can happen only through development or redevelopment activity, municipalities
should act decisively to make development applications as supportive as possible
(such as through stricter bye-laws, helpful guidelines and more rigorous
development conditions). Larger applications, such as those for subdivision plans,
need to integrate street grids, sidewalks and landscaped trails that recognize the
needs and desires of an aging, environmentally aware and health-conscious
population.
Site design : The design of individual buildings and development site is also
important to pedestrians and cyclists. Key features include secure and convenient
bicycle parking at major destinations and multiple-unit dwellings, showers and
change rooms at workplaces, canopied and at-grade store entrances, parking lots
behind or beside buildings rather than next to the street, and pathways that link
building entrances to nearby sidewalks and trails.
ACTIVE TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES :
Pedestrians and cyclists are very exposed to their environment, and as a result are
sensitive to the quality of travel facilities. They will avoid routes that they think are
inconvenient or unsafe. The benefits of having land uses close together will be
reduced or even erased by sidewalks that are insufficiently buffered from busy
traffic lanes, by road lanes that are too narrow to be shared safely by bicycles and
cars, or by poor maintenance of otherwise attractive sidewalks and trails.
On-road facilities : Streets are usually the shortest route between homes,
workplaces and shops. They serve everyone, but should give priority to slower and
more vulnerable users. Universal (or barrier-free) design helps everyone get

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around—infirm seniors, adults in wheelchairs or scooters, shoppers with carts, and
stroller-pushing parents. Pedestrians benefit from wide sidewalks and boulevards,
frequent crossings of main streets, and quality lighting. In towns, cyclists are
attracted to roads with dedicated bicycle lanes and wide curb lanes. In more rural
areas, paved shoulders offer a safer travel environment for both pedestrians and
cyclists. Regular sweeping, snow and ice control and timely pothole patching also
help keep streets and sidewalks safe.
Off-road facilities : Trails offer a safe alternative to on-road routes,
especially where there are large numbers of children or no sidewalks. Trails need
not be long—a short pathway (such as one connecting a residential subdivision to a
nearby school) can provide a travel option that did not previously exist, by replacing
a route along a high-speed rural highway. There are even a growing number of
examples in Canada of communities investing in pedestrian bridges, such as those
crossing highways or watercourses, as an integral part of trail systems. Of course,
trail development has been underway for years in some communities, with many
success stories about increasing use for recreational or tourism purposes. Those
successes are now being leveraged to emphasize focus on utilitarian use. In some
cases, minor new links are required to make recreational trails more useful to reach
everyday destinations.
Way finding : For active transportation users along streets or
trails, way finding and route signage are valuable features. Helping people find their
way is especially important when trails divert from developed areas with familiar
landmarks. It also has a promotional aspect by making non-users aware of the
existence of active transportation facilities. For example, roads with paved
shoulders or wide curb lanes may have been designed to foster cycling; signs and
pavement markings can inform motorists of this fact, and may have the added
benefit of making drivers more alert to the possible presence of cyclists.

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End-of-trip facilities : For some cyclists, the barriers they find at their
destination loom just as large as the challenges they overcome along the way. Long-
distance commuters need a place to shower and change at work, and some cyclists
are discouraged by inadequate or insecure parking that puts their (often quite
costly) bicycles at risk of theft. While property owners are ultimately responsible for
resolving these issues, municipal bylaws can require solutions to be part of new
developments. Communities can go further by offering high-quality public bicycle
parking in downtown areas, and even by subsidizing the installation of bike racks at
workplaces.
Integration with transit : Small or rural communities that have some
form of public transit service should make the best of intermodal opportunities.
Transit and active transportation are more effective together than as independent
options; moreover, transit users are almost always pedestrians—and, more and
more, they are cyclists as well. To build ridership, communities can add bike racks to
buses, install bike parking at major transit hubs, and upgrade walking and cycling
routes around transit stops.
Removing non-physical barriers : Not all impediments to walking and
cycling are facility-related. Some can be overcome by addressing the attitudes,
awareness, understanding or skills of potential pedestrians and cyclists. Best of all,
effective measures need not be expensive and they can make full use of community
energy and volunteer resources. They include :
 campaigns (e.g. Bike to Work Week) that raise awareness and encourage
people to try new ways of getting around.
 walking or cycling maps that highlight recommended routes including
sidewalks, trails, bike lanes, and roads with wide curb lanes or paved
shoulders.
 promotional events to mark milestones (e.g. approval of a cycling plan,
opening of a new trail, publication of a walking map) and attract media

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attention that can raise awareness and build public support for future
measures.
 awards that recognize the contributions of key individuals and
organizations.
 cycling skills courses that teach cyclists to ride safely on the road.
 educational campaigns that encourage drivers to treat cyclists and
pedestrians with care and courtesy.
 NEW CONCEPTS OF TRANSPORTATION IN SMALL URBAN AREAS :
CONCEPT 1 : URBAN LIFT-SHARING SERVICES
KEY CHARACTERISTICS :
Urban Lift-sharing Services are matching services that bring together people travelling in
the same direction, aiming to encourage individuals to share private vehicles for
particular journeys. Innovative formal lift-sharing schemes use advanced technologies
like matching software, the internet and optional call centres for trip matching, and are
open to all. Such schemes have the potential to take the old idea of lift-sharing to a new
level and to better reach the necessary critical mass of users to make them work. The
main focus of these services is commuter trafﬁc in urban agglomerations and the
surrounding regions.
Urban Lift-sharing Services such as Liftshare.com (UK) and Pendlernetz (Germany) have
reached a mature status and prove to be reliable. They received positive publicity, for
example as response to rising gas prices. However, the concept of Urban Lift-sharing
Services is still not widely spread across Europe, although practitioners see no big
obstacles to transfer the idea to other countries. The development and implementation
of Lift-sharing Services has relatively low costs and entry barriers.

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BENEFITS :
An Urban Lift-sharing scheme,
 helps users to achieve considerable cost savings on gas and parking.
 increases mobility choices and accessibility in areas that are not well served by
public transport, with relatively low start-up and running costs.
 has the potential to reduce the number of parking spaces at participating
companies.
 reduces the need for a private car.
 has the potential to reduce congestion, energy consumption, air pollution and
CO2 emissions.
 can improve the quality of life through less commuting stress and improved
sociability.
 improves work-life balance for lift sharers that are more likely to leave the office
on time.
KEY ASPECTS FOR IMPLEMENTATION :
City size At least large regional coverage of journey to work areas required.
Costs  Relatively low start up and running costs of service.
 Additional marketing costs, which may be higher depending
on chosen strategy.
Time horizon Short term (<3 years).
Stakeholders involved  Private service provider sets up and operates scheme.
 Public authorities, companies, schools and other
organizations buy in.
 Financial and political support from public sector.
Crucial factors  Creative and cost-efficient marketing.
 Political and financial support from public sector.
Excluding factors In principle no big obstacles for transfer (relatively low costs
and entry barriers).
Undesirable effects None

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CONCEPT 2 : PUBLIC BICYCLES
Public Bicycles are innovative schemes of rental or free bicycles in urban areas. They
differ from traditional, mostly leisure-oriented bicycle rental services as they provide
fast and easy access and can be used for daily mobility with one way use being possible.
Public Bicycles can be seen as part of the public transport system and offer the user a
highly flexible travel option for inner urban trips.
Well working Public Bicycle schemes exist in different formats and the idea is catching
up in many European countries, such as Germany, The Netherlands, France and
Scandinavian countries. Recently they also started to be implemented in several cities in
Spain. Technically simple but theft-sensitive schemes have already been implemented
since the late sixties. Today’s modern concepts are much more sophisticated and have
diversified in organizational layout, business models, and the technology applied
towards “smart bikes” (rental process via smart card or mobile phone). The
transferability of Public Bicycle schemes to cities with appropriate framework conditions
has been proven in many cases.
BENEFITS :
A public bicycle scheme ;
 provides a fast, convenient and fl exibleinner urban transport option.
 can be a “door opener” to increase the acceptance of cycling as a valuable urban
transport mode in cities that still lack a good level of bicycle use.

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 also makes sense in cities that have a good level of cycling as it adds a valuable
element to existing mobility services.
 increases mobility choices, with low costs compared to other public transport
measures.
 encourages intermodal travelling in connection with public transport.
 is a wise use of inner urban space, e.g. when bicycle racks substitute parking places
for cars.
 strengthens the local identity as it becomes part of the urban landscape.
City size Most suitable for medium-sized to large cities
(> 200,000 inhabitants).
Costs  Compared to traditional public
transport relatively cost efficient
solution, but depending on the type of
scheme low to considerable start-up
and running costs.
 In most cases, financial back up needed
to compensate lack of profitability.
Stakeholders involved  Service implementation and operation:
public transport operators, street
furniture companies, in some cases
local authorities.
 Political support from local authorities.
 User associations.
Crucial factors  Minimum standard of bicycle
infrastructure for safe and convenient
cycling.
 Start big with sufficient number of

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bicycles to achieve a real impact.
 Resources and space for racks/parking
to guarantee the availability of bicycles.
Excluding factors  Dangerous cycling conditions.
 Lack of sufficient financial resources for
start-up.
Undesirable effects Potential problems with mutual respect
between cyclists and pedestrians
as well as car drivers (especially cities with little
bicycle use).
CONCEPT 3 : CALL-A-BUS SERVICES
Call-a-bus Services are demand responsive public transport schemes that adapt their
itinerary and timetable to suit a particular transport demand. Users need to call and
request a pick-up in advance. Call-a-bus Services are particularly suitable for medium to
low density areas. This includes suburban areas as well as small towns and their
surroundings in rural areas, where traditional mass transit cannot satisfy the needs of
the travellers in a cost-efficient way. They can also be a recommendable option in times
of low demand.
Call-a-bus Services have not had a big impact on the overall transport patterns yet.
Nevertheless, the idea is spreading and a wide range of schemes exists all across
Europe. The general idea behind the concept seems to be well transferable all over
Europe, if tailored to the national and local context.

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BENEFITS :
Call-a-bus scheme,
 improve the accessibility in areas where or at times when conventional services
cannot do this in a satisfactory way.
 tackle social exclusion of people that do not have access to a car.
 offer potential cost reductions when replacing conventional services in areas or
times of low demand.
 can increase public transport use through an improved service quality (flexible
and convenient door-to-door transport).
 potentially reduce the need for a private car (or a second family car).
City size  Suitable for wide range of
settlement structures.
 Focus on mid to low density areas.
Costs No cheap solution, but potential to save
costs when replacing traditional public
transport services in areas and at times of
low demand; e.g. the national Swiss PubliCar
Scheme showed a 5% increased cost
efﬁciency when replacing conventional bus
lines with less than 8 passengers or a cost
recovery of <20%.
Stakeholders involved  Implementation: public transport
operators, expert consultants,
providers of disposition systems.

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 Support and funding from public
authorities.
Crucial factor  Serve areas and times of low
demand where Call-a-bus schemes
show their competitive edge.
 Availability of public funding for
ﬂexible public transport services.
Excluding factor Prohibitive legal and regulatory framework,
which can be decisive for the layout of the
service (e.g. possibility of door-to-door
service) and the availability of public co-
funding.
Undesirable effects Possible inefﬁ cient use of Call-a-bus
Services by clients when line bound services
could also be used for certain routes.
CONCEPT 4 : INNER-CITY NIGHT DELIVERY
Inner-city Night Delivery concerns deliveries to business (e.g. shops) in the inner-city
area during night-time when the city is usually quiet and inactive. Typical times are
between 22.00h and 06.00h.
The Concept of Inner-city Night Delivery addresses the following aspects:
 Delivery during night time using specially equipped vehicles (low noise
equipment, CNG etc).
 Allowance for larger trucks to enter the city centre (prohibited during the day).

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BENEFITS :
Inner-city night delivery,
 reduces delays for the road users during the day by using free road capacity at
night.
 reduces emissions and energy consumption because the streets are less
crowded and therefore freight vehicles can drive straight to the delivery point
with a lower risk of traffic jams.
 improves accessibility of the city for the freight operators, as well as for private
drivers and public transport, by shifting trips from the crowded day time to the
night.
 enhances road safety, i.e. if more transport vehicles deliver at night, the streets
are less crowded during the day and thus safer.
City size Rather for medium-sized and big cities (>
500,000 inhabitants).
Costs  Possible higher costs for low
noise vehicles and equipment,
and higher personnel costs.
 By contrast, lower transport
costs because of a faster and
more efficient delivery process.
Stakeholders involved  Public authorities.
 Planning authority.
 Transport operators.
 Shops/firms which receive
deliveries.
 Residents.
Crucial factors  Access possibilities.
 Commitment of all stakeholders.

24
 Strong political will and support.
Excluding factors  No access or possible space
available for night delivery.
 Reluctance of the residents, the
transport operators and the
businesses.
 Lack of public authority will.
Undesirable effects  More noise during the night
because of the delivery.
 Less investigation into
intermodal trafﬁc solutions or
inner-city planning solutions.
CONCEPT 5 : POLICY STRATEGY FOR CLEAN VEHICLES
Policy Strategy for Clean Vehicles aims to provide long-term stability for the
stakeholders of the Alternatively Fuelled Vehicles (AFV) market and tries to
involve new consumer groups. Such a strategy represents a clear vision of how
an AFV society would look like, a clear analysis of the obstacles and a systematic
approach to overcome barriers. The basis is often a strong political
commitment. The strategy will differ from city to city depending on the type(s)
of fuel available, the type(s) of vehicles, target groups etc.
BENEFITS :
A long-term strategy for the introduction of Clean Vehicles,
 provides the market long-term stability for investments.
 gives companies security when investing in new technology.
 decreases emissions of greenhouse gases.

25
 reduces local emissions.
 reduces dependency on oil.
 reduces noise emissions.
 increases the demand for alternative fuels, which leads to increased
availability.
 contributes to clean air management (legislation).
City size No restriction. AFVs can be introduced in all cities.
Cooperation between small cities creates a critical
mass of demand.
Costs Medium cost, depending on nature of incentives.
Time horizon Short term (<3 years). The vehicles exist (biogas,
ethanol, very energy efﬁcient vehicles), as well as a
broad knowledge and availability of fuels.
Stakeholders involved  Politicians.
 National and local authorities.
 Private companies.
 Car producers.
 Fuel distributors.
Crucial factors  Political interest.
 Environmental awareness.
Excluding factors  Discouraging taxation/legislation.
 Rules and regulations that counteract the
use of biofuels.
Undesirable effects During start-up, service and maintenance may be
weak.

26
CONCEPT 6 : TRANSPORTATION MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATIONS
Transportation Management Associations (TMA) are public-private partnerships that
address local transport related issues and operate under a variety of organizational
structures, depending upon the nature and duration of the problems addressed, the
mission, the members and the funding sources available. They propose selected
approaches that facilitate the movement of people and goods within an area, provide
transport demand management assistance and give a voice in transport decision
making, including carpooling and public transport services.
TMAs vary considerably from one region to another and it is therefore difficult to
elaborate a neat definition. Perhaps the most defining characteristics of TMAs are their
diversity and flexibility, which make them easily transferable to other contexts.
BENEFITS :
The development of a properly conceived, efficiently operated and adequately funded
TMA,
 solves concrete and perceived problems and proposes practical solutions at an
appropriate scale.
 takes into account and integrates the aims of different stakeholders and creates the
necessary conditions for an efficient stakeholder involvement.
 ensures better economic cooperation and financial savings to businesses and
employees.
 creates good transport infrastructures and alternatives to ease commuting.
 contributes to reducing congestion, parking problems and to improving job
accessibility.

27
 increases accessibility and affordability of transport alternatives.
 ensures acceptable transit/travel times and reliability of transport.
City size Not relevant.
Costs  Medium range of annual expenditures.
 Main incomes; Membership dues, fees
for services, public grants, private
contributions.
Stakeholders  Employers.
 Transportation planning agencies.
 Environmental government agencies.
 Cities and towns planning board.
 Universities etc.
Crucial factors For launching a TMA :
 Leadership of a (private sector)
champion.
 Core membership and sustained
funding.
For enabling a continued existence :
 Effective public-private partnerships
and good lines of communication.
 Market/customer based attractive
services.
Excluding factors  Lack of political will.
 Lack of existence of a clear and
common problem to be solved.
Undesirable effects Solutions can be at odds with government
preferences.

28
CONCEPT 7 : LOCAL TAXES OR CHARGES, RING-FENCED FOR TRANSPORT
This Concept refers to the introduction of taxes or charges at the local level that aim to
benefit the urban transport system as a whole. They differ from traditional taxes or
charges, as all revenues collected through these taxes are directly reinvested to improve
the local transport system. These charges or taxes are policy instruments requiring good
cooperation between all levels of governance.
The charges or taxes can take various forms, such as a road user charge, a workplace
parking levy or a congestion charge. This particular concept has been extensively
analyzed over the last few years, yet the number of practical examples available remains
quite low. The fact that the schemes in operation are robust and working properly may
not be enough to prove that the Concept is already mature.
BENEFITS :
In a market economy, Local Taxes or Charges, Ring-fenced for Transport can,
 act as signals to consumers about the real costs associated with particular goods or
services.
 generate revenues for the improvement of the overall transport system, encouraging a
better modal balance.
 reduce traffic congestion and volumes in metropolitan areas.
 create a better quality of life and public recognition of high environmental and societal
costs of everyday mobility.
 elaborate robust technologies to ease commuting and ensure road safety.
 contribute to an efficient distribution of goods and services.

29
City size Medium-sized to big cities (> 200.000 inhabitants).
Costs Differ drastically from one scheme to another.
Local authorities should foresee a budget for :
 Equipment costs (camera, tool booths.
 Operating costs (call centre enquiries, staff
costs).
 PT improvement expenses.
Time horizon The elaboration of a pricing scheme will take some
time but impacts will be noticeable quickly after
launch.
Stakeholders  National Government.
 Regional Government.
 Local Government.
 Transport authority.
 Planning authority.
 Transport operators.
 Emergency services.
Crucial factors  Political will and strong leadership.
 Good management based on clear rules:
set the right charge and communicate it
well.
Excluding factors  Political fears.
 Problem to ﬁnance alternative means of
transport.
Undesirable effects Social exclusion could become problematic if the
pricing scheme is not designed correctly.

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