This document summarizes a study examining how firms in emerging markets fund their working capital requirements. It discusses internal sources like cash advances from parent companies as well as external sources such as local banks. The study analyzes surveys of foreign subsidiary managers, finding they prefer theoretically optimal sources like borrowing with parent guarantees or local bank loans over less optimal sources. It also uses General Motors' operations in Poland as a case study, highlighting issues emerging markets pose for funding working capital.
This document analyzes sources of funds and investment activities of venture capital funds in Germany, Israel, Japan, and the UK using a newly constructed dataset of around 500 venture capital firms. The summary examines:
1) Sources of venture capital funds differ significantly between countries, with banks most important in Germany, corporations in Israel, insurance companies in Japan, and pension funds in the UK.
2) Investment patterns also vary, with differences in the stage, sector, and location of financed companies between countries.
3) The analysis finds relationships between sources of funding and investment patterns, for example bank-backed venture capital firms invest later than individually or corporately-backed funds. It examines how financial systems relate to these activities
The document discusses foreign direct investment (FDI) and multinational corporations. It examines the article "FDI and Multinationals: Patterns, Impacts and Policies" by A.T. Tavares and S. Young. The document summarizes key points from the article, including the main drivers for firms to engage in FDI, such as accessing new markets or resources. It also classifies FDI based on factors like ownership structure and firm motives. The impacts of FDI from the perspective of host and home countries are outlined, noting concerns about national welfare as well as potential benefits from technology transfer and competitive pressures spurring efficiency.
Unit 1: Environmental Context of International Business, Framework for analyzing international
business environment – Domestic, foreign and global environments and their impact on
international business decisions.
Global Trading Environment: World trade in goods and services – Major trends and developments;
World trade and protectionism – Tariff and non-tariff barriers; Counter trade.
Unit 2: International Financial Environment: Foreign investments -Pattern, Structure and effects;
Movements in foreign exchange and interest rates and then impact on trade and investment flows.
Unit 3: International Economic Institutions and Agreements: WTO, IMF, World Bank UNCTAD,
Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC), GSP, GSTP and other International agreements;
International commodity trading and agreements.
Unit 4: Multinational Corporations and their involvement in International Business: Issues in
foreign investments, technology transfer, pricing and regulations; International collaborative
arrangements and strategic alliances.
Unit 5: Regional Economic Groupings in Practice: Regionalism vs. multilaterallism, Structure and
functioning of EC and NAFTA; Regional economic cooperation. Emerging Developments and
Other Issues: Growing concern for ecology; Counter trade; IT and international business.
The authors analyze a large stratified random sample of firms that provided them with measures of performance and each firm’s top manager’s perception of the severity of business environment constraints faced by his/her firm. Unlike most existing studies that rely on external and aggregated proxy measures of the business environment, defined to include legal and institutional features, the authors have information from each surveyed firm.
The authors find that foreign ownership and competition have an impact on performance – measured as the level of sales controlling for inputs. Export orientation of the firm does not have an effect on performance once ownership is taken into account. When analyzing the impact of perceived constraints, they show that few retain explanatory power once they are introduced jointly rather than one at a time, or when country, industry and year fixed effects are introduced. Indeed, country fixed effects largely absorb the explanatory power of the constraints faced by individual firms. Replicating the analysis with commonly used country-level indicators of the business environment, they do not find much of a relationship between constraints and performance.
Authored by: Simon Commander, Jan Svejnar
Published in 2007
Etude PwC "Fit for business" sur les entreprises de l'Eurozone (nov. 2014)PwC France
http://bit.ly/EntreprisesEurozone
Les entreprises de la zone euro ne parviennent pas à transformer les défis financiers et structurels issus de la crise actuelle en opportunités de croissance. Elles sont 20% à penser que la zone euro pourrait s’effondrer, mais sont 36% à n’avoir mis en place aucun plan pour lutter contre la crise persistante de région. Telles sont les conclusions d'une étude menée par le cabinet d’audit et de conseil PwC auprès d’environ 400 dirigeants européens (hors services financiers).
Artykuł podejmuje zagadnienie instytucjonalnych aspektów internacjonalizacji przedsiębiorstw. Autorzy koncentrują uwagę Czytelnika na roli, jaką odgrywają formalne instytucje
w procesach umiędzynarodowienia przedsiębiorstw, w szczególności w zakresie zagranicznych
inwestycji bezpośrednich. Celem artykułu jest prezentacja oraz próba oceny polityki wsparcia
zagranicznych inwestycji bezpośrednich wychodzących z Polski po okresie globalnego kryzysu ekonomicznego 2008. Autorzy najpierw podjęli studia literaturowe w odniesieniu do instytucjonalnych aspektów umiędzynarodowienia, następnie przeprowadzili badania jakościowe
z zastosowaniem metody wywiadu bezpośredniego z reprezentantami instytucji makro- i mezoszczebla (ministerstwo, władze regionalne, organizacje otoczenia biznesu). Wywiady pozwoliły na scharakteryzowanie podmiotowego oraz przestrzennego zorientowania polityki wsparcia zagranicznych inwestycji bezpośrednich wychodzących z Polski oraz na zasygnalizowanie
wyzwań, jakie rysują się przed tą polityką po 2008 roku. Uzyskane rezultaty stanowią punkt
wyjścia do dalszych, bardziej szczegółowych badań w przyszłości.
* Projekt badawczy: No. 11430010 Small Grants Program of the International Visegrad
Fund „Outward FDI policies in Visegrad Countries”.
Teece's 1985 paper critiques Hymer's emphasis on market power over efficiency in analyzing multinational enterprises (MNEs). Teece argues that MNEs vary in form and motivation, pursuing both efficiency and rent extraction. He identifies three issues with Hymer's analysis: it overlooks efficiency motivations for foreign direct investment, oversimplifies host country controls on MNEs, and underemphasizes dynamic considerations like how market power and efficiency roles may change over time. Empirical literature on MNE impact is mixed, with some evidence they may increase concentration more in developing countries but also spur productivity through knowledge spillovers. FDI in Latin America is heterogeneous but centered on vertical investments, with
This document analyzes sources of funds and investment activities of venture capital funds in Germany, Israel, Japan, and the UK using a newly constructed dataset of around 500 venture capital firms. The summary examines:
1) Sources of venture capital funds differ significantly between countries, with banks most important in Germany, corporations in Israel, insurance companies in Japan, and pension funds in the UK.
2) Investment patterns also vary, with differences in the stage, sector, and location of financed companies between countries.
3) The analysis finds relationships between sources of funding and investment patterns, for example bank-backed venture capital firms invest later than individually or corporately-backed funds. It examines how financial systems relate to these activities
The document discusses foreign direct investment (FDI) and multinational corporations. It examines the article "FDI and Multinationals: Patterns, Impacts and Policies" by A.T. Tavares and S. Young. The document summarizes key points from the article, including the main drivers for firms to engage in FDI, such as accessing new markets or resources. It also classifies FDI based on factors like ownership structure and firm motives. The impacts of FDI from the perspective of host and home countries are outlined, noting concerns about national welfare as well as potential benefits from technology transfer and competitive pressures spurring efficiency.
Unit 1: Environmental Context of International Business, Framework for analyzing international
business environment – Domestic, foreign and global environments and their impact on
international business decisions.
Global Trading Environment: World trade in goods and services – Major trends and developments;
World trade and protectionism – Tariff and non-tariff barriers; Counter trade.
Unit 2: International Financial Environment: Foreign investments -Pattern, Structure and effects;
Movements in foreign exchange and interest rates and then impact on trade and investment flows.
Unit 3: International Economic Institutions and Agreements: WTO, IMF, World Bank UNCTAD,
Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC), GSP, GSTP and other International agreements;
International commodity trading and agreements.
Unit 4: Multinational Corporations and their involvement in International Business: Issues in
foreign investments, technology transfer, pricing and regulations; International collaborative
arrangements and strategic alliances.
Unit 5: Regional Economic Groupings in Practice: Regionalism vs. multilaterallism, Structure and
functioning of EC and NAFTA; Regional economic cooperation. Emerging Developments and
Other Issues: Growing concern for ecology; Counter trade; IT and international business.
The authors analyze a large stratified random sample of firms that provided them with measures of performance and each firm’s top manager’s perception of the severity of business environment constraints faced by his/her firm. Unlike most existing studies that rely on external and aggregated proxy measures of the business environment, defined to include legal and institutional features, the authors have information from each surveyed firm.
The authors find that foreign ownership and competition have an impact on performance – measured as the level of sales controlling for inputs. Export orientation of the firm does not have an effect on performance once ownership is taken into account. When analyzing the impact of perceived constraints, they show that few retain explanatory power once they are introduced jointly rather than one at a time, or when country, industry and year fixed effects are introduced. Indeed, country fixed effects largely absorb the explanatory power of the constraints faced by individual firms. Replicating the analysis with commonly used country-level indicators of the business environment, they do not find much of a relationship between constraints and performance.
Authored by: Simon Commander, Jan Svejnar
Published in 2007
Etude PwC "Fit for business" sur les entreprises de l'Eurozone (nov. 2014)PwC France
http://bit.ly/EntreprisesEurozone
Les entreprises de la zone euro ne parviennent pas à transformer les défis financiers et structurels issus de la crise actuelle en opportunités de croissance. Elles sont 20% à penser que la zone euro pourrait s’effondrer, mais sont 36% à n’avoir mis en place aucun plan pour lutter contre la crise persistante de région. Telles sont les conclusions d'une étude menée par le cabinet d’audit et de conseil PwC auprès d’environ 400 dirigeants européens (hors services financiers).
Artykuł podejmuje zagadnienie instytucjonalnych aspektów internacjonalizacji przedsiębiorstw. Autorzy koncentrują uwagę Czytelnika na roli, jaką odgrywają formalne instytucje
w procesach umiędzynarodowienia przedsiębiorstw, w szczególności w zakresie zagranicznych
inwestycji bezpośrednich. Celem artykułu jest prezentacja oraz próba oceny polityki wsparcia
zagranicznych inwestycji bezpośrednich wychodzących z Polski po okresie globalnego kryzysu ekonomicznego 2008. Autorzy najpierw podjęli studia literaturowe w odniesieniu do instytucjonalnych aspektów umiędzynarodowienia, następnie przeprowadzili badania jakościowe
z zastosowaniem metody wywiadu bezpośredniego z reprezentantami instytucji makro- i mezoszczebla (ministerstwo, władze regionalne, organizacje otoczenia biznesu). Wywiady pozwoliły na scharakteryzowanie podmiotowego oraz przestrzennego zorientowania polityki wsparcia zagranicznych inwestycji bezpośrednich wychodzących z Polski oraz na zasygnalizowanie
wyzwań, jakie rysują się przed tą polityką po 2008 roku. Uzyskane rezultaty stanowią punkt
wyjścia do dalszych, bardziej szczegółowych badań w przyszłości.
* Projekt badawczy: No. 11430010 Small Grants Program of the International Visegrad
Fund „Outward FDI policies in Visegrad Countries”.
Teece's 1985 paper critiques Hymer's emphasis on market power over efficiency in analyzing multinational enterprises (MNEs). Teece argues that MNEs vary in form and motivation, pursuing both efficiency and rent extraction. He identifies three issues with Hymer's analysis: it overlooks efficiency motivations for foreign direct investment, oversimplifies host country controls on MNEs, and underemphasizes dynamic considerations like how market power and efficiency roles may change over time. Empirical literature on MNE impact is mixed, with some evidence they may increase concentration more in developing countries but also spur productivity through knowledge spillovers. FDI in Latin America is heterogeneous but centered on vertical investments, with
Finance estonia development proposals for capital markets Terje Pällo
This document proposes measures to rejuvenate Estonia's capital markets. It finds that Estonia's stock market capitalization and volume have significantly decreased in recent years, making its capital markets very small compared to other countries. It recommends both supply-side and demand-side measures to improve the market. These include increasing investment product offerings, altering regulations to enable new asset classes, and making the state a more active issuer. The goal is to enact several impactful and coordinated measures simultaneously to significantly boost capital market activity in Estonia.
This document discusses foreign direct investment (FDI) in Romania. It begins by defining FDI and explaining why countries seek to attract it. There are three main types of FDI: greenfield investment, mergers and acquisitions, and corporate development. Romania is attractive to FDI due to its skilled labor force, low costs, strategic location, and access to EU markets. Privatization reforms in the 1990s were slow at first but increased FDI inflows after 1996. The largest sources of FDI in Romania are from European countries like the Netherlands, Austria, and Germany. However, FDI is highly concentrated in the Bucharest-Ilfov region due to its infrastructure and skilled workforce, exacerbating regional economic dispar
This document discusses the need for Russia to promote economic development through innovation and entrepreneurship. It proposes establishing Centers of Competence (CCs) at Russian universities to better link research and industry. CCs would integrate university knowledge, industry expertise, and government support to boost regional economic growth through commercialization of innovations. The first proposed CC would be at Perm National Research Polytechnic University to engage stakeholders in developing and applying new technologies. CCs aim to help diversify Russia's economy beyond natural resources and better compete globally through technology and knowledge-based growth.
All documents are reproduced with the permission of the copyright ownermanuelgoez303
This document provides a summary of an academic journal article titled "Accounting Management by International Standards". The summary discusses how international accounting standards can promote harmonization and globalization by standardizing accounting management practices across borders. It notes that international standards can help multinational companies consolidate financial reporting and reduce costs. The adoption of uniform standards also increases transparency and reduces information asymmetry between managers and shareholders. However, the positive effects of international standards depend on the appropriate institutional background of individual countries. Overall, the summary examines the role of international accounting standards in areas like the division of labor, financial innovation, and business management.
The document discusses the history and evolution of outsourcing in the US economy over time. It begins by looking at the initial stages of outsourcing after the industrial revolution, where companies outsourced non-core functions domestically. It then explores how outsourcing expanded to include sending functions overseas to lower-cost countries. The document examines debates around outsourcing's impact on US jobs and discusses how countries like India have benefited from the growth of their outsourcing industries. Finally, it briefly touches on arguments that outsourcing provides advantages to countries by allowing them to compete globally through access to cheaper labor.
This document summarizes a study that examines the determinants of growth in small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Central and Eastern Europe. The study uses a panel dataset of 560 fast-growing SMEs from six transition economies over five years. It finds that firm size, as measured by total assets, is an important factor in explaining growth in sales revenues. Additionally, factors like leverage, liquidity, growth opportunities, internally generated funds, and productivity are found to influence a firm's growth performance. In contrast, age and ownership do not appear to impact growth. The results suggest that SMEs rely heavily on internal financing to support asset growth but require external capital to fuel sales growth.
This article compares the opportunities and constraints of the Chinese and Indian capital markets. While the Indian market is more open to foreign portfolio investments, there are governance and reliability risks as well as substantial volatility. In the Chinese case, much of the market is closed to foreign portfolio investors. While exposure to these markets offers important opportunities for diversification, both also have drawbacks which must be clearly understood for their risks to be effectively managed.
01 journal-financial distress using macro and microMohAfandi2
This document summarizes a research paper that investigates financial distress among Thai listed firms using macroeconomic and microeconomic variables. It begins by providing context on Thailand's 1997 economic crisis and prior research on predicting corporate bankruptcy. It then discusses key differences in Thailand's bank-centered financial system, highly concentrated corporate ownership, and accounting practices. The research aims to develop a model linking firms' sensitivity to macroeconomic conditions with their financial characteristics to better explore financial distress. It finds that macroeconomic factors are critical indicators of potential financial crisis for firms, and higher sensitivity to inflation increases exposure to distress.
CORPORATE GOVERNANCE - PAST AND PRESENTYaron Shemesh
This document provides an overview of corporate governance - its origins, evolution, models and practice. It begins by defining corporate governance and discussing its historical development starting in the 17th century. It then describes the main internal and external corporate governance mechanisms. Internally, these include the board of directors, managerial incentives and anti-takeover measures. Externally, they comprise external auditing, major shareholders, and specialist shareholders. The document also examines corporate governance models and analyzes the Israeli practice and developments in this area.
Unit 1: Environmental Context of International Business, Framework for analyzing international
business environment – Domestic, foreign and global environments and their impact on
international business decisions.
Global Trading Environment: World trade in goods and services – Major trends and developments;
World trade and protectionism – Tariff and non-tariff barriers; Counter trade.
Unit 2: International Financial Environment: Foreign investments -Pattern, Structure and effects;
Movements in foreign exchange and interest rates and then impact on trade and investment flows.
Unit 3: International Economic Institutions and Agreements: WTO, IMF, World Bank UNCTAD,
Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC), GSP, GSTP and other International agreements;
International commodity trading and agreements.
Unit 4: Multinational Corporations and their involvement in International Business: Issues in
foreign investments, technology transfer, pricing and regulations; International collaborative
arrangements and strategic alliances.
Unit 5: Regional Economic Groupings in Practice: Regionalism vs. multilaterallism, Structure and
functioning of EC and NAFTA; Regional economic cooperation. Emerging Developments and
Other Issues: Growing concern for ecology; Counter trade; IT and international business.
Evaluation of the Development and Performance of Selected GCC and Non-GCC St...Mace Abdullah
This paper compares and contrasts the stock markets for countries of comparable size and development as and between the GCC and non-GCC countries. The paper implicitly observes what may be considered strengths and weakness as and between markets dominated by Islamic Finance principles and those that are more or less conventionally oriented.
Determinants of Corporate Disclosure in Financial Statements: Evidence from V...IJAEMSJORNAL
This document examines the determinants of corporate disclosure in the financial statements of listed firms in Vietnam. It analyzes data from 198 non-financial listed firms on the Ho Chi Minh stock exchange in 2013. The study finds that firm size, use of financial leverage, and the presence of a supervision board are positively associated with corporate disclosure levels. However, state ownership and the proportion of non-executive board members are negatively related to disclosure levels. Having the chair of the board also serving as managing director is also found to reduce disclosure. The results provide insights into factors influencing disclosure among Vietnamese listed companies over the period studied.
Factors affecting stock market prices in amman stock exchangeAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that examined factors affecting stock market prices on the Amman Stock Exchange. The study used surveys to collect data on how internal factors like dividend policy, firm size, management quality, and financial situation impact stock prices. It found that inflation had the most impact on prices, while the nature of the firm's business had the least. The study recommended that companies get more involved in drafting laws and regulations to strengthen their role in the stock market.
The Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) was passed in response to corporate accounting scandals to improve transparency and restore investor confidence. Sections 302 and 404 have significant implications for foreign private issuers (FPIs) listed on U.S. exchanges by requiring costly internal control systems and executive certifications. While SOX compliance has led some FPIs to delist or delay IPOs due to high costs, others see opportunities to attract investors through improved reporting. European countries are also strengthening governance rules, but in a way that considers differences from U.S. approaches and regulations. Over time, foreign companies may find U.S. markets beneficial if regulatory cooperation continues regarding corporate structure variations across countries.
An empirical assessment of the effect of corporate restructuring in the banki...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that empirically assessed the effect of corporate restructuring in Nigeria's banking industry on economic growth from 1990-2009. The study found that foreign direct investment, aggregate capital to the private sector, pre-tax profits for all banks, and number of bank employees significantly influenced economic growth in Nigeria. It recommends that the Central Bank of Nigeria encourage banks to invest profits in the real economy to boost productive capacity and growth. The introduction provides background on banking industry restructuring through mergers and acquisitions in Nigeria and their theoretical drivers of economic growth.
This document discusses country of origin effects on human resource management practices in multinational companies. It reviews literature showing differences in how companies from different countries, like the US, Japan, and Europe, manage HR in their foreign subsidiaries. The literature provides evidence that a company's country of origin significantly influences its behavior and HR practices abroad, though practices related more to local norms tend to resemble the host country. However, the literature has gaps, relying heavily on surveys and focusing more on ownership effects than detailed comparisons of HR/IR practices between specific countries like Germany, France, and the UK. More qualitative case studies are needed to better understand the complex links between country of origin and HR management in multinational operations.
The aim of this study is to undertake an up-to-date assessment of market power in Central and Eastern European banking markets and explore how the global financial crisis has affected market power and what has been the impact of foreign ownership. Three main results emerge. First, while there is some convergence in country-level market power during the pre-crisis period, the onset of the global crisis has put an end to this process. Second, bank-level market power appears to vary significantly with respect to ownership characteristics. Third, asset quality and capitalization affect differently the margins in the pre-crisis and crisis periods. While in the pre-crisis period the impacts are similar for all banks regardless of ownership status, in the crisis period non-performing loans have a negative effect and capitalization a positive effect only for domestically-owned banks.
Authored by: Georgios Efthyvoulou, Canan Yildirim
Published in 2013
07. the determinants of capital structurenguyenviet30
This document summarizes a research paper that investigates how firms in capital market-oriented economies (UK, US) and bank-oriented economies (France, Germany, Japan) determine their capital structures. Using panel data and regression analysis, the paper finds that firm size and tangibility of assets increase leverage, while profitability, growth opportunities, and share price performance decrease leverage in both types of economies. However, the impacts of some determinants vary between countries depending on differences in institutions and traditions. The paper also finds that firms have target leverage ratios but adjust to them at different speeds across countries.
Corporate debt in emerging markets quadrupled between 2004-2014, rising to over $18 trillion. The composition of debt has shifted from loans to bonds. While greater leverage can boost growth, rapidly rising debt raises financial stability concerns. This chapter examines the factors driving emerging market leverage growth over the past decade using large databases. It finds that global factors like accommodative monetary policy in advanced economies have played a larger role than country or firm specific factors. Leverage has increased most in cyclical sectors like construction and has been associated with rising foreign currency exposure. Despite weaker balance sheets, emerging market firms have issued bonds at better terms by taking advantage of favorable global conditions. Policy recommendations include monitoring vulnerable firms and sectors closely, improving corporate debt
This document discusses the importance of human capital development for the financial sector and economic growth in developing countries. It argues that while financial liberalization is important, it is not sufficient on its own and can even be counterproductive without stable domestic banks. Strengthening human capital in the financial sector through appropriate academic training and on-the-job skills is crucial for developing robust banks that can effectively allocate capital. However, many developing countries face shortages of professionals with the necessary skills. Public-private partnerships are proposed as an effective approach for developing comprehensive policies to strengthen human capital in the financial sector.
Finance estonia development proposals for capital markets Terje Pällo
This document proposes measures to rejuvenate Estonia's capital markets. It finds that Estonia's stock market capitalization and volume have significantly decreased in recent years, making its capital markets very small compared to other countries. It recommends both supply-side and demand-side measures to improve the market. These include increasing investment product offerings, altering regulations to enable new asset classes, and making the state a more active issuer. The goal is to enact several impactful and coordinated measures simultaneously to significantly boost capital market activity in Estonia.
This document discusses foreign direct investment (FDI) in Romania. It begins by defining FDI and explaining why countries seek to attract it. There are three main types of FDI: greenfield investment, mergers and acquisitions, and corporate development. Romania is attractive to FDI due to its skilled labor force, low costs, strategic location, and access to EU markets. Privatization reforms in the 1990s were slow at first but increased FDI inflows after 1996. The largest sources of FDI in Romania are from European countries like the Netherlands, Austria, and Germany. However, FDI is highly concentrated in the Bucharest-Ilfov region due to its infrastructure and skilled workforce, exacerbating regional economic dispar
This document discusses the need for Russia to promote economic development through innovation and entrepreneurship. It proposes establishing Centers of Competence (CCs) at Russian universities to better link research and industry. CCs would integrate university knowledge, industry expertise, and government support to boost regional economic growth through commercialization of innovations. The first proposed CC would be at Perm National Research Polytechnic University to engage stakeholders in developing and applying new technologies. CCs aim to help diversify Russia's economy beyond natural resources and better compete globally through technology and knowledge-based growth.
All documents are reproduced with the permission of the copyright ownermanuelgoez303
This document provides a summary of an academic journal article titled "Accounting Management by International Standards". The summary discusses how international accounting standards can promote harmonization and globalization by standardizing accounting management practices across borders. It notes that international standards can help multinational companies consolidate financial reporting and reduce costs. The adoption of uniform standards also increases transparency and reduces information asymmetry between managers and shareholders. However, the positive effects of international standards depend on the appropriate institutional background of individual countries. Overall, the summary examines the role of international accounting standards in areas like the division of labor, financial innovation, and business management.
The document discusses the history and evolution of outsourcing in the US economy over time. It begins by looking at the initial stages of outsourcing after the industrial revolution, where companies outsourced non-core functions domestically. It then explores how outsourcing expanded to include sending functions overseas to lower-cost countries. The document examines debates around outsourcing's impact on US jobs and discusses how countries like India have benefited from the growth of their outsourcing industries. Finally, it briefly touches on arguments that outsourcing provides advantages to countries by allowing them to compete globally through access to cheaper labor.
This document summarizes a study that examines the determinants of growth in small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Central and Eastern Europe. The study uses a panel dataset of 560 fast-growing SMEs from six transition economies over five years. It finds that firm size, as measured by total assets, is an important factor in explaining growth in sales revenues. Additionally, factors like leverage, liquidity, growth opportunities, internally generated funds, and productivity are found to influence a firm's growth performance. In contrast, age and ownership do not appear to impact growth. The results suggest that SMEs rely heavily on internal financing to support asset growth but require external capital to fuel sales growth.
This article compares the opportunities and constraints of the Chinese and Indian capital markets. While the Indian market is more open to foreign portfolio investments, there are governance and reliability risks as well as substantial volatility. In the Chinese case, much of the market is closed to foreign portfolio investors. While exposure to these markets offers important opportunities for diversification, both also have drawbacks which must be clearly understood for their risks to be effectively managed.
01 journal-financial distress using macro and microMohAfandi2
This document summarizes a research paper that investigates financial distress among Thai listed firms using macroeconomic and microeconomic variables. It begins by providing context on Thailand's 1997 economic crisis and prior research on predicting corporate bankruptcy. It then discusses key differences in Thailand's bank-centered financial system, highly concentrated corporate ownership, and accounting practices. The research aims to develop a model linking firms' sensitivity to macroeconomic conditions with their financial characteristics to better explore financial distress. It finds that macroeconomic factors are critical indicators of potential financial crisis for firms, and higher sensitivity to inflation increases exposure to distress.
CORPORATE GOVERNANCE - PAST AND PRESENTYaron Shemesh
This document provides an overview of corporate governance - its origins, evolution, models and practice. It begins by defining corporate governance and discussing its historical development starting in the 17th century. It then describes the main internal and external corporate governance mechanisms. Internally, these include the board of directors, managerial incentives and anti-takeover measures. Externally, they comprise external auditing, major shareholders, and specialist shareholders. The document also examines corporate governance models and analyzes the Israeli practice and developments in this area.
Unit 1: Environmental Context of International Business, Framework for analyzing international
business environment – Domestic, foreign and global environments and their impact on
international business decisions.
Global Trading Environment: World trade in goods and services – Major trends and developments;
World trade and protectionism – Tariff and non-tariff barriers; Counter trade.
Unit 2: International Financial Environment: Foreign investments -Pattern, Structure and effects;
Movements in foreign exchange and interest rates and then impact on trade and investment flows.
Unit 3: International Economic Institutions and Agreements: WTO, IMF, World Bank UNCTAD,
Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC), GSP, GSTP and other International agreements;
International commodity trading and agreements.
Unit 4: Multinational Corporations and their involvement in International Business: Issues in
foreign investments, technology transfer, pricing and regulations; International collaborative
arrangements and strategic alliances.
Unit 5: Regional Economic Groupings in Practice: Regionalism vs. multilaterallism, Structure and
functioning of EC and NAFTA; Regional economic cooperation. Emerging Developments and
Other Issues: Growing concern for ecology; Counter trade; IT and international business.
Evaluation of the Development and Performance of Selected GCC and Non-GCC St...Mace Abdullah
This paper compares and contrasts the stock markets for countries of comparable size and development as and between the GCC and non-GCC countries. The paper implicitly observes what may be considered strengths and weakness as and between markets dominated by Islamic Finance principles and those that are more or less conventionally oriented.
Determinants of Corporate Disclosure in Financial Statements: Evidence from V...IJAEMSJORNAL
This document examines the determinants of corporate disclosure in the financial statements of listed firms in Vietnam. It analyzes data from 198 non-financial listed firms on the Ho Chi Minh stock exchange in 2013. The study finds that firm size, use of financial leverage, and the presence of a supervision board are positively associated with corporate disclosure levels. However, state ownership and the proportion of non-executive board members are negatively related to disclosure levels. Having the chair of the board also serving as managing director is also found to reduce disclosure. The results provide insights into factors influencing disclosure among Vietnamese listed companies over the period studied.
Factors affecting stock market prices in amman stock exchangeAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that examined factors affecting stock market prices on the Amman Stock Exchange. The study used surveys to collect data on how internal factors like dividend policy, firm size, management quality, and financial situation impact stock prices. It found that inflation had the most impact on prices, while the nature of the firm's business had the least. The study recommended that companies get more involved in drafting laws and regulations to strengthen their role in the stock market.
The Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) was passed in response to corporate accounting scandals to improve transparency and restore investor confidence. Sections 302 and 404 have significant implications for foreign private issuers (FPIs) listed on U.S. exchanges by requiring costly internal control systems and executive certifications. While SOX compliance has led some FPIs to delist or delay IPOs due to high costs, others see opportunities to attract investors through improved reporting. European countries are also strengthening governance rules, but in a way that considers differences from U.S. approaches and regulations. Over time, foreign companies may find U.S. markets beneficial if regulatory cooperation continues regarding corporate structure variations across countries.
An empirical assessment of the effect of corporate restructuring in the banki...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that empirically assessed the effect of corporate restructuring in Nigeria's banking industry on economic growth from 1990-2009. The study found that foreign direct investment, aggregate capital to the private sector, pre-tax profits for all banks, and number of bank employees significantly influenced economic growth in Nigeria. It recommends that the Central Bank of Nigeria encourage banks to invest profits in the real economy to boost productive capacity and growth. The introduction provides background on banking industry restructuring through mergers and acquisitions in Nigeria and their theoretical drivers of economic growth.
This document discusses country of origin effects on human resource management practices in multinational companies. It reviews literature showing differences in how companies from different countries, like the US, Japan, and Europe, manage HR in their foreign subsidiaries. The literature provides evidence that a company's country of origin significantly influences its behavior and HR practices abroad, though practices related more to local norms tend to resemble the host country. However, the literature has gaps, relying heavily on surveys and focusing more on ownership effects than detailed comparisons of HR/IR practices between specific countries like Germany, France, and the UK. More qualitative case studies are needed to better understand the complex links between country of origin and HR management in multinational operations.
The aim of this study is to undertake an up-to-date assessment of market power in Central and Eastern European banking markets and explore how the global financial crisis has affected market power and what has been the impact of foreign ownership. Three main results emerge. First, while there is some convergence in country-level market power during the pre-crisis period, the onset of the global crisis has put an end to this process. Second, bank-level market power appears to vary significantly with respect to ownership characteristics. Third, asset quality and capitalization affect differently the margins in the pre-crisis and crisis periods. While in the pre-crisis period the impacts are similar for all banks regardless of ownership status, in the crisis period non-performing loans have a negative effect and capitalization a positive effect only for domestically-owned banks.
Authored by: Georgios Efthyvoulou, Canan Yildirim
Published in 2013
07. the determinants of capital structurenguyenviet30
This document summarizes a research paper that investigates how firms in capital market-oriented economies (UK, US) and bank-oriented economies (France, Germany, Japan) determine their capital structures. Using panel data and regression analysis, the paper finds that firm size and tangibility of assets increase leverage, while profitability, growth opportunities, and share price performance decrease leverage in both types of economies. However, the impacts of some determinants vary between countries depending on differences in institutions and traditions. The paper also finds that firms have target leverage ratios but adjust to them at different speeds across countries.
Corporate debt in emerging markets quadrupled between 2004-2014, rising to over $18 trillion. The composition of debt has shifted from loans to bonds. While greater leverage can boost growth, rapidly rising debt raises financial stability concerns. This chapter examines the factors driving emerging market leverage growth over the past decade using large databases. It finds that global factors like accommodative monetary policy in advanced economies have played a larger role than country or firm specific factors. Leverage has increased most in cyclical sectors like construction and has been associated with rising foreign currency exposure. Despite weaker balance sheets, emerging market firms have issued bonds at better terms by taking advantage of favorable global conditions. Policy recommendations include monitoring vulnerable firms and sectors closely, improving corporate debt
This document discusses the importance of human capital development for the financial sector and economic growth in developing countries. It argues that while financial liberalization is important, it is not sufficient on its own and can even be counterproductive without stable domestic banks. Strengthening human capital in the financial sector through appropriate academic training and on-the-job skills is crucial for developing robust banks that can effectively allocate capital. However, many developing countries face shortages of professionals with the necessary skills. Public-private partnerships are proposed as an effective approach for developing comprehensive policies to strengthen human capital in the financial sector.
Fiduciary or paper money is issued by the Central Bank on the basis of
computation of estimated demand for cash. Monetary policy guides the Central
Bank’s supply of money in order to achieve the objectives of price stability (or low
inflation rate), full employment, and growth in aggregate income.
CAN MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS IMPROVE BANKING INDUSTRYIulian Warter
This document discusses mergers and acquisitions (M&As) in the banking industry. It outlines several key drivers for M&A activity in banking, including geographic expansion into emerging markets, consolidation in mature markets, and restructuring of business operations. The document also examines factors that influence the success of M&A deals such as achieving synergies between banks and proper integration processes. Finally, it analyzes strategies used in banking M&As like acquiring new business lines or consolidating smaller banks.
CAN MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS IMPROVE BANKING INDUSTRYLiviu Warter
This document discusses mergers and acquisitions (M&As) in the banking industry. It analyzes the drivers of M&As, including geographic expansion, market consolidation, and restructuring. Successful M&As require realizing synergies between the banks. However, cultural differences and challenges integrating operations can undermine synergies and M&A performance if not properly managed. The document concludes that banks must focus on cultural due diligence during acquisitions and develop personalized integration strategies post-merger in order to improve efficiency and maximize the benefits of M&As.
Thomas Pally - 'financialization: what it is and why it matters"Conor McCabe
This document is a working paper that examines the concept of "financialization" - the increasing influence of financial markets, institutions, and elites in the economy. It discusses how financialization has transformed macro and microeconomic functioning by elevating the financial sector, transferring income to that sector, and increasing inequality. It has also likely made the economy more fragile and unsustainable due to rising household and corporate debt levels. The paper analyzes data showing large increases in total credit market debt as a percentage of GDP between 1973-2005, led by growth in financial sector and household debt. It examines how financialization operates through changes in markets, corporate behavior, and economic policy.
This document summarizes a research paper that examines "hot" debt markets and their impact on corporate capital structure. The paper finds that:
1) Perceived favorable capital market conditions and information asymmetry costs are important factors that lead firms to issue more debt during hot debt market periods.
2) Firms with high information asymmetry costs issue significantly more debt when debt market conditions are hot compared to when markets are cold.
3) Hot debt market issuance has a persistent effect on the capital structure of issuing firms, which do not actively rebalance their leverage levels over the long-term as capital structure theories would predict.
Financial crisis: Non-monetary factors influencing Employee performance at ba...AI Publications
Money and credit fluctuations, financial crises, and governmental responses have come into the spotlight as a result of the crisis that lasted from 2014 to 2018. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the non-financial elements that have an effect on employee performance in the Kurdistan region of Iraq in general and in Erbil in particular. In spite of this, the researcher came up with five assumptions about study that needed to be evaluated and quantified in order to assess how well employees performed amid financial crises. It was found that job security had the highest value, which indicates that job security has the most powerful and positive association with employee performance during financial crisis. On the other hand, job enrichment was found to be the least powerful factor that influences and is related to employee performance during financial crisis in the Kurdistan region of Iraq. The researcher used simple regression analysis to measure the developed research hypotheses.6
This document introduces a new Global Financial Development Database that benchmarks the financial systems of 205 economies from 1960 to 2010. The database measures four characteristics of financial institutions and markets: (1) size (financial depth), (2) access, (3) efficiency, and (4) stability. It uses these measures to characterize and compare financial systems across countries and over time, as well as examine the relationship between financial systems and policies. The analysis presented in the database and document provide an empirical framework for describing the multi-dimensional nature of financial systems around the world.
A mature, well functioning financial system and institutions is crit.pdfexpressionnoveltiesk
A mature, well functioning financial system and institutions is critical to maximum economic
growth. Discuss completely the role of financial markets, institutions, and instruments (sources
and uses of funds) in sustaining and augmenting economic growth. Include in your response a
discussion of direct finance and indirect finance, the money market and capital market, and the
problem depository institutions face in managing their assets (use of funds) and liabilities (source
of funds).
Solution
Financial System and Economic growth:
Financial systems, i.e. financial intermediaries and financial markets, are important for
economic growth. They can lead to a more efficient allocation of resources because they reduce
the costs of moving funds between borrowers and lenders, and help overcome an information
asymmetry between borrowers and lenders. If they do not function well the economy cannot
operate efficiently and economic growth will be negatively affected.
Some economists just do not believe that the finance-growth relationship is important. For
instance, Robert Lucas asserted in 1988 that economists badly over-stress the role of financial
factors in economic growth. Moreover, Joan Robertson declared in 1952 that \"where enterprise
leads, finance follows\". According to this view, economic development creates demands for
particular types of financial arrangements, and the financial system responds automatically to
these demands.
Other economists strongly believe in the importance of the financial system for economic
growth. They address the issue of what the optimal financial system should look like. Overall,
the notion seems to develop that the optimal financial system, in combination with a well-
developed legal system, should incorporate elements of both direct, market and indirect, bank-
based finance. A well-developed financial system should improve the efficiency of financing
decisions, favouring a better allocation of resources and thereby economic growth.
The Role of Financial Markets, Institutions, and Instruments sustaining economic growth:
The financial system comprises all financial markets, instruments and institutions. Today
I would like to address the issue of whether the design of the financial system matters for
economic growth.
The role of finance in economic growth will have policy implications and shape future
policy-oriented research. The impact of finance on economic growth will influence the priority
that policymakers and advisors attach to reforming financial sector policies. Furthermore,
convincing evidence that the financial system influences long-run economic growth will
advertise the urgent need for research on the political, legal, regulatory, and policy determinants
of financial development. In contrast, if a sufficiently abundant quantity of research indicates
that the operation of the financial sector merely responds to economic development, then this
will almost certainly mitigate the intensity of research on t.
Non-monetary effects Employee performance during Financial Crises in the Kurd...AI Publications
This document summarizes a research paper on non-monetary factors affecting employee performance during financial crises in the Kurdistan region of Iraq. The researcher developed five hypotheses to test how factors like job security, training, compensation, job enrichment, and leadership style influence employee performance during crises. Simple regression analysis found that job security had the strongest positive association with performance. The document provides context on the 2014-2018 financial crisis in Iraq and reviews literature on defining and analyzing different types of financial crises, including banking crises.
INTERNATIONAL EQUITY ANALYSIS UNDER IFRS_A CASE STUDY OF LONDON BASED SELL-SI...Randolph Perry
This document provides an introduction and background for a research paper that aims to explore the perception among primary users of accounting information that international accounting practices under IFRS are universally implemented in different countries, despite evidence that differences still exist. The document outlines the research aims, which are to: 1) demonstrate differences in IFRS practices exist, 2) examine the role of sell-side analysts, and 3) explore the usefulness of accounting information for sell-side analysts. A case study approach involving interviews with London-based sell-side analysts will be used to understand how analysts assess international financial reports and cope with any differences in accounting practices. The case studies aim to provide new insights, as no prior research has examined this issue since the
Transitory and Permanent Effects of Capital Market Development on Capital For...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Recent research on the relationship between capital market development and capital formation is
inconsistent.This study investigates the effect of capital market development on capital formation, and
theempiricalmethodutilisedinthisstudy, the Mundlak method,decomposestheeffectsofcapitalmarket development
on capital formation into transitory and permanent effects. This decomposition is important in order to ascertain
whether capital market development is beneficial to short-run or long-run capital formation, which is a key
determinant of a country‟s growth level.The study investigates the capital market development-capital formation
nexus byapplyingaggregate dataset from seven countries within the Sub-Saharan African
regionnamelyGhana,Kenya,IvoryCoast,Mauritius,Nigeria,SouthAfrica,and Zimbabwe over the period from 1980
to 2021. The results indicatethat capital market development has a transitory negative impact on capital
formation,but has a permanent positive impact on capital formation. More importantly, the permanent effect
seems more robust and stronger than the transitory effect. The findings conform to conventional wisdom that
Sub-Saharan African countries with well-developed capital markets experience long-run benefits of increased
capital formation and improved economic development. Based on the research findings, we recommend that
capital market authorities of Sub-Saharan African countries should prioritise policies that will boost productivity,
liquidity, and resilience. The study further recommends that Sub-Saharan African countries must improve their
capital markets‟ infrastructures, and eliminate the tax, legal and regulatory hurdles that impede the development
of their domestic capital markets.
KEYWORDS:Capitalmarketdevelopment,capitalformation,Sub-Saharan Africa, Mundlak Methodology, Panel
data.
Market Theory, Capital Asset Pricing ModelKatie Gulley
Investment banks play an important role in capital markets by providing services to corporations and facilitating investment. They assist companies in raising capital through public offerings on stock exchanges or private placements. This process involves underwriting, wherein the investment bank takes on the risk of distributing securities if they cannot be sold. Investment banks also provide mergers and acquisitions advisory services to corporations. Their deep expertise in valuation and financing allows investment banks to effectively advise clients on major transactions.
IMF: Analysis of Policy Recommendations after the Global Financial CrisisUNDP Policy Centre
IMF policy recommendations are often criticised for being orthodox, restrictive and prociclycal in their policy recommendations for developing countries. The global financial and economic crisis has led the Fund to publish papers and organize conferences that show some rethinking on these positions. But, to which extent IMF recent willingness to rethinking has led to actual changes in its policy advice to the developing countries?
This new paper by the Brasilia-based International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth (IPC-IG) analyses recent recommendations given by the IMF to 26 developing countries to assess whether this ‘change’ discourse has been translated into action in the field. Our analysis looked at the recommendations around exchange rate, inflation, fiscal consolidation, employment and social protection policies. It also covers the theoretical debate behind the policies recommended: the underlying arguments, the criticisms received and the IMF’s position.
Running Head ECONOMICS AND ADMINISTRATION1ECONOMICS AND ADMI.docxtodd271
Running Head: ECONOMICS AND ADMINISTRATION 1
ECONOMICS AND ADMINISTRATION 5
ECONOMICS AND ADMINISTRATION
Khalia Hart
Dr. Touhey
MGMT 640 – Financial Decision Making for Managers
March 31, 2019
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
For the success of every business, there needs to be a strong supporting factor that enforces success. The success of a business indicates that the structure of decision making is tough, strict but at the same time lenient to staff and more importantly customers. Financial management is a very vital factor to consider while engaging in any business activity. Not only is it concerned about customers and staff, but also affects every aspect of the business from managing cash flow and maintaining performance index to developing plans to ensure maximum use of opportunities by business owners. Stakeholders and business owners need to realize the importance of financial management as a tool in business administration since it is the force that ensures continuous development of financial capabilities needed for a business to achieve its full potential.
The macro-economic environment addresses issues concerning behavior. Here are where aAdministrative issues lie. Administration can be categorized into two main categories, administration as a practice and as a science. Administration as a practice mainly addresses the normal routine of business owners and managers and their normal administrative roles in any business entity. Administration as a scientific field is bound to face challenges which are broken down into four main classes. They are discussed fully in this document.
Factors that affect administrative decisions include globalization, cost of control, the relationship between stakeholders and demand on ethical behavior and corporate responsibility. Administrations in different organizations should always be keen to ensure that the named issues are always put under the eye . These factors can greatly affect the performance of a business entity as shall be discussed in this document. Comment by debra touhey: Good start, Khalia. The Executive Summary should explain the problems at hand with potential solutions to those problems. Here is a good reference on writing Executive Summaries:
https://www.inc.com/guides/2010/09/how-to-write-an-executive-summary.html
INTRODUCTION
Since time immemorial, business has always been a very important factor in society. To date, business transactions take place daily through the various business entities that have been established. In the modern world, however, various guidelines, strategies, and tools have been established to ensure that business practices go on smoothly (Robert et al., 2004). Comment by debra touhey: A little too informal for graduate writing
One of the practices that have been developed to ensure maximum productivity in the various entities that have been established, is financial management. The financial management function allows for the planning, organizing, monitori.
This document summarizes a research paper on financial risk disclosure in annual reports of listed Greek companies. The paper aims to examine the relationship between risk disclosure practices and firms' financial characteristics. It reviews prior literature on risk reporting and regulations. It develops four hypotheses: 1) A positive relationship exists between firm size and risk disclosure level. 2) The relationship between risk level and disclosure is uncertain. 3) No difference exists in disclosure of good vs. bad risks. 4) Disclosure focuses more on past/present rather than future risks. The study will analyze risk reporting in annual reports of Greece's 20 largest firms using content analysis.
A M&A PROCESS PERSPECTIVE IN THE BANKING SECTORLiviu Warter
This document discusses mergers and acquisitions (M&As) in the banking sector. It begins by noting that turmoil in the banking sector has led to structural changes and opportunities for M&As. However, many M&A deals in banking fail due to strategic factors not being properly anticipated. The document then examines various factors that influence cross-border M&A deals in banking, such as achieving economies of scale, diversifying risks, and strategic repositioning. Cultural differences and integration challenges can impact M&A performance. The key to success is properly assessing strategic and cultural fit between banks and effective integration. Overall performance of bank M&As is mixed, with failures often resulting from poor integration and cultural clashes.
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How Non-Banking Financial Companies Empower Startups With Venture Debt Financing
Funding working capital requirements
1. Investment Management and Financial Innovations, 1/200488
Funding Working Capital Requirements
An Emerging Markets Perspective
Alina Zapalska1
, Robert Clark2
, Lawrence Shao3
Abstract
An important issue international firms must face is the evaluation and control of working
capital investment. Many studies dealing with working capital management have focused on the
practices used by multinational enterprises in developed markets. In this study we analyze the
working capital decisions taken by firms from an emerging markets perspective. Due to their char-
acteristics, emerging economies present unique challenges to managers. We examine the funding
working capital requirements including inter-company and external sources of financing used to
meet working capital requirements. General Motors’ Polish operations highlight several important
funding issues associated with emerging market operations.
Introduction
The emerging markets in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) have developed rapidly over
the last several years (Clark, 2003). The task of creating a market-oriented economy was addressed
through both the establishment of new businesses and the privatization of state-owned firms. The
creation of market-oriented enterprises and of the institutional framework of a functioning market
economy has been a major task facing governments in the countries of CEE. The radical transi-
tional reforms of ex-communist countries’ economies provide unprecedented challenges not only
for those countries’ residents and policy makers, but also for the international community involved
in financing and monitoring the region’s economic and financial progress.
In 2004, Hungary, the Czech and Slovak Republics, and Poland, enjoy a relatively high
degree of political and economic stability as compared to other countries undergoing the post-
communist transition. Each is increasingly adopting European Union (EU) norms regarding com-
mercial and economic legislation in conformity with EU Association Accords. The member states
of the European Union and the candidates for membership agreed in Copenhagen on December 13,
2002, on a package for the admission of ten new member states to the Union. The accession treaty
was signed in Athens on April 16, 2003, and these new member states will join the EU on May 1,
2004, once the accession treaty is ratified4
.
The Western interest in these markets is also evident from the rapidly growing presence
of foreign banks, investment firms, and international companies. The growth potential of these
markets, especially Poland’s, is bolstered by the expected performance of their economies, the
fastest-growing economies of Europe. Yet, challenges remain. For some years now, firms in
emerging markets have been finding it increasingly difficult to procure working capital. This is
due to a continual draining the finances by banks – the main financing agencies for providing
working capital – through the adoption of credit squeeze policies. These difficulties can potentially
be further aggravated by several developments that sometimes take place in an economy (such as
inflation and shortages) and have a bearing on a firm’s working capital. Therefore, these firms
must optimize the use of the resources at their disposal through the efficient management and
funding working capital.
Working capital management is a critical element in enterprise creation and development.
This study’s importance is illustrated by the fact that how an enterprise administers its working
1
Ph.D., Division of Finance and Economics, Lewis College of Business, Marshall University, USA.
2
Ph.D., Dean of the School of Business Administration, University of Evansville, USA.
3
Ph.D., Head of the Division of Finance and Economics, Marshall University, USA.
4
The countries currently involved in accession are Cyprus, Malta, Hungary, Poland, the Slovak Republic, Latvia, Lithua-
nia, the Czech Republic and Slovenia. http://europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement/negotiations/accession_process.htm, ac-
cessed February 21, 2004.
2. Investment Management and Financial Innovations, 1/2004 89
capital and determines, to a very large extent, the success or failure of its overall operations. If a
business concern fails, a shortage of working capital is often given as the main cause. But in the
ultimate analysis, it may be mismanagement of the firm’s resources that could have converted an
otherwise successful business into an unsuccessful one. The proper management and funding of
working capital is, therefore, of crucial importance for the success of an enterprise. This involves
the administration and funding enterprise assets.
The information on the firms practice relating to the management of working capital
funding in the emerging markets is largely lacking. In this context this study provides an analysis
of the working capital decisions made in the CEE’s emerging markets. It argues that due to their
characteristics emerging economies present managers with unique challenges. Funding of working
capital requirements is examined, by including inter-company and external sources of financing
used to meet working capital requirements. An example of GM’s Polish operations highlights sev-
eral important funding issues associated with CEE emerging market operations. Information ob-
tained from studying GM’s Polish operations can easily be applied to the other regional econo-
mies.
Literature Review
To date, the literature on international working capital practices is limited primarily to
developed markets (Holden 1997) and the banks practices within these markets (Jacques and Ni-
gro, 1997; Hanock and Wilcox, 1993). Gentry et al. (1979) argue that an important issue multina-
tional enterprises (MNEs) face involves the working capital management policies used by their
overseas operations. These policies should be constantly monitored and controlled, since the suc-
cess of most corporations is closely linked to properly managing working capital. Additionally,
working capital procedures are an important part of a firm's overall investment strategy and are
directly influenced by foreign managers’ decisions. Although the use of overseas funds is a com-
mon business practice, the task of establishing appropriate working capital policies for foreign
corporations is not easily accomplished. This is because of differences in accounting practices,
government regulations, foreign exchange rates, economic concerns, and political systems that
exist abroad. As MNEs increase their understanding the working capital function, they should ex-
pect improvements in the management of their capital investments and become more competitive
in the international financial markets (Gentry, 1979).
Several authors argue that the increased trading activities at many large banking compa-
nies have shown how banks’ risk of loss from adverse movements in financial market rates and
prices has increased (Kraus, 1999; Haubrich and Wachtel, 1993). For example, in the wake of a
global financial crisis in emerging markets that started in Thailand in 1997, banks have come un-
der increasing pressure. After the crisis spread across the Far East, then to Russia and Brazil, banks
were blamed for helping to provoke the crisis by funneling reckless lending into emerging mar-
kets. This has prompted the International Monetary Fund and G-7 countries to propose controls on
future global capital flows (Kraus, 1999).
In the context of this crisis, Ediz et al. (1998) argue that the most important step taken was
developing formal capital requirements for market risk exposures arising from banks' trading activi-
ties. Hubbard and Waltz (1993) provide an overview of the capital requirements and the impact of
the market risk capital requirements. The authors argue that banks have recognized the importance of
trading operations and hence have sought ways to measure and to manage associated risks. At the
same time, bank supervisors in the United States and abroad took steps to ensure that banks had ade-
quate internal controls and capital resources to address these risks (Rochet, 1992).
Ediz et al. argue that banks behavior has been greatly influenced by capital requirements.
Such requirements appear to cause banks to raise their capital to meet capital ratio targets, but
capital requirements do not cause banks to shift their portfolios away from highly risk-weighted
assets. In contrast, Kraus (1999) states that efforts to raise capital requirements on cross-border
lending could reduce capital flows and increase borrowing costs in emerging markets. He argues
that banks use internal risk models to determine how much capital should be set aside on such
lending, and that any increase in capital requirements would give banks far less flexibility.
3. Investment Management and Financial Innovations, 1/200490
The article by Stevens (1986) discusses the inclusion of working capital requirements in
the NPV model. Hawawini et al. (1986) reported working capital ratios for 36 industry groups to
demonstrate differences in working capital intensity among industries. Pohlman et al. (1988) sur-
veyed 232 companies from the 1985 Fortune 500 list. More than two-thirds of the respondents
considered working capital requirements as highly important in estimating project cash flows.
Among the 12 financial factors the authors listed for financial managers to rank, working capital
requirements ranked third in importance in project cash flow estimation. Its importance ranked
behind only tax considerations and the risk of the project. However, apart from an occasional ref-
erence in advanced financial literature, the integration of annual NWC requirements in capital
budgeting, where NWC requirements are endogenous to the project, appears to be forgotten.
A number of papers have focused on working capital analysis using information obtained
from various U.S. and foreign parent companies. However, there has been only limited research
dealing with the working capital practices used by managers of affiliates operating in emerging
markets (Gentry et al., 1979; Hubbard and Walz, 1993; Kolay, 1991; Soenen, 1986; and Sriniva-
san and Kim, 1986). Thus, in this study we extend the examination of working capital issues to
developing nations and illustrate with a specific case – General Motor's Polish operation.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section two provides an overview of fund-
ing working capital requirements. Section three analyzes the performance of selected financial
markets. Section four presents several important working capital issues associated with GM’s
emerging market operations. Section five presents managerial issues and conclusions concerning
funding working capital requirements in emerging economies.
Capital Policy Decisions and Funding Working Capital Requirements
After a firm determines the requirements of current assets and components of working
capital the important task the financial manager must decide how to finance the firm’s assets. In an
emerging economy, a business firm has diverse ways of meeting its financial requirements. In se-
lecting a particular source, a financial manager has to consider the merits of each source and how
they relate to the firm’s individual constraints. In particular, the international working capital man-
agement function consists of many important capital policy decisions (Edmunds, 1984).
First, decisions must be taken regarding which kinds of bank credit should be used to fi-
nance short-term cash needs. There are numerous types of bank credit available for satisfying cash
needs including term loans, overdrafts, discount loans, lines of credit, and bankers’ acceptances.
Second, working capital decisions involve inter-company funds, which are used by corpo-
rations to satisfy financing requirements. There are many types of funds available that can be used
to satisfy financing requirements. These include cash advances from parent firms, lags in paying
accounts payable, borrowing with parent or affiliate guarantee, and borrowing with host govern-
ment guarantee.
Finally, capital decisions should include a review of funds from sources external to the cor-
porate unit. Sources of outside borrowing include foreign banks, money and capital markets, and
Eurocurrency debt. The dramatic changes occurring in many overseas markets have forced multina-
tional enterprises to reevaluate the working capital strategies used by their foreign operations (Kolay,
1991). As the percentage of total profits received from overseas operations increases, the financial
management policies employed by foreign subsidiaries becomes more important.
Due to the complex nature of working capital requirements, financing these investments
is an important managerial responsibility. Shao (1997) examined the financial management prac-
tices used by managers of foreign subsidiaries. A total of 188 foreign managers responded to a
questionnaire designed to obtain information about the working capital practices of their opera-
tions. Tables 1-3 provide information obtained from a sample of foreign subsidiaries of U.S.
MNEs in the manufacturing sector.1
1
See Shao (1997) for a further discussion of the capital structure practices of foreign subsidiaries.
4. Investment Management and Financial Innovations, 1/2004 91
Inter-company Sources of Financing
A common source of international funding are parent companies or sister subsidiaries.
Working capital managers must determine which sources within the corporate family structure
should be used. Financial theorists suggest that firms use the least costly source of internally gen-
erated funds to meet their financing needs (Lessard, 1979).
Table 1
Intercompany Sources of Financing
Source of Funds
Subsidiaries'
Average
Cash Advances From Parent Firm 4.05 (3)
Lags in Paying Accounts Payable (Subsidiary to Parent) 4.06 (4)
Cash Advances From Sister Subsidiaries 3.78 (2)
Lags in Paying Accounts Payable (Subsidiary to Subsidiary) 4.32 (5)
Borrowing With Parent or Affiliate Guarantee 3.15 (1)
Borrowing With Host Government Guarantee 4.73 (6)
Note: Scale range is from 1 (most important) to 5 (least important). Enclosed in the parentheses is
the rank of source used.
Table 1 shows the internal sources of funds used to satisfy financing needs. Shao’s survey
finds that foreign subsidiary managers use theoretically preferred internal sources of funds to meet
cash demands. These managers’ most important sources include borrowing with parent or affiliate
guarantees and cash advances from sister subsidiaries. In contrast, lags in paying accounts payable
and borrowing with host government guarantees were the least important internal source of funds
used by foreign managers.
External Sources of Funds Used to Satisfy Financing Needs
Another important working capital policy decision involves determining which sources out-
side the corporate family structure foreign managers should employ. Financial theorists suggest that
firms should use the most cost effective source of externally generated funds to meet their needs
(Shapiro, 1996). Table 2 shows the external sources of funds used. The findings of Shao’s survey show
that foreign managers use theoretically preferred external sources of funds to meet cash demands. The
most important sources used by managers include local banks and local money markets. In contrast, U.S.
securities and money markets were the least important external source used to borrow funds.
Table 2
External Sources of Funds Used to Satisfy Financing Needs
Source of Funds Subsidiaries'
U.S. Banks 3.95 (3)
U.S. Securities Market 4.80 (7)
U.S. Money Market 4.81 (8)
Local Banks 1.53 (1)
Local Securities Market 4.47 (4)
Local Money Market 3.68 (2)
Third-Country Currency Debt 4.77 (6)
Eurocurrency Debt 4.71 (5)
Note: The scale ranges from 1 (most important) to 5 (least important). Enclosed in the parentheses
is the rank of source used.
5. Investment Management and Financial Innovations, 1/200492
Table 3 presents the sources of bank credit used by managers. Foreign subsidiary manag-
ers appear to use funding sources that are recommended by academicians. The sources used most
frequently include overdrafts and lines of credit. The least preferred source of bank credit includes
bankers’ acceptances and discount loans.
Table 3
Bank Credit Used to Finance Short-term Cash Needs
Forms of Bank Credit Subsidiaries'
Average
Term Loans 3.51 (3)
Overdrafts 2.27 (1)
Discount Loans 4.20 (6)
Line of Credit 2.45 (2)
Revolving Credit Agreement 3.61 (4)
Bankers’ Acceptances 3.97 (5)
Note: Scale range is from 1 (most important) to 5 (least important). Enclosed in the parentheses is
the rank of source used.
Investing in short-term debt has several advantages. Risk is usually low because instru-
ments are not dependent on changing interest rates (if issued as zero-coupon bonds) and default on
debt is rare. Also, instruments issued by well-known corporations are usually very liquid. Finally,
in volatile markets, investors can quickly adjust their positions to meet new business conditions.
For corporations, short-term debt is beneficial if they need money quickly and for a short time
period. It may also serve as a temporary investment vehicle, if conditions for a long-term borrow-
ing are expected to change, or it is too risky to issue long-term debt.
Financial Market Performance
Due to emerging markets’ inherent volatility, their economies represent particular chal-
lenges to managers. To illustrate these challenges we examine the issues confronting managers in
the Polish financial markets during the transition period from 1992 to 1997. After 1997 the Polish
market stabilized and began reflecting the performance of a more mature emerging market. Our
analysis focuses on this example period, since it clearly reflects the dynamics of an emerging na-
tional economy. The review of this period indicates the developmental issues and challenges in-
herent in an emerging currency. The issues of currency convertibility, access to capital, and vola-
tility in the interest rate environment are evident in the Polish case and endemic to all emerging
markets.
Foreign Exchange
Efficient foreign exchange markets are critical to global business operations. Emerging
market currencies often lack the stability and convertibility required in international commerce.
Their lack of the tools or instruments for hedging foreign exchange risk represents particular chal-
lenges to corporate risk management. We use the Polish financial markets to illustrate these issues
and gain insights from an emerging market’s perspective.
Poland's exchange-rate system, like many others in the CEE region, has evolved throughout
the 1990s. In the early 1990s, Poland’s Central Bank (NBP) maintained a constant exchange rate of
the PLZ to the US dollar. This fixed exchange rate was an anti-inflationary anchor in 1990, when the
zloty was also made internally convertible, making foreign currency freely purchasable domestically
for current transactions. With the inflation rate exceeding 100% in 1990, this policy led to dramatic
real appreciation of domestic currency and declining competitiveness of exports. In order to regain
competitiveness, the Central Bank devalued the PLZ in 1991. After several one-off devaluations, the
NBP opted to preserve the competitiveness of Poland’s manufacturing industry by adopting a more
6. Investment Management and Financial Innovations, 1/2004 93
flexible crawling-peg system, which came into force in October 1991. The PLZ was pegged to a cur-
rency basket reflecting the weight of the largest Polish trade partners and foreign investors. A central
rate (the peg) was announced, with a permissible band for daily fluctuation, and the peg itself was
adjusted each month to compensate for inflationary pressures.
In 1994 this basket consisted of the following currency weights: US Dollar – 45%,
Deutsche Mark – 35%, Pound Sterling – 10%, French Franc – 5%, and Swiss Franc – 5%1
. The
crawling peg system is fairly common in emerging economies2
. Since then Poland’s Central Bank
has gradually devalued the currency at decreasing rates starting at 1.6% per month in 1991, and
equal to 1.0% in 19973
. The National Bank of Poland managed an orderly devaluation through the
crawling peg. In April 2000, the crawling peg was 0.3% per month, at which time it was aban-
doned and the PLZ was allowed to float4
. Nuti (2000) provides an extensive analysis of the PLZ’s
(PLZ) performance from 1990 to 1999.
Like many other emerging market currencies, the PLZ is not a convertible currency. To
participate in the foreign exchange market, a bank must be a member of the central bank clearing
system. The minimal transaction size is $ 500,000. Free purchase of PLZ s and/or foreign curren-
cies is accessible only to market participants (some ten to twenty foreign-owned and Polish banks).
Additional emerging foreign exchange market problems are inflation, illiquidity, and the limited
number of currencies handled by the market.
To examine the efficiency of the PLZ exchange rates we compare cross-rates of PLZ/USD,
PLZ/DM, and DM/USD quotes for the period of 1992-1997. In an efficient market, the spread should
be equal to zero, eliminating opportunities for covered arbitrage. Table 4 indicates that the 1994 effi-
ciencies were challenged by the market conditions in 1995. It was not until the end of 1995 that mar-
kets regained a level of efficiency sufficient to eliminate covered arbitrage.
The elimination of covered arbitrage signaled the growing efficiency and maturity of Po-
land’s foreign exchange market. This implies that the market experienced increased liquidity, de-
clining transaction costs, and a reduced risk of large shifts in exchange rates. The increased volatil-
ity of exchange rates during 1995 may be explained by the transition to a managed float and very
strong inflows of foreign currencies. In early 1995 many investors observed the PLZ’s tendency to
remain near the lower bounds of the permitted 4.0% trading band. Thus, investors began to specu-
late on the appreciation of PLZ5
.
On April 10, 1995, the Ministry of Finance was surprised by a sudden, almost seven-fold
increase of foreign demand for Polish T-bills6
. This development was accompanied by rapidly
growing foreign investment and a restrictive foreign currency policy that obliged all entities to sell
their foreign currency balances to the Polish Central Bank. Consequently, foreign reserves grew at
an unprecedented pace and the Central Bank, which was afraid of fueling inflation through expan-
sion of the money supply, decided to relax its foreign currency policy and increase the trading
band to 14%. A number of market participants used this opportunity to test the Polish Central
Bank’s rate of intervention, causing major swings in the exchange rates7
. It took several months,
36 interventions and $1.3 billion in purchases to calm the market8
.
1
“Poland: PLZ Crawling-Peg Devaluation Slowed,” Rzeczpospolita, September 13, 1994.
2
As currencies in Europe moved towards the Euro, the basket became a Euro/US dollar basket.
3
The 1997 Guide to Poland, Special Issue of Published with the December 1996 Issue of Euromoney.
4
The trading band of +/- 15% from parity and the 0.3% crawling peg used until April 2000 were introduced in March 1999.
5
“Policy-makers have aimed to maintain the rate of the currency’s depreciation at less than the inflation differential
between Poland and the five basket countries. This means that over time, the zloty appreciated in real terms. This
appreciation is justified by the fact that a primary objective of the central bank is to reduce inflation. In other words, the
real appreciation of the currency is used to dampen inflation.” (http://www.morganstanley.com/GEFdata/digests/19971111-
tue.html, Nov. 11, 1997, accessed January 12, 2002.).
6
Krajewska, Zofia, “The PLZ in 1995: Floating and strong,” Rzeczposposlita No 300, 30 December - 1 January 1996, p. 14.
7
Strupczewski, Jan, “Poland: Turbulent Rise Seen for PLZ After Float,” Reuter News Service - CIS and Eastern Europe,
May 11, 1995.
8
Krajewska, Zofia, “The PLZ in 1995: Floating and Strong,” Rzeczpospolita. No 300, 30 Dec - 1 Jan 1996, p. 14.
7. Investment Management and Financial Innovations, 1/200494
Table 4
Covered Arbitrage Opportunities
Panel A: Absolute Spreads
March June September December
1992 - -0.10 -0.06 -0.07
1993 -0.06 -0.09 -0.06 -0.10
1994 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00
1995 -0.04 0.10 -0.09 0.00
1996 0.01 0.00 -0.01 0.00
1997 -0.01 0.00 - -
Panel B: Percent Spreads
March June September December
1992 - -0.07 -0.04 -0.05
1993 -0.04 -0.05 -0.02 -0.04
1994 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00
1995 -0.03 0.05 -0.04 0.00
1996 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.01
1997 0.00 -0.01 - -
Polish Equity/Debt Financial Markets
Poland’s financial markets were reestablished in the early 1990s after a sixty-year break
caused by World War II and the Communist era. Polish stock market trading started in April 1991
with stocks of five carefully selected industrial enterprises. By the end of 1992, there were 16
listed companies and as of November 1993, there were still only 22 stocks traded on the Warsaw
Stock Exchange. The overall market capitalization was around $2 billion, which amounts to only
$34 per capita (in the Czech Republic the per capita stock portfolio by November 1993 was esti-
mated at approximately $500), and was expected to increase by 50-75% by the spring of 1994.
During the first half of 1993, the Polish stock market gained 213% in U.S. dollar terms. This was
the best performance anywhere in the world. By June 30, 1999, there were 7,290 Joint Stock
Companies in Poland, representing 5.2% of all companies.
The Warsaw Stock Exchange (WSE) is the only stock exchange in Poland, established on
March 22, 1991 with the introduction of the Act on Public Trading in Securities and Trust Funds.
The act created a securities market based on four principles:
1. A paperless system: all securities admitted to public trading are kept in the National
Depository of Securities in book-entry form.
2. The Warsaw Stock Exchange concentrates all supply and demand for securities ad-
mitted to trading.
3. All public companies have to publish detailed reports on their activities.
4. All equities are traded in the “par cashier” system. The trading system is order driven.
As of December 31, 1999, the market capitalization of the WSE was PLN 123.4 billion
($ 29.6 billion), or 20% of 1998 GNP (Table 5). Its turnover/liquidity ratio was 46%. The average
free float was approximately 30%. There were 221 companies listed on the exchange, including 15
National Investment Funds. The government is a shareholder of approximately 15-20% in 57 of
these listed companies. In addition to WSE, there is an over-the-counter market called CeTO,
where some 25 equities were listed by December 1999. 15 of the 221 listed companies constituted
80.1% of the total market capitalization. Foreign investors accounted for 39% of the total turnover.
By comparison, domestic institutional investors accounted for 22% and domestic retail investors
for 39%. At the end of 1999, the Polish financial market was the largest European emerging mar-
ket, and had market capitalization exceeding $29.5 billion.
8. Investment Management and Financial Innovations, 1/2004 95
Table 5
List of sectors represented on the WSE as of December 1999
Macro sector/sector
Market
value
% in total
market value
Macro sec-
tor/sector
Market
value
% in total market
value
INDUSTRY 33,540 27.1 FINANCE 35,131 28.4
Food 5,037 4.0 Banking 34,121 27.6
Light Industry 339 0.2 Insurance 858 0.7
Wood & Paper 1,177 0.9 Other 151 0.1
Chemicals 13,271 10.7 SERVICES 52,899 42.8
Building Materials 1,216 0.9 Wholesale & Retail 1,722 1.4
Construction 3,420 2.7 Conglomerates 3,076 2.4
Electro engineering 2,237 1.8 Telecom & IT 42,648 34.5
Metals 6,764 5.4 Other 5,454 4.4
Other 77 0.0 NIFs 1,840 1.4
TOTAL 123,408 100
Source: Warsaw Stock Exchange.
Figure 1 displays the performance history of the Polish equity markets from 1992 to 2001.
The figure clearly indicates that the period when the Polish economy and markets were developing
(1992-1997) was the most volatile in terms of corporate decisions to access the market for capital
requirements. In 1993 the Warsaw Stock Exchange (WSE) slowly gained the confidence of both
domestic and foreign investors. During 1993 stocks became more fashionable. This fashion devel-
oped into a regular run during the year, which pushed the WSE to record heights (the WSE grew
from 1,040 to 12,439 during 1993). The bubble burst on March 11, 1994 at 20,623. Subsequently,
the WSE fell to a low of 5,926 on February 2, 1995, but then rebounded to 15,670.2 by April 4,
1997. The average annual nominal PLZ return in the discussed period was 76.5%, which is not
very surprising for a country with high inflation. The nominal average dollar returns on the WSE
were much lower, but still amounted to an impressive 58.3% annually. As already noted, PLZ
showed a clear tendency for real appreciation.
At the early stages of the equity market, the majority of the Initial Public Offerings (IPOs)
were privatized companies. Procedures for going public were relatively well developed and in-
cluded different forms of subscriptions and distribution through the stock exchange. The under-
writing services reflected early market stages and were expensive. The secondary market – the
Warsaw Stock Exchange (WSE) – began its operations on April 16, 1991.
The correlation of the US, German and Polish exchange rates is very low. During the Pol-
ish exchange’s developmental period, the correlation coefficient between DAX and the Dow Jones
was at the level of 0.24, while the correlation coefficient of WSE with Frankfurt and New York
was below 0.20. However, the low correlation coefficients are not likely to reflect the true level of
dependence for two reasons. First, weekly returns incorporate local information that is not relevant
for other stock exchanges. This information produces noise that artificially lowers the statistical
correlations. Second, research suggests that stock market performances have autoregressive com-
ponents in the long run1
. This suggests that some recurring stock performance cycles may have a
stronger correlation in the long run than in the short (weekly) run. With low correlation levels
1
Fama, Eugene F., French, Kenneth R., “Business Conditions and Expected Returns on Stocks and Bonds,” Journal of
Financial Economics 25 (1989), p. 23-49.
9. Investment Management and Financial Innovations, 1/200496
managers with emerging market operations cannot rely upon hedging instruments from other mar-
kets to cover the risk associated with their emerging market investment1
.
in US Dollar
Price Index (official) Monthly 31-Dec-1992 to 10-Jan-2002
Dec92 Dec93 Dec94 Dec95 Dec96 Dec97 Dec98 Dec99 Dec00 Dec01
(1)
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Fig. 1. Polish Equity Market Performance
The fixed-income market in Poland was developing rapidly, but was relatively illiquid.
Treasury bills and bonds accounted for 70% of the market capitalization and were its biggest seg-
ments. High inflation and high interest rates were the main barriers to the development of fixed-
income securities. Nevertheless, commercial papers, as well as municipal and corporate bond pro-
grams played an increasing role in the market.
In 1997, as MNEs considered appropriate funding sources for their working capital needs in
Poland, the Polish Treasury issued six types of bills (4, 8, 13, 24, 39, and 52 weeks) and five types of
bonds. Bills were bought at a discount and their par values were received at maturity. Bonds with ma-
turities of 1, 3, and 10 years had floating-rates tied to T-bills’ yields or inflation, while bonds with ma-
turities of 2 and 5 years were fixed-rate, paying 18% and 15%, respectively. The inverted yield curve,
with the six-month bill yielding 20% and the two-year bond yielding 18%, reflected investors' confi-
dence in declining inflation rate. The commercial paper (CP) market consisted of securities issued by
top-tier companies. CP traded at 20 to 50 basis points (bp) over Treasuries. There were about 10-15
companies issuing commercial paper. These issues tended to be small and quite illiquid.
Emerging Market Working Capital Strategies
Emerging economies present unique opportunities to firms attempting to evaluate their work-
ing capital requirements. Since there has been very little research done on this topic, this research takes
a unique approach by examining the implications of funding opportunities in an emerging economy.
Specifically, this study evaluates the funding issues related to GM’s investment in Poland. Although
Section III highlights information on the Polish markets, the issues of foreign exchange stability and
corporate access to emerging equity or fixed income capital markets confront MNEs in all developing
nations. Given Poland’s emerging market environment from 1992 to 1997, we examine the issues of
working capital management confronting GM’s Polish operations.
GM’s international strategy involves capitalizing on emerging market opportunities in
Central and Eastern Europe. GM’s German affiliate, Adam Opel AG, is its most important export
brand. It develops and implements manufacturing technologies for GM’s foreign plants. In 1996
1
As an example, the Austrian schilling’s correlation with the German DM was 0.99. Thus, those operating in the Austrian
market could hedge exposure to the schilling with the more liquid DM forward and futures contracts. Consequently, schil-
ling denominated derivatives did not evolve as significant market instruments.
10. Investment Management and Financial Innovations, 1/2004 97
Adam Opel AG announced a plan to build a car factory in the southern Polish town of Gliwice.
GM viewed construction of this plant as a response to Poland’s booming auto sales and the excel-
lent future prospects of the Polish and Central European automotive markets. GM planned to
spend DM500 million to build the factory and estimated working capital requirements would cost
at a minimum of DM133 million. To provide for working capital for its new Polish operations,
GM planned to issue debt (or equity) in Poland, the US, or Germany. The decision was compli-
cated by extremely volatile foreign exchange rates, which influenced the real cost of borrowing.
Adam Opel AG is the most important strategic business unit within GM International.
The general strategy of GM, as outlined by Chairman Jack Smith, focused on cost cutting, lean
manufacturing and using the same manufacturing methods and business practices around the
world. Such tactics were meant to speed development times and grow all business sectors1
. GM’s
international strategy was guided by their expectation that Central Europe’s substantial increase in
demand would cause the overall European market to grow by 30% within the next 10 years. GM
also expected the market in Latin America to grow by 25%, and the Asia/Pacific regional market
to increase 40% and account for 30% of the world’s market2
.
In response to these expectations, GM planned the largest ever capacity expansion of its
international operations sector, 25%, with an anticipated 50% growth in sales. To implement ca-
pacity extensions, GM planned to build a new car plant in Poland among other sites3
. The interna-
tional expansion of manufacturing facilities would enable GM to compete more effectively and
change its international economic exposure. Dispersion of manufacturing plants over multiple
countries plays a crucial role in hedging against international economic exposure.
The central idea of GM’s lean production systems was the steady pursuit of perfection
and reduction of any kind of waste. Just-in-time manufacturing systems are a logical consequence
of lean production because they reduce both resource and end product waste. The crucial feature of
just-in-time is the necessity to buy parts and subassemblies from producers located in the vicinity
of assembly plants. In practical terms it meant that GM’s Polish operation would buy components
in Poland. GM planned to buy DM800 millions worth of components in Poland in 19984
. As a re-
sult, the total local content share was expected to reach 60% by the year 20005
. Assuming that the
inventory turnover cycle in Poland would be of comparable length as in the US (some 60 days),
Opel needed to invest DM133 million in working capital in PLZs for purchases in Poland.
To finance these working capital requirements, GM could issue either debt or equity.
Both types of securities could be issued in Germany, Poland, or the US. To determine the appro-
priate option we examined the following information:
1. Trends in foreign exchange rates (USD to DM, PLZ to USD, and PLZ to DM) to as-
sess their influence on the valuation of foreign assets and debt.
2. The performance of equity markets in Germany, Poland, and the US to assess which
market was the most appropriate for an equity issue.
3. The performance of short-term corporate debt markets to assess costs and risks asso-
ciated with issuing short-term debt in each of these markets.
GM’s options to issue either equity or debt to cover their Polish working capital require-
ments presented management with complexities unique to developing nations. When examining
equity financing GM had two general options: register its own shares (ones tied to the performance
of the Polish operations) on the WSE, or issue stock for Polish operations and retain controlling
stake. The first option was the de facto option of investing in a foreign corporation because the
results would be consolidated in dollars. Despite the potentially high profitability of Polish opera-
tions, investors' returns would be diminished by real PLZ appreciation. A Polish investor might be
interested in the investment to diversify his/her portfolio. In such a case, investment in securities
tied to the Polish market would not have benefited US based investors.
1
Child, Charles. “GM Focuses on Growth, Smith Says,” Automotive News, January 13, 1997, p.1.
2
“GM's Global Strategies Focus on Customers, Growth, Competitiveness,” PR Newswire, May 24, 1996.
3
“Due to the financial turmoil in Southeast Asia, GM has decided to delay its plans to open a major assembly plant in
Thailand.” Blumenstein, Rebecca. “GM Delays Plans to Open Big Thai Plan,” Wall Street Journal, January 6, 1998, p. A2.
4
“Financial Adviser not Appointed as GM Begins Building Factory,” Finance East Europe, October 11, 1996.
5
Done, Kevin, “News: World Trade: GM in Polish Car Plant Deal,” Financial Times, June 27, 1996, p. 4.
11. Investment Management and Financial Innovations, 1/200498
The second option involved an investment in a growing segment of the economy and the
positive perception of GM as the controlling shareholder. Once again, GM would have to convince
Polish investors that it was going to realize profits in Poland. Due to the risk factors involved, the
required rates of return were high. This made equity a relatively costly source of financing. With
rates of up to 30%, underwriting fees were extremely high. Consequently, to fund its Polish work-
ing capital requirements GM did not elect to issue equity.
After eliminating the equity option, GM’s management turned to its fixed income options.
Current volumes in Poland’s corporate debt market were low and maturities were very short, usu-
ally less than one year. Since the total number of issues was below 20, it was difficult to establish
a relevant short-term rate. For this reason we compared three-month WIBOR, FIBOR and T-bills
rates as proxies for short-term corporate debt.
In Germany and the US, interest rates were stable at 3.0% and 5.0% respectively, while
Polish interest rates were volatile and very high, exceeding 20.0%. However, in the long run Pol-
ish rates declined, reflecting easing inflation. Analysis of real interest rates offered three insights.
First, volatility depended heavily on the time interval in which inflation was measured. Second,
Poland’s high inflation dramatically increased interest rate volatility. Third, the real interest rate
was not directly observable in the market place, since it is calculated using by ex post inflation
rates. The conclusion is that short-term borrowing is warranted only in the currency of the market
where the funds will be used1
.
Commercial bank loans are one of the most important short-term financing instruments
used worldwide. Foreign managers must decide what type of bank credit should be used to meet
cash needs. Researchers suggest that firms should employ the least costly source of funds before
using sources that are more expensive. Since the PLZ appreciated in real term, it was profitable to
borrow dollars and invest in PLZs. This is because there was a positive foreign currency exchange
gain in addition to the profits from Polish operations. Unfortunately, real returns on short-term
investment depended heavily on swings in exchange rates. Since forward exchange rates are not
readily available for many emerging nations, it is difficult to forecast future exchange rates. Thus,
it is not possible to forecast real borrowing costs.
Poland’s corporate debt market was small and illiquid, but it grew rapidly. The biggest advantage
of borrowing in Poland was that debt repayment did not depend on exchange rates and nominal costs were
known. The challenge was that nominal costs were high, while real rates were relatively low. Thus, bor-
rowing in Poland was a viable option for GM. This option also created an opportunity for GM to develop a
balance sheet hedge to protect its investment from foreign exchange risks.
Summary and Conclusion
In this paper, we examine working capital requirements funding in an emerging market.
In particular, this paper summarizes the important findings concerning GM to illustrate critical
issues for managerial making regarding the efficient management of funding working capital. In
examining corporate working capital funding alternatives in emerging markets, our strategic
analysis indicates that management should fund domestic working capital requirements with do-
mestic currencies at the early stages of market development. Our study illustrates that as emerging
markets evolve and become more integrated in the global economy, covered arbitrage opportuni-
ties dissipate and currency stabilization occurs. In this phase of market evolution, working capital
funding alternatives expand to include other international currencies, as other funding sources be-
come more attractive for MNEs.
These conclusions support managerial decisions to diversify the funding sources for working
capital requirements after an initial phase of concentrating funding in the domestic market. As covered
arbitrage opportunities are reduced in emerging markets, the stability of the domestic market increases
and possible funding sources for working capital expand. Firms in emerging economies should realize
the importance of properly planning the working capital funding. Because most firms in emerging
1
J.P. Morgan provided data series, with the exception of 3-month treasuries, which were obtained from the Federal
Reserve Bank's of Saint Louis.
12. Investment Management and Financial Innovations, 1/2004 99
economies fail to plan how to properly fund working capital requirements, there is still a great need for
continued research that examines the pattern of financing working capital requirements in these econo-
mies. In addition, MNEs are continuously challenged as they acquire domestic firms/enterprises in
emerging markets to efficiently fund their capital requirements.
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