Forest Products Utilization

FOREST PRODUCTS
UTILIZATION
FPE704
COMPILED BY: PRAJNA KHANAL, SMRITI PAHARI AND SIDDHARTHA ARYAL
MSC FORESTRY
Tribhuvan University
January 2020

Compiled by: Prajna Khanal, Smriti Pahari and Siddhartha Aryal Page | 1
UNIT 1: HARVESTING PLANNING (5)
1.1. Forest harvesting plan and planning process
What is harvesting/ why do we need harvesting plan
It is the very first step of timber utilization and also an inseparable part of forest management. In
addition, it is the most important step of product reaping and the final step of getting the
management objective and/or economic return. It is this one aspect of forest management where
professional foresters’ inputs can very effectively contribute to maintaining healthy and productive
forests in perpetuity.
Timber is harvested to produce economic returns from forest lands, but it also impacts the
environment. Forestry operations are also the tradeoff between economic benefits and
environmental impacts, in which additional environmental protection costs reduce economic returns.
Hence, forest harvesting must set a balance between economic return and environmental costs.
Therefore, a Forest manager must need a Harvesting Planning.
Harvesting plan is the "blueprint" by which a harvesting operation is carried out. The objectives of
developing forest harvesting plans are:
 To develop comprehensive strategic and operational planning mechanisms that ensure that
forest values will be protected during harvesting.
 To ensure responsible use of land and forest resources
 To ensure responsible use of land and forest resources for the maximum benefit of all
stakeholders.
 To develop plans that take account of the socioeconomic and environmental impacts on the
area.
 To provide for efficient and environmentally responsible means of harvesting timber.
Forest harvesting planning process is a complex of different steps that work at different levels. It can
be defined at different levels. The steps incurring in harvesting plans are
1. Site-Specific Forest-Use Planning
Forest-harvesting site, quantity, time, methods, use decisions should be documented in the
harvesting plan and in the logging contract documents. Forest planners should determine the
availability of both cadastral and physical land classification information, which could include:
Physical land classification
 Contours/Slope
 Soil classes
 Drainage patterns
 Forest type and distribution etc.
Cadastral land classification
 Cadastral boundaries (landuse/ownership)

 Conservation areas
 Ownership boundaries etc.
2. Planning Levels
Planning for forest harvesting is a multi-tiered process often comprising three levels. These levels are:
Long-term planning
These are broadscale advanced plans based primarily on available information which serve as a guide
for future activities in all operations.
Operational planning
Operational plans are developed for each individual harvest area, based mainly on-site inspections.
Maps of the harvesting block (coupe), showing a detailed plan of the activities to occur, form the main
elements of the operational plan.
Task planning
Task planning is undertaken by the harvesting company and describes responsibilities of staff and
how work is to be carried out. It is appropriate that task plans be prepared after the operational plan
has been developed. Once the plans are developed by the concessionaire/contractor enterprise, the
plans should be submitted to the relevant forest authority for approval.
3. Amendments to the Plans
If any major changes to the fundamental approach are required (in either the long-term or
operational plans), details of the proposed changes should be resubmitted to the details of the
proposed changes should be resubmitted to the Forest Authority.
4. Planning Staff
It is suggested that a minimum planning team consist of a professional Forest Planner and two (2)
assistants, employed by the concession holder for each harvest area of approx. 500 ha. Should be
experienced in:
1. planning large forest harvesting operations;
2. survey skills for boundary and road location;
3. map preparation and reading;
4. plan preparation and reporting;
5. able to communicate with management and operations staff.
5. Plan Approval Process
The following steps are suggested for the planning approval process:
 obtain base maps (topographic maps are most useful);
 conduct forest reconnaissance (inventory);
 develop plans in conjunction with forest owners and
 submit plans to relevant government Forest Authority for approval;

 obtain approval of plans;
 execute plans.
6. MIS/GIS and the Planning Process
Incorporation of MIS and GIS in planning:
MIS based data storage and utility, Forest Management Maps, Forest Management Maps, Inventory,
Training, Review and updating as per need.
1.2. Reduced impact logging (RIL)
1.2.1 Concept and application of RIL in harvesting planning
The term RIL was used for the first time by Putz and Pinard in 1993. “RIL” proved more broadly
acceptable than ‘environmentally sound timber harvesting, an alternative that was being promoted
by the FAO Forestry Department (Dykstra and Heinrich, 1992). The Tropical Forest Foundation (TFF)
introduced the related term ‘low-impact logging’ but this was not generally adopted by
environmentalists who felt that ‘low-impact’ and ‘logging’ were mutually exclusive terms.
Reduced-impact logging (RIL) can be defined as ‘the careful planning and control of timber harvesting
operations to minimize the environmental impact and waste that result from conventional forms of
logging’. RIL is implemented through codes of practice and guidelines that include activities such as
improved forest management planning, road construction, tree felling, bucking and log yarding.
Following RIL guidelines can greatly improve forest management and future returns by providing good
information about tree volumes and locations, ensuring that roads and skid trails are efficiently
located, reducing wood waste, and enhancing post-logging regeneration and growth.
RIL = an execution of Harvesting Planning. RIL can be achieved when following steps are followed in
harvesting plan:
1) The use of appropriate felling and bucking techniques including directional felling, cutting stumps
low to the ground to avoid waste, and optimal crosscutting of tree stems into logs to maximize the
useful timber;
2) the winching of logs to planned skid trails and ensuring that skidding machines remain on the trails
at all ensuring that skidding machines remain on the trails at all times;
3) using yarding systems that protect soils and residual vegetation by suspending logs above ground,
minimizing soil disturbance;
4) conducting a post-harvest assessment to provide feedback to the concession holder and logging
crews and to evaluate the degree to which RIL guidelines were successfully applied.
1.2.2 Opportunities and challenges of RIL
Opportunities
The use of RIL improves worker safety and minimizes the harmful impacts of logging on forest soils,
hydrology, forest growth, and biodiversity.

Following RIL guidelines can greatly improve forest management and future returns by providing good
information about tree volumes and locations, ensuring that roads and skid trails are efficiently
located, reducing wood waste, and enhancing post-logging regeneration and growth.
The implementation of RIL can substantially reduce the emission of CO2 from selectively logged
forests by as much as 40% compared with conventional logging (CL). RIL’s carbon benefits derive
from protection of forest along streams and on steep slopes as well as from minimization of damage
to the residual growing stock.
RIL can provide immediate financial savings and long-term economic benefits as a result of better
planning and training of workers in felling and bucking techniques as well as from the careful design
and use of logging roads and skid trails.
Individual forest management units may be able to get carbon credits by implementing RIL as part of
emerging carbon trading markets.
Challenges
Loggers implementing RIL practices frequently must adopt new ways of working, invest in new
equipment and safety gear, re-train their crews, and hire technically qualiﬁed supervisors to plan and
oversee the work (Pokorny et al., 2005). Such requirements impose incremental costs that
conventional logging (CL) operators avoid, potentially putting RIL operators at a ﬁnancial
disadvantage. Also advocated as ‘Reduced income logging’.
RIL focuses on industrial-scale management of tropical forests for timber, not on rural owners.
1.2.3 Role of harvesting plan for sustainable forest management
As a consequence of the increase in demand for forest products and services and the reduction of the
forest resource base, concern has risen over whether the demands for forest products can be met in
a sustainable manner.
In itself, the harvesting plan does not ensure ecologically sustainable forest management. However,
with effective implementation through reduced impact harvesting guidelines, participation in the
planning process from all stakeholders, and integration with other sustainable forest management
initiatives, the plan will assist in minimizing negative impacts of forest harvesting in production
forests.
The plan provides an expression of the region’s commitment to sustainable forest management and
complements other initiatives in the region. It outlines guidelines by which timber should be
harvested for supplying products and other benefits for the immediate community and nation as a
whole, while simultaneously maintaining other social and ecological values.
Many harvesting operators believe that environmental protection can only be achieved through
expensive measures that will make forest harvesting uneconomic. However, the evidence from
experienced operators who carry out effective harvest planning and undertake operations as
specified in the plans, indicates that operational control is improved and environmental impacts
reduced. This in turn often leads to reduced costs and increased profits.

1.3. Application of ergonomics in harvesting
Ergonomics is an applied science concerned with designing and arranging things people use so that the
people and things interact most efficiently and safely. In general, Ergonomic means fit the job to the workers
and optimize the man task environment system in view of the worker’s health, well-being and efficiency. In
short, fit the worker to the job.
In most countries forest related works are considered to be one of the most hazardous work (Europe-4th
,
America-2nd
). There are many kinds of work in forestry from heavy physical work to highly mechanized one
which needs high concentration and physical strength like:
 Tree felling operation
 Bucking and Sawing operation
 Loading and Unloading work
 Transportation of logs
 Stacking of Timber in Depot
To get satisfactory output from the worker, employer have to create amicable working environment for
them. To make the working environment amicable following elements needs to be addressed prudently:
 Workers fitness to work.
 Workers strain in heavy work
 Workers strain in mechanized work
 Prevention of accidents.
Why do we need ergonomics in forestry?
 To immunize the risk of injury, illness, accidents and errors without compromising productivity.
 To develop and promote adapting working methods and technology.
 To assist the health and safety executive by providing information and data on forestry machinery
use.
 To provide best practice guidance regarding storage and handling system.
 To share and promote knowledge in partnership with other institutions.

UNIT 2: HARVESTING PRACTICES (5)
2.1. Timber harvesting: methods and techniques
Trends of forest harvesting practices in Nepal
The felling of trees is an art. When felling the timber, it should not lose the timber value. All persons
related to felling should have knowledge about the theory and practices of felling trees, and also
how to use and maintain axes and saws.
Principles of felling:
1. The production of maximum amount of sound timber that can be made available for expert
from the forest.
2.The avoidance of damage to the surrounding forest crop.
On the basis of forest regulation 1995, forest products collection and sales along with distribution
manual (including few codes of harvesting) have been introduced for the purpose of harvesting
trees in Nepal.
Approaches
a. Community forestry approach:
In this approach all the activities associated with harvesting are conducted by the forest user group
themselves or on contractual work at close supervision of user group members.
In community forests, both in Hills and Terai, the following criteria are adopted to harvest trees.
 Dead, dying and fallen trees.
 Thinning as prescribed in management plan of Community forestry.
 Extraction of trees as per annual allowable cut prescribed in management plan of C.F.
 That obstruct development work such as stretching of high-tension line of electricity,
construction work like road, canals etc.
 For the implementation of highly prioritized development work at national level.
 Timber needed for the construction and management of house and agriculture implements
of users.
Strength
 It is participatory work by users thus; permit rate of harvesting is cheaper.
 It creates local employment and income generation to local poor.
 The forest user group adopts transparent process in harvesting work.
 Harvesting is done based on actual demanded of users.
 It fulfills the actual needs of users.
 The CFUGs is very much aware regarding protection of regeneration during harvesting.
 Activities on tree thinning are done very precisely according to the action plan.

Weakness
 Safety measures are not adopted.
 No insurance for workers involved in harvesting work.
 Harvesting is done in a small scale, basically to fulfill their subsistence demands.
 Generally semi-skilled on or unskilled manpower are only used.
 Very traditional practices are adopted in harvesting.
 Mechanized or improved harvesting tools are not used.
 There is low supervision of forestry technicians because limited forest technician can not
supervise large no of CF in the hills.
 Records of harvesting are not maintained properly.
b.Government managed forest Approach
In 2000, the Government of Nepal had made a general decision “not to cut green trees”. This
decision brought obstacles for scientific forest management especially in Terai. However, green
trees can be extracted from the forests where management plans have been approved for various
development and forestry activities.
The following approaches for harvesting trees have been adopted in the government managed
forests.
 Dead, dying and fallen trees.
 Drifted woods and trees brought by floods and landslides.
 Trees are harvesting from rehabilitation area, high tension electricity line area, road and
other project construction sites.
The department of forest approaches periods district forest management plan( including harvesting
plan). The plan is generally not implemented as per schedule, because of various problems. Out of
which major problem is concerned with the budget. The allocated nominal budget is not sufficient
to implement the annual harvesting plan. Furthermore, the nominal budget is also not released in
time.
Strength
 There are strict government directives and guidelines for timber harvesting.
 It handles a large scale harvesting of timber.
 It is done in an organized or semi organized manner.
 Relatively improved tools and machines are used in harvesting.
 Harvesting is normally conducted under technical supervision of forestry professionals.
 Harvesting records are well maintained in regards to dates, quantity, location etc.
 Harvesting is done to fulfill the local markets and balance the market price.
Weakness
 Safety measures are not adopted as per government directives.
 There is no insurance related to injuries and life for workers involved in the harvesting.
 Local contractors and middleman are generally involved but they are also not well skilled.

 There are no organized company equipped with improved tools and techniques for
harvesting.
 Improved and mechanized tools are not used.
 Training on harvesting in not given as importance.
 Forest depots are not maintained to minimize losses and quality.
 There is no grading system for timber. The same basic prices are fixed for all quality timber.
 Forest road networking is very limited.
Harvesting tools
Different tools are used in harvesting forests depending upon their availability, affording capacity of
the harvester and availability of the skilled worker. Most common tools used are axe saw and other
harvesting tools are debarking spade, rope stem tightener, wedges and rope.
Season of felling tree
 Suitable time for extraction.
 Suitable period for harvesting.
 Availability of workers.
 Enough time periods for conversion.
 High altitude – not in winter. (snow area)
 Terai and plain area – not in rainy seasons.
General Rules of felling tree:
 Cut the tree at low stump height as much as possible.
 Use saw if available.
 Remove climbers before cutting.
 Falling trees must not be affecting to other trees.
 Fell the trees on uphill side in hilly areas.
 Never fell the trees from where they cannot be extracted.
 Never fell the trees in the strong wind.
 Felling should be concentrated as much as possible.
Stump height: 30-60 cm left when axe is used.
15-30 cm. left when saw and mechanized tools are used.
Low stump height should be left for complete utilization of sound timber
Preparation for felling
 Marking of the trees.
 Enumeration.
 Access to the tree (stump)
 Transportation.
 Crews- sufficient labors (trained or not)
 Safety measures.

Prevailing harvesting practices
In hills
In the hills, timber is harvested from community forest or from the forest owned and protected by
individual family. The requirement of timber in the hills is very small. Mainly the timber is used for
domestic and few development works.
Villagers as well as contractors still adopt traditional harvesting system. Tools like axe, sickle and
two men cross-cut saw are the general tools used for felling trees. In the hills, logs and fuel wood
are manually transported. Big size log is splitted into small size timbers and are transported
manually by short route. In few Himalayan districts, like Humla, Jumla, and big size logs are also
dragged downhill by a group of people with the help of rope binded at both the edges (forehead
and backside)
In Terai
It has been estimated that in inner-terai of Nepal the cost of felling tree, debarking, chopping into
logs, collection and transportation of timber from the felling to the yarding site incur approximately
15 to 20 US $ per cubic meter. This cost is further discounted or compounded in accordance with
the distance between yarding and the felling site. More is the distance; more will be the cost per
unit. The main reasons behind cheaper cost per unit of timber harvesting in Terai are because of flat
land, cheap labour wages high unemployment rate in the rural areas, easy availability of semi-skilled
local or Indian labours. Likewise dragging of logs is mainly done by bullock, carts and tractors. The
rate of labour and transportation is fixed by district level authorities and is released in every year.
In the hills, the cost of harvesting is relatively higher due to the difficult terrain and high wage rate
of labour. Transportation is done manually. Skilled or semi-skilled labour is not readily available.
Huge timbers in the forms of logs are not feasible to transport. Therefore, the timber is converted
into small size at the felling site are transported. The cost of felling trees and activities carried
therefore, to bring the logs, planes up to the road heads ranges between US $ 40 to 50 per cubic
meter. The distance and difficult terrain further compound this.
Classification of felling based on tools used
 Felling with axe.
 Felling with chain saw.
 Felling with two men hand saw.
 Felling with axe and saw.
Appropriate Forest Harvesting technology
Appropriate technology can be defined as fulfilling to essential criteria.
1. It must be sustainable.
2. It must be locally accepted and adopted.
A. Manual felling

 Choosing the lay (lay is simply the position on ground where a tree will fall)
 Stump height
 Felling sink/undercut/ face cut
 Felling sink is a notch made at the base of the tree in the direction of fall.
 Main cut/ back cut
 Main cut should be made 1” – 3” above the face cut on the opposite side. The main cut is
horizontal and must be concluded a few cm before the felling sink.
 Felling against the lean.
 Cutting should be done from the side apposite to the lean.
 Tree pulling.
 Side notching
 Measuring
 Bucking techniques.
 System of felling.
Mainly axe and cross cut saws are used.
 With an axe alone.
 With axe and saw.
 With saw alone.
B. Mechanical felling
Cutting is done with a variety of cutting tools including not only shears but a hydraulically driven
chain saw, circular saws and augers.
Types of felling machines are:
2. Single function machine- carries mounted shear.
3. Dual function machine- Drott felller- buncher.
4. Multi- function machine – Koehring Feller- forwarder.
Advantages of mechanical felling
1. Cutting production is improved.
2. Skidding and limbing costs are reduced.
3. Skidding production is improved.
4. Allows for a separation of cutting functions from the skidding and loading functions.
5. Wood utilization is improved.
6. Safes
7. Low time consuming
Disadvantages
1. Limited range of stem size. (Size generally 24” diameter)
2. High cost
3. Wood damage.
2.2. Timber Grading: national and international system

An intelligence or brilliant choice of timber for certain or specific choice or purpose or use is known
as grading of timbers. The grading rule originated in Sweden in 1764 for the Swedish pine species.
Gradually more and more rules came in existence for different species or groups of in other countries
also maximum developed in the field has been noted in use have been classified according to
agreement between suppliers and consumers.
Grading rules can be specific for a particular species e.g. teak/pines or for particular assemblages of
trees e.g. softwoods or hardwoods.
Central to log grading are:
 dimensions of the log (scaling, diameter and length)
 form of the log (the degree to which it deviates from a true cylinder)
 defects (abnormalities), present in a log
Grading rules will nominate what level of defects, if any, is permissible within any particular grade.
Scope and Purpose of Grading
1. Timber requires to be suitably graded before actual use.
2. Grading rules for the classification of timber into various classes on the basis of species use,
sizes, defects, physical feature and economic aspect
3. Users require a Confidence limit of the timber use
4. Grading rules helps us to clear understanding of influencing factors and utilization of timber.
5. Grading helps us to classify not only individual piece of timber of a particular species but also
groups or set of species according to their properties of product.
Principle of grading
 It regulates the quality in accordance with demand and supply.
 It gives Clear definitions of the grades, both qualitatively and quantitatively, keeping in view
the impacts on price structure.
 It identifies and evaluates the factors which influence the quality and utilization of the material.
 Grading distinguishes not only individual pieces of timber of a species but also groups or sets
of species according to their properties or products made out of them.
 Grading rules are usually set by recognized organizations, also responsible to provide
certificates of grading.
National Timber grading system
In Nepal, TCN is the largest and only timber selling organization. TCN sometimes specify and apply
grading system but it is not widely and always practiced. Following grading criteria is adopted by TCN.
a. First class: Straight and long potentially yielding 3-4 logs of 10’ length.
b. Second class: Can yield at least one log of 10’length (10 feet length)
c. Third class: Cannot potentially yield timber, used for firewood only.
Government of Nepal recently has published a gazette on 23th Jestha, 2068 which consists the
grading system to be employed in Nepal for the purpose of pricing of logs and poles.

Basis for grading:
 The percentage of swan timber produced of logs without defects.
 Length and girth of the logs.
 For example:
1. The timber can be graded as ‘A’ if the length of the log is 7 ft, girth is 6ft. and swan timber is
greater than 65% of log.
2. The timber can be graded as ‘B’ if the length of log is 5ft, girth is more than 5ft. and quantity
of swan timber is less than 65%.
According to the gazette, the principal basis for girth of logs and it’s % sawn timber.
The gazette comprises species wise grading as follows
Species: Sal (Shorea robusta)
Grade Length
(%)(ft.)
Girth (ft) Defects Swan timber
(%)
A >7 >6 Not more than 2 holes if attack by insects ≥ 65% or more
B >4 4-6 5 holes, knots, split, check, hollow, inbark >40% to 65%
C >2.5 >2.5 5 holes, knots, split, check, hollow, inbark,
warping defect, rotton ring shake
<40%
Species: Asna, Jamun, Karma, Tuni, Seris, Gamhari
Grade Length
(%)(ft.)
Girth
(ft)
Defects Swan timber
(%)
B >2.5 2.5-7 Split, check, knots, check, hollow,
inbark,wrapped >2 holes, rotten, rings
C - - - -
Wild Sissoo
Grade Length
(%)(ft.)
Girth
(ft)
Defects Swan timber (%)
B >4 5-6 5 holes, knots, split, check, hollow, inbark >40% to <65%

C >2.5 2.5-6 >5 holes, knots, split, check, hollow, inbark,
warping defect, rotton ring
<40%
Chirpine
Grade Length
(%)(ft.)
Girth
(ft)
Defects Swan timber (%)
B >2.5 <5 >5 holes, knots, embeded bark split, check,
split checks hollow, inbark, wrapped
>40% to <65%
C - - - -
International Timber grading system
 Most countries and regions have their own sets of grading rules with different rules for
different species; for softwoods and hardwoods.
 For example, the National Hardwood Lumber Association (NHLA) Rules from the US, the
BC Lumber Grading (NHLA) Rules from the US, the BC Lumber Grading and Quebec Grading
Rules from Canada, the Finnish Grading Rules and the Malayan Grading Rules (MGR) are
some of the well-known rules, to name a few.
 Many countries, or provincial regions within countries, have standard grading rules for logs
and timber.
 These are often used as a basis for pricing where the forest resources are state-owned.
 The United States of America (USA) uses the University of Tennessee Hardwood Log
Grading Handbook.
 The USDA Forest Service log grading system segregates sawn logs into one of three grades:
o Grade 1 (F1) logs – highest grade and best quality produce 60% plus of 1 common
or better timber
o Grade 2 (F2) logs – next best grade, medium quality produce 40-60% of 1 common
or better timber
o Grade 3 (F3) logs – lowest grade -produce < 40% of 1 common or better timber
 Canada uses the Quebec Log Grading Rules.
 Australian log grading guidelines tend to be state based and therefore implemented by
the relevant Government forestry entities. Government forestry entities.
 In Malaysia, logs are often graded according to local mill practices using the Sabah Log
Grading Rules.
 In India, timber grading is done using (IS-6534-1971)
2.3. Logs transportation and storage: national and international system
Transportation of logs in Nepalese context

The forest products i.e. log, fuel wood and other minor forest products should be extracted from the
forest to the usable area i.e. final destination is called transportation of forest product. Transportation
is almost important in log extraction because, prior to log transportation, only cost area incurred but
not profits. Transportation is the process of moving bulky and heavy products of the forests, logs and
converted timber form the forest to the saw mill for further conversion or the ultimate markets. The
transport constitutes about 60 to 70% if the total cost for delivery of the products in the market.
Adequate control of the transport charges is, therefore, of utmost importance. Transport of timber
from the stump to its final destination, i.e. the market or other consuming centers may be divided
into two parts:
1. Minor transportation as it is also called “Off Road Transportation” and
2. Major transportation.
Choice of Methods (important consideration for method of transportation)
1. Cost
2. Loss and damage to produce: A slight saving in the direct cost of transport with greater loss is
not preferred.
3. Time
4. Availability of lab our and other facilities.
5. Future planning for improvement
6. Terrain
7. Value of timber
8. Damage to forest soil and regeneration
Factors consideration for selection of the transport methods:
a) Total volume of timber available per unit area species wise.
b) Size of sawmill or market to be served with daily and annual volume of log supply.
c) Topography of the track with natural out-let of timber.
d) Available transportation facilities roads, streams and others.
1. Method of Transport
a) Transport by Land
b) Men
c) Animal
d) Carts
e) Motor trucks
f) Railway
2. Water transport
a) Floating
b) Rafting and booms
c) Wet slides
3. Overhead transport

a. Cable yarding
1. Transport by Land
By Animal
Mules, ponies, bullocks and camels have been used in plains and semi-hilly areas. Dragging by
elephants, buffaloes and bullocks, has been employed in many parts in the forest. They are still used
in where other transportation is not available. The animals are utilized primarily for direct skidding.
The animals work, singly and in teams depending on the size of logs, distance and topography. During
the recent year they are being increasingly displaced by tractors, power skidders and motor trucks.
Elephants are still being used, for storage of logs in depots and loading.
By carts
Carrying by men and animals, especially over longer distances, resulted in use of carts for the carriage
of timber both in log and converted forms. A cart has two low wheels, which have the advantage of
easy mobility, and going directly to the felling area. The cart is hauled either by a single bullock or a
pair or even in teams of oxen. There are various forms and types of carts met within the country. They
have been the fore-runners of the motor trucks, which are becoming more and more in use with the
development of improved roads. They are slowly being replaced but are found in nearly all the forest
areas in the plains, and form an important means of transport of timber over short and long distances.
By men
On steep slopes small and medium sized timber, like sleeper, small poles and posts and fuel wood are
often carried from forest to some point below, from which they are transported by various devices,
by carriage by labour. Distances vary from a few meters to several or more. They are carried often on
men’s shoulders or on backs. Trained labour is often employed in the carriage. The longer lead is split
into several portions. This is the most expensive method, but least damage is done to the timber.
By Truck
The motor truck has been greatly improved in power, efficiency and size. With better and more
frequent hard surfaced roads, it has become the most important means of timber transportation. Its
use is rapidly expanding and the truck transport is increasing by degrees. It is being extensively used
in all the forests of plain regions and even in the hilly terrain where roads are being constructed. It is
being adopted as a means of transport of both logs and sawn timber. There has been an increasing
trend towards motor truck transportation in logging throughout the world. The motor truck is used
frequently to transport logs direct from the felling areas to sawmill or other destinations. The logs are
drawn or brought to the truck and loaded when it is impracticable to drive directly to the logs. As and
when the use of tractors and winches and cable hauling systems becomes wide spread, more and
more use is bound to be made of motor trucks, combined with a good network of roads.
By Tractor
Now a days, a tractor is considered as an indispensable machine is mechanized logging which is
available in any region. Specially, it is used in Terai region where the area is plane. It is easily available
and easy to taking any type of forest area.

Two types:
a. Crawler
The crawler type of tractor is not common for forestry operations as it causes lot of damage to the
soil and surrounding crops. These are difficult to maintain and except for skidding of heavy logs, they
have not proved useful.
b. Wheeled tractor
The wheeled tractors, particularly two wheeled combined with various trailers are used in favorable
terrain for skidding of light logs. A food skidding tractor should have sufficiently high power.
By railways
It is one of the very common transportation facilities in the forest for timber extraction and transport
in Europe, America and India. But In case of Nepal this system is not available but other countries
such India it is working in many places. In India, Forest railways have also been in the use for the
extraction of firewood from Changa Manga plantations (now in west Pakistan) land for the extraction
of non-floatable hard woods in Burma. The initial cost of the railway with its rolling stock is very high
and this cost must be distributed over a large quantity of timber to make it economical. When the
transportation by railways we consider two things:
a) There must be a constant and sufficient demand for the produce.
b) There must be a sufficiently large quantity of produce available for export near the line of the
railway or its branches.
2. Transportation by water, floating and rafting
The utilization of natural waterways constitutes the oldest and generally the least expensive form of
extraction of timber from the forest areas. The streams and rivers in all forest areas serve to bring the
timber from the forests to the market. Stream and river are used for the timber transportation but
now a day it is suppressed by truck, tractor, railways because it helps to less damage and loss in
transit. It has been widely practiced throughout the Himalayan region.
Types
a. Floating
Practically all softwoods float successfully. Many timber which a possesses excellent floating qualities
become saturated and may sink after a long periods in water. If timber form logs floated in water and
scantling is said to season better. Timber is floating on water in considerable period because it has
not changed its physical and chemical changes. Hardwood their greater weights are difficult to float
where as softwood are generally light and float easily. Softwood i.e. conifer contain relatively little
moisture than heartwood of the hardwood. Some species are left to season before floating but they
are liable to split and crack of they are left too long in the forest, especially in summer.
In floating the piece of timber are allowed to drift down with the current of their own accord, and are
not under the direct control of men. Floating is practiced in those parts of stream or rivers which are
too narrow, shallow area. Floating is generally done in upper reaches of the river or streams.

Types
1.Telescopic floating: Plenty of water but not throughout the year. when the timber is floated through
the special construction called ‘Pathru’ (telescopic chutes) in the streams, such kind of floating is
called telescopic floating.
2.River floating or free floating or sweeping: Continuous water supply throughout the year. floating
timber freely in the river without any supporting construction is known as river floating.
b. Rafting
A quantity of wood firmly bound together is termed as a raft section and a number of sections form
a Raft. Extraction of sawn timber from the forests, rafts were made of sawn timber, bamboos,
firewood and even grasses. Rafting was essentially for the delivery of timber in the depots situated
on the river side. Rafts were generally floated singly, in pairs or several together one after the other.
The raft generally covers a distance of 40 to 60 km. per day. During flood period 70 to 100 kilometers
are often made. Rafting is generally done during winter months after rains when there is no danger
of floods.
i. Log rafts
It is made up 6- 10 sections each section consisting of 10-20logs laid parallel to each other placed
longitudinally with the stream. As far as possible, logs of equal length are put in each section. Largest
and heavies logs are put in each section. Log in each section are tied by cans, chains ropes etc. The
raft crew varies from 4-5 men who live in hut made on a raft. The raft is guided by four oars, two in
front and two in the rear.
ii. Sawn timber rafts
Sawn timber i.e Scantling, planks and sleepers has to be rafted downstream. These are fastened
together in bundles with ropes.
iii. Bamboo rafts
Bamboo are tied into a bundles constitute of clums and 10-12 bundles constitute a section and 10-15
such sections make a raft.
BOOMS
Boom is a Dutch word which means a floating obstructing, a barricade across a river to intercept that
singly floating timber coming down a river, with a view to catching, collecting or diverting them into
other channels.
Purpose of Boom
a. To tie the timber into rafts and float it collectively under direct supervision to timber markets
in the plains.
b. Separating timber of various owners at storing places.
c. To prevent timber floating into backwaters and side channels.

C. Wet Slides
Wet slides are used for extraction of timber from nullahs where quantity of water is less and
obstructions many to permit telescopic floating. Water is used as a motive force in addition to gravity.
These are used to transport sleepers, scantlings, poles and posts by floating from the points in the
forest and discharge them in the main stream for floating. The wet slides are employed for extraction
of swan timber in the inaccessible hilly areas where no other means of extraction is available. These
are generally restricted to the medium size and shorter forms of timber. The capacity of wet slides is
generally limited by the rate of water flow available and the possibility of handling the material at the
terminus.
3. Aerial transportation:
Aerial transportation of timber can be done by various ways such as by air balloon, by helicopter or
by cable yarding. In general, most of the aerial transportation is done by cable yarding system.
Cable yarding:
Cable yarding is the movement of logs from stump site to a landing by a machine equipped with
multiple drums or winches which operate from a stationary position at the landing. The machine is
termed as yarder. It is originated in 1881 with the invention of the Dolbeer steam Donkey in the
Callifornia red wood region.
Cable yarding is the transportation of forest products from the stump area to be point at roadside,
with one of the various wire rope high lead or skyline yarding system available. It is one type of
“Skyline” cable system. Commonly used for extracting logs in steep terrains. In cable system, one or
more suspended cables are used to convey logs from the felling site to the landing.
Sky or overhead cable skidding system
Overhead cable-skidding means the extraction of forest produce by means of aerial ropeways.
Two main classes (Ropeways)
a. Gravity ropeway
In gravity ropeways the motive power is supplied by the weight of the material which is transported
down the cables. This type of ropeway can therefore be used only where the nature of the ground in
such that the cables can be so fixed that a sufficient slope is given to allow the load to defend by itself
to the bottom. Gravity ropeways are extensively used in Europe, and of late their use has increased
in India, but they are not likely to be very widely used.
b. Power ropeways
Power ropeways for log transportation are operated by power machine fixed in a stationary position
pulling in logs from a distance by means of a wire rope cable wound on a drum.

Storage
Depot: A depot is a place where timber or wood and other forest produces is stored, pending its
disposal. Depots may be for minor forest produce, for log, scantling, slipper, post, piles, grass or any
other any non-timber produces materials.
Three types viz. Forest depot, Transit depots and Sales depots.
1.Forest depot
Forest depots are utilized for the collection and checking of timber or other forest produces prier to
its dispatch from the forest area.
2.Transit depots:
Transit depots are used for the collection and checking of land borne timber, and for the catching,
collecting, examining, and rafting of river-borne timber. On main export lines these depots may have
permanent sites, elsewhere the sites have to be selected a fresh as an when the felling areas change.
Where the disposal of produce is may be royalty system depots have to be establishing for the
purpose of counting, measuring and checking material removed by the contractor. In such case it
should be ensured that all produce from the forest is removed only by that route, which passes these,
check depots.
Factors consideration for transit depot
 Sufficient space for the movement transport material.
 Prohibiting from any types of accidents.
 Proper species, size, serially, and the number of piece and the quantity of materials in each
stack should be mention in the registered and paint.
 In the hills, launching depots on the banks of the floating stream must be located, well above
in height flood level. The site must be on stable ground, safe from falling.
 Proper management should provide form the light because surface drying may occur defects
of timber etc.
 Sales depots:
 The timber is stored pending final disposal by the sale and in which sales takes places. Sales
depots are generally permanent and most often the property of forest sector. They should be
well and demarcated and properly fenced or walled.
 Near to the main road.
 To accommodated to maximum quantity of timber, and also available for the extension.
 Shade should be providing for the swan timber if not planted up to according with the pattern
of timber storage.
 Well drained because of pathogen attack.
 Facility for the movement of the vehicles ect.
Depots are generally divided into two categories:
i.Water depot:

Water depots are of a special nature may be established in a river in still water or on the sea-shore.
(sand or rocks, land along the edge of the sea) River depot are always attended with some risk owing
to sudden rises due to flood and unsuitable for long storage of timber. Depots in still water may be
artificially constructed the water being admitted by a channel leading from the timber floating stream
or river down in which the timber has been transported the channel should be sufficiently wide and
deep to allow the timber to floated into the depots. A seashore depot must be well-sheltered and
gradual slope also penetration from marine borers.
Land depots:
Land depots should be so located as to provide for convenient to supply anywhere like transit depots.
Method of piling or stacking
Uniform drying is ensuring through proper staking. It is also eliminate seasoning degrade and
biological deterioration through mould and stain. To control rate of drying to a considerable extends
by regulating the rate of circulation of air through the stacks.
It can be done by:
 Adjusting the height of the foundation.
 Adjusting the width and height of the stack.
 Suitable modified the thickness of crossers and spacing between the adjoining planks in a layer
to suit the particular condition.
Methods of Piling (Staking)
Horizontal staking:
It is used for seasoning timber for all types, forms shapes and size such as railways sleepers, scantling
and other products of wood.
Slight modification may be required on
 The species of the wood i.e. refractory
 Climate condition of localities.
 Thickness of material for the purpose used.
Vertical staking:
In this method, timber is used mainly for the rapid surface drying of certain species of non-refractory
wood which is affected by discoloration, mould, blue stain etc.
After conservation unless the surface moisture is removed rapidly to prevent the germination and
growth of wood staining mould and fungi. The precaution should be taken in the seasoning of wood
staked vertically depends upon species and climatic condition of locality.

2.4. Opportunities and challenges in timber harvesting
Opportunities
 Advancement in technology
 Country is shifting towards production approach
 Shifting economy of country and shifting demand-demand for luxury (due to earning from
remittance)
Challenge
 Traditional way of harvesting
 Ergonomic aspect is not taken into account
 No subsidies in tax while buying advanced equipment for harvesting

UNIT 3: STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOD (8)
3.1. Gross and minute structure of wood
Structure features of wood that can be seen with the naked eye is known as gross structure of wood.
1. Bark Bark usually shows two distinct regions an outer protective zone of corky nature consisting of
dead and dying cells, and an inner living portion, which is actively associated with conduction and
storage of food materials, required for growth. Bark has some diagnostic value in the identification of
trees and logs.
2. Sapwood: An outer lighter colored portion of the crosscut log is known as sapwood. The sapwood
is also rich in starch and other food materials and is not durable being easily attacked by insects and
rot in felled trees.
3. Heartwood: The inner darker colored portion of the wood of cross cut log is known as heartwood.
Physiologically heartwood is dead and does not take any active part in the life except to give it rigidity.
The sapwood however is composed mostly of living cells and as its name implies is primarily
concerned with the conduction of sap.
4. Growth rings These are concentric rings, which usually represent the wood formed during one
growing season, also though less correctly annual rings. These vary greatly in width, being 5 to 25 mm
in fast grown timbers and narrow in slow grown timbers (8 rings or more per cm.)
• The term annual ring is only applicable for temperate region where there is only on growing season.
• Many species like Shorea robusta, Mangifera indica, Syzygium cumini do not show any distinct
annual or seasonal growth rings.
• Especially in tree species like Chir pine (Pinus roxburghii), Deodar (Cedrus deodara), Mulberry
(Morus alba), Tooni (Toona ciliata) growth rings are always distinct.
5. Early wood and Late wood: Within the growth ring, the wood towards inside or that formed in
early part of the growth season is termed as ‘early wood’ and the outside wood formed in the later
part of the season is known as ‘late wood’. In temperate regions, where the early part of the growing
season corresponds to spring and the late part to summer, the term ‘spring wood’ and ‘summer
wood’ are generally used in place of early wood and late wood respectively.
Early wood or Spring wood
1. Formed during spring season.
2. Formed early in a year.
3. Consists of xylem tissues with wider vessels.
4. Produced more in amount.
5. Less dense.
6. A broad zone of wood.
7. Not as strong as late wood.
Late wood or Autumn wood

1. Formed during winter season.
2. Formed after the early wood.
3. Consists of xylem elements with narrow vessels.
4. Produced less in amount.
5. More dense.
6. A narrow zone of wood.
7. Stronger than early wood due to larger volume of wall materials.
6. Grain and texture Grain in the wood refers only to the general direction or alignment of the cells,
and should not be confused with texture, which is related primarily to the size of cells. Depending
upon the actual alignment of the wood elements in relation to the axis of the tree, or the main axis
of the piece, the grain may be: The natural arrangement of threads or cell or fibers wood, flesh rock
and other material is called grain. These are various types such as straight, cross, spiral, interlocked,
wavy and irregular Straight grain: Wood cells are parallel to the vertical axis of the tree such wood is
strong and easily work.
a. Interlocked grain: The cells (Fibers) of successive growth layer are inclined at different angle e.g.
Sal
b. Spiral grain: Wood fibers are spiral course. The angle of spiral grain is with height and age of tree.
E.g. Chir pine (Pinus roxbuergui).
c. Irregular grain: Wood fifer is irregular inclination to the verticals axis of the tree. This reduces
strength and makes sawing difficult.
d. Wavy grain: The direction of fiber is continuously changing.
Texture is the size, proportion and the distribution of various wood elements. Various types of
texture are: Coarse, fine, even, and uneven. It is used for the identification of the timber
1. Coarse texture: Mango, Hollock
2. Fine texture: Haldu, Sandle wood
3. Uneven texture: Teak, Toon, Chir, Mulbery, etc.
7. Pith: Pith is the soft core found near about the centre of the log. It may be round, oval, triangular
or square in shape and usually not more than 0.6cm in diameter.
Minute structure:
Vessels or pores, Fibers, Trachieds, Soft tissue or parenchyma, Pith flacks, Rays, Ripple marks,
Intercellular canals, etc. Minute structure of woods can be studied only a compound microscope and
may be barely visible to the necked eye. Though man is his ingenuity has found many uses for wood,
in nature it has only three function: Conduction, mechanical support and storage. Depending up on
their structure, the various types of cells that so to make up wood are classified as vassals, fibers,
trachides, parenchyma, pith flecks intercellular, etc. Some of these cellular units can be a made out
clearly with a hand lens magnifying 8 or 10 times, while others, though individually direct under a
high microscope, can only be seen collectively under the lower magnification that may be obtained
with a hand lens.
1. Vessels Vessels are a series of vertical cells lying one or top of other with their open ends forming
a continuous tube are known as vessels. They extend along the direction of the main axis of the tree.
Their function is to conduct sap (water and mineral nutrients) from the soil and roots to the crown

for which they are structurally well adopted. The occurrence of pores is constant structure of all broad
leaved species.
On the other hand, in conifers, vessels or pores are entirely absent and the wood is called nonporous.
In the nonporous woods are also called soft wood. Arrangement and the size of the pores is the basis
for classification of woods in to two categories like Ring porous and diffuse porous. The size of the
vessels, there frequency, the way they are arranged or groups and even their contents are of
diagnostic value in the identification of boarded leaves species.
2. Pores The frequency of pores or the numbers of pores/ area as seen the end surface, varies
considerably in different timbers and is of some value in timber identification. Accounts are, however,
not possible in the field, though a rough grouping onto three classes as given is to some extent feasible
and may be help: Scanty: can usually be counted without using a lens (usually be counted 10 per 4
square mm e.g. Semal, aini (Atrocarpus hirstus). Moderately numbers: can be counted only under a
hand lens mostly 20 - 80 per 4 square mm e.g. Sal, valepine, babul and white ceder, etc. Very
numerous: Not possible to count even under a lens (over 80 per square 4 mm) eg. Gardenia, Boxwood
(Buxus sempervirense).
Ring porous: hard wood in which the pores of the spring wood distinctly longer than those of summer
wood form a well defined zone or ring e.g. Teak, Mulbery, Toon, etc. Semi ring porous: Largestromiea
lanceolata (Beanteak)
Diffuse porous: Hard wood in which the pores are scattered of diffused throughout the growth ring
without any abrupt diameter in size from the springwood to the summerwood. Its main function their
of conduction food materials (like water, minerals,) from the soil and though the root to several of
the tree e.g. Bijsal (Pterocarpus marsipium), Bajhi or Axle wood (Anogessus latifolia), Babul (Acacia
nilotica), etc
3. Trachids: These cells are making up the bulk of soft wood. It is not identified with hand lens early
wood trachids have thin walls and large cell cavities compared to late wood trachids. The function is
to conduct sap and also to give rigidity to the trees. In other word, they combine the function of
vessels as well as fibers of pores wood. However the trachides formed in the later part of the growing
season have very much thicker wall than those of the early wood, so that the late wood in conifers
usually appears as a darker, denser and more compact zone, which is sharply delaminated from the
early wood, thus giving rise to prominent growth rings.
4. Wood parenchyma (or soft tissues): Parenchyma is small thin walled rectangular or brick shaped
cells, which run vertically and mainly serve as storage tissue in the living tree. They are very much
soften and easier to cut than the rest of woody tissues and also commonly known as soft tissue. The
parenchyma is primarily oriented in the same direction of fine and vessels with their long axis being
parallel to the grain. These are found in both porous and nonporous wood, being less developed in
the latter. It is difficult to see individual parenchyma cells under the hand lens though, they from
various types parenchyma distribution. These are Terminal or Initial, Diffuse, Reticulate, or net like,
vesicentric, and Aliform or eyelet, etc.

Terminal (Initial): The parenchyma cells are arranged in a continuous line or narrow band, which may
be formed either at the beginning or at the end of the growth season, such bands of soft tissue, which
are usually lighter color then the back ground are classified initial, depending upon when they are
formed as a rule clearly demarcation delaminate the growth ring, e.g. Champ, Asna, Stain wood
(Chloroxylon swieteria), etc.
Diffuse: In this arrangement, the soft tissue occurs isolated or may be scattered all over the group
mass of the wood.
Rearticulate or net like: The arrangement of the soft tissue cell is in the form of fine, more or less
even spaced tangential lines, which together appear as a net. Hence the name reticulate
arrangement.
Vassicentric: The soft tissue from a narrow but complete sheath having a uniform thickness all
around.
Banded The soft tissue may become arranged in continuous tangential bands, which alternate with
the layer of fiber thorough out the growth ring. This arrangement has been given as broad or narrow,
straight or wavy confluent or independent of the pores.
Aliform or eyelet types: The soft tissue, which surrounded the pores, tends to extend side ward in
the form of using like lateral extension. In subsequent modification of this arrangement, the adjacent
extension of pores may become confluent with each other.
5. Rays: Rays are groups or strips of horizontally aligned soft tissue cell running in a radial direction
from the pith or center of the log bar periphery and are meant mainly for radial conduction and
storage. E.g. Semal, Papita, etc.
6. Pith flecks: The timber show irregular batches of soft tissue, which seems to have no relation the
general arrangement of the soft tissue. These abnormal patches of soft tissue are formed as a result
of injury to cambium due to insect attack are known as pith flecks on the board face, they show clearly
against the natural color of the wood but do not logitutidianal a serious defect unless of very large
size and numbers.
7. Ripple marks: It is the tangential surface, a series of fine equidistant, wavy lines running at right
angle to the grain. Ripple marks like mark in or sand caused by the action of wind or water they are
called ripple marks. They are mostly due to rays of more or less the same height being arrangement
in horizontal rows or series and are clearly seen in Bijsal (Pterocarpus marsipium), Kanju (Holoptda
integrifolias) and Stain wood (Chloroxylon swieteruia). Sometimes one or more of the vertical
elements like longitudinal soft tissue and fibers may also show corresponding horizontal striation
along the rays making ripple mark very conspicuous. It is also useful character of identification of
timber.
8. Fibers Fibers are tissue, consisting of elongated vertically aligned, thick walled element with
pointed tapering ends, which make up the bulk of the wood by weight in most hard wood. Theses
elongated, thick walled cells are the fibers whose main function is to give mechanical support to the
tree. The fibers are individually indistinct even under the lens and are therefore not of much help in
filed identification, the darker color the pores are lighter color, soft tissue and rays are arranged,
giving rise to various and grain pattern characteristics of different porous wood.

9. Resin cannels These are intercellular cannels containing resin and may be vertical or horizontal
usually both types occurring in the same wood. Resin cannels are characteristic feature of number
conifers wood like such as Chir pine, Kail, Spruce, Deodar, etc while may be entirely absent in other
like Fir, Cyprus, Junifer along their grain filled with resin, e.g. Chir pine
3.2. Wood structure in relation to end use of wood
3.3. Wood properties
Wood Property
• Wood is Anisotropic i.e. having a property with different value when measured in different
directions. e.g. Wood strength is more along the grain than across it. Conductivity is greater in
longitudinal direction than in radial and tangential direction High compressive strength (ability to
resist against squeezing) along the grain
• Wood properties direct its use like decorative use, insulating use, musical use, use in light or heavy
construction etc.
3.3.1. Physical, chemical and mechanical properties
Physical properties
• Wood properties direct its use like decorative use, insulating use, musical use,
use in light or heavy construction etc.
• Physical property is widely used for wood identification.
• Physical properties of wood denote such inherent qualities:
-Size -Colour -Luster -Texture -Grain -Odour -Moisture -Weight -Porasity
-Density/specific gravity -Reaction to Sound -Reaction to heat -Reaction to light -Reaction to
electricity -Permeability to water and other liquid
• Size- the bigger and larger the tree, the size of wood is larger and bigger. From the point of view of
use, size is an important property for certain uses e.g. for a beam of 6-8 m length- Schleichera oleosa,
Terminalia arjuna -structural use
• Colour- different species of wood have different colour. Tannins, resin and pigments, found in cells
cavities, make wood more colourful. Helps in wood identification. e.g. Fraxinus- white, Diospyros Sp.
-black, Dalbergia sissoo-golden brown to greyish white.-decorative use
• Odour- Tannins, resin, fatty acids act as bearer of scent in wood. Most timbers have characteristics
odour, particularly when freshly cut. More pronounced in heartwood than in sapwood, e.g. Pinus
spp., Santalum album , Cedrus deodara, Cinnamonum camphora
• Lusture- Ability of cell wall or wood surface to reflect light. Visible on longitudinal and radial section
where maximum width of rays is exposed. e.g. Spruce, Oak, etc. lusturous wood are highly decorative.
Wood with narrow rays and thin cell wall appears dull.

• Texture- Relative size of cells and uniformity in suface. Texture is described as fine (e.g. Adina sp.),
coarse (e.g. Albizzia sp., Bombax), even (sandalwood), or uneven (Magnifera)- decorative, musical use
• Grain-general direction or alignments of the cell with regards to vertical axis of the tree. May be
straight, spiral, interlocked, and curly or wavy.-decorative use
Porosity Measure of the relative size and abundance of cell cavities known as lumen. Determination
of penetration of water and liquid, painting, preservative treatments, drying etc.
Weight
 weight of wood is the total weight of all the matter it contains.
 This includes wood substance, extraneous matter, and the amount of water present in the
wood.
 Weight may either be in green or dry condition. Expressed in lbs, kg
 More weight-more density-more strength in wood
Density of wood
 The density of wood is the mass contained in a unit volume of wood, both measured at the
same moisture content.
 Expressed as lb/cuft, gm/cucm, kg/cum
 In wood, density varies with the amount and volume of substance (cell wall) and air space (cell
cavities) present in the certain wood The density of wood varies,
 depending on the amount of material (cell wall) and voids (cell cavities) present in the wood
 by structure of wood, latewood is made of cells with thicker walls and smaller cavities in
comparison to earlywood. This results in higher density of latewood as compared with
earlywood Amount of extractives that cause for the higher density of heartwood in
comparison to sapwood
Specific gravity
 is the ratio of the weight of the wood (oven dry) to the weight of an equal volume of water at
a given temperature. S=Wo/Vg where; Wo is the weight of oven dry wood; Vg is volume in
green wood (usually at 4 degree C) Formula for determining the oven dry weight of wood:
 The specific gravity of wood substances alone for all the species is ascertained as 1.53
 Differences in specific gravity in wood is caused by parts of Cellulose and Lignin and other
mineral and non mineral matter, cell arrangement etc.
 Increased specific gravity means increased in strength of wood.
Sp. Gr. wood can be categorized to:
• Very Light : < 20 lbs/cft(<300kg/cum) ; <0.28 :Dhupi (C. japonica)
• Light : 20 to 29 “ (301-450kg/cum) ; <0.42: Alnus
• Mod. Heavy : 30 to 39 “ (451-600kg/cum); <0.56: Walnut
• Heavy : 40 to 49 “ ; < 0.70 (601-800kg/cum) : Teak
• Very Heavy : 50 to 59 “ (801-950kg/cum); < 0.85: Babul
• Extremely Heavy: 60 to above(951 & above); > 0.85: Oak, Sal (Source: FRI, 1969)

Reaction to Sound
 Wood when exposed to sound shows different reactions
 Called as acoustic properties (absorptive, reflective, resonance, wave sound velocity etc.)
 These reactions/properties are of vital consideration while selecting species for musical
instruments, auditorium, other special type of buildings
 However, there is no standard methods of determining various acoustic properties of wood.
Method vary in different cases:
a. Velocity of sound in wood : V = E/p, where E is the modulus of elasticity (the tendency of an object
to deform along an axis when opposing forces are applied along that axis) in the direction of sound ,
p is specific gravity of the wood in test, V is the velocity of sound.
• The most elastic woods are those with straight longitudinal fibre, least interwoven, and least
presence of knots. less elastic species: oak, beech and mahogany etc.; elastic: Taxus sp., Alnus sp.,
Research findings
• Higher the moisture in wood, lowers the velocity as it reduces the value of E
and increase value of p.
• low density of surface layer of wood, high absorption capacity of wood.
• high porosity of wood, high absorption capacity
b. Absorption and reflection of sound :
 When sound come in contact with wood, a part of it is absorbed and the rest is reflected.
 The relative proportion of absorption and reflection depends upon: the nature of the surface
of wood, orientation of fibres, moisture content, specific gravity and other factors.
 low density of surface layer of wood, high absorption capacity of wood.
 high porosity of wood, high absorption capacity
c. Resonance in wood :
 Wood vibrates when periodic forces like mechanical vibrating force or sound waves in the
surrounding air act upon it.
 The resonant vibration in wood can be either ‘longitudinal’, or ‘transverse’ or ‘torsional’(in
circular motion).
 Resonance of wood depends upon the species, the mode of vibration, the dimension of
material and the manner in which the piece of wood is held.
 It is an important quality in wood for selecting musical instrument,
 Used species for musical instrument are: Teak, Tooni, Sissoo, Mulberry, Jamun, Haldu, Spruce
etc.
Reaction to light
 Wood absorb and reflect light.
 Various color observed on wood is a phenomenon of reflection of light.
 Reflection depends upon: i. extractable materials in wood ii. Smoothness of the surface iii.
Moisture content, etc.

 It is the most important property for internal decoration (flooring, parqueting, furniture
making etc) e.g. Garuga spps., Bischofia spps. has higher reflectance compared to Morus-
mulberry, Champaca- champ, Tooni
 Other response of light in wood are Phosphorescence, fluorescence, residual luminescence
 No species of wood is by itself capable of glowing when paced in darkness. Sometimes
presence of decay organism imparts phosphorescence to wood
 Powders and decoctins of some species emits rays of lower frequency known as fluorescence
(Acacia, Adina, Albizzia)
 Some wood emit absorbed light as a delayed reaction (heartwood, resinous wood) called as
residual luminescence reaction in wood (not visual to eyes, recorded on photographic plates)
 One of the best examples of fluorescence is found in Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia),
which is very similar to Mulberry (Morus spp.) in both appearance and weight. But one way to
easily distinguish the two is by observing them under a blacklight; Black Locust will emit a
strong yellow-green glow, while Mulberry will be non-reactive.
 When tested in black light, Albizzia wood turns to bright, uniform green
 Mangifera-Manogo- bright green streaks in certain portions of heartwood
Reaction to Electricity
Resistivity and Conductivity
 Resistivity increase with decrease in moisture. Dry wood is an excellent insulator especially
below the FSP.
 Increase in temperature- increase resistivity i.e. decrease in conductivity
 Wood containing with water soluble salts, substances like preservatives etc, increase electric
conductivity substantially. i.e. decrease in resistivity
Reaction to Heat
The chief properties are: thermal expansion, heat capacity, thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity
A. Thermal expansion: Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in shape, area, and
volume in response to a change in temperature
• The coefficient of thermal expansion describes how the size of an object changes with a change in
temperature. It measures the fractional change in size per degree change in temperature at a
constant pressure The expansion in wood is much smaller and is usually ignored in designing timber
structures.
B. Heat capacity/thermal capacity : It is the heat required by the wood to raise the unit temp.
Coefficient of heat capacity is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise 1 gm of wood by 1
degree centigrade. Measured in calories. The heat capacity of wood depends on the temperature and
moisture content of the wood
C. Thermal conductivity:
• heat flows from warmer surface through the material to the colder surface

• Coefficient of thermal conductivity of wood is defined as the quantity of heat which flow in one
second across unit area of a slab of wood of unit thickness when the temp. of the faces of the slab
differs by one degree centigrade. .
• The thermal conductivity of common structural woods is much less than the conductivity of metals
Research findings:
• the conductivity of structural softwood log at 12% moisture content is in the range of 0.10 to 0.14
W m–1 K–1 (watts per m-Kelvin) compared with 216 for aluminum, 45 for steel, 1 for glass, 0.7 for
plaster
• Thermal conductivity increases as density, moisture content, temperature, or extractive content of
the wood increases.
• Thermal conductivity is nearly the same in the radial and tangential directions. However,
conductivity along the grain has been reported as greater than conductivity across the grain. e.g.
thermal conductivity of pine in the direction of the grain was 0.22 , and across the grain 0.14.
D. Thermal Diffusivity: Thermal diffusivity is a measure of how quickly a material can absorb heat
from its surroundings.
Because of the low thermal conductivity and moderate density and heat capacity of wood, the
thermal diffusivity of wood is much lower than that of other structural materials, such as metal, bricks.
Chemical properties
 knowledge of chemistry of wood is essential for understanding the principles and technique
in the different fields of chemical utilization of wood. E.g. white Aspen for detoxification in
saunas. Wood cells are composed of three principle compounds, cellulose, hemi cellulose and
lignin, all of which are polymeric (consisting of many small molecules that can be linked
together to form long chains)
 Wood in general is taken as an inert substance. But technically, it can be oxidized (burnt) or
can be converted into various products under suitable treatments.
It contains two types of substances:
A. Those which are insoluble in neutral solvents and/or non-volatile with steam (in this category
comes “cell-wall substances”)
B. Those that are extractable by neutral solvents like benzene, ether or by steam distillation (In this
category comes„extraneous substances‟)
Elements composition of wood
Element % of dry weight
 Carbon 49
 Oxygen 44
 Hydrogen 6
 Nitrogen slight amount

 Ash 0.2-1.0
Main organic compounds of wood
organic makeup of wood Cellulose (%) Hemicellulose (%) Lignin (%)
softwood 40-45 25-30 25-35
Hardwood 40-50 25-35 20-25
Different species of plants have signiﬁcant differences in the proportions of cellulose, hemicellulose,
and lignin found in their biomass and, further, important differences in the types of hemicelluloses
and/or the ratios of monomers in lignin.
Historical Chemical Products from Wood
 Bark products • Phenolic acid, wax
 Cellulose • Rayon, cellophane, cellulose esters, cellulose ethers
 Extractives • Rubber, tannins
 Lignin products • Alkali lignin, lignosulphonates, dimethylsulphide, dimethylsulphoxide,
vanillin
 Naval stores • Pine oil, rosin, turpentine, tall oil, tall oil fatty acids, tall oil rosin
 Pyrolysis products • Charcoal, methanol, acetone, acetic acid
 Wood sugar • Glucose, xylose, mannose
Chemicals found in wood
A. Cell-wall substances
It contains polysaccharides, other polysaccharides, lignins, minerals, acetyle, formyl and methoxy
groups.
1. Polysaccharides (Cellulose) : It is the skeleton of the cell-wall and constitute 40 to 50 % of wood. It
is inert to the dilute acid and alkalis
2. Other polysaccharides : vary in wood from 10 to 35 %. Mostly hemi-cellulose and to some extent
mucilage (can be extracted with dilute alkalis).
3. Pectins : in wood from 1 to 2 % , present in middle lamella. Undergo chemical changes during the
subsequent stages of cell development
4. Lignin : It is a incrusting material of the plant tissues that is mainly built up of phenyl propane units
and Is easily oxidisable, and soluble in hot alkali and bisulphites. It is present in the wood to the extent
of 18 to 30 %. As the cell-wall matures, the primary walls together with intercellular substance
acquires large deposits of lignin. 70% of lignin is found in the middle lamella.
B. Extraneous substances They are not a part of the cell-
oved either by steam distillation or by extraction with neutral solvents
inflammability, toxicity, density etc. are often correlated with the presence or absence of extraneous

happy features all the time as it interfere industrial utilization e.g. Thuja plicata, Shorea guiso
Extraneous substances can be organic or inorganic
1. Inorganic extractives:
They are either purely inorganic salts, including free silica, or salts of organic acids, and those from
ash on burning.
Ash content and the composition vary with place, growing condition and the season of the year.
The metallic radicles are principally calcium, potassium, and magnesium. Aluminium, iron, manganese
and sodium are also sometime met with.
 In some cases some metals are in high quantity as in the ashes of Abies pectinata contains
40% potash, 28% manganese),
 There are cases where barium, titanium, lead, zinc, copper cobalt, nickle,, silver and even gold
have been detected in very small amount. Acid radicals like carbonate, sulphate, silicates,
phophates and chlorides also occurs in several cases.
B. Organic extractives :
1. Essential oils - present usually below 1% but in some species more (up to 12% in Araucaria species,
8% in Indian sandal wood ), usually obtained from heartwood by distillation or solvent extraction.
Essential oil is a mixture of various types of compounds: hydrocarbons, acids, phenols, alcohols,
oxides, ether, ketones, lactones
2. Wood resins -found in resin channels but also in cell walls and the interior of the cells, composed
of resin acid and fatty acid. Can be obtained from sapwood of living trees, heartwood, from felled
trees as tall oil (soda and sulphate pulping process).
3. Dyes and tans -barks, roots, leaves, flowers, wood, and other parts of plants contains many tanning
and colouring matters. E.g. khair, Mahogany, etc. for colour; tannin - eg.tannins from oak in tanning
animal hides into leather; use for producing anticorrosive primer)
4. Carbohydrate components -0.5 to 5%, in starch, polysaccharides, simple sugar form. Disadvantage
is that large amount of starch in the wood are more susceptible insect acttack.
5. Cyclitols -sweet like sugar, but neither contain any carbonyl group nor do they ferment.
6. Other extraneous materials-fatty oils (in Tilia spp.), alkaloids (in leguminosea, Rubiaceae)
Mechanical properties of wood
 It is the ability of wood to resist various types of external forces, static or dynamic, that may
act on it.
 Stress- It is the force acting on a unit area strain- It is the deformation per unit measure (of
length, area, volume)

 Deformations in size and shape caused by external force, depends upon the mechanical
properties like, modulus of elasticity, ultimate stress, fibre stress at elastic limit etc. which are
inherent in wood
These properties vary with:
 species to species (nature of fibres, moisture content, temperature, defect of the wood)
 Within species also vary with reference to the varying conditions of growth and method of
testing
When a graph is drawn for strain against stress, a type of curve is obtained.
 The curve begins as a straight line, then becomes non-linear, and progresses to a maximum,
and then drops indicating a fall in stress with increase of strain until complete failure.
 The final point at which the material completely breaks is called ‘Breaking stress’.
 Modulus of elasticity-The tendency of an object to deform along an axis when opposing forces
are applied along that axis. The ratio of stress to strain
 limit of proportionality/Elastic Limit- the point at which linearity of the curve changes to non-
linearity.
 Below elastic point, the stress is directly proportion to strain
 Stress at the limit of proportionality/elastic limit in case of wood is called ‘Fibre stress at Elastic
Limit’ and the stress at the maximum point is called ‘Maximum Fibre Stress’ or ‘Modulus of
Rupture’.
The final point at which the material completely breaks is called Breaking stress

 When a force is applied on a piece of timber in a way that fibers are pulled apart, the timber
is subjected to tensile stress.
 If the force is in the direction of fiber in a way that fibers are pulled apart, then it is known as
a longitudinal tensile force.
 If force is applied across the fibres in a way that fibers are pulled apart, it is known as a lateral
tensile force.
 When forces are so applied that the opposite ends tends to come closer to each other, is a
compression; compression be either parallel to grain or perpendicular to grain
 Forces applied along the fibre so that the opposite ends come closer to each other, than the
material is subjected to be under longitudinal compressive stresses
 Forces applied across the fibre so that the opposite ends come closer to each other, than the
material is subjected to be under lateral compressive stresses.
 When force applied to cause one part of the material to slide or slip on its adjoining part, the
material is said to be in a state of shear
 Shearing stress- The force required per unit of area over which the sliding takes place
Less common properties
 Stiffness, toughness, brashness, resilience, brittleness
 Torsion strength—Resistance to twisting about a longitudinal axis.
 Toughness—Energy required to cause rapid complete failure in a centrally loaded bending
specimen
3.3.2. Wood strength, factors affecting wood strength
Factors influencing strength properties:
It can be classified into two broad categories :
1. Growth condition of timber and their inherent characteristics over which there is no control at the
time of test
2. External factors for which there can be a control : A. those factors depending on the condition of
material at the time of selection. B. those depending on the Method of test
1. Factors depending on growth condition and inherent characteristics
 Soil, climate, and locality: wood density depends upon soil fertility; tree grown in dense forest-
decrease sp. Gravity; moisture and fertility continuous-tree grow through the year and thus
higher gravity obtained
 Age of the tree: lower age of tree- lower density and strength property; age for mechanical
maturity vary with spp. eg. Teak 50 yrs, bamboo 4-5 yrs
 Position of wood in the tree: strength increase from pith to periphery and decreases near the
end. Higher at bottom
 Rate of growth- proportion of early wood and late wood, more late wood-more smaller
vessels- more strong
 Season of felling of trees: great durability when felled in winter; minimum chance of getting
defect
 Natural and plantation grown trees: naturally grown stronger

 Natural twist in the tree: reduce strength
 Specific gravity-higher sp. Gravity, higher the strength
2. External factors influencing the strength of timber
A. Condition of timber at the time of testing or use
 Moisture content- below FSP (point at which only water bound in the cell walls remains - all
other water, called free water, having been removed from the cell cavities), the more the drier
in wood - the more is the strength. The increase in strength varies from 0.5 to 8% per 1%
decrease in moisture below the FSP
 Temperature -strength increase at temperature below room temperature, strength decrease
at temperature above the normal room temperature
 Defects- knots, shakes and splits, pith, decay and sap stain
B. Factors depending upon condition of testing or use
 Rate of loading: increase in rate of loading -increase in strength properties
 Direction of loading: strength in tangential direction is greater than in radial direction
 Type of stress: under dynamic stresses strength is twice than under static stress
 Size and shape of specimen: modulus of elasticity higher on large specimen
 Notches in the test specimen: shear value for specimens without notches was found to be 5-
10% higher than those for notched specimen
3.3.3. Wood property in relation to end use of wood
Covered within wood property
3.3.4. Timber joints
Also called as wood working joints
Joinery is a part of woodworking that involves joining together pieces of wood or lumber, to produce
more complex items. Some wood joints employ fasteners, bindings, or adhesives, while others use
only wood elements. The characteristics of wooden joints - strength, flexibility, toughness,
appearance, etc. - derive from the properties of the materials involved and the purpose of the joint.
Therefore, different joinery techniques are used to meet differing requirements. For example, the
joinery used to construct a house can be different from that used to make puzzle toys, although some
concepts overlap. In British English usage it is distinguished from Carpentry which relates to structural
timber work.
Wood joinery is one of the most basic concepts in woodworking. If we didn't have the ability to join
two pieces of wood together in a solid fashion, all woodworking pieces would be sculptures, carved
out of a single piece of wood. However, with the many varied types of wood joinery, a woodworker
has a number of different joints in his arsenal from which to choose, based on the project. If you
master these wood joinery concepts, you'll be well on your way to becoming a very accomplished
woodworker.
Types of joints

3.4. Wood and water relationship
 Hygroscopic in nature; i.e. it exchange moisture with the surrounding environment.

 Moisture exchange between wood and air depends on the relative humidity and
temperature of the air and the current amount of water in the wood.
 The moisture content of green wood can range from about 30% to more than 200% (source:
wood handbook-wood as an engineering material, 2010)
 The attraction of wood for water arises from the presence of free hydroxyl (OH) groups in
the cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin molecules in the cell wall.
 Amount varies from species to species and even varies within a trees (sapwood/heartwood)
 Bombax sp. upto 150%-sp.gr. 0.39, Tectano grandis and Dalbergia Sissoo 80%-sp.gr. 0.55, in
heavy wood like Anogeissus latifolia is about 50%-sp.gr. 0.75
 In green softwoods, the moisture content of sapwood is usually greater than that of
heartwood.
 In green hardwoods, the difference in moisture content between heartwood and sapwood
depends on the species.
Water is located in the cell cavities and in the cell-wall
• In green wood (freshly sawn wood), the cell walls are completely saturated with water and
additional water may reside in the cavities
• Water in wood —free water, bound water
• water exists in cell cavities , held by capillary forces, termed as free water.
• Water in cell wall materials, held by hydrogen bonding, termed as adsorbed, hydroscopic or
bound water.
• As humidity increases, wood absorbs moisture from air, the Moisture Content of wood increases,
and as the humidity decreases, wood release moisture, MC decreases. This happens till the wood
reach at Equilibrium Moisture Content.
• Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) is the moisture level in wood where the wood neither gains
nor loses moisture since it is at equilibrium with the relative humidity of the surrounding
environment.
• As the humidity decreases, Moisture content of wood decrease below FSC, and continues to lose
moisture until it reach EMC
Relation between EMC and Relative humidity
• 30-50% relative humidity corresponds to 6-10% EMC
• When Wood at 10% MC is exposed to 25% RH, the wood will dry to 5% MC (and shrink as it dries)
As relative humidity increases, the EMC also increases, i.e., more moisture is held in the wood
• When water is added to wood, wood swells as the microfibrils are forced apart.
• As wet wood dries, wood does not shrink as it loses free water from the lumen.

• After all the free water is gone and only bound water remains, the cell has reached its Fiber
Saturation Point (FSP).
At this point, no water is present in the cell. cavities/lumen, but the cell wall is completely
saturated.
• As wood is dried below FSP, bound water leaves the cell, the wood shrink.
• FSP occurs at the cell level. At any given time, some cells in a wood product may be at the FSP
while others are not.
• The FSP is considered as that moisture content below which the physical and mechanical
properties of wood change as a function of moisture content.
• The FSP of wood averages about 25-30% moisture content, but in individual species and
individual pieces of wood it can vary
• Wood with higher extractive contents (organic compounds in the cavities/lumens and between
the cell wall) have lower FSP.
• As wood dries, it shrinks differently in different directions .
• The greatest shrinkage in wood occurs parallel to the growth rings i.e. along tangential direction
• Wood shrinks about 8% along tangential surface as it dries from fsp to 0% MC.
• Wood shrinks about 4% along the radial surface as it dries from fsp to 0% MC.
• The least shrinkage occurs along the long axis of the tree.
• However, reaction wood can exhibit as much as 2% longitudinal shrinkage (up to 20 times that of
normal wood). .
• Wood become heavier as moisture is added above the FSP, but it does not swell any further.
Optimum MC Levels
• For most softwoods, 10% MC reading is optimum for indoor use but should not be higher than
11%
• For hardwoods used indoors, the target MC is 7%, though a 6.5% or 7.5% reading is also
acceptable
• For outdoor use, both softwoods and hardwoods should be dried to about 12% MC. However,
the MC will vary if the wood is going to be exposed to rain or an outdoor sprinkler, or if it’s going to
be in a dry climate or in a wet climate
• In addition, if the wood is to be used for exterior house walls where it’s protected from rain, a
good average is 12% MC
Maximum moisture content in wood
• The moisture content at which both cell cavities/lumina and cell walls are completely saturated
with water is the maximum possible moisture content
• Maximum moisture content MCmax can be estimated from
MCmax=100(1.54-Gb)/1.54Gb-Forest Products Laboratory (2010)
MCmax=100(1.46-Gb)/1.46Gb- Forest Research Institute (1983) Where, Gb is the basic specific
gravity (based on ovendry mass and green volume. The specific gravity of wood substance is taken
as 1.54 or 1.46
The moisture content at which wood sinks in water can be calculated by MCsink=100(1-Gb)/Gb
Measurement of Moisture Content
• The oven-dry method
• Distillation method

• Moisture meter method
• The easiest way to determine moisture content is to use a moisture meter as it is portable,
easy to operate, give direct and quick readings
• More used in research: the oven-dry method.
The oven-dry method:
• Steps to use the oven-dry method to determine moisture content:
1. Before you dry the wood, weigh a sample to obtain the combined weight of the wood and
the water. Record the weight.
2. Dry the sample in an oven to 100-105°C. This is just above the boiling point of water. Dry
the wood for approximately 24 hours. Be careful not to burn or char the wood.
3. Weigh the wood sample again and record the weight.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until you get the same weight twice in a row. The wood sample now
is oven dry (OD).
5. Use the following equation to determine the MC percent of the wood:
(Wet weight-oven dry weight)/oven dry weight *100%
where wet weight is the mass of the specimen at a given moisture content and oven dry
weight is the mass of the oven dry specimen.
Distillation method
• The oven-drying method is replaced by the distillation method when a sample of wood
contains terpens, oils or preservatives.
• To determine the moisture content, the specimen is chipped, pooled to a sample of 20 to
50 grams and subsequently placed in a flask which is heated
• A solvent, e.g. xylene or toluene is added.
• The water contained in the chips evaporates.
• The water vapour then condenses in a cooler on the side of the flask and is collected in a
pipe from which the reading can be taken.
• Is destructive method, time taking
Using a moisture meter
There are different general types of moisture meters
Water and wood quality
• Many physical and mechanical properties of wood depend upon the moisture content of
wood
• Wood shows different types of defects due to shrinking and swelling: -Mis fitting of
doors/windows, shrunken panels loosening of joints and fastenings and nailing in timber
structure and woodwork -Checks- when drying the outer cell starts to shrink below FSP
while, the inner cell of the wood which is still above FSP do not shrink and thus the stress
forms checks on the surface of the wood -Wrap-wood shrinks differently in different
direction (tangential- about 8%, radial- about 4%, longitudinal-about .1 to .4 %) which cause
deviation from its expected shape

• Available of free water in wood is relatively accessible water and potential for decay fungi
to grow in wood. Therefore, for not deteriorating the quality of wood from fungal attack, MC
should be kept below FSP
• Colour in wood changes as exposed to more moisture for long time
• Thermal conductivity increases as moisture content of wood increases
• Electrical resistivity decreases with increase in moisture content. Dry wood is an excellent
insulator especially below the FS
• The velocity of sound decreases with increasing moisture content
• Increasing the water content of wood leads to a decrease in the stiffness (the extent to
which it resists deformation in response to an applied force)
• Increase in moisture indirectly affects adhesion of glues and finishes.

Unit 4: WOOD DEFECTS AND TREATMENT (6)
4.1 Wood defects, causes and types:
Wood Defects:
Timber as a natural product is influenced by various forces which affect its strength, durability,
color, economic value and grade. Various abnormal conditions and features of wood which
permanently reduce the economic value of wood are termed as defects.
A defect is irregularity or abnormality occurring in wood which is responsible for reduction in
strength, durability, utility, appearance and cause decay. Any feature that only affects the
appearance without affecting the technical quality of timber is called blemish.
Defects in wood (Causes and types):
Natural Defects:
These are abnormalities in wood which are due to the growth and environment of the living tree.
Defects due to abnormal growth:
Knots: Knot is the basal portion of branch, which was earlier cut off from the main stem. Knots are
usually oval or circular in shape. Knots are formed from branches being incorporated in the main
stem by occlusion. Due to greater pressure occurring at these places the fibres are packed more
closely and compose a denser and harder tissue than the surrounding wood, e.g.: live knots, dead
knots.
a. Live or tight knots: A tight knot free from decay and cracks in which the fibres are completely
inter grown those of the surrounding wood, e.g. up to 5 cm. in diameter up to 4 in numbers. That
portion of the branch which is living at the time of its inclusion (basal portion which is nourished by

the stem even after the branch has died), established a fibrous connection with the surrounding
wood gives live or tight knots.
b. Dead knots: These arise from the occlusion of those portions of branches which gave no fibrous
connection with the main stem, but are embedded in the tissues just like radial plugs, due to
shrinkage of surrounding tissues. A knot where the fibres are not completely inter grown with those
of surrounding wood.
Twisted fibre: Grain of wood instead of running straight, twists spirally round, making an angle with
the vertical axis which may exceed 40º. This is due to the fibres in each new layer of wood being
longer than those in proceeding. Eg in Pinus roxburghii.
Waviness: Fibre grow in wavy manner instead of in true vertical straight line. This enhance
decorative effect of swan timber.
Burr: It is a complex knot formed at points where dormant buds show abnormal vigour, without
being able to develop into branches, thereby resulting in concentrated masses of contorted tissue
with excessive waviness. Burrs appear as knotty swlling outside the stem, frequently of large size.
Constriction due to climbers: Certain climbers Bauhinia vahlii, Ficus spp. Which tightly twine round
the stem of host tree ultimately grown over and embedded by the growing host resulting in a
spirally grooved bole.
Interior bark: Due to abnormal growth, either the bark layers may be present throughout the stem
alternately with layers of wood or the stem may be composed of bark tissue traversed by strands of
wood. This defect is incurable and often renders the wood unfit for timber.
Defects due to rupture of tissues
Checks: in a check there is a separation of fibres, which forms a crack or fissure nor extending
through the piece from one face to the other. The term is applicable to converted timber.
Split: In a split the crack extends from face to face. An end split is one that occurs at the end of a log
or piece of timber.
Shakes: A partial or complete separation between adjoining layers of fibres, originating in the tree
or in a felled log, likely to extend in the converted material. It is also four types. Heart shake, star
shake, radial shake, ring and cup shakes. These are caused due to shrinkage of the tissue at the
centre of stem.
a. Heart Shakes: It is crack in the center starting at the pith and extending readily outwards in the
direction at medullar rays in one or positive direction. When it consists of a single cleft extending
across the pith it is termed simple heart shake. Heart shakes may also be formed by shock of
another tree in falling, action of strong wind etc. Simple heart shakes are not of serious degrades in
logs for sawing but star shakes are serious defects, unfit for conservation into sawn timber.
b. Star shakes: It is splits or cracks radiate from the center of the timber. When there are more than
one cracks radiating from the pith, the defect is known as compound heart shake or star shake. Star
shakes are mostly confined to sapwood and caused due to severe frost and scorching heat of the
sun.
c. Radial shakes: Radial shakes are cracks, which start from the periphery of the standing tree and
extend radially inwards the center. These are caused by the contraction of outer growth zones so as
to be no longer able to the inner core. This is mainly due to frost action in which case the defect is
known as frost crack. Radial shakes may also occur due to sudden excessive heat, hot sun, after a
cold night, hot blast of wind, forest fires, or excessive cold. Radial shake affects larger trees more

than smaller trees, solitary tree than growing in dense canopy. Radial shakes are generally irregular,
fine and numerous.
d. Ring, cup or round: A cup shake is formed when the crack follows the direction of the annual
rings, it may extended for a distance varying from a few cm. to the whole way round, in which case
it is termed rings- shake. There are caused due to unequal growth of timber. It is caused also by the
shrinkage of the central tissue owing to loss of moisture, action of frost, fire or other forms of injury
to the cambium. It is mechanical defects, no real cure.
Cross Grain: This is general term denoting the deviation of the wood fibres from a direction parallel
to the longitudinal axis of the tree. Cross grain may develop due to: Inter locked fiber, uneven
growth of annual rings and Intersection of the branch and stem. Cross grain is expressed as in slope,
e.g. 1 in 15 meaning that the grain is 1 cm away from the axis over a distance of 15cm.
-Sub- types include diagonal, spiral, interlocked, wavy and curly grains.
a. Diagonal (Oblique or slopping): The fibers occur at an angle to the longitudinal surface of the
timber. This may result from faulty conversion. Timber with diagonal grain is weaker than that of
properly sawn timber.
b. Spiral grain: The fibers may be arranged, in a helix around the axis of bole or branch of the tree.
This is common defect in many timbers and when excessive, greatly reduces their structural
strength. In the past, this type of wood was only used for firewood, charcoal and chir-tar distillation
but lately it is being used in pulping.
c. Interlocked grain: The type of grain in which the angle of the fibres changes or reverses
periodically in successive layers. Wavy grain is produced by and arrangement of the fibres in short,
fairly uniform waves or ripples. This is usually not considered a defect.
Reaction wood: wood with more or less distinctive an anatomical characters, formed typically in
parts of leaning or crooked stems and in branches. In hard woods this consists of tension wood and
in soft woods of compression wood. Reaction wood may further may be two types:
Compression wood: It is a characteristic by rounded heavily lignified tracheids. Compression wood
is formed due to compressive force.
Tension wood: A form of wood found in leaning trees of some hard species and characterized by
the presence of gelatin fiber and excessive longitudinal shrinkage. Tension wood fibers hold
together tenaciously (holding firm to a course of action), so that sawed surface usually have
projection fibers and planned surface often are torn or have raised grain, Tension wood may cause
warping.
Resin pockets: Resin pockets are more or less shaped well-defined intercellular cavities in the
timber containing resin. Their dimension varies widely and they may attain length up to 30 cm. In
some softwood resin may occur as strakes and are known as resin pockets
Other natural defects:
Mineral streaks: These are discoloration in the timber they may occur in the form of strakes or
patches.
Bark pockets: The main stem may at times include pocket of bark. They arise from the bark in a
flute or may be associated with a knot that has been either partially or fully enclosed in the
subsequent growth of the tree.
Chemical stain: It is formed due to chemical reaction between a constituent of the wood and some
extraneous substance.

Constriction due to climbers: As climber spiral up the tree, they form constriction which may render
for timber unfit for commercial use. Over a long period of time, the climber presses against the tree
so tightly that it may finally because embedded in the stem.
Other than natural defects:
Defects due to seasoning:
Seasoning defects may develop in timber due to faulty or wrong seasoning. Permanent or
temporary distortion may take place as a result of the outer layer tending to dry more rapidly than
interior of the wood defects due to seasoning degrade or degrade in seasoning. Distortion give rise
to different types of warping whereas rupture give rise to checks, splits and shakes.
Warping: The distortion in converted timber which cause departure from its original plane usually
during seasoning period is called warping. The form of warping can be cupping, bowing, twist and
spring.
1 Bowing: The face becomes concave, or curvature along the length or broad face. This defect is
indicated by curvature formed in the direction of length of timber. The face becomes concave or
convex along the grain. It is caused by too wide a space which causes the timber to sag under its
own weight.
2. Cupping: This defect is indicated by curvature formed in transverse direction of timber. In
cupping, the face becomes concave or convex across the grain. Cupping can be reduced by proper
stacking. Cupping does not cccur in truly quarter sawn timber.
3. Spring: It is a distortion in the longitudinal plane, the board or plank remaining flat.
4. Twist: Twist is the spiral or corkscrew distortion of a board along the grain. In extreme cases, the
timber may be rendered useless. Twisting is often caused by spiral or interlocked grain but it may
also be caused by variation in density within the board. It can be minimized by weighting the stacks
with heavy baulks immediately after the stacking is done and before drying has commenced.
Checks, splits, and shakes: these are all instance of the separation or rupture of the wood along the
grain i.e. in longitudinal plane and should be distinguished from horizontal fractures that arise from
cause other than drying stress.
Checks: In check, there is a separation of fibres, where crack or fissures do not extend through the
piece from one face to another face of wood. This term is applicable for the converted timber.
Split: The crack extends from face to face. An end split is one that occur at the end log or piece of
timber. Or A separation of fibers along the grain, which extends through the piece from one surface
to another.
Shakes: Seperation of wood fibre along the grain and occurs in different shapes such as star, ring
etc. Shakes may be Heart and Star shake, Radial shakes and Cup and ring shake.
Crack: An actual ruptures of the wood tissue i.e. a separation of the fibers in the longitudinal
direction.
Case hardening: During the wood seasoning, surface layer of wood usually dry before the interior
layers and tend to shrink but they are prevented from doing so by the wetness of the wood. This is
situation is called Case hardening. The case harder timber is liable to cuping, warping and other
forms of distortion during planning and re sawing. In a piece of green wood the surface layers
usually dry before the interior, and tend to shrink, but they are prevented from doing so by the wet
inside portion. This result in tension across the grain in the surface layers, and a corresponding
compression in the interior. The condition of the timber in which surface, layer become set in
stretched condition (in tension) and the interior under compression is known as case hardening.

Honey combing: Case hardened timber is liable to cupping, warping and other forms of distortions
during planning and re-sawing. It may be relieved by steaming. If the case-hardened timber is
further seasoned, resulting in the drying of interior layers of wood, the interior tries to shrink but it
is prevented by the outer layers which are already set in tension. This causes tension in the interior
layers and compression in the outer layers. If the tension stress in the interior exceed a certain limit,
internal cracking known as honey- combing result, just an excessive tension in the surface layers
causes surface cracks. In honey- combed wood the internal checks usually run along the wood rays.
They are not visible at the surface and therefore cannot be detected before the timber is fashioned.
Not visible outer side so we can use internal detection method of wood defect.
Reverse case hardening (oversteaming): Sometime a condition known as reverse-case hardening
may occur in wood, if case-hardened timber gets over-steamed in an attempt to reverse case-
hardening. In this case the outside layers are permanently set in compression.
Collapse: Collapse is a defect which develops in certain species when very wet heartwood is dries.
The usual indications are abnormal and irregular shrinkage. So, it is caused by slow kiln drying at
high humidities.
Defects caused during conversion and wood working (Processing):
 Boxed heart: It is defect in which the pith or center heart falls entirely within the four faces of the
wood anywhere in its length.
 Imperfect conversion and woodworking: All defects associated with timber conversion and
woodworking.
 Imperfect grain: these are five types:
 Chipped grain: It may develop on surface timber as result of the cracking, breaking, or tearing away
of wood below the finished surface caused by a tool or cutter.
 Diagonal: It may develop fibre at an angle to the longitudinal surface of the timber, it happens due
to sawing loss parallel to the pith instead of the bark.
 Raised grain: The dressed surface of the timber become rough instead of being smooth.
 Loosened grain: it is separation of rising of wood fibres, along the growth ring.
 Torn grain: This pertains to the tearing of wood fibres below the finished surface. It may be caused
by a tool or cutter and is further classed in to slight, medium, heavy or deep, depending on the
variation.
Other defects
 Machine burn: Dark chard patches on the machined wood caused by over heating of the machine
cutters.
 Machine notches: Grooves, recesses or trenches that from on the surface as a result of excessive
chipping.
 Machine gouge: It is formed due to machine cutting below the appropriate line of cut.
 Miss cut: It has been wrongly cut.
 Mismatching: It is an imperfect alignment or fix at a joint of two adjoining pieces of timber.
 Skip: Slight depression occurring below the line of cut.
 Wane: It is presence of the original sapwood surface with or without bark on any face or edge of the
sawn timber.
Defects due to pathogens:

Wood, which is dead wood doesn't show any resistant to the invading organism. Amongst them are
bacteria, moulds and fungi, which cause, soft rot, brown rot, white rot. The attack of timber by fungi
when moisture content of timber is above 20% and presence of air and warmth for the growth of
fungi the following defects are caused.
Two groups of fungi that cause defect in timbers:
i. Those causing in the sap wood
ii. Those causing decay in the wood.
Stain: Caused by moulds (soft green is a growth on bread) and fungi, stain caused by moulds
develops as dark colored growth can readily be broached off, as it is superficial.
Rots: Rots in timber develop due to attack by fungi or bacteria.
Blue stain: Sap of wood is stained to bluish colour
Brown rot: Decay or disease of timber by removal of cellulose compounds from wood and wood
assumes the brown colour
Dry rot: Convert the wood into dry powder form
Heart rot: This is formed when branch has come out of a tree and the tree becomes weak and gives
out hallow sound when struck with a hammer
Sap stain: The sap wood looses its colour because of feed on cell contents of sap wood.
Wet rot: Caused chemical decomposition of wood of the timber and timber converts to greyish
brown powder known as wet rot.
White rot: Attack lignin of wood and wood assumes the appearance of white mass.
Soft rots: Attack only cellulose in case of soft rots.
Bacterial rots: Bacterial rot is caused by bacterial, which may attack either cellulose or the lignified
cell or both.
Wood defects by insect borers and termites:
Insects, borers and termites constitute one of the destructive biological agency causing defect in
timber. Some insects infest standing trees; other felled logs before conversion while some others
infest converted timber including stored timbers. The damage is visible in the form of tunnels and
wood- dust packed galleries in timber. Damage to felled logs may not be apparent until the logs are
converted, or seasoned wood it planed or cut for use. The strength of timber is affected and
continuous infestation causes its complete destruction. Only sapwood is susceptible to most of the
borers and durable heart – wood in general is immune to attack of insects and borers.
1.Powder post borer: These belong chiefly to the families Bostrychidae and Lyctidae under the
order coleopteran and are of great importance in forestry and wood using industries. The damage
by the borers is restricted only to the sap wood region. Presence of starch content in woods is
necessary for infestation by the power-post borers. The emergences holes are circular in out-line
and packed with wheat flour like wood dust. Sterilization of green wood with steam and soaking or
spraying with chemical is effective in preventing powder – post damage. These belong chiefly to the
families Bostrychidae and Lyctidae under the order coleopteran and are of great importance in
forestry and wood using industries. The damage by the borers is restricted only to the sap wood
region.
Presence of starch content in woods is necessary for infestation by the power-post borers.
The emergences holes are circular in out-line and packed with wheat flour like wood dust.
Sterilization of green wood with steam and soaking or spraying with chemical is effective in
preventing powder – post damage.

2. Bark beetles (Ambrosia beetles, pinhole and shot hole borers): Attack recently felled trees and
log with bark on. Infection occurs in forest initially and is subsequently carried to the depots places
of utility. For development of these beetles moisture in timber is essential. The defect due to attack
of bark beetles appears as pinholes and shortholes. The physical strength of the timber is not
impaired, but it is made unfit for such uses as veneers, match sticks and decorative planks.
Preventive methods include debarking soon after felling, exposure to the sun, quick seasoning and
chemical prophylactic treatment.
3. Flat headed borers: These are long whitish legless grubs, belonging to family Buprestidae, with a
small head withdrawn into the prothorax which is widened into a large flat oval or similar circular
disc. These borers attack only sap wood of timbers with bark on. Larval galleries packed with fine
wood dust appear elliptical, cylindrical, square and flat. Debarking soon after felling prevents attack
by these borers.
4. Long horn borers: These belong to the family cerambycidae and attack the timber with bark on
condition. Bark, sapwood and heartwood are liable to be ruined owing to excessive ridding by
larvae. The larval galleries in timber are packed with relatively coarse – shredded wood dust.
5.Carpenter bees: Carpenter bees bore in timber holes similar to those drilled with the help of a
carpenter’s augur.Heavy incidence of carpenter bees that has occupied a piece of timber of several
generations perforate and riddle it with tunnels, affecting the strength and aesthetic value of
timber.
Termites: There are many termites are found in the world. Their main food is cellulose and
therefore they consume all material that contains cellulose. There are two types of termites’ i.e. dry
wood termites and subterranean termites. The dry termites live exclusively in dry, sound, and
seasoned timbers; they do not maintain any contact with the ground for moisture. The
subterranean, or soil-dwelling, termites live partly or wholly in the ground. These readily attack
wood in contact with the ground and also build covered runways over impenetrable obstructions
thus reaching wood not in contact with ground. These termites are responsible for most of the
damage done to wood in the country cut the damage done to standing trees and logs is negligible.
The termites need a suitable range of temperature; 27 to 30 degree centigrade is the optimum for
majority of the tropical species of termites and need high atmospheric humidity nearing saturation.
High humidity is maintained by subterranean termites in their galleries through soil contact, in the
absence of which the colony cannot survive.
Marine borers and wood defects:

Defects by animals:
Birds and mammals: In birds, only wood-peckers do some damage to individual trees by excavating
holes in stems and branches for laying eggs or for discovering the grubs of borers for food. Some of
the animals i.e. deer, bears etc cause serious wounds by peeling of the bark and damaging in
cambium. This results in the formation of abnormal tissues which sometimes make for defect in the
timber.
4.2 Detecting wood defects: Manual and mechanized methods:
Wood degradation and defects, such as shake, check, split, void, knots etc, affect the quality and
processing time of lumber. The ability to detect internal as well as external defects in the log can
save mills time and processing costs.
Detecting wood defect
Method for Detecting Exterior Deterioration
Visual Inspection: Search fruiting body, staining and discoloration are sign of decay, dirt and debris
against the wood, spongy and rotted area, insect activity for softened the wood.
Probing: By pointed tool to find out the excessive softness of wood.
Method for detecting interior deterioration:
Sounding: The detection mechanism of the sound hammering method for screening internal
defects in wood. Sounding the surface by striking it with a hammer. Interpreting Soundings is
difficult and only subjective. Sound timber gives a crisp sound. Defective timber gives a dull sound.
Loose hardware will vibrate.
Moisture meter: It helps to identify wood that has a moisture content high enough for decay
growth. Moisture contents of greater than 20% to 30% would indicate conditions suitable for decay.
Drilling and Coring: Drilling and coring are probably the most common methods used to detect
internal decay in wood members. Drilling is usually done with the help of wood auger to find out
the depth resistance capacity of wood in time of drilling ie. Easier or difficult and to test the wood
powered to find further defect.
X-Ray CT Scanning are advanced non-destructive method and are used for finding out knot defects.
4.4 Wood treatment: Physical and chemical application in national context:

Wood treatment: Wood treatment refers to protecting wood from damage caused by insects,
moisture, and decay fungi etc. Wood is a natural organic material degraded by biological organisms:
bacteria, fungi and insects (woodworms and termites). Wood is also vulnerable to direct sun light
and moisture, which affect its durability and increase the rotting process. There are many different
species of wood, and depending of its type and hardness, each one has its own characteristic and
ability to resist the conditions that give rise to decay. Thus treatment is needed. For preventing
insects, rotting and moisture degradation and ensuring its durability over time, several good
practices can be carried out.
Proper tree selection: Cutting of trees at the proper season (lunar phase). Thorough drying process
and seasoning. Proper stocking procedures. Appropriate architectural details (overlapping roof,
post base, etc.). Water/insect/rotting resistant treatment.
4.3: Wood seasoning: Significance, methods:
The term ‘seasoning’ is used for drying of timber. It means the removal of the moisture that is
present in timber in its green state. The water from wood must be removed before its end use as
many of the properties of wood are strongly affected by its moisture content. Wood is anisotropic
i.e. the moisture change within wood results in dimensional change due to swelling and shrinkage,
which is not equal in all the planes.
Importance of seasoning:
Drying reduces the weight of wood, with a resulting decrease in shipping cost. It reduces or
eliminated further shrinkage, checking and warping. It increases strength and nail holding power. It
decreases susceptibility to infection by blue stain and other fungi (fungi can only grow on timber
with moisture content above 20%). It reduces chance of attack by insect. It improves the capacity of
wood to take preservative and fire-retardant treatment and to hold paint. Electrical resistance and
thermal insulation properties of wood is increased after drying. Finishing characteristics of end
products of wood improves after drying. Gluing by adhesive in effective in dry wood. Dry wood
burns better as fuel wood.
Seasoning principle:
The water is to be removed before the timber can be used for any purpose. Moisture should be
extracted during seasoning under control condition at a uniform rate from all part of the timber.
Drying should be regular to overcome the shrinkage, cracking, warping, swelling of the timber.
Maintain uniform internal stress between fibres. Maintain level of equilibrium moisture content
under the given climatic condition of temperature and relative humidity. The relationship between
climatic condition and moisture content in timber has been established from tests on various types
of timber. Moisture content of seasoned wood is approximately equal to the average humidity of
the surroundings. So, objective of seasoning based on principle are:
• Reduce its tendency to split and decay.
• Reduce its weight.
• Reduce the shrinkage and warping after placement in structure.
• Increase strength, durability and workability.
Scope of Seasoning:
Railway Department: e.g. Railway track sleepers. Building Construction: e.g. Vertical posts, beams,
lintels , roofing trusses doors and window, floors, ceiling, partition walls. Making furniture: e.g.
Rack, table, sofa. Making sports goods area: e.g. Instrument, cricket bat, Badminton, chess board.

Making musical instrument: e.g. guitar, sitar, violin. Plywood making, bridge making, agriculture
implements. Research and Education.
Wood moisture relation:
How water is held in wood: Free water held by capillary action inside the free spaces in the cell and
fibres. Absorbed or bound moisture, which is intimately absorbed by the substance of the cell walls,
and is distributed in the intermolecular spaces between the ultimate particles of which wood
substance is composed.
Fibre saturation point (FSP): Cellulose or wood substance has a certain affinity for water i.e. it is
hygroscopic, and absorbs moisture if dries and placed in a humid atmosphere again. It is due to this
affinity of cellulose for water that, during the process of seasoning, the free moisture evaporates
away at first, till a point is reached where most of the free moisture is removed and only the
observed moisture is left. This point is known as fibre saturation point and its importance lies in the
fact that wood starts shrinkaging only after this point is reached, due to the shrinkage of the wood
substance by loss of the absorbed moisture. FSP found to vary from 20 to 30% of water on the dry
weight of the wood.
Determination of moisture content: The moisture contained in wood is expressed as a percentage
of the water in it, calculated on the net weight of the dry wood which is also known as oven dry
weight. It is obtained by drying a small section of the wood, about 1 cm. thick is an oven at 100
degree centigrade, till two successive weightings show no further loss in weight. This weight is taken
as the basis and the moisture content is expressed as a percentage.
Moisture Content = (Wet weight - Oven dry weight / oven dry weight)* 100
• Even well season wood contains a percentage of water which can only be expelled by artificially
drying.
• In air dry wood proportion of moisture varies from 9 -16%.
Major factors to consider in seasoning:
• Seasoning time.
• Moisture content in wood.
• Heat and temperature.
• Humidity.
• Air circulation.
• Types of species.
• Thickness of wood etc.
Method of wood seasoning:
Air seasoning, kiln seasoning and other seasoning
Air seasoning: In air seasoning air is the only medium that carries heat to the timber and removes
the moisture evaporated from the timber by the heat supplied to it. To make the dryness of timber
uniform following points should be taken consideration. Piling or staking, of timbers. Protection of
the stack.
General principle of stacking: Uniform drying is ensuring through proper staking. It also eliminates
seasoning deterioration and biological deterioration through mould and stain. To control rate of
drying by regularly supplying of air. This can be done by:
Adjust the height of the foundation.
Adjust the width and height of the stack.
Using equal spacing between the layers by using proper thickness of crossers (thin pieces)

Piling or stacking of timber: The piling of timber is very important as poor, uneven piling or staking
results in crooked and twisted pieces. The timber is stacked either in Horizontal Stacking Or Vertical
staking.
Horizontal stacking: Common method of stacking and is suitable for all forms of timbers such as
swan timber, veneers, thick scantales and so on. The following is the practices adopted for making a
horizontal stack of timber. Sanitation: Site should be level and clean. Foundation: Strong and
durable and raised 30-45 cm above the ground. Orientation: Length should be perpendicular to the
preventing wind in case of non-refractory wood and length should be parallel in case of refractory
wood. Sorting: Longer planks are kept at bottom of the stack and shorter ones at top. Dimension:
Length depends on material to be stacked width should not be more than 1.5m and height should
not be more than 3m. Crossers: Crossers are small battles or thin pieces of wood, 2.5cm or square,
to be kept on separate the one layer of seasoning timber from another, in order to allow uniform
circulation of air on all sides of timber and to prevent the green wood from warping and twisting
during seasoning. Crossers common cross section (2.5cm*4cm) or (4cm*5cm).
Protecting the stacking: Seasoning shed for Refractory wood.(easily damaged wood) Tight roof
and side shelter with the provision of ventilation in closed room. Seasoning shed for Medium
Refractory Wood. Partial shade and one side is closed and there is left open (northen side).
Seasoning shed for Non-refractory wood. Save from rain only; give full opportunity to sun and
wind.
Vertical stacking: In this method timber is used mainly for the rapid surface drying of certain species
of non refractory wood, which are liable to develop mould and discoloration, soon after conversion,
unless the surface moisture is removed rapidly to prevent germination and growth of mould and
fungi which cause the staining of wood. The timber is exposed to the sun and wind after conversion
as soon as possible. After the time has become partly dry it can be stacked by Horizontal method for
further drying or it can be left standing in a vertical position till the competition of its drying. The
planked stand should be turned frequently.
Kiln seasoning: It means drying of wood using artificial heat. In this method the timber is stacked in
the chamber and artificial heat is provided to dry the timber. Following factors affect the Kiln
Seasoning. Temperature of circulating air. Humidity of circulating air and rate of circulating air.
Basic Principles of KS; Temperature can be maintained according to our willingness. Applicable to
any types of species. Relative humidity and air circulation can be controlled. Relative higher
temperature kills insects, pest and pathogens. Outer climate and wind does not affect it. Two types:
Steam heated and Furnace Kilns.
Steam heated kilns: In these Kilns, heating is by steam pipe coils inside a compartment underneath
the kiln, circulation is brought about by fans, placed either outside as inside. Water sprays and
condensers are also kept to control the humidity. These Kilns are suitable for the drying of both
furniture timbers and packing case wood.
Furnace kilns: When steam is not available and the cost of running a stem boiler is considered too
high, simple type of kiln having in own furnace can be installed. Furnace kilns are two types; Direct
heating type and indirect heating type.
Direct heating type: In this method, smoke is used to dry the timber. Because of un burnt smokes
the timber becomes discolored but it is purely superficial and easily removed. This kiln is used to dry
the hard wood for furniture manufacture.

Indirect heating type: In this method, the heat combustion gases and smoke pass through sheet
iron ducts, which are placed inside the kiln and which heat the air circulation inside the drier. It has
the advantages that the timber to be dried does not come in contact with smoke and therefore
there is no chance of surface blacking of timber during drying.
Solar heated kilns: In this method Solar energy is used to provide the heat for seasoning the timber
of various sizes.
Dehumidification kilns: In these method electrical heats is used to provide the heat to the stack and
heated air is circulated by fan. A green timber generates warm and moist air which is sucked by the
humidifier.
4.4. Wood treatment: physical and chemical, application in national context
Wood preservatives are toxic chemicals applied to wood to prevent damage by decay fungi or
harmful insect. Wood preservation consists of introducing chemical (wood preservatives) into which
prevent fungal growth and insect attack. The object of wood preservation is to prolong the life of
perishable timbers.
Scope of wood preservatives:
Railway Sleepers: The railways have been pioneers in adapting wood preservation method for
protecting wooden sleepers. Properly treated wooden sleepers have given an average life of 20-25
years. Transmission poles telegraph and telephone poles; A properly treated wooden pole can be
expected to give a service life of 25 years or more even under adverse conditions.Timber for other
constructional purposes; If properly treated beams, window, and door frames, ceiling timbers are
getting a life of 60-70 years under favorable conditions and 40-50 years under the adverse
conditions. Packing – cases and furniture; Low grade timbers, after preservative treatment, can be
used for furniture etc. and expected to give good service life.
Properties of wood preservatives:
That is permanent, penetrative, safe to handle and use (easy to introduce into the wood, and
remain in the wood not washed out when the wood is wet). Toxic to fungi and insects but harmless
to animals and human being. Not inflammable or injurious to the wood. That is clean, odorless and
amenable to painting.
Importance: It helps to increase the life of the wood by 5-10 times its normal life and its fire-
resistive property to 2-3 times the normal. Prophylactic treatment should also be given to timber
and bamboos to protect them for a period of 3 to 6 months, during transit and storage, prior to full
fledged preservative treatment. If timber is chemically treated it protect from fungi cause blue,
brown etc. Stain which lower the market value of timber. Wood preservation helps in the proper
utilization of timber and in the conservation of timber resources and forests. The life of treated
timber can be expected in the open, 7-10 times or more inside location.Fence post, transmission
poles, piles, bridge and building timbers can be protected by preservative treatment
Types of wood preservatives:
Oil type- Tar oils: This type comprises various forms of creosote and it at present the most
important for posts, poles, sleepers. Creosote which is derived as a coal-tar by product of coke and
steel industries. It is satisfactory preservatives where the odour, colour and ‘bleeding’ is not
objectionable. There are many types of creosotes used preservative treatment i.e. coal-tar creosote,
wood tar creosote, water- gas – tar creosote. The best and most widely used creosote is coal-tar
creosote, which is obtained by distillation of coal tar, with boiling point between 210 - 355 degree

centigrade. Oil gives a certain amount of protection of timber against splitting and cracking. It is not
suitable preservatives where its odour and colour are objectionable.
Water soluble type
Water soluble leaching type: These comprise inorganic or organic salts should in water. It may be
Zinc chloride, Zinc sulphate, copper sulphate, boric acid, arsenic pentoxide and sodium penta-
chlorophenete. Timber treated with varnished when dry. Copper-sulphate is highly toxic to fungi.
Zinc-chloride is the cheapest of water soluble group of preservatives. It is highly toxic to fungi but
not permanent and is soon leached out of wood of exposed to heavy rain. To prevent leaching, it is
mixed with glue a sodium-dichromate is added to fix it. Mercuric-chloride is extremely toxic to wood
destroying fungi but also extremely poisonous to human beings and animals, so its use is not
extensive. Boric acid and borax which are quite toxic against insects.
Water soluble non leaching type: These comprise mixture of various water-soluble salts usually
sodium or potassium dichromate. The effect of chromium is to fix the toxic ion-arsenic, copper, zinc
etc in the wood, so that it is not easily leached by the action of water. Treated timber should be
complete the fixation process.
Organic solvent type: These consist of copper and zinc salts of organic acid such as naphthenic acid,
stearic acid and abietic acid etc. These are used after dissolving them in suitable organic solvents of
low boiling point so that when the treated timber dries up, solvent evaporates off leaving only the
preservative behind. Timbers treated with the above preservatives can be painted and varnished.
Preparation of timber for treatment: Bark removal: The bark, including the inner bark mush be
thoroughly removed before treatment. Seasoning and conditioning Wood should be seasoned or
conditioning before treatment. Seasonings are air, kiln, steaming, vacuum, boiling etc. Moisture
content should be below 25%. Machining Cutting to final dimension, framing, boring of holes etc
should be completed prior to treatment. As sapwood has better absorptive capacity. Incising
Timber whose heart is non-durable and refractory to treatment, incisions of all the surface depth of
12 to 20mm is necessary to ensure proper penetration of the preservative.
Methods:
Superficial method: Superficial application such as brushing, spraying or brief dipping with water
repellent toxic solution is used on slash and millwork but do not perform satisfactorily for service
conditions. They add limited life to untreated wood and may greatly improve the paint performance
of wood.
Non pressure method
Cold- soaking
Woods are easily penetrated, can be cold-soaked in preservative oils or steeped in water borne
preservatives. It involves the submerging of wood in a preservative solution for about two to three
days. In this treatment we can use or seasoned wood both.
Diffusion/Double Diffusion Process
• Diffusion process may be used with green or wet wood using waterborne preservatives.
• Double diffusion involves soaking green, unseasoned wood in one chemical solution and then
placing it in another.
• The two chemical react the wood, producing a compound that is very insoluble in water and in toxic
to fungi and insects.
The Hot and Cold Bath

• It is more effective non pressure process. The wood is heated in the preservative to force out some
air, it is then quickly transferred to a bath of coal preservatives, causing air in the wood to contract
and draw preservative into the wood. Heat can be supplied by steam.
Vacuum Process: These are used with preservative oils on lumber and millwork to obtain limited
preservative penetration and retention comparable to dipping.
Pressure Method
• It’s result in deep and uniform penetrations of most species.
• Pressure treatment is quick and allows close control, but involves the use of closed cylinders.
• Three methods of preservatives under pressure treatment.
1. The full-cell or Bethell process
• It is used with oil preservatives where high retentions are required. Seasoning wood is placed in the
treating cylinder and a vacuum drawn.
• The cylinder is then filled with preservatives, heated if necessary.
• The period varies with desired gross absorption.
2. Empty-cell or Lowry process
• It is similar to full cell process but without a preliminary vacuum.
3. The empty-cell or Rueping process:
• It requires initial pressure instead of an initial vacuum.
• The initial air is trapped in the wood and expands when pressure is released, forcing out a
considerable amount of injected liquid. The final vacuum aids in its recovery.
• The process is used when retentions are specified.
4.5 Alternative uses of defected woods:
1. Table tops.. (by knot with the help of epoxy.
2. Plywood making
3. Distilation
4. Firewood
5. Making furniture

UNIT 5: WOOD- BASED INDUSTRIES IN NEPAL (6)
5.1. Wood- based industries (global and Nepalese context)
Global context (FAO, GLOBAL FOREST PRODUCTS FACTS AND FIGURES 2016)
China has grown in importance as both a producer and consumer of forest products, and has recently
overtaken a number of other big players in different product groups (e.g. Canada in sawnwood
production and the United States of America in sawnwood consumption). The country is by far the
largest producer and consumer of wood-based panels and paper. It is also highly significant in
international trade of forest products, being the world’s largest importer of industrial roundwood,
sawnwood and fibre furnish (pulp and recovered paper), and the largest exporter of wood-based
panels. In 2016, China’s imports of industrial roundwood increased by 9 percent, while sawnwood,
panel and paper production and consumption continued to grow faster than in the rest of the world.
Wood pellets production has increased dramatically in recent years, mainly owing to demand
generated from bioenergy targets set by the European Commission. In 2016, global production grew
by another 6 percent, reaching 29 million tonnes, of which more than half (17 million tonnes) was
traded internationally. An increase in the United Kingdom’s imports and consumption (by 1.5 million
tonnes) accounted for most of the increase in the global consumption and imports. Europe and
Northern America accounted for almost all global production (58 percent and 32 percent respectively)
and consumption (81 percent and 8 percent respectively).
Consumption and imports of wood pellets in Asia increased by 17 percent in 2016. The Republic of
Korea became the third largest wood pellets importer (was 4th in 2015), driving up wood pellets
production in countries in the region (especially Viet Nam, Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand). Imports
of wood pellets also increased in Japan and China.
Wood-based panel and sawnwood production (combined) grew in all five regions around the world
in 2016. Global production of both panels and sawnwood increased by 3 percent while trade growth
accelerated to 7 percent, the fastest growth since 2010. Global production of panels was record high
(416 million m³) and sawnwood registered the highest production since 1989 (468 million m³).
Canada saw double digit growth in production and exports of sawnwood and panels from 2012 to
2016 thanks to increased sales to the United States of America (due to a recovering economy and
housing market).
South America has continued expanding wood pulp production with an increasing number of new
pulp mills being built in Brazil, Chile and Uruguay. These three countries currently account for 15
percent of global wood pulp production and 33 percent of exports. From 2012 Brazil increased exports
by 52 percent and overtook Canada for the first time as the world’s second largest country in fibre
furnish exports in 2016.
Global production and trade in wood pulp grew by 2 and 5 percent respectively, much faster than
recovered paper (1 percent) in 2016.
In 2016, paper production stagnated in Europe but declined in Northern America while it grew
modestly in Latin America and the Caribbean and Asia-Pacific. Global production of graphic papers
declined by another 2 percent while other paper and paperboard recorded a healthy 4 percent
increase.

Nepalese context
Commercial exploitation of the Nepalese forests began in 1924 to supply railway sleepers to India,
however, the first mechanised wood-based industry in the country started in 1938 with the
establishment of a match factory followed by a plywood factory in 1943. The Timber Corporation of
Nepal and the Fuel wood Corporation were established in the public sector in the early 1960s. A host
of private sawmills, and a couple of Katha factories and many furniture factories were also established
during this period. The National Forestry Plan, 1976 envisaged the proper development of forests and
forest based industries. As a result a fuel wood and timber sales plan was prepared and the Forest
Products Development Board (FPDB) was established to institutionalise the harvesting and
distribution of forest products. Only processed or semi-processed wood products were allowed to be
exported so that local saw mills could operate at full capacity. As a result, the wood-based industry
expanded with the establishment of new sawmills and a wood seasoning plant. By the early 1980s,
there were 150 sawmills. The MPFS in 1988 also gave emphasis to forest-based industries. One of the
long term objectives set by the MPFS is to contribute to the growth of local and national economies
by managing forest resources and forest-based industries, and creating opportunities for income
generation and employment. It identified the development of forest-based industries as one of the
six major programmes of the plan. Forest-based industries in Nepal use both wood and non-wood
products. Wooden handicrafts, furniture, hand-made paper production, plywood and parquet are the
industries that use wood products. Some enterprises, such as rosin and turpentine, herbal medicine,
Sal seed oil and cane furniture production use NWFPs. Most of these industries have been established
in the Terai and Siwalik region. A total of 478 forest-based industries have been established so far in
Nepal. Of the total, 463 are wood-based and 15 are non-wood-based industries (FRISP, 1998). There
are about 46 veneer mills in the Terai region, which export their products mainly to India. There is
one bamboo-based factory in Nepal that produces export quality bamboo products. Government of
Nepal has formulated a guideline to provide incentive for forest based enterprise in 2075 to promote
this industry.

5.2. Major wood-based industries in Nepal (sawmill, furniture, handicraft, composite
products, cutch and katha)- State of Forestry in Nepal (FAO)
The first mechanized wood-based industry, in the form of a match factory, was established only in
1938. Successive five-year plans have emphasized the development of industries based on indigenous
materials; the speeding up of industrial development and the contribution of forests to the country's
economic, social and industrial development. However, the wood-based industries have not
advanced much, because of a number of constraints.
Sawmill
It is estimated that 86% of all timber consumption takes place outside industrial units i.e. rural
consumption. Industrial saw milling is done by private saw mills. The saw mills are all technically
similar, consisting of a horizontal band saw with a very simple carriage and a vertical band saw for re-
sawing. Power is supplied by electricity or diesel engine. Private saw mills are licensed without being
given timber quotes, and are dependent on parastatals for their log supply. The saw milling industry
supplies the towns with sawn wood, where it is used for furniture, joinery, building and construction.
Wooden logs for saw mills within the country are mostly sourced from the Terai and mid hills. Wood
of varying quality (Sal, Sissoo, Saj, Kadam, Utis, Salla and etc.) is collected from Government Forestry
(GFs), Community Forestry (CFs), and private lands. Saw mills then process these logs into timber of
different sizes, and sell the timber to furniture industries. The price of the timber is determined by
the type of the timber, with Sal, wild Sissoo and Satisal being the most valuable. In some cases, saw
mills themselves manufacture the furniture including door and window frames to diversify their
product, and to generate additional income.
Furniture
Nepal's furniture industry includes modern factories, hundreds of small workshops and thousands of
individual carpenters. To meet future demand, there is room for additional modern factories, but

these will have to secure raw materials from the parastatals. Existing factories are already unable to
operate at full capacity because of the lack of raw materials. While furniture has export potential,
since its value added nature could overcome the high transport cost, there are problems that would
have to be solved in raw material supply, product quality, suitable designs, and knowledge of export
markets.
Handicraft
Wooden handicrafts are produced all over the country at a cottage industry level. There are no
estimates of the volume or value of craft production for the country as a whole. However, for
Kathmandu valley 4300 m3 of sawn wood is utilized by the handicraft industries and the value of their
production is estimated at US$ 1 million (MPFS, 1988).
Although the required volume is not large, the producers are not obtaining good quality wood on a
regular basis. This problem is hampering the export possibilities of the industry.
Composite product
here are no reliable data on composite product consumption in Nepal because there is an unrecorded
flow across the border from India. But it is estimated that two-thirds of the local demand is fulfilled
by imports from India. Therefore, there is sufficient demand to encourage the local composite
product industry to expand.
cutch and katha
Katha is an extract obtained from the heartwood of Acacia catechu. It is a light brown coloured
crystalline substance used in the preparation of "paan" a chewing substance popular in South Asia. A
by-product of katha production is catch, which is used in tanning and dyeing. Nepal has six katha
factories with a total production of 650 tonnes of katha and 700 tonnes of catch. Nearly all of the
production is exported to India and other countries of South Asia. This industry is dependent not on
the market, but on the availability of khair, a rapidly diminishing resource.
5.3. Prospects and problems of wood-based industries in Nepal
Prospects
 Mobilization of locals and provision of part time/full-time employment
 Utilization of forest resources with emphasis on sustainable extraction of resources
 The forest is a rich and diverse source of materials used for the production of various products
 GoN's MoFE's "Forestry for Prosperity" motto is positive for establishment of more wood-
based industry in the country
 Increasing private sector interest in SSFEs
 Other market channels can be explored
 CF-run SSFEs have the right to plant and own trees and NWFP species which is guided by their
OPs
Problems
 Seasonal nature of production: unsustained supply of raw materials

 Problem of scale of operation: Limited technical capacity, machinery and materials to produce
and process products
 Demand for the product is not consistent
 Culture of recordkeeping not always prevalent
 Benefit sharing mechanism not always transparent
 On paper, the GoN has put in place a favourable policy to support SSFE but not so when it
comes to application
 Corruption
 Diminishing timber and NWFP resources due to over-exploitation
 Substitution of timber products with synthetics for timber-based SSFEs
 Climate change discourse may lead to more restrictive forestry measures
 Location Restriction of Forest based enterprises (3km and 5km)
 Price of Timber during auction (not below TCN)
 Multiple taxation, hurdles and unseen costs o Forest based entrepreneurs have to pay
multiple taxes (e.g.at DoF, VDC, DDC, local bodies etc.).
 Conservation based approach
 Operational Plan of CFUGs o CF provides timber to its users (limited quantity) but there is no
provision to provide timber for community-based micro enterprises.
 Lack of timber processing area
 High costs of timber to consumer
 Lack of Financial Capital.
 Inadequate roadmap for banks and financial institutions to invest in the forestry sector
 Access to transportation
 Labour issue
5.4. Prospect of utilization of under used species in Nepal
Prospects of under used NTFP
 Nearly 7,000 species of higher plants are found in Nepal, out of which 5% are endemic to Nepal
and 30% endemic to the Himalaya.(Shrestha and Shrestha, 1998)
 The international market of NTFP is growing at the rate of 15% per year and in Nepal NTFPs
contributes 5% of the total contribution of forestry to the national economy. (Ghimire et al.,
2008)
 In the mountainous regions of Nepal, 10-100% of households are involved in commercial
collection of NTFPs (NBS, 2002)
 About 80% of rural people use MAPs for treatment (MPFS, 1989)
 Rural hilly areas NTFPs contributes up to 40% of total annual family incomes (Olsen & Larsen
2003) .
 Growing high value NTFPs in private land is financially more rewarding than cultivating cereal
crops (Olsen 1998)

 High variation of NTFPs (from Terai to High Mountains) and barren, reclaimed lands available
for domestication.
 About 25% of the people around globe use NTFP (FAO, 2001)
 There are still many unidentified NTFPs.
 Large networks of community-based forest management
5.5. Private sector involvement and investment in wood-based industries in Nepal
The participation of private entrepreneurs in the forest-based industries is mainly found in processing,
manufacturing and trade and to some extent production of forest products and services. Since no
unified formal data on participation and investment of the private entrepreneurs in forest-based
industries are available, the study team made estimates based on the analysis of existing databases
available at Department of Industry (DoI), Department of Cottage and Small Industry (DoCSI), Cottage
and Small Industry Development Board (CSIDB), relevant commodity associations, ANSAB, and data
obtained from this study’s field survey. An estimated 41,062 forest based enterprises are involved in
the major four forest subsectors i.e. timber, NTFPs, ecosystem services (includes ecotourism) and
forest bioenergy. The total estimated investment by private entrepreneurs is NRs 31.89 billion
(excluding direct foreign investment in eco-tourism), of which the highest investment came from the
timber processors and manufacturers with 59% of the total investment.
Primary Production of Forest Goods and Services: The primary production function includes the
products and services of the four major forest subsectors and involves 27,342 enterprise units
including the forest producer groups (18,133), private forests registered at DFOs or DoI (2,461), and
NTFP cultivators (21), yet only enjoys 3% of total private investment. This is the top area where Nepal
should prioritize greater investment, since without increased supplies and better quality of supplies;
all other investment in the forestry sector will be constrained. It is observed that CFUGs invest 20.87%
to 80.96 % of their income on forests management (DoF 2012); however most of the CFUGs are
operating at subsistence level. Assuming that CFUGs make 30% of their total expenditure for forest
management, the investment made by the CFUGs in the production of primary forest goods and
services comes to be about NRs 350 million. Similarly, leasehold, collaborative and other forest user
groups have invested about NRs 86.5 million in forest management. The total investment by the
private forests and NTFP cultivators including those registered at DoI is calculated to be around NRs
388 million. Among those registered at DoI, 12 enterprises received foreign direct investment (FDI) -
one in teak (Tectona grandis) plantation (NRs 5.5 million) and others in farming of NTFPs including
organic herbs (NRs 79 million).
Timber Processing, Manufacturing and Trade: The major investors in timber processing,
manufacturing and trade are sawmill, veneer, plywood, and furniture and woodcarvings operators.
The number of registered enterprises is increasing, and at present there are 1389 saw millers, 200
veneer producers, 64 plywood producers and 8,217 furniture and woodcarvings makers, which make
a total of 9,869 enterprises in this category (DoCSI 2013). This indicates that despite all the issues
holding back investments in Nepal private sector sees enough promise in the timber industry to
invest. Facilitating access to sustainable supplies of higher quality wood will spur greater investment.
It is noted that over 80% of the enterprises are engaged in furniture and woodcarving indicating that

these two industries are attractive and feasible for small and medium entrepreneurs in Nepal. The
total investment made by these timber-based enterprises is estimated to be NRs 18.9 billion. The
investment by the importer of the furniture is not included in this estimation. Of the total firms
registered in DoI, only two have accessed FDI - one saw-miller and another plywood-maker.
Woodcarving is often reported in handicraft sector and also assisted by a variety of NGO-supported
programs that help Nepal access fair trade and green markets. The primary processors are involved
in trading either directly or through contractors, who act as their agents.
NTFP Processing, Manufacturing and Trade: In this category, a total of 2,140 enterprises are found
to be involved, of which 1,647 are herbs processors and manufacturers registered at DoCSI or DoI;
and the rest 493 are traders including exporters, which are registered at DoC to do trading of a variety
of commodities including NTFPs. The processors and manufacturers are mainly involved in processing
of medicinal herbs, spice and food, natural fibre, crafts, rosin and kattha. The traders mainly include
district traders, regional traders and exporters. The data from DoCSI and DoI in the past 8 years shows
that the number of registered NTFP based enterprises is increasing from 968 in 2006 to 1,647 in 2013
(Figure 2.5). The total investment by these enterprises is estimated to be NRs 5.48 billion, most of
which came from the processors and manufacturers. The 25 enterprises registered with DoI alone
accounts for NRs 1.47 billion including the FDI equivalent to NRs 297 million. The industries receiving
FDI are herbal body care, herbal food supplements, herbal pharmaceuticals, processing of taxus resin,
taxus powder and essential oils.
Ecosystem Services Including Ecotourism: The total number of enterprises working in ecosystem
services is estimated to be 1,676, of which 1,674 are ecotourism related and two are in forest carbon.
About 78.65% of the estimated investment of NRs 6.56 billion in this sector is in ecotourism
enterprises while NRs 1.4 million is in forest carbon related enterprises. The investment in ecotourism
is estimated considering mainly the participation of trekking agencies and hotels and assuming that
50% of the total investment in travel and tourism is related to ecotourism sector of Nepal. The
transaction of forest carbon is not well developed in Nepal. The recent development includes some
voluntary transactions by some private companies and donor-funded projects (fund based markets).
Our calculation of the private investment in carbon subsector is based on two forest carbon projects
in which private sector is involved. The Bardiya Green Project is a collaborative effort of Yeti Airlines,
Tiger Tops Karnali Lodge and Brindapuri Community Forest that invested NRs 1.07 million since June
2010 for three years. In another initiative, Ace Development Bank purchased 2,800 tons from the
Dhading-based community organization - Rural Mutual Development (RMD) for NRs 0.36 million in
order to offset their annual carbon emission of 250 tons of greenhouse gases. However, there is a
growing interest in purchasing voluntary carbon credits from Nepal from international organizations,
as Nepal provides a unique story of social and environmental benefits.
Forest Bioenergy Processing, Manufacturing and Trade: A total of 35 enterprises are involved in this
category. Of this29areinvolvedinbio-briquetteproduction, most of which are community based; two
each in community-based gasification and liquid biofuel, and one each in marketing of briquettes and
production of char using improved charring retort. The total estimated investment of these
enterprises is NRs 42.9 million. In this calculation, the investment in trading of fuel wood and by-
products from wood processing are not included as the majority of the formal participants are from
timber-based businesses in order to avoid double counting. The informal fuelwood trade in the rural

areas, mostly done by individuals and sold in local markets, is unaccounted and not included in this
estimate. The increasing trend in investment in bio-briquettes is observed due to greater awareness
and market demand especially from urban areas. Similarly, the establishment of gasification units is
just initiated, but shows good prospects given the current energy crisis. The investment in liquid
biofuel enterprises is shaky with the two established units not functioning properly due to the high
cost of production, competition with subsidized fossil fuels, and insufficient supportive role of the
government.
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in the Forestry Sector: Overall, foreign investment of NRs 75.14
billion (just under US $800 million) was committed for 2,335 ventures up to 2011-12 (DoI 2013). Of
those, 114 ventures were in agriculture and forestry, 20 in wood and wood products, 48 in paper and
paper products, 191 in the tourism sector, and 629 hotels and resorts. Of late, Chinese private sector
is increasing their investment in ecotourism development in Nepal and Indian in NTFPs processing
(MoF 2013).

UNIT 6: TIMBER VALUE CHAIN (5)
6.1. Value chain of major timber products in Nepal
6.2. Challenges and opportunities in timber value chain in Nepal
6.3. Case studies on timber value chain analysis
TIMBER VALUE CHAIN: Value chain has become a popular concept in understanding resource
extraction and market dynamics in the recent years. Value chain describes a range of activities from
production of primary goods to its final consumption. It encompasses any activity required to develop
a product or services through various processes, from resource extraction, production, processing
and manufacturing to final consumption and disposal.
The value chain of timber generally starts with the places where tree grows, followed by harvesting,
collection, transportation, processing and finally consumption by individuals and/or commercial
enterprises. The value chain of timber encompasses various inputs from forestry sector (land
allocation and timber production), machinery sector (harvesting and sawing) and other social sectors.
Besides the material flow, the value chain of timber comprises actors, activities, processes, and
governing services at various stages of the chain.
In Nepal, government institutions, private farmers and forest user groups are involved in timber
production. Land capital, ecological viability, time, cost and labor investment in establishment and
management of trees are determining factors for timber production in the value chain. In addition to
timber producers, local intermediaries and brokers are involved in harvesting, logging and collection
of timber at the local level. Small or large wholesalers and retailers are involved in timber value chain.
Small scale at local level or large forest based enterprises, such as sawmills and furniture industries
are engaged in conversion, processing and manufacturing of timber. After specific modification and
design, timber products are distributed and consumed.
6.1 Value chain of major timber products in Nepal

 Porter in 1979 developed concept of value chain (VC)
 VC is a collection of activities performed by a company/enterprise to add value of the product
 both primary activities as well as supportive activities to provide competitive advantage (i.e.
producing product at low cost and high quality than of others).
 Value chain analysis: Decision supportive/business management tool
 Value chain analysis is a process analyzing primary and support activities, keeping in mind
their contribution towards value creation to the product.
 Principle: Products pass through a chain of activities in order and gains some value.
 These activities are performed by different actors.
 The actors in the value chain are: input suppliers (e.g. agro-vets, nursery, seed supplier),
collectors/harvesters, processors, traders, consumers.
In terms of geographical coverage
 Local VC: all activities confined within a county. Sometimes, all activities confined in specific
part within a country can be taken as local VC.
 Regional VC: all activities confined in a region e.g. Europe, SouthEast Asia etc.
 Global VC: design, assemble, production of parts, marketing and branding activities and
consumption in different countries around the globe
In terms of activities
 Primary activities oriented VC- The functions which are directly concerned with the conversion
of input into output and distribution activities
 Secondary/support activities oriented VC: Those activities which assist primary activities in
accomplishment
 Production level VC
 Marketing level VC
Value addition
 Adding value to the product at each stage
 How?
Through Innovations (FAO, 2014)
1. Resource innovation: planting, harvesting
2. Product innovation: new or significantly improved products-, product diversification, bio plastics,
food packaging, wood composites etc.

3. Process innovation: new or significantly improved production process or delivery methodtimber
tracking and legality assurance, pyrolysis to liquid biofuel
4. Market innovation: new marketing method, promotion, packaging, grading, labeling
5. Organizational innovation: new organizational structure, upgrading skill of workers- supply chain
efficiency enhancement, advance use of IT
Value chain analysis (Rupantaran, 2014)
 Actor identification: identifying actors: primary and supportive actors
 Value chain mapping: function of the primary actors and supportive actors/enablers and
their relation
 Economic analysis of the product: End market, Price trend, demand and supply
 SWOT analysis of the product
 Upgrading strategy:
 Firm level upgrading: (Product- price, place, promotion),
process,functional,channel,intersectoral, interfirm
 Business development and Financial service strengthening
 Strategy for business enabling environment
 Sustainability strategy
Value chain Analysis of Uttis (eastern Nepal)
The Case of Uttis
The Nepalese Alder (Alnus nepalensis) is number eight in Nepal, measured by the assessed volume
of stem wood, having 3.56% of the total stem wood volume of Nepal’s forests. That is a remarkable
volume, and the species has remarkable characteristics. It has a biological adaptation to a wide range
of conditions, and a wide indicative altitude range from 500 m to 3,000 m. One genetic characteristic
is its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Uttis is a fast growing species as well, and is used for multiple
household uses, including as fodder for cattle. Much of this use is non-market subsistence use by
households. Because of these characteristics it has been selected as one of the key species to be
promoted , the main reasons for which are the successful cultivation of Uttis on a small to medium
scale (mainly on private land) and its use in veneer and plywood production.

Upgrading strategy:

6.2. Challenges and opportunities in timber value chain in Nepal
Favourable policy environment is the prime requirement for the proper functioning of the value chain.
Necessity of consensus of more than half a dozen of government offices for forest based enterprise
registration; MoFSC’s distance rule; multiple taxation; distortion of policies, etc. are the key barriers
for all value chains for timber.
Opportunities:
 opportunity for identifying all actors, understanding their functions, activities involved in, and
their links.
 helps in assessing the gaps in each actors functions
 figures out the whole cycle i.e. production, processing, marketing and shows the loophole in
each node of the chain.
 helps to identify suitable innovations for addressing/uprading the loophole.

 determines the positioning of people within the chain (who plays what role in the chain, and
who makes decisions, who is benefited more, and who has most information about different
aspects of the chain e.g. price information -gender and social inclusion perspective).
 Policy in place
 Private sector investment and involvement increasing-advancement in technology- large
scale enterprise
 Product diversification
 Market expansion
 Potential opportunities for livelihood improvement
 Infrastructure development: road, electricity
 Research
Challenges (case from Rapti Region)
 Multiple taxation, hurdles, unseen cost
 Low harvesting of timber, high price of timber
 Property ownership of community
 Distance rule of Ministry of forest
 Unavailability of skilled human resources
 Operational plan of CFUs that does not allow timber at subsidized cost to community based
timer based industries. (Rupantaran, 2014)
 Sustainable enterprise- Small sale cultivation, raw material crisis
 Lack of technological innovation and technology transfer to the producers or cultivators-
most of the forest product sold in raw form or semi processed form
 Lack of skilled human resources
 Contractors network limit the negotiation power of supplier
 Lengthy process for timber collection and sale- quality deterioration of timber
 Maintaining quality of the products
 Lengthy process-quality distortion
 Unfair auction process-unnecessary intrusion of timber brokers, difference in auction price
of different institution e.g.TCN, CFs, CBF-unfair market competition
 Improper policy for timber market- frequent change
(ICIMOD, 2016 - Rupandehi, Kailali, Kathmandu)

Functions of supportive actors/enablers
 Provide facilitating and regulating supports
 Facilitate as Enablers/supportive actors during collection
 Facilitate as Enablers/supportive actors during processing functions
 Facilitate as Enablers/supportive actors in Trading and export
Activities of enablers/supportive actors are
 Technology availability: e.g. of enablers
 Product development: e.g. MEDEP
 Advocacy for simplifying trade policy and procedures: e.g.FNCCI, FECON
 Organizing groups and networks for reinforcement: e.g. MEDEP
 Market information and linkages: e.g. ANSAB, MSFP
 Collection permit: e.g. DFO, FUGs
 Support in post harvesting activities: e.g. MEDEP,
 Royalty exemption: e.g. DFO, DoF
 Transport / export permit: e.g. DFO
 Local taxes: e.g. DDC, VDC
6.3. Case studies on timber value chain analysis
(value chain analysis of wood furnitures from Rupantaran, 2014)
Consult rupantaran 2014 & rai and chapagain , 2014

UNIT 7: TIMBER MARKETING AND TRADE (8)
7.1. Timber marketing and trade analysis: global and national scenario
Global scenerio
 Timber market is increasing rapidly.
 Global economic growth is a major indicator of demand for tropical wood products
 demand, driven by residential, non-residential, and public construction activity as well as
consumer wealth and spending
 Global housing and construction trends are therefore important indicators of tropical
wood products demand.
Figure 1: ITTO countries

Consumption
Internal
• Indonesia - the largest tropical log consumer country - increased marginally in 2017 compared with
the previous year to reach 74.9 million m3,
• while India’s consumption levels declined over the same period. Viet Nam’s tropical log
consumption has been increasing in recent years, by 8 per cent year-on-year in 2017.
• Malaysia and Brazil’s consumption have remained at similar levels.
Import and consumption
• Consumption in China - the largest consumer of imported tropical logs - has been rising significantly
in recent years and totalled 14.8 million m3 in 2017, about 4 per cent more than the previous year.

(ITTO) • United States of America (18%); China (11%); Russian Federation (9%); Canada (8%); Brazil
(8%); Sweden (4%); Indonesia (4%); Finland (3%); India (3%); Germany (3%). (FA0)
Import
• Tropical hardwood logs by all ITTO members totaled 17.9 million m3 in 2017
• Import volumes had dropped sharply in 2015
• In 2016, ITTO aggregate import levels increased to 17.2 million m3,
• Import increased (55 percent) in Viet Nam’s
• Static imports in China and declining imports in India.
Exports
• Exports of tropical logs from ITTO producer countries were 12.1 million m3 in 2017 • Papua New
Guinea (PNG) was the largest global exporter of tropical logs in 2017, with exports totaling 3.1 million
m3. • Non-ITTO member producers exported 5.6 million m3 of tropical logs, about one-third of the

world total. • The significant non-ITTO Member exporters in 2017 were the Solomon Islands,
Equatorial Guinea, Nigeria, Gambia, Angola and Zambia
Some issues
• Market slowing in China, Japan and USA • Policy uncertainty (Policy tightening in China, Ban in Papua
New Guinea ) • Exchange rate movement • Oil and other energy prices have important impacts on
the competitiveness of wood processing and products • illegally harvested timber continues to enter
both the domestic market and international markets. • Forest fire and other natural disaster • Weak
implementation of WTO (Quota and duty).
National scenario
Agencies involved in Timber production and distribution in Nepal
1) Divisional Forest Offices
2) Community Forests
3) Collaborative Forests
4) District Forest Product Supply Committee
5) Timber Corporation of Nepal (TCN)
6) Forest Product Development Board
7) Private forests
1. Division Forest Office
• Division Forest Offices in 77 districts • Directly involve in timber production harvesting of
Government managed forest • Major role in timber harvesting of Community Forests and
Collaborative Forests
2. Community Forest User Group

• DFO approves Community Forest Operational Plan (CFOP) / Scientific Forest Management
Plan
• Carry out Inventory of Forest products following Inventory Guidelines 2061
• Calculation of Growing stock.
• Determining forest condition, annual increment rate and prescribes AAC (CF)
• Silvicultural system based management plan in SFM
• Harvesting upto 85% of AAC for internal sale / distribution within CFUG and upto 60% for
internal and external sale in CFs
• Periodic block / annual felling area in SFM
• Mother tree / felling tree
• Out of total allocated products for outside sale, 25% of Timber and 40% of Fuel wood allocate
to District Forest Product Supply Committee ( in 33 districts) for neighboring CFUGs/VDCs/
Municipalities
• Auction of remaining products.
•
3. District Forest Products Supply Committee
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;ldltsf] u7g
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 ;ldltn] ;j{;fwf/0f hgtfsf] dfunfO{ dWogh/ /fvL lr/fg pTkfbg u/L ljs|L–ljt/0f ug{' kg]{
;fd'bflos jgx?n] ;d"x jflx/ ljqmLsf nflu 5'6ofOPsf] sf7, bfp/f dWojf6 lhNnf leqsf] cGo :yfgx? tyf l5d]sL lhNnfsf] dfu
cfk"lt{ ug{sf nflu sf7sf] @% k|lt;t / bfp/fsf] $) k|lt;t 5'6ofO ;ldltnfO{ pknJw u/fpg]
sf7 bfp/fsf] cfk"lt{ Joj:yf

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 ;fn tyf cGo hft u/L lr/fg sf7 a9Ldf !)) So"=lkm= ;Dd jf
 uf]lnof sf7 !$) So"= lkm= ;Dd .
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u_ 3/ dd{t ;'wf/M
 lr/fg sf7 @) So"= lkm= ;Dd jf uf]lnof sf7 #) So"=lkm= ;Dd .
-3_ hg;xeflutfåf/f ;~rfng ul/g] ljsf; lgdf{0fM
 lr/fg sf7 @)) So"= lkm= ;Dd jf uf]lnof sf7 @*) So"=lkm= ;Dd .
-ª_ b}jL k|sf]kM
 ;fn aNnfjNnL !@ yfg jf ;fn / cGo hft u/L lr/fg sf7 @) So"= lkm= ;Dd jf uf]lnof sf7 #) So"= lkm= ;Dd
4. g]kfn jg lgud lnld6]8 Timber Corporation of Nepal (TCN)
 २०११ सालमा स्थापना भएको
 २०१७ सालमा तत्काललन कम्पनी कानून अन्तरगत द ललम्वर कपोरेसन अफ नेपाल लल. पूर्ण सरकारी
संस्थाको रुपमा गठन भई हालसम्म काठ, दाउरा संकलन तथा लबक्री लबतरको कायर् गदै आई रहेको
 वन तथा भू-संरक्षर् मन्रालयका सह-सललवको अध्यक्षतामा अथर् मन्रालय, वालर्जयण तथा आपूलतर् मन्रालय,
वन लवभागका प्रलतलनधी सदस्य तथा कपोरेसनका महाप्रबन्धक सदस्य सललव रहको पांि (५) सदस्यीय
संि ालक सलमलत रहेको
उद्देश्य
-
काययक्षेत्र
कपोरेसनले तरार्ई, लभरी मधेश तथा पहाडी ललल्ला गरी ३४ ललल्लामा कायर् गरी रहेको ॰
१.इलाम २.झापा ३.मोरङ्ग ४.सुनसरी ५.उदयपुर ६.लसराहा ७.सप्तरी
८.धनुषा ९.लसन्धुली १०.सर्लाही ११.रौतहह १२.बारा १३.पसार्
१४.मकवानपुर १५.ललतवन १६.तनहु १७.नवलपरासी १८.रुपन्देही १९.कलपलबस्तु २०.पाल्पा
२१.अघर्खाि ी २२.कास्की २३.दाङ्ग २४.बाके २५.बलदर्या २६.सुखेत २७.कै
लाली २८.कन्चनपुर २९.डोि ी ३०.काठमार् ् ौ ं ३१.भक्तपुर ३२.लललतपुर ३३.डडेल्धुरा
३४.धनकु ि ा
5. forest product development board

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Timber production in Nepal
(2073/074)
• Community Forestry – 4,22,727 Cubic feet
• Private Forests - 6,33,824 Cubic feet
• Collaborative Forest – 142,331 Cubic feet
• TCN - 21000 Cubic feet
• Total 12,19,882 Cubic feet
7.2. Opportunities, issues and challenges in sustainable supply of timber in Nepal
Opportunities in sustainable supply of timber in Nepal

Figure 2 timber value chain:

Focusing Management Efforts on Important Forests
• Chirpine (in western Nepal)
• Terai forests : Sal • Asna and Karma • Khair-sissoo • Other (Banjhi, Jamun, Botdhayaro etc.)
• Schima-castanopsis forest including Alnus nepalensis (in eastern Nepal)

Issues and challenges in sustainable production supply of timber in Nepal
• Scientific Vs Sustainable Forest Management • Active Vs Traditional (AAC based) Forest
Management • Protection Vs Production • Churia protection forest •Many actors • Unfair auction
process • Hidden costs • Lack of proper distribution channels (Depots) • Price hike
•Supply deficit of Sal timber (import in huge amount) • Substitution of Sal timber • Illegal lodging •
Costly, harvesting and transportation • Lack of trained manpower / efficiency • Safety and security •
Use of technology (every thing manual)
• Silvicultural system based forest management (same system every where) • Common
understanding on stakeholders • Perception of Policy makers, media and general public about
production forestry
7.3. Problems and prospects of timber product marketing
Policy side
• Lower priority by policy to timber production comparing with NTFPs, PES, REDD, Biodiversity etc.
• Shared responsibility among three levels of government.
• The ban on tree felling for five years in 1999.
• Limiting the management interventions in Chure
• Ban on timber harvest and transport of major species.
• Long and irritating steps in timber harvesting and transporting
• Many check posts
• Verification / checking by many institutions and individuals
• No fixed Market Retail Price
• No national / sub national production planning
Market / other sides
• Lower production high demand
a. forestry sector revenue in the year 2008/09 b. Only three policy decisions out of 66 exclusively deal with timber (10
years)
forestry

• Conservation orientation
• Long value chain
• Many intermediaries
• Monopoly
• Illegal timber supply in market
• Unfavorable social, political and media sentiment
• Dominancy of sal and no substitute
• Costly, harvesting and transportation
• Lack of trained manpower / efficiency
• Safety and security
• Use of technology (every thing manual)
• No proper selling distribution channels
• Lesser interest of private sector in timber production
Prospect of timber marketing : reducing timber import in Nepal
• Higher priority to timber production should given
• Timber market projection and production planning
• Review / amend the ban policy
• Establishment of seasoning plants and use of soft wood as the substitute of sal timber
• Production oriented forest management
• Promotion of scientific forest management all over the country.
• Control of illegal felling and trade of timber
• Use of technology in timber harvesting
• Preparing trained forestry workers with high efficiency level
• Safety and security
• Establishment of proper distribution channels : establishment of depots
• Single door system in timber marketing

• Fixation of Market Retail Price
• g]kfn jg lgud lnld6]8
• Favorable environment to the private sector in production of timber (Softwood-plantation,
hardwood- block forest management) through higher incentives.
• At least double the production of hard and soft wood.
• Promotion of private / industrial / commercial forestry
• Discourage timber import by higher tax and quata
• Quality assurance of imported log
7.4. Strategy for sustainable timber supply; reducing timber import in Nepal
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lnld6]8 /fVg] lg0f{o .
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 k|fb]lzs sfof{no
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;lrjjf6 ul/g]
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;fj{hlgs jf lghL ;+:yfsf] Joj:yfklso kbdf /xL sDtLdf & jif{ sfo{ cg'ej ePsf] .
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If]q tf]Sg],
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7.5. Wood legality verification
Wood Legality Verification
 Illegal activities : activities prohibited by law
 Illegal activities : unethical by social and cultural norms
 Illegal forest activities include all illegal acts that related to forest ecosystems, forest-related
industries, and timber, non-timber forest products, forest land conversion, biodiversity etc.
 Impact of illegal activities
 deforestation and loss of biological diversity
 government revenue loss
 foster a vicious cycle of bad governance
 increased poverty
 reduction of forestry sector programs
 increases conflicts
 distort forest product markets
 reduce incentives for sustainable forest management.
Legality Verification
• Testing origin of timber
• Testing whether ban species or not
• Testing whether prior approval for harvesting and transportation are taken from the
authority or not
• Testing whether due process of the law / regulation are completed or not
• Testing whether necessary documents are present or not
• Testing whether the exact species, size and quantity mentioned in documents match with
the timber being transported.
Curbing illegal timber trade
• Clear law and regulation
• Strong enforcement
• Fast and credible legal / penalty system (no discrimination)

• Clear land tenure system
• Strong data base
• Capacity building of concerned stakeholders
• Awareness of law, process and procedure to CBFM and concerned stakeholders
• Use of technology • National / International tracking • Trans boundary cooperation
7.5.1. International initiatives
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES),
• International Timber Trade Agreement (ITTA),
• Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT),
• Chain of Custody Certification from Forest Stewardship Council (FSC),
• Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC)
(CITES)
• Convention : 1973, Till date member countries : 183
• aims to protect endangered species from overexploitation by controlling international trade, under
a system of import and export permits.
• Species are placed on different lists:
 Appendix I includes all species that are threatened with extinction;
 Appendix II includes species that are not necessarily threatened with extinction now
but may become so unless trade in such species is subject to strict regulation;
 Appendix III includes species that a party identifies as being subject to regulation for
the purposes of preventing or restricting exploitation, and where it needs the co-
operation of other parties in controlling trade.
Nineteen tree species are currently listed on CITES appendices I and II
International Timber Trade Agreement (ITTA)
 The International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA) was originally agreed in 1983 and
entered into force in 1985
 International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) as its secretariat and implementing
agency -1987
 Producer country : 36 and Consumer country : 38

ITTA has 6 major focus areas
 Sustainable forest management  Managing and conserving tropical forests
 Economics, statistics and markets Improving the transparency of and expanding
international markets for tropical timber
 Sustainable forest industries  Developing efficient and value-adding tropical forest-based
industries
 Climate-change mitigation and adaptation  Addressing climate change
 Capacity building Raising the capacity of forest stakeholders to manage and benefit from
their resources
 Contributions to Sustainable Development Goals
Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT)
 FLEGT Action Plan was established in 2003
 It aims to reduce illegal logging by strengthening sustainable and legal forest management,
improving governance and promoting trade in legally produced timber in EU.
Major working area
1. Supporting timber-producing countries
2. Promoting trade in legal timber
3. Promoting environmentally and socially beneficial public procurement policies
4. Supporting private-sector initiatives
5. Financing and investment safeguards
6. Addressing the problem of conflict timber
Chain of Custody Certification from Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)
 Established in 1993, work on more than 80 countries.
 FSC Forest Management certification confirms that a specific area of forest is being managed
in line with the FSC Sustainable Forest Management Principles and Criteria.
 To achieve FSC Forest Management certification, the forest manager or owner contracts with
an FSC accredited Certification Body or joins a Forest Management Group. In either case, the
forest is audited to FSC's Forest Management standards.

Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC)
• PEFC, the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification, is a leading global alliance of
national forest certification systems.
• As an international non-profit, non-governmental organization.
• Promote sustainable forest management through independent third-party certification
• Endorse national forest certification systems developed through multi-stakeholder processes and
tailored to local priorities and conditions.
• Established in 1999, based in Geneva, Switzerland
• more than 70 members located around the world, including national certification systems, NGOs,
labour unions, business, trade associations, forest owner organizations and committed
individuals.
• 53 national members are independent, national organizations that develop and implement the
PEFC system within their country.
7.5.2. National initiatives: legal provision for transporting, exporting
National initiatives: legal provision for transporting (With reference of CF)

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 bl/ofa'bL{ jf vf]nfdf ufl8Psf] cj:yfdf /x]sf ?vx? 5kfg ubf{ b'j} Jn]h Ps} lbzfdf x'g] u/L 5kfg ug{ ;lsg]
 5kfg u/]sf ?vx?sf] GPS Coordinate lng]
 5kfg /lhi6/ tof/ u/L /]s8{ /fVg]
 l8lehg jg sfof{non] !) k|lt;t ?vx?sf] 5kfg r]s ug]{
 5kfg ul/Psf ?vx?sf] d"Nof+sg ug]{, d"Nof+sg ubf{ cfpg] kl/df0f AAC eGbf jl9 ePdf jl9 ePsf] kl/df0f j/fj/sf ?vx?sf] 5kfg
/4 ug]{
d"Nof+sg
 Timber volume t height*form factor *0.66 For first class tree
 (πd2/4) *height* form factor *0.5 For second class tree
 Fuelwood (πd2/4) *height* form factor For third class tree + remaining of first and second class tree
¿vsf] u'0f:t/ 5'6ofpg] cfwf/x¿M
klxnf] bhf{ ! M;fDffGotof /fd|f] / ;f]emf] sf08 ePsf] ¿v . o:tf] sf08 ePsf] ¿vaf6 ^ lkm6 nDafOsf tLg jf ;f]eGbf a9L uf]lnof sf7 k|fKt
x'g ;S5 . bf];|f] bhf{ @ Ml7s}sf] sf08 ePsf] ¿v . o:tf] ¿vaf6 ^ lkm6 nDafOsf @ j6f ;Dd uf]lnof sf7 jf !) lkm6 ;Ddsf] ! uf]lnof k|fKt
x'g ;S5 . t];|f] bhf{ # M ;fDffGotof afËf]l6Ëf] sf08 ePsf] ¿v . ;f]emf] sf08 eP klg wf]b|f] jf ufF7f–u'F7L ePsfn] sf7sf] uf]lnof k|fKt ug{
g;lsg] / ;a} bfp/f dfq x'g]
s6fg ;+sng ;xdtL
 5kfg d"Nof+sg / r]shf+r eP kl5 ;f=j=cfGtl/s vkt dfq ug]{ xf] eg] ;j l8lehg jg sfof{non] ;xdtL lbg]

 cfGtl/s tyf Jofj;flos k|of]hgsf nflu lnnfd ljqmL ug{sf nflu l8lehg jg sfof{non] s6fg ;xdtL lbg] .
s6fg d'5fg
 5kfg d"Nof+sg ePsf ?vx? dfq s6fg ug'{kg]{ cGoyf jg P]g @)&^ jdf]lhd sf/jfxL x'g]
 ;fd'bflos jgn] cfkmg} vr{df pkef]Qmf kl/rfng u/L s6fg tyf ;+sng tyf 3f6ul4 ug'{kg]{, ;f]sf nflu lhNnf b//]6 jdf]lhdsf]
kfl/>lds lbg ;lsg]
 s6fg ubf{ 7'6fdf tNnf] 5kfg /xg] u/L ug'{kg]{
sf7, bfp/fsf] gfk k}dfO;
 uf]lnofsf] nDjfO gfkL ug]{
 uf]lnofsf] ljr efusf] jf]qmf l/Ë sf6]/ ;f] 7fp+df uf]nfO{ girth_gfkL ug]{ jf jf]qmf gePsf] uf]lnofsf] ljrdf gfk]/ ;f] 7fp+df
Ogfd]nn] lrGx nufpg]
 @ lkm6 nDjfO / !=% lkm6 uf]nfO ePsfx?nfO{ bfp/fdf /fVg] / bfp/fsf] r66f - @)'X %'X %') nufpg] .
 k|To]s uf]lnof sf7df 5kfg ?v gDj/, lu08f gDj/ -slt g+Dj/ ?vaf6 lg:s]sf] slt gDj/sf] uf]lnof xf]_ / uf]lnofsf] gfk ;fOh -
uf]nfO{ tyf nDjfO{ _ ;d]t ;j} :ki6;Fu b]lvg] u/L Ogfd]nn] n]Vg'kg]{ . h:t} M5/7, 68"X7', A -?v cyjf 5kfg g++ / uf]lnof g+=,
uf]nfO OGr X nDjfO{ lkm6, uf]lnofsf] u|]8_
9'jfgL / 3f6u4L
 s6fg If]qjf6 ;d"xn] cfkmg} vr{df sf7, bfp/f jgIf]q jflx/ 3f6u4L ug'{kg]{
 s6fg If]qjf6 3f6u4L ;Dd 9'jfgL ubf{ rnfgL k"lh{ ;lxt 9'jfgLsf] ;jf/L rfns jf jf]sL Nofpg] dfG5]nfO{ lbg' kg]{ / lghn]
3f6u4Ldf ;f] rnfgL jdf]lhdsf] k}bfjf/ j'emfpg' kg]{
 3f6u4Ldf /x]sf] lhDd]jf/ JolQmn] ;f] k}bfjf/ j'lem 3f6u4L /lhi6/df /]s8{ /fVg' kg]{ .
 3f6u2Ldf uf]lnof sf7 rfª (Pile) nufP/ /fVg' kg]{5 . rfª nufpbf nfdf] uf]lnof ;j} eGbf tn / 5f]6f] uf]lnof dfly x'g] u/L
qmdzM ldnfP/ /fVg' kg]{
 bfp/fsf] xsdf @) lkm6 ×% lkm6 × % lkm6sf] r§f jgfO{ r§f gDa/ Ogfd]nn] n]v]/ /fVg' kg]{,
 3f6u2Ldf cfPsf] ;Dk"0f{ sf7 / bfp/fsf] hft / ;fOh v'n]sf] nut 3f6u2L /lhi6/ v8f u/L /fVg' kg]{
 uf]lnof 9'jfgL x'g g;Sg] kxf8L tyf ljs6 If]qdf l8lehg jg sfof{nosf] cg'dltlnO{ xft]cf/fjf6 lr/fg u/L lr/fg 9'jfgL ug{ ;lsg]
 sf7 bfp/f rf]/L / cfunfuLjf6 jrfpg ;d"xn] x]/fn'sf] Joj:yf ug'kg]{
cfGtl/s vkt
 ;d"x ;b:ox?jf6 dfu ;+sng u/LP jdf]lhd lgDg k|of]hgsf nflu cfGtl/s vktsf nflu sfo{of]hgfn] tf]s]sf] kl/df0f / b//]6
jdf]lhd sf7, bfp/f pknJw u/fpg ;lsg]
 3/sfh M /fhZj b//]6 tyf ;+sng vr{ ;d]t hf]8L d"No lgwf{/0f
 k|fs[lts ljkTtL M /fhZjsf] !) k|lt;t ;Dd d"Nodf
 bfx;:sf/ M Go"gtdb/df bfp/f pknJw u/fpg]
 wfld{s sfo{ M plrt d"No lgwf{/0f u/L pknJw u/fpg]
 ljsf; lgdf{0f sfo{ M hg>dbfgdf x'g] ljsf; lgdf{0f sfo{df ;d"xdf clen]v /fvL ;d"xn] u/]sf] of]ubfgsf] kf/bzL{?kdf /]s8{ /xg]
u/L
 ;d"x ;b:ox?jf6 cfGtl/s vktsf nflu ljqmL ljt/0f ePsf] sf7 jfxo ljqmL ug{ gkfO{g]
Jofkfl/s k|of]hgsf nflu jfxo vkt
 ;d"x jflx/ ljqmLsf nflu 5'6ofOPsf] sf7, bfp/f dWojf6 lhNnf leqsf] cGo :yfgx? tyf l5d]sL lhNnfsf] dfu cfk"lt{ ug{sf nflu
sf7sf] @% k|lt;t / bfp/fsf] $) k|lt;t 5'6ofO lhNNff jg k}bfjf/ cfk"lt{ ;ldlt /x]sf lhNnfdf ;f] ;ldltnfO{ pknJw u/fpg]
 cfGtl/s vkt kl5 jf+sL /x]sf] sf7, bfp/f l5d]sL ;d"x, uf=kf= jf g=kf=sf] vktsf nflu plrt d"No lgwf{/0f u/L pknJw u/fpg]
;Sg]
 cfGtl/s vkt / l5d]sL ;d"xdf vkt gePsf] k}bfjf/ dfq jfxo Jofkfl/s k|of]hgsf nflu jfxo ljqmL ug{ ;lsg]
 jfxo ljqmLsf nflu ;DjlGwt ;j l8lehg jg sfof{nosf] l;kmfl/;df l8lehg jg sfof{nojf6 lnnfd ;xdtL lng' kg]{

 d"No lgwf{/0f ubf{ /fhZj b//]6, ;+sng vr{ ;d]t hf]8]/ lhNnf b//]6 tf]lsPsf] eP ;f] jdf]lhd / geP l8lehg jg sfof{no,
l6=l;=og=, lhNnf jg k}bfjf/ cfk"lt{ ;ldltn] ljqmL ug]{ u/]sf] b//]6 jdf]lhd ug'{ kg]{ .
lnnfd ljqmL
 sf7, bfp/f lnnfd ljqmL ubf{ cfly{s sfo{ljwL @)%% tyf lgodfjnL @)^$ jdf]lhd ug'{kg]{
 ? ! nfv ;Ddsf] k}bfjf/sf nflu !% lbg] / ;f] eGbf jl9sf] k}bfjf/sf nflu @! lbg] ;"rgf /fli6«o:t/sf] klqsfdf k|sfzg ug'{kg]{
 l8lehg jg sfof{no, dfnkf]t sfof{no, lh=lj=;=, lhNNff k|zf;g sfof{no, sf]if tyf n]vf lgoGqssf] sfof{no, ;DjlGwt ;d"x,
uf=kf=, ;j l8lehg sfof{nodf ;f] sf] ;"rgf k|sfzg
 sf7sf] sf/f]jf/ ug]{ p4]Zon] :yfoL n]vf gDj/ (PAN) lnPsf kmd{, sDkgL, pBf]u cyjf ;+3 ;+:yfsf] xsdf cfos/ / d"No
clej[l4 s/ (VAT) sf] btf{ k|df0f kq k|fKt u/]sf]n] jf]nkq bflvnf ug{ kfpg] .
 ;do leq / l/tk'j{s kg{ cfPsf] jf]nkq dWo clwstd /sd ;sf/ ug]{ jf]nkq ;d"xn] l:js[t ug]{
cf];f/ k;f/sf] cg'dtL
 sf7 bfp/f ;sf/stf{n] ;sf/ /sd ;DjlGwt ;d"xsf] vftfdf bflvnf ug]{ / sf7 tyf ;f] sf] ;+sng vr{ ;d]tsf] (VAT)
g]kfn ;/sf/sf] vftfdf hDdf ug]{
 ;fn / vo/sf] xsdf ;d"xn] ljqmL d"Nosf] !% k|lt;t /fhZjsf] ?kdf g]kfn ;/sf/sf] vftfdf hDdf ug]{
 ;f] kZrft lhNnf leq tyf jflx/ lgsfzLsf nflu l8lehg jg sfof{non] ;xdtL lbg] / ;f] sf] cfwf/df ;d"xn] lgsfzL
Ohfhtkq -5f]8k'lh{_ lbg]
 sf7, bfp/f jf]Sg] ;jf/L ;fwgdf nf]8 u/]kl5 slDtdf /]Gh/:t/n] l;n tyf b/lk7 ug'{ kg]{
 uGtJosf] cgnf]8 ug]{ If]qdf k|j]z ug'{ k"j{ clGtd r]skf]i6df lg/LIf0f / b/lk7 ul/g]

UNIT 8: TIMBER SECTOR POLICY ANALYSIS (5)
8.1. National forest policy review: acts, policies, and plans (provision, opportunities,
policy duplication, contradictions)
राष्ट्रिय वन नीति
nIo / p2]Zox?
nIo
jg, ;+/lIft If]q, hnfwf/, h}ljs ljljwtf, jGohGt' / jg:kltsf] lbuf] / ;xeflutfd"ns Joj:yfkgaf6 jghGo
j:t' tyf ;]jfsf] pTkfbg Pj+ d"No clej[l4 / ltgsf] Gofof]lrt ljt/0f .
p2]Zox?M
!= jg If]qsf] pTkfbsTj, pTkfbg / jftfj/0fLo ;]jfdf clea[l4 ug]{ .
@= jg k}bfjf/df cfTdlge{/ eO{ d"No clej[l4 ;lxt lgof{t k|j4{g ug]{ .
#= ;+/lIft If]q, l;d;f/ If]q tyf jg Joj:yfkg k2ltx?af6 ko{6g k|j4{gdf pNn]Vo of]ubfg k'¥ofpg] .
$= jg, jg:klt, jGohGt' tyf h}ljs ljljwtfsf] ;+/If0f, k'g:yf{kgf / lbuf] pkof]u ug]{ .
%= jg If]qsf] ;+/If0f / ;f] sf] ax'cfoflds pkof]u ug]{ .
^= kmnkm"n nufotsf s[lif jgsf] ljsf; / ;+/If0f u/L jg If]qnfO{ cfly{s pkfh{gsf] dfWodsf] ?kdf ljsf; ug]{ .
&= xfnsf] jg If]qnfO{ 36g glbO{ ljleGg k|sf/af6 Iflt ePsf jgsf] k'g/:yfkgf ug]{ .
*= hnfwf/ If]qx?sf] PsLs[t Joj:yfkgaf6 hn / e"ldsf] ;+/If0f ug]{ .
(= sfa{g pT;h{g Go'gLs/0f ug]{ g]kfnsf] ;du| nIodf jg If]qaf6 of]ubfg k'¥ofpg] .
!)= jg If]qsf] zf;sLo ;'wf/ ub}{ k|fKt nfesf] Gofof]lrt ljt/0f ug]{ .
!!= jg If]qsf] cWoog, cg';Gwfg, z}lIfs u'0f:t/ tyf Ifdtf clea[l4 ug]{ .
gLltx?
 jgsf] e"–:jfldTj ;+3 ;/sf/df
 jg >f]tsf] lbuf], ;xeflutfd"ns / pQ/bfoL Joj:yfkg
 xl/t pBd ljsf; / /fli6«o ;d[l4df of]ubfg
 h}ljs ljljwtf ;+/If0f
 hnfwf/ ;+/If0f ub}{, jftfj/0fLo ;]jf / /]8 Kn;sf] k|jw{g
 /fli6«o jg aflx/sf jg Joj:yfkg -gLhL jg, s[ifLjg, zx/L jg_
 cg';Gwfg / Ifdtf ljsf;
 ;fdflhs ;'/Iff, ;dfj]zLs/0f / ;'zf;g

/fli6«o jg gLlt sfof{Gjogdf ;+3, k|b]z / :yfgLo txsf] e"ldsf
!= jg If]qsf sfo{qmdx? sfof{Gjog ubf{ ;+3, k|b]z tyf :yfgLo txsf] ;dGjoaf6 ul/g]5 .
@= ;+3n] jg If]qsf] nflu /fli6«o:t/sf] gLlt, sfg"g, dfkb08, sfof{Gjog / lgodgsf ljifox? lgwf{/0f ug]{5 .
#= ;+3n] ljleGg txsf ;/sf/x?aLr jg Joj:yfkg k4lt sfof{Gjogsf nflu gLltut ;fdGho:tfsf nflu
cfjZos ;xhLs/0f ug]{5 .
$= ;+3n] /fli6«o tyf cGt/f{li6«o dfkb08 cg'?ksf sfo{qmd tyf kl/of]hgfx? th{"df u/L txut ?kdf
sfof{Gjogsf] k|f?k tof/ ug]{5 .
%= k|b]zn] ;+3 tyf :yfgLo tx;Fu ;dGjo u/L cfˆgf] k|b]zleqsf] /fli6«o jg Joj:yfkgsf nflu e"ldsf lgjf{x
ug]{5g .
^= :yfgLo txn] ;+3 tyf k|b]z;Fu ;dGjo u/L cfˆgf] ;Ldfleqsf ;d'bfodf cfwfl/t jg, gLlh jg, s[lif jg
tyf jgdf cfwfl/t pBf]ux? ;~rfng tyf Joj:yfkgsf nflu e"ldsf lgjf{x ug]{5g .
jg P]g @)&^

Contradictions
 g]kfnsf] ;+ljwfgn] jgsf] clwsf/nfO ;femf ;'rL -;+3, k|b]z, :yfgLo tx_ df /fv]sf] 5 h;n] ubf{ cGof}ntf
/x]sf] .
 jg P]g @)&^ n] jg ;|f]tsf] Joj:yfkgsf] lhDdf l8lehg jg sfof{nonfO lbG5 . :yfgLo tx ;~rfng
P]gn] :yfgLo txsf] k|fs[lts ;|f]tsf] Joj:yfkg / pkof]usf] lhDdf :yfgLo txnfO lbPsf] 5 . -sf7,
bfp/f, 9'Ëf, lu6L, jfn'jf_
 vfgL P]gn] jgIf]q leqsf] vfgL cGj]if0f tyf pTvggsf] l:js[tL lbg] clwsf/ vfgL ljefunfO lbPsf] 5 t/
jg P]gn] g]kfn ;/sf/nfO

 b]zsf k'jf{wf/ lgdf{0fsf sfo{qmdx? jgIf]q leq kb{5g h:t} jf6f], ljB't nfOg . t/ jg P]gn] g]kfn
;/sf/sf] k'j{ l:js[lt ljgf /f]s nufp5 .
8.3. National policy review on timber and allied sector in Nepal (forest, industrial,
trade, export import, labor, etc.)
Policies governing Tree Harvesting
Community Forest Inventory Guideline, 2063
Inventory based FMP. Harvesting as the % of annual increment of growing stock
Forest product collection, sale and distribution guideline 2073
(Effective for Government managed forest, protected forest, Block forest and collaborative forest)
 Prior to felling: “Chhapan” (छपान) to be done for every tree to be felled,
 Bledges of 6inch*6inch at two points. One at tree bottom 6 inch above the ground and
next at the dbh 4.5ft at opposite direction
 Evaluation of Chhapan” (छपान) : Minimum 25% by DFO and 10% by RFD
 For Katan Muchan(कटान मुछान: Either directly from DFOs by tender system or by Amanat
(अमानत). All harvesting works should be completed within Jestha
 After felling: Skidding logs to depot needs provision of “Ramana Purji (रमाना पुर्जी) and
Passing tancha (पलसंग टांचा) on both side of each log
 Extraction out from forest: Required permit (छोडपुर्जी)
Provision for private forest according to Forest act 2076

Scientific forest management Guideline, 2071
 Dividing forest area into compartment and delineation of area to be felled as per the
silvicultural system
 In clear felling system: Annual coupe to be felled should be made equal to the number of
rotation of crop and each coupe is harvested and regenerated annually.
 In shelter wood system: Periodic block delineated dividing rotation by regeneration period
and treating each block throughout the regeneration period.
 In selection system: Maintaining a felling cycle of 5-10 years and harvesting of trees above the
exploitable diameter done on each felling area annually.
 GOOD LUCK 

Forest Products Utilization

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