This presentation discusses IHME's research in public financing of health in developing countries, including study design, findings, study limitations, and recommendations for governments and future research.
For more information please visit www.healthmetricsandevaluation.org
This presentation discusses IHME's research in public financing of health in developing countries, including study design, findings, study limitations, and recommendations for governments and future research.
For more information please visit www.healthmetricsandevaluation.org
Health financing within the overall health systemHFG Project
Presented during Day One of the 2016 Nigeria Health Care Financing Training Workshop. Presented by Prof. Tanimola Akande and Dr. Francis Ukwuije. More: https://www.hfgproject.org/hcf-training-nigeria
“Follow the money” in order to better understand the framework for global health governance: this presentation by Dr. Tim Mackey employs IHME-coordinated research while teaching the evolution of global health financing.
Decentralizing Health Insurance in Nigeria: Legal Framework for State Health ...HFG Project
Presented during Day Three of the 2016 Nigeria Health Care Financing Training Workshop. Presented by Dr. Jonathan Eke. More: https://www.hfgproject.org/hcf-training-nigeria
Single Payer Systems: Equity in Access to Caresoder145
Presentation by Lynn Blewett at "The True Workings of Single Payer Systems: Lessons or Warnings for U.S. Reform' conference sponsored by the Journal of Health Politics Policy and Law, May 10 2008.
Research done while in PwC Mexico. A short version was included as part of a PwC publication "Future of Pacific Alliance", that was presented at the presidental summit in Chile on July 2016.
Relationship Between Fiscal Decentralization and Health Care Financing in Uas...Triple A Research Journal
ABSTRACT
This study examined the relationship between fiscal decentralization and health care financing in Uasin Gishu County Kenya, the researcher sought to answer the following research questions; To what extend does the adequacy of decentralized funds influence health care financing in Uasin Gishu County Kenya? How effective was health management team in influencing health care financing in Uasin Gishu County Kenya? How does budgeting and allocation of decentralized funds affect health care financing in Uasin Gishu County Kenya? Lastly, what were the effects of decentralized fund expenditure on health care financing in Uasin Gishu County Kenya? The researcher used ex-post facto research design. Both stratified sampling and random sampling technique was used to select the respondents. The target population for the study was 98 employees working in health department with a sample size of 79 respondents whom comprised of permanent health workers working in the major hospitals in the county. Questionnaires were employed as the major data collection tools. Data were analysed through descriptive statistics and hypothesis is tested by use of chi square. The analysis of the data was done with Statistical package for social science (SPSS) version 20 and the data was presented though use of graphs and tables for clear understanding of the results. The findings from the study therefore rejected the null hypotheses and concluded that there exists statistically significant relationship between adequacy of decentralized funds, management effectiveness and budgetary mechanism and the level of health care financing. This means that whenever the health management team are effective in managing the decentralized funds well, there is an increase in the level of health care financing.
Keywords: Fiscal Decentralization and Healthcare financing
Community Health Financing as a Pathway to Universal Health Coverage: Synthes...HFG Project
Community-based health insurance (CBHI) emerged in West Africa the 1990s as a grassroots response among rural and poor communities to fees charged by private and public clinics and hospitals. Three countries – Ghana, Senegal, and Ethiopia – have leveraged CBHI in different ways to expand publicly funded coverage to the informal sector in rural and urban settings. This paper synthesizes the experiences from these three countries to illustrate the role that CBHI can play in UHC.
Health financing within the overall health systemHFG Project
Presented during Day One of the 2016 Nigeria Health Care Financing Training Workshop. Presented by Prof. Tanimola Akande and Dr. Francis Ukwuije. More: https://www.hfgproject.org/hcf-training-nigeria
“Follow the money” in order to better understand the framework for global health governance: this presentation by Dr. Tim Mackey employs IHME-coordinated research while teaching the evolution of global health financing.
Decentralizing Health Insurance in Nigeria: Legal Framework for State Health ...HFG Project
Presented during Day Three of the 2016 Nigeria Health Care Financing Training Workshop. Presented by Dr. Jonathan Eke. More: https://www.hfgproject.org/hcf-training-nigeria
Single Payer Systems: Equity in Access to Caresoder145
Presentation by Lynn Blewett at "The True Workings of Single Payer Systems: Lessons or Warnings for U.S. Reform' conference sponsored by the Journal of Health Politics Policy and Law, May 10 2008.
Research done while in PwC Mexico. A short version was included as part of a PwC publication "Future of Pacific Alliance", that was presented at the presidental summit in Chile on July 2016.
Relationship Between Fiscal Decentralization and Health Care Financing in Uas...Triple A Research Journal
ABSTRACT
This study examined the relationship between fiscal decentralization and health care financing in Uasin Gishu County Kenya, the researcher sought to answer the following research questions; To what extend does the adequacy of decentralized funds influence health care financing in Uasin Gishu County Kenya? How effective was health management team in influencing health care financing in Uasin Gishu County Kenya? How does budgeting and allocation of decentralized funds affect health care financing in Uasin Gishu County Kenya? Lastly, what were the effects of decentralized fund expenditure on health care financing in Uasin Gishu County Kenya? The researcher used ex-post facto research design. Both stratified sampling and random sampling technique was used to select the respondents. The target population for the study was 98 employees working in health department with a sample size of 79 respondents whom comprised of permanent health workers working in the major hospitals in the county. Questionnaires were employed as the major data collection tools. Data were analysed through descriptive statistics and hypothesis is tested by use of chi square. The analysis of the data was done with Statistical package for social science (SPSS) version 20 and the data was presented though use of graphs and tables for clear understanding of the results. The findings from the study therefore rejected the null hypotheses and concluded that there exists statistically significant relationship between adequacy of decentralized funds, management effectiveness and budgetary mechanism and the level of health care financing. This means that whenever the health management team are effective in managing the decentralized funds well, there is an increase in the level of health care financing.
Keywords: Fiscal Decentralization and Healthcare financing
Community Health Financing as a Pathway to Universal Health Coverage: Synthes...HFG Project
Community-based health insurance (CBHI) emerged in West Africa the 1990s as a grassroots response among rural and poor communities to fees charged by private and public clinics and hospitals. Three countries – Ghana, Senegal, and Ethiopia – have leveraged CBHI in different ways to expand publicly funded coverage to the informal sector in rural and urban settings. This paper synthesizes the experiences from these three countries to illustrate the role that CBHI can play in UHC.
The health of a people to a very large extent determines their productivity and wealth. The 2010
Population and Housing Census indicates that a significant proportion of the Bunkpurugu-Yunyoo District in
Ghana (over 75%) are living below the poverty line of GH¢228.00 per annum (approximately US $120 per
annum). It then implies that approximately the same proportion or even a little above that might not be able to
access health care under the ‘cash and carry’ system. Inability to access health care will lead to poor health
status of the residents and thus lower their productivity.
This is a presentation , which broadly explains the different strategies of Health Financing, as described and developed by World Health Organisation. Apart from the different strategies, this ppt also includes the report of the National Health Accounts (NHA), GOI, which helps in getting a better understanding of the current scenario, when we may compare what we have to reach upto, as per the new National Health Policy 2017 !!!
Exploring the Potential Role Of Community Health Insurance Schemes In A Natio...David Lambert Tumwesigye
Exploring the Potential Role Of Community Health Insurance Schemes In A National Health Insurance Scheme-Presented to CHI practitioners of the Uganda Community Based Health Financing Association
Policy Brief: What Steps Are Countries Taking To Implement Pro-Poor Universal...HFG Project
Universal health coverage (UHC)—ensuring that everyone has access to quality, affordable health services when needed—can be a vehicle for improved equity, health, financial well-being, and economic development. In its 2013 report, Global Health 2035: A World Converging within a Generation, the Commission on Investing in Health made the case that pro-poor pathways towards UHC, which target the poor from the outset, are the most efficient way to achieve both improved health outcomes and increased financial protection (FP). Countries worldwide are now embarking on health system changes to move closer to achieving UHC, often with a clear pro-poor intent.
Much has been written about what steps countries have taken and are currently taking to: (1) set and expand guaranteed services, (2) develop health financing systems to fund guaranteed services and ensure FP, (3) ensure high-quality service availability and delivery, (4) improve governance and management of the health sector, and (5) strengthen other aspects of health systems to move closer to UHC. As background for a meeting on UHC implementation, held at the Rockefeller Foundation’s Bellagio Center, Italy, from 7–9 July 2015, we reviewed this body of literature, and conducted interviews with global UHC implementers and researchers. In this short policy brief, we synthesize the key messages from the literature and interviews.
Community-based health financing: CARE India's experience in the maternal an...Siddharth Agarwal
Abstract
In a rural Indian population beset with inadequate health access to people owing to socio-cultural and economic factors, CARE India under the Maternal andInfant Survival Project encouraged village women to form Community Based Oragnisations (CBOs) and collectively save funds for health.
15 months of implementation showed that CBOs were formed in 345 of 447 project villages and health funds were operational in 203. 292 persons benefited from health funds through loans for treatment. 56% loans being repaid within the grace/low interest period.
The experience shows that village women when appropriately encouraged are capable of evolving rules and managing health funds. The process empowers village women (through access to resources and information and the strength of social capital) to take decisions and act to improve their well being.
Health funds have been have proved to be useful in addressing obstetric complications, infant illnesses and have also led to additional initiatives (social marketing of disposable delivery kits, village drug bank and plugging gaps in government supplies), that improve health care.
English 215 Research and WritingFACTORS INFLUENCING.docxYASHU40
English 215: Research and Writing
FACTORS INFLUENCING QUALITY OF HEALTHCARE SERVICES
Part 2
Charles H. Smith
Dr. Saraswathi
30 May2015
Health care delivery to patients should be the best and of high quality. Health centers should ensure they work to ensure their clients gets maximum benefits from the services they are offering. Health services in the country have however been not to the best of their game with several factors affecting their efficiency. Most clients always complain of poor outcomes once they visit government health care facilities. The core of the establishment is poor and not able to help offer the best services the client expects. This is due to small amounts of funds allocated to health care sector by the government comparing to the needs of the citizens of the country (World Health Organization, 2003). This research paper will in deep length explain the problems that health care establishments faces in an effort to provide the best health care services to their clients. The stakeholders of healthcare sector, who are my audience, should ensure they serve their part effectively to ensure a smooth service delivery to their clients under all aspects. The technological, political and socioeconomic factors that pose these problems needs to be addressed and solutions provided to improve the health of the clients.
Healthcare sectors has faced all of these problems for over several centuries now. Technological advancement is continuous and the government is ought to keep up with the current advancement as it affects patient delivery. Infrastructure in hospitals should be well in cooperated with technology (Kaplan, Damuk, Lynch, Cohen, 1996). Government policies and regulations on healthcare sector affect service delivery. It has not been able to provide the best solution in this sector thus affecting its development. Socioeconomic factors are present in every society and have always been affecting delivery of healthcare services to members of the society will the poor individuals been the most affected by this aspect. These problems and how they affect the delivery of healthcare services in hospitals are explained in this research paper in depth.
Differences in socioeconomic status among the clients affect their service delivery in a health care establishment. This affects every society since there is always a difference in social and economic status among the members of a particular society (Cassel .J, 1974). The effects of this factor are very severe in an overpopulated community which is multicultural and facing unequal economic growth. The factors that pose the problems in health care delivery under this aspect and their effects are very harming and it’s crucial for the government to take precautionary measures to prevent such problems. Low-income earners will not be able to access the best health care services as these services require the client to pay a huge sum of money which this in ...
Universal Health Coverage and Health Insurance - IndiaDr Chetan C P
Presentation is a case about cutting the risk fragmentation and having a universal pool for Health Insurance as one of the tools for achieving UHC in India.
Deep Leg Vein Thrombosis (DVT): Meaning, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, and Mor...The Lifesciences Magazine
Deep Leg Vein Thrombosis occurs when a blood clot forms in one or more of the deep veins in the legs. These clots can impede blood flow, leading to severe complications.
Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V - ROLE OF PEADIATRIC NURSE.pdfSachin Sharma
Pediatric nurses play a vital role in the health and well-being of children. Their responsibilities are wide-ranging, and their objectives can be categorized into several key areas:
1. Direct Patient Care:
Objective: Provide comprehensive and compassionate care to infants, children, and adolescents in various healthcare settings (hospitals, clinics, etc.).
This includes tasks like:
Monitoring vital signs and physical condition.
Administering medications and treatments.
Performing procedures as directed by doctors.
Assisting with daily living activities (bathing, feeding).
Providing emotional support and pain management.
2. Health Promotion and Education:
Objective: Promote healthy behaviors and educate children, families, and communities about preventive healthcare.
This includes tasks like:
Administering vaccinations.
Providing education on nutrition, hygiene, and development.
Offering breastfeeding and childbirth support.
Counseling families on safety and injury prevention.
3. Collaboration and Advocacy:
Objective: Collaborate effectively with doctors, social workers, therapists, and other healthcare professionals to ensure coordinated care for children.
Objective: Advocate for the rights and best interests of their patients, especially when children cannot speak for themselves.
This includes tasks like:
Communicating effectively with healthcare teams.
Identifying and addressing potential risks to child welfare.
Educating families about their child's condition and treatment options.
4. Professional Development and Research:
Objective: Stay up-to-date on the latest advancements in pediatric healthcare through continuing education and research.
Objective: Contribute to improving the quality of care for children by participating in research initiatives.
This includes tasks like:
Attending workshops and conferences on pediatric nursing.
Participating in clinical trials related to child health.
Implementing evidence-based practices into their daily routines.
By fulfilling these objectives, pediatric nurses play a crucial role in ensuring the optimal health and well-being of children throughout all stages of their development.
Telehealth Psychology Building Trust with Clients.pptxThe Harvest Clinic
Telehealth psychology is a digital approach that offers psychological services and mental health care to clients remotely, using technologies like video conferencing, phone calls, text messaging, and mobile apps for communication.
India Clinical Trials Market: Industry Size and Growth Trends [2030] Analyzed...Kumar Satyam
According to TechSci Research report, "India Clinical Trials Market- By Region, Competition, Forecast & Opportunities, 2030F," the India Clinical Trials Market was valued at USD 2.05 billion in 2024 and is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.64% through 2030. The market is driven by a variety of factors, making India an attractive destination for pharmaceutical companies and researchers. India's vast and diverse patient population, cost-effective operational environment, and a large pool of skilled medical professionals contribute significantly to the market's growth. Additionally, increasing government support in streamlining regulations and the growing prevalence of lifestyle diseases further propel the clinical trials market.
Growing Prevalence of Lifestyle Diseases
The rising incidence of lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer is a major trend driving the clinical trials market in India. These conditions necessitate the development and testing of new treatment methods, creating a robust demand for clinical trials. The increasing burden of these diseases highlights the need for innovative therapies and underscores the importance of India as a key player in global clinical research.
Empowering ACOs: Leveraging Quality Management Tools for MIPS and BeyondHealth Catalyst
Join us as we delve into the crucial realm of quality reporting for MSSP (Medicare Shared Savings Program) Accountable Care Organizations (ACOs).
In this session, we will explore how a robust quality management solution can empower your organization to meet regulatory requirements and improve processes for MIPS reporting and internal quality programs. Learn how our MeasureAble application enables compliance and fosters continuous improvement.
Navigating Challenges: Mental Health, Legislation, and the Prison System in B...Guillermo Rivera
This conference will delve into the intricate intersections between mental health, legal frameworks, and the prison system in Bolivia. It aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current challenges faced by mental health professionals working within the legislative and correctional landscapes. Topics of discussion will include the prevalence and impact of mental health issues among the incarcerated population, the effectiveness of existing mental health policies and legislation, and potential reforms to enhance the mental health support system within prisons.
How many patients does case series should have In comparison to case reports.pdfpubrica101
Pubrica’s team of researchers and writers create scientific and medical research articles, which may be important resources for authors and practitioners. Pubrica medical writers assist you in creating and revising the introduction by alerting the reader to gaps in the chosen study subject. Our professionals understand the order in which the hypothesis topic is followed by the broad subject, the issue, and the backdrop.
https://pubrica.com/academy/case-study-or-series/how-many-patients-does-case-series-should-have-in-comparison-to-case-reports/
Health Education on prevention of hypertensionRadhika kulvi
Hypertension is a chronic condition of concern due to its role in the causation of coronary heart diseases. Hypertension is a worldwide epidemic and important risk factor for coronary artery disease, stroke and renal diseases. Blood pressure is the force exerted by the blood against the walls of the blood vessels and is sufficient to maintain tissue perfusion during activity and rest. Hypertension is sustained elevation of BP. In adults, HTN exists when systolic blood pressure is equal to or greater than 140mmHg or diastolic BP is equal to or greater than 90mmHg. The
The dimensions of healthcare quality refer to various attributes or aspects that define the standard of healthcare services. These dimensions are used to evaluate, measure, and improve the quality of care provided to patients. A comprehensive understanding of these dimensions ensures that healthcare systems can address various aspects of patient care effectively and holistically. Dimensions of Healthcare Quality and Performance of care include the following; Appropriateness, Availability, Competence, Continuity, Effectiveness, Efficiency, Efficacy, Prevention, Respect and Care, Safety as well as Timeliness.
Global launch of the Healthy Ageing and Prevention Index 2nd wave – alongside...ILC- UK
The Healthy Ageing and Prevention Index is an online tool created by ILC that ranks countries on six metrics including, life span, health span, work span, income, environmental performance, and happiness. The Index helps us understand how well countries have adapted to longevity and inform decision makers on what must be done to maximise the economic benefits that comes with living well for longer.
Alongside the 77th World Health Assembly in Geneva on 28 May 2024, we launched the second version of our Index, allowing us to track progress and give new insights into what needs to be done to keep populations healthier for longer.
The speakers included:
Professor Orazio Schillaci, Minister of Health, Italy
Dr Hans Groth, Chairman of the Board, World Demographic & Ageing Forum
Professor Ilona Kickbusch, Founder and Chair, Global Health Centre, Geneva Graduate Institute and co-chair, World Health Summit Council
Dr Natasha Azzopardi Muscat, Director, Country Health Policies and Systems Division, World Health Organisation EURO
Dr Marta Lomazzi, Executive Manager, World Federation of Public Health Associations
Dr Shyam Bishen, Head, Centre for Health and Healthcare and Member of the Executive Committee, World Economic Forum
Dr Karin Tegmark Wisell, Director General, Public Health Agency of Sweden
1. Michael Burinyuy Ayenika
Email:mayenika@gmail.com
Final Assignment
A proposed financing solution to a development problem you are aware of in your professional
or community context
Problem Area:
Primary Health Care Financing for Inclusive Policy reforms in Cameroon
Section 1-Problem Diagnosis
1.1. Introduction
Healthcare financing reforms has for the past decades been a common
place across the spectrum of high to low income countries. The post
independent health financing reform (The Bamako Initiative, adopted in
1988) in Sub Sahara Africa (SSA) requires individuals to pay for health
services out of their pockets (OOP) as a cost recovery strategy. This method of
health care financing is still disputable among policy makers (Daniel and
Valéry, 2014) as it has lead to inequality among the rich and the poor to access
health care services. The burden of such a policy lies on the poor or under
privileged household (Oluyele et al, 2013).
Household health financing in Cameroon is mostly done through out-of
pocket payment. Out-of-pocket payments for health services have cause
households to incur catastrophic expenditures (catastrophic when a
household must reduce its basic expenditure over a period of time to cope
with health cost) (Ke et al, 2003), which in turn push them into poverty. The
need to pay out-of pocket also mean that households do not seek care when
they need it. According to a study by Adam Leive and Xu Ke in 2008, the
system of financing health expenditure in Africa is too weak to protect
households against catastrophic expenses. The borrowing or selling assets to
finance health care is a common practice. The proportion of households who
have paid their health spending by borrowing or selling assets ranged from
23% in Zambia to 68% in Burkina Faso and so on.
Health system financing in Cameroon is carried out by both the public and
the private sectors. The public financing mechanism involves Social Health
2. Insurance (SHI), and Taxes (direct, indirect, general and earmarked). On the
other hand, apart from user charges, private health is finance by Community
Based Health Insurance (CBHI), Private Health Insurance (PHI), Mutual Health
Organizations (MHO) and Medical Saving Account (MSAs) (Nouria, n.d).
1.2-Socio-economic context
The economic crisis of the 1980 years drove Cameroon into recession.
Accentuated by the 60% decrease in salaries of civil servants in 1993 and the
devaluation of the CFA franc in 1994, this crisis has significantly changed the
structure of consumption and access to care. Thus, the decline in households’
financial capacity was accompanied by a decline in the state budget devoted to
health. The share of health expenditure in the household budget increased
from 4% in 1984 to 6% in 1996 and 7.2% in 2001. Between 1995 and 1996,
total health expenditure was 250 billion CFA francs, 72% financed by
households, 22% by the state and 6% partners (Commeyras et al., 2005).
In 1982, Cameroon adopted and implemented the primary health care
(health for all by the year 2000) to provide free care. In 1993, the country
adopted the Bamako Initiative through policy reorientation of primary health
care, through: the recovery of costs for care and medications, community
participation, and the organization of health districts (Sieleunou et al., 2010).
In addition, Cameroon has benefited from innovative financing of health after
numerous international initiatives aimed at achieving the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) by 2015. The Health Sector Wide Approach
(SWAP), adopted in 2010, emerges as a key instrument for mobilizing and
optimizing the use of resources for the implementation of the Health Sector
Strategy. Despite these measures, the “Average Propensity of Total Medical
Consumption” of households is high in Cameroon, where 51% of the
population lives on less than two dollars a day.
1.3-Statement of the problem
Since independence in 1960 a series of health policy reform have been out
carried by African countries to make health services more available and
accessible to the population. These reforms mostly concerned health systems
(organization, provision of services, resource allocation, financing, and so on).
In 1988 the international development community uniformly accepted the
introduction of user’s fee as a cost recovery strategy. The aim of such a policy
3. was to raise revenue for health system, reduce frivolous demand, and cost
containment. After implementation, it has been proven that this policy has
lead to inequality (accessed to health care), limited revenue raised, constrains
necessary demand (Frivolous demand not an issue in poor contexts), very
regressive (push people into poverty or debt), exemption mechanisms do not
work and discourage early care seeking
In 2002, a survey carried out by the Ministry of Public Health (MoH) shows
that 62% of Cameroonian lack access to quality health care and medications
due to lack of adequate finance. This was more peculiar among the rural
masses. The “Caisse Nationale de la Prévoyance Sociale” (CNPS), a public
social security organization covers only private and public sector formal
workers. On the other hand private social insurances subscription rates are
too high; this has resulted to a low enrolment rate of about 3 to 4% of the
population of Cameroonians (Fondo and Ibrahim, 2011). In a country where a
majority of the population lives less than two dollars a day, 32% of
households spend less than half of their income on health, while 16% of
households spend more than half of their income and 52% spend more than
the total income. This corresponds to a weight of 68% in health care spending.
Due to the high cost of quality health care, a large portion of the population
seems to relay on cheap counterfeited medication (road-side drugs) and
traditional healers for treatment resulting to large number of deaths.
The study will base at proposing a sustainable health care financing method
in Cameroon.
Literature review
2.1-The Notion of Key Concepts:
According WHO (2015), health policy refers to decisions, plans, and
actions that are undertaken to achieve specific health care goals within a
society. An explicit health policy can achieve several things: it defines a vision
for the future which in turn helps to establish targets and points of reference
for the short and medium term. It outlines priorities and the expected roles of
different groups; and it builds consensus and informs people. The aim of
health financing policy is to;
- promoting universal protection against financial risk;
-promoting a more equitable distribution of the burden of funding the system
(WHO, 2008). Equity-Efficiency Tradeoff refers to an economic situation in
which there is a perceived tradeoff between the equity and efficiency of a
4. given economy. This tradeoff is commonly viewed within the context of the
production possibility frontier, where any additional gains in production
efficiency must be offset by a reduction in the economy's equity (Arthur,
1975).
In the context of limited resources, the equity versus efficiency trade-off is a
major issue when prioritizing health care. There is no consensus on how to
balance equity with efficiency within the national health system (NHS),
leading Sassi and colleagues (2001) to argue that the trade-off has led to
inconsistent judgments in the development of health policy and to appeal for
guidance from the NHS when equity and efficiency conflict. On the other hand,
efficiency refers to the allocation of limited economic resources to meet the
healthcare needs of a society. It can be;
1-Technical efficiency: Achieving a specified health gain with the minimum
number of inputs.
2-Economic efficiency: Achieving a specified health gain at the least cost.
3-Allocative efficiency: Maximizing the health gain from a specified level of
resources (sometimes called social or Pareto efficiency). While Equity, is the
fair distribution of benefits across the population. It is important to note that
equity differs from equality. Equality is the equal distribution of benefits
across the population, and can be measured objectively. In the utilitarian
theory of social justice, equity = equality. This is called end state equity a
situation where there is an equal distribution of benefits. In the egalitarian
5. theory of social justice, equity is achieved when people have the same
opportunities to obtain benefits even if the outcomes are unequal. This is
called process equity. Equity may apply to public health in several ways. For
example:
Equal health outcomes.
Equal access to care for patients with equal need.
Equal use of health care for equal need.
Equal expenditure/resources of care for equal need.
Equal costs (to the payer) for equal need.
There are two principles of equity in providing health care:
Horizontal equity: The equal treatment of individuals or groups who share
similar circumstances.
Vertical equity: Individuals with different (or unequal) health should be
treated differently (or unequally) in proportion to morally relevant factors.
Morally relevant factors include ability to benefit, autonomy, and desert.
Morally irrelevant factors include age, sex, socio-economic status, income,
education, ethnicity, disability, location, nationality. Achieving horizontal or
vertical equity may involve re-organization of services and redistribution of
resources (PHAST, 2011).
Health Expenditures: As defined by the World Bank, the total health
expenditure is the sum of expenditures on public and private health. It covers
the provision of health services (preventive and curative), family planning
activities, related to nutrition and reserved for emergency health assistance
but excludes the provision of water services and hygiene. Health expenditure,
recorded in the accounts of health, covering different types of services:
hospital charges, costs “outpatient” drug spending, the expenditure approach,
prostheses and small equipment medical, medical transportation costs
(IRDES, 2013). In this study, the health expenditure of households include
expenses related to medical care and goods (hospital care, outpatient care,
medical transportation and medical goods), as well as preventive medicine.
Health financing; According to WHO, health financing is the way financial
resources are generated, allocated and used in health systems. The following
issues relating to health financing, should be asked: how and from what
sources raise sufficient funds for health? How to overcome financial barriers
6. that exclude many poor accesses to health services? How to offer a range of
services of fair and effective health?
Household income: In economics, the primary income (primary income) of
household income that households derive from their contribution to economic
activity either directly (income from employment or self-employment) or
indirectly (income furniture placement or real estate). It does not include
social security benefits - this is income before redistribution. In national
accounts, the primary household income includes income directly or
indirectly related to household participation in the production process
(INSEE, 2013). In our study, the income mentioned here is imputed income to
the main activity of household members.
Average propensity of the total medical consumption: The average
propensity of medical consumption is the share of income spent on medical
consumption. The total medical consumption includes the consumption of
medical care and goods (CSBMs), as well as preventive medicine. It is hospital
care, outpatient care, medical transportation and medical goods.
2.2-General information on health financing in Africa
The key issue that arises in terms of health care spending is not how to
reduce but rather how we choose to finance (issue of receipts) and optimized
(question of the organization), with the goal of an inclusive health fair system.
So, thinking about the financial aspects of expenditure and revenue of the
health system cannot be achieved without addressing the problem of the
organization of this system. Indeed, whether it is able to bring new resources
to the system or to consider how spending facing the community versus
individual, any direction that is acceptable only if the financial effort is fair
and optimized what it will be used. However, three fundamental
developments appear to maintain”upstream” the dynamism of the expense.
These are: (i) changes in health (epidemiology and aging) that shape the
needs and demand for health care, (ii) the standard of living through the rise
in demand for health care driven by a higher income, and (iii) the progress of
medical knowledge (technical progress), allowing both to better diagnose
diseases and better treatment (Albouy et al, 2009.). Thus, knowledge of the
sheer scale of health spending by households is an avenue that should be
explored, given the importance of private health expenditure in development
planning. African leaders pledged at the Abuja conference in 2001, to mobilize
more financial resources for the achievement of the Millennium Development
7. Goals (MDGs) by allocating at least 15% of their national budgets to the sector
health, seem to have difficulty meeting their commitments, because of
weakness and fragmentation of health systems. These commitments were
renewed in Gaborone, Botswana in 2005 and in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
in 2006. Indeed, donor funding is still a large part of public health spending on
the continent. Thus, in some countries, 50% or more of their budgets come
from the private or foreign aid, according to the 2013 WHO report on global
health statistics. In nearly half of the African countries, the private health
financing is equal to or exceeds largely public funding, up more than 70% in
some states such as: Cameroon (70, 4%), the DRC (71.6%), Sao Tome and
principles (64.7%), the Chad (75%), Ivory Coast (75.5%), the Guinea (67.5%)
to Bissau (66.9%), Guinea, Liberia (81%), Nigeria (68.5%), Sierra Leone
(84.7%) in Burundi (65%),
2.3-A Summary table of health financing mechanism in Africa
Various Health financing Mechanisms
Private Public
Community Based Health Insurance (CBHI) Social Health Insurance (SHI)
Private Health Insurance (PHI) Taxation (direct, indirect, general,
earmarked)
Medical Savings Accounts (MSAs)
Informal payments
Pros and cons of each of the above methods of health financing
Pros cons
User fees/ charges
– Raise revenue for health
– Reduce frivolous demand
– Cost containment
– Exemption mechanisms can protect
vulnerable
– Limited revenue raised
– Constrains necessary
demand - Frivolous demand
not an issue in poor
contexts
– Very regressive – push
people into poverty or debt
– Exemption mechanisms do
not work
– Discourage early care
seeking
Community-Based Health Insurance
– potential ability to collect revenue
– pool funds
– reach population groups that
market based health financing
arrangements do not, such as
population in the informal sector
– small pool of funds/
fragmentation
– Limited financial protection
– Limited revenue collection
– Poorest excluded
– Difficult to transform into
8. and socially excluded groups national level system
Private Health Insurance
– enable the healthcare of the
relatively affluent to be self-
financed,
– free up public resources
– encourage innovation and
efficiency
– discriminates in favour of
healthy and young adults
who use little care
– lead to market
segmentation, cream
skimming and exclusion of
vulnerable groups (such as
the poor, ill and elderly)
– Creates a two-tier health
system, where those with
private health insurance
can access better quality
services.
– When subsidised by the
state, it can prove to be very
expensive for the
government.
Social Health Insurance
• Relate initial payment to income rather
than risk,
• Increase financial accessibility
• Potentially large risk pooling that is
subsidisation/ redistribution
• Increase transparency - politically
acceptable
• Tax on payroll: can increase overall
production cost
• Focuses on formal sector
• Can create two tier health system
• Tends to exclude those in greatest
need
• Feasibility issues in SSA
Tax financed systems
• Payment related to income
• Progressive
• Potentially very large risk pool
• Still largely untapped in SSA
Feasibility issues: administrative
capacity, tax avoidance
Lack of transparency
General or hypothecated tax
• Draws on broad revenue base
• Allows trade-offs between health care and
other areas of public expenditure
• Lack of transparency
• Linked to economic growth
• Feasibility issues: administrative
capacity
Direct or indirect tax
• Usually progressive
• Administratively simple when records of
income etc exists
• if informal market is large then
need strong institutional capacity
• can create horizontal inequity:
– When income tax rates vary
geographically
– When some form of income
are exempt from income tax
– When some forms of
expenditure are tax
9. deductible
Direct or indirect tax
• highly visible
• can promote heath if tax on health
damaging goods
• Indirect taxes are overall regressive
as related to consumption not
overall income. In particular:
– People with higher income
save more and savings are
not subject to indirect taxes
– People with lower income
spend proportionately more
of their income on heavily
taxed goods (that is food)
– Many indirect taxes are set
as lump-sum amounts (for
example vehicle licenses)
Conclusion
Health financing key to governance
Health financing sits within health system
No method is perfect
Universal coverage/ equity
User fees to be removed
CBHI limited scope/ success
Public financing mechanisms best
in principle
Nouria (n.d) Domestic health financing in sub-Saharan Africa Save the Children UK
2.3-Out-of Pocket Health Financing (OOP)
Out-of-pocket (OOP) payment is the major health financing mechanisms
across Sub-Saharan African countries and developing countries in general
(Swadhin et al, 2010). According to OECD (2011), “Out-of-pocket payments
are expenditures borne directly by a patient where insurance does not cover
the full cost of the health good or service”. They include cost-sharing, self-
medication and other expenditure paid directly by private households. Some
households face very high out‐of-pocket payments. Catastrophic health
expenditure is commonly defined as “payments for health services exceeding
40% of household disposable income after subsistence needs are met” (WHO,
2014). The World Bank uses a more recent definition of financial catastrophe,
where out-of-pocket payments exceed 10 percent of total household income.
This approach is simpler to estimate and the results are similar to those
derived by the WHO method. This indicator is calculated as :( Household out-
of-pocket expenditure for health during the past 12 months / Total household
income (or total income - subsistence needs in past 12 months) x 100 (WHO,
2010). According to WHO (2014) OOP household expenses for health services
10. remain too high in Cameroon. This rate varies from 94.6% in 2009, 94.6%
(2010), 94.3% (2011), and 94.2% in 2012.
In sub-Saharan African countries the burden of OOP are shifted towards
those who use services more, possibly from high to low income earners,
where health care needs are higher (OECD,2011). Health system financing in
Africa and other developing countries are predominately funded by OOP.
Household health financing have a lot of impact on household poverty. A
majority of studies to assess the impact of household health expenditure on
household poverty have been carried out in Asia and Latin America. A survey
carried in 11 Asian countries reveille that poverty level increased by 14% due
to OOP health expenditure and about 78 million people are pushed into
poverty due to heath care costs. Another survey of 89 countries found that
catastrophic expenditure was reported by 3%, 1.8% and 0.6% of households
in low, middle and high income countries respectively. Even though few
studies have been documented about the levels of catastrophic health
expenditures in Africa; in Burkina Faso, about 15% of households reporting
illness incurred costs greater than 40% of their non-food consumption
expenditure; in Uganda, 2.9% of households incurred catastrophic
expenditure in 2003, and in Nigeria, 40.2% of households incurred costs
greater than 10% of their consumption expenditure. Poor household were
mostly affected (Jane and Thomas, 2012).
2.5-Can Health Insurance replaces OOP in Sub-Sahara Africa
Since 1990s, health care insurance is one of the ways used by
developing countries to improve access to health care. This is to avoids
catastrophic OOP by patients and spreads the financial risk among all the
insured. This has been done through the creation of mutual health
organization and national health insurance schemes. These organizations are
of great importance in the payment of premium, and when the insured need to
use health care services. However, even with the existence of these
organizations, the rate of catastrophic OOP is too high in Africa with low
subscription rate in Mutual Health Organizations (MHO). The low subscription
is as a result of ignorance of the existence and rule play by MHO or insurance
schemes; lack of adequate premium (subscription fee), and traditional
believes. The Table below shows the effect of premium on the subscription
rate in mutual health organizations in Africa (Florence and Valéry, 2009).
11. Table 2.2: The effect of subsidizing premium on health care insurance
subscription among the poor in some countries
Measure Examples Does it increase
membership
among the poor?
To remember
a. Premium
subsidized 100%
by third parties
Rwanda,
Ghana,
Tanzania
Yes, when the
subsidy is really
applied.
Sufficient funds must be available to
compensate for premiums not paid by
the poor.
The population must be informed of the
subsidy
b. Premium
partially
subsidized by
third parties
Burkina Faso,
Ghana
Yes, for some of
them.
Even “minimum” premiums that
households must still pay are obstacles
for the poorest.
c. Premium
varies based on
income
Bangladesh Yes, if the level of
premium is well
established
Premium levels must accurately reflect
the levels of wealth in the population
d. Premium paid
in
kind or by work
Ethiopia,
India
Indications that
this is acceptable
for the poor
The “amount” of the payment in kind or
in work must be clearly defined to
avoid exploitation.
e. Loans to help
pay the
premium
Rwanda Yes, for the
moderately poor
Institutional support is important to
facilitate access to loans for moderately
poor households.
f. Dividing the
premium into
smaller payments
Uganda, Mali,
Senegal,
Tanzania
Yes, for the
moderately
poor
g. Payment of
the premium at
harvest time
Burkina Faso,
Guinea-
Conakry
Indications that it
can work for the
moderately poor
It is important to know the annual
periods of resource availability.
Source: Measures to promote health insurance membership among the poor,
(Florence and Valéry, 2009)
Section 2-Solution to Health Financing in Cameroon (Conclusion)
From the above problem diagnosis and literature receive; it can be
observed that at the moment, the best policy for health financing that
completely protects the poor does not exist either in Cameroon or Africa.
However developed countries and other donor organizations can help to
reduce the financial burden or outpatient bills in Cameroon and other less
developed countries. These can be done through;
2. Providing free financial assistants to cover some common health diseases
such as free HIV/AIDS medicine.
3. Provide financial assistant to cover or reduce the minimum premium
allocated by health social insurance schemes in Cameroon.
12. 4. Provide free financial assistants to health units and patients as is the case
with the World Bank Project with “Result Based Financing” (demand and
supply side).
Through these methods we can ensure that the poor are protected against
catastrophic payment and save lives.
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