IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR), www.iosrphr.org, call for paper, research paper publishing, where to publish research paper, journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call for research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, call fo
The document discusses alternative sustainable financing options for primary health care services in Kenya. It notes that while the Kenyan government is committed to providing quality primary health care, budgetary allocations to health care have declined and out-of-pocket spending is high. User fees intended to increase cost recovery have negatively impacted access to care. The study examines alternative financing mechanisms that could help mitigate these trends, such as pooling funds to protect the poor from catastrophic costs, establishing taxes specifically for health care, and issuing bonds for health infrastructure. However, identifying the poor and providing safety nets like waivers will be important for the success of any new mechanisms.
The health of a people to a very large extent determines their productivity and wealth. The 2010
Population and Housing Census indicates that a significant proportion of the Bunkpurugu-Yunyoo District in
Ghana (over 75%) are living below the poverty line of GH¢228.00 per annum (approximately US $120 per
annum). It then implies that approximately the same proportion or even a little above that might not be able to
access health care under the ‘cash and carry’ system. Inability to access health care will lead to poor health
status of the residents and thus lower their productivity.
"The future of healthcare in Africa: progress on five healthcare scenarios", a new report written by The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) and sponsored by Janssen, explores Africa's recent progress on several major healthcare challenges. The report looks at the continent's increasing focus on primary and preventive care, the empowerment of communities as healthcare providers, the extension of universal healthcare, the spread of telemedicine, and the role of international donors.
The health of a people to a very large extent determines their productivity and wealth. The 2010
Population and Housing Census indicates that a significant proportion of the Bunkpurugu-Yunyoo District in
Ghana (over 75%) are living below the poverty line of GH¢228.00 per annum (approximately US $120 per
annum). It then implies that approximately the same proportion or even a little above that might not be able to
access health care under the ‘cash and carry’ system. Inability to access health care will lead to poor health
status of the residents and thus lower their productivity.
"The future of healthcare in Africa: progress on five healthcare scenarios", a new report written by The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) and sponsored by Janssen, explores Africa's recent progress on several major healthcare challenges. The report looks at the continent's increasing focus on primary and preventive care, the empowerment of communities as healthcare providers, the extension of universal healthcare, the spread of telemedicine, and the role of international donors.
Unsatisfaction Pacient in Healthy Industrial in Indonesiainventionjournals
The porpose of this article is to assess and comparethe needs of public health services withthe healthcare business in Indonesia in line with the increased catastrophic disease and the high prevalence of mental disorders due to economic pressures, unhealthy lifestyle, poor environmental conditions, workload and family company which result in the detriment of state finances and family economy. Meanwhile, high education has made people, with upper middle income, havegood awareness of personal hygiene and tend to seek health services that can provide information and education on current health, including in selecting the type of insurance. Most of them entered the Y gene, as tech-savvy, and want the best facilities, including in selecting hospitals, laboratories, and medicines. This research uses descriptive qualitative approach byexploring the primary data and secondary data to obtain conclusion that healthcare business is very prospective.Although this business hasa formidable challenge, it will not be diminished by the development time.In 2014,healthcare businessinpharmaceutical industry in Indonesia reached IDR 58.2 trillion, and the government has determined the pharmaceutical and medical equipment industriesas the mainstay and priorities until 2035, given the high amount of expenditures per capita on health service each year.The increased level of life satisfaction in terms of healthcareresults in the high level of satisfaction of patients and families with health providers, but the concern isstill more focused on the high price of medicines and services.
Trends in health financing and the private health sector in the middle east a...HFG Project
In the past several decades, countries in the Middle East and North Africa have made significant improvements in developing their health systems and improving the health status of their populations. However, the region continues to face substantial and diverse political, macroeconomic,social, and health challenges. In 2010–2011, the mass uprisings over high unemployment, poverty, and political repression known as the Arab Spring began in several countries. These events led to a wave of social and political upheaval that had enduring repercussions throughout the region. Iraq, Libya, Syria, and Yemen remain embroiled in prolonged violent conflicts. Other countries are more stable but undergoing significant changes and reforms.
To understand current health financing policies and mechanisms, as well as the current role of the private sector in the health systems of the Middle East, the USAID Middle East Regional Bureau commissioned the Sustaining Health Outcomes through the Private Sector (SHOPS) Plus and Health Finance and Governance (HFG) projects to conduct a review of health financing and the private health sector in the 11 low-and middle-income countries in the region, focusing on the years 2008 to 2017.1 The countries included in this analysis are Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Syria, Tunisia, the West Bank and Gaza, and Yemen. This review aims to highlight regional trends and identify gaps in information.
The purpose of this presentation is to equip audiences with the ability to:
Define universal health coverage (UHC) and understand the basic tenets of UHC
Identify how UHC fits in USAID’s health and poverty reduction strategies
Effectively communicate to country stakeholders how USAID can support a country’s progress towards UHC
Identify relevant UHC resources within the Office of Health Systems and USAID
The presentation is part of the “UHC Toolkit” and accompanies Universal Health Coverage: An Annotated Bibliography, and Universal Health Coverage: Frequently Asked Questions.
Presentation given by Professor Sophie Witter on 17th May 2018 for the American University of Beirut Global Health Institute's Webinar series: "Global Health and Conflict". This webinar theme: Health Systems in Situations of Fragility.
The People’s Republic of China has made great achievements in improving health status over the past six decades, mainly due to the government’s commitment to health, provision of cost effective public health programmes, growing coverage of health financial protection mechanisms and investments in an extensive health-care delivery network.
This presentation discusses IHME's research in public financing of health in developing countries, including study design, findings, study limitations, and recommendations for governments and future research.
For more information please visit www.healthmetricsandevaluation.org
Researching Purchasing to achieve the promise of Universal Health Coverageresyst
This presentation was given by Professor Kara Hanson at the BMC Health Services Research Conference, in July 2014.
The presentation illustrates the important role that strategic purchasing can play in achieving effective health coverage, and how the topic is being studied by researchers. It highlights RESYST's multi-country study of purchasing arrangements that is currently taking place in Nigeria, Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa, India, Thailand and Vietnam.
Options for Developing a Collective Payment System and Co-payment Mechanism f...HFG Project
What follows is a draft proposal submitted by Health Finance & Governance (HFG) to local partners to present policy options for centralized reimbursement and co-payment. In this way, HFG provides much needed technical support to the Ministry of Health and other government agencies in Vietnam. Furthermore, this proposal illustrates the means by which HFG, through the Sustainable Finance Initiative (SFI), is facilitating domestic revenue generation and strengthening public financial management in support of HIV/AIDS treatment and care.
There are numerous changes taking place in South Africa, in the economy, politics and health. All these are interdependent and embedded in a social milieu which brings a number of pressures on health services and systems. The major event in the medium to long term is the impact of the National Health Insurance. Other contextual factors of importance include the range of social determinants of health and disease, with the provision of water, sanitation, electricity and housing being the key services. South Africa will also be influenced in the future by the major diseases it harbours at present. This seminar provided some insight into how these factors will impact on the South African Health Services.
Health and health care need to be distinguished from each other for no better reason than that the former is often incorrectly seen as a direct function of the latter. Heath is clearly not the mere absence of disease. Good Health confers on a person or groups freedom from illness - and the ability to realize one's potential. Health is therefore best understood as the indispensable basis for defining a person's sense of well being. The health of populations is a distinct key issue in public policy discourse in every mature society often determining the deployment of huge society. They include its cultural understanding of ill health and well-being, extent of socio-economic disparities, reach of health services and quality and costs of care. and current bio-mcdical understanding about health and illness.
Unsatisfaction Pacient in Healthy Industrial in Indonesiainventionjournals
The porpose of this article is to assess and comparethe needs of public health services withthe healthcare business in Indonesia in line with the increased catastrophic disease and the high prevalence of mental disorders due to economic pressures, unhealthy lifestyle, poor environmental conditions, workload and family company which result in the detriment of state finances and family economy. Meanwhile, high education has made people, with upper middle income, havegood awareness of personal hygiene and tend to seek health services that can provide information and education on current health, including in selecting the type of insurance. Most of them entered the Y gene, as tech-savvy, and want the best facilities, including in selecting hospitals, laboratories, and medicines. This research uses descriptive qualitative approach byexploring the primary data and secondary data to obtain conclusion that healthcare business is very prospective.Although this business hasa formidable challenge, it will not be diminished by the development time.In 2014,healthcare businessinpharmaceutical industry in Indonesia reached IDR 58.2 trillion, and the government has determined the pharmaceutical and medical equipment industriesas the mainstay and priorities until 2035, given the high amount of expenditures per capita on health service each year.The increased level of life satisfaction in terms of healthcareresults in the high level of satisfaction of patients and families with health providers, but the concern isstill more focused on the high price of medicines and services.
Trends in health financing and the private health sector in the middle east a...HFG Project
In the past several decades, countries in the Middle East and North Africa have made significant improvements in developing their health systems and improving the health status of their populations. However, the region continues to face substantial and diverse political, macroeconomic,social, and health challenges. In 2010–2011, the mass uprisings over high unemployment, poverty, and political repression known as the Arab Spring began in several countries. These events led to a wave of social and political upheaval that had enduring repercussions throughout the region. Iraq, Libya, Syria, and Yemen remain embroiled in prolonged violent conflicts. Other countries are more stable but undergoing significant changes and reforms.
To understand current health financing policies and mechanisms, as well as the current role of the private sector in the health systems of the Middle East, the USAID Middle East Regional Bureau commissioned the Sustaining Health Outcomes through the Private Sector (SHOPS) Plus and Health Finance and Governance (HFG) projects to conduct a review of health financing and the private health sector in the 11 low-and middle-income countries in the region, focusing on the years 2008 to 2017.1 The countries included in this analysis are Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Syria, Tunisia, the West Bank and Gaza, and Yemen. This review aims to highlight regional trends and identify gaps in information.
The purpose of this presentation is to equip audiences with the ability to:
Define universal health coverage (UHC) and understand the basic tenets of UHC
Identify how UHC fits in USAID’s health and poverty reduction strategies
Effectively communicate to country stakeholders how USAID can support a country’s progress towards UHC
Identify relevant UHC resources within the Office of Health Systems and USAID
The presentation is part of the “UHC Toolkit” and accompanies Universal Health Coverage: An Annotated Bibliography, and Universal Health Coverage: Frequently Asked Questions.
Presentation given by Professor Sophie Witter on 17th May 2018 for the American University of Beirut Global Health Institute's Webinar series: "Global Health and Conflict". This webinar theme: Health Systems in Situations of Fragility.
The People’s Republic of China has made great achievements in improving health status over the past six decades, mainly due to the government’s commitment to health, provision of cost effective public health programmes, growing coverage of health financial protection mechanisms and investments in an extensive health-care delivery network.
This presentation discusses IHME's research in public financing of health in developing countries, including study design, findings, study limitations, and recommendations for governments and future research.
For more information please visit www.healthmetricsandevaluation.org
Researching Purchasing to achieve the promise of Universal Health Coverageresyst
This presentation was given by Professor Kara Hanson at the BMC Health Services Research Conference, in July 2014.
The presentation illustrates the important role that strategic purchasing can play in achieving effective health coverage, and how the topic is being studied by researchers. It highlights RESYST's multi-country study of purchasing arrangements that is currently taking place in Nigeria, Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa, India, Thailand and Vietnam.
Options for Developing a Collective Payment System and Co-payment Mechanism f...HFG Project
What follows is a draft proposal submitted by Health Finance & Governance (HFG) to local partners to present policy options for centralized reimbursement and co-payment. In this way, HFG provides much needed technical support to the Ministry of Health and other government agencies in Vietnam. Furthermore, this proposal illustrates the means by which HFG, through the Sustainable Finance Initiative (SFI), is facilitating domestic revenue generation and strengthening public financial management in support of HIV/AIDS treatment and care.
Options for Developing a Collective Payment System and Co-payment Mechanism f...
Similar to IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR), www.iosrphr.org, call for paper, research paper publishing, where to publish research paper, journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call for research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, call fo
There are numerous changes taking place in South Africa, in the economy, politics and health. All these are interdependent and embedded in a social milieu which brings a number of pressures on health services and systems. The major event in the medium to long term is the impact of the National Health Insurance. Other contextual factors of importance include the range of social determinants of health and disease, with the provision of water, sanitation, electricity and housing being the key services. South Africa will also be influenced in the future by the major diseases it harbours at present. This seminar provided some insight into how these factors will impact on the South African Health Services.
Health and health care need to be distinguished from each other for no better reason than that the former is often incorrectly seen as a direct function of the latter. Heath is clearly not the mere absence of disease. Good Health confers on a person or groups freedom from illness - and the ability to realize one's potential. Health is therefore best understood as the indispensable basis for defining a person's sense of well being. The health of populations is a distinct key issue in public policy discourse in every mature society often determining the deployment of huge society. They include its cultural understanding of ill health and well-being, extent of socio-economic disparities, reach of health services and quality and costs of care. and current bio-mcdical understanding about health and illness.
Prompted by the 20th anniversary of the 1993 World Development Report, a Lancet Commission revisited the case for investment in health and developed a new investment frame work to achieve dramatic health gains by 2035. Our report has four key messages, each accompanied by opportunities for action by national governments of low-income and middle-income countries and by the international community.
Research done while in PwC Mexico. A short version was included as part of a PwC publication "Future of Pacific Alliance", that was presented at the presidental summit in Chile on July 2016.
A new health and development paradigm post-2015: grounded in human rightsLisa Hallgarten
Marge Berer, Editor of RHM, presentation at meeting
Divided we stand? Universal health coverage and the unfinished agenda of the health MDGs
Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp February 11th 2014
Botswana Health Accounts 2013-14: Key Findings and ImplicationsHFG Project
The Botswana 2013/14 HA exercise was conducted between July 2015 and September 2016. The study covers the 2013/14 fiscal year (1 April 2013–31 March 2014). In mid-2015, the HA team, with representation from the Government of Botswana, the Health Finance and Governance (HFG) project, and the World Health Organization (WHO), began primary and secondary data collection. Collected data were then compiled, cleaned, triangulated, and reviewed. Data were imported into the HA Production Tool (HAPT) and mapped to each of the System of Health Accounts (SHA) 2011 classifications. The results of the analysis were verified with the Health Financing Technical Working Group on 9 October 2016 and the Ministry of Health and Wellness (MoHW) management on 10 October 10 2016. Participants involved in the production and validation of the results, and recommended for future HA workshops, are listed in Annex A.
Covid impact on Indian health system and how does it made a combackUjwalReddyPB
Impact on India health system
Similar to IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR), www.iosrphr.org, call for paper, research paper publishing, where to publish research paper, journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call for research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, call fo (20)
Congenital Agenesis Of The Corpus Callosum With Intracerebral Lipoma And Fron...iosrphr_editor
The IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR) is an open access online & offline peer reviewed international journal, which publishes innovative research papers, reviews, mini-reviews, short communications and notes dealing with Pharmaceutical Sciences( Pharmaceutical Technology, Pharmaceutics, Biopharmaceutics, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Computational Chemistry and Molecular Drug Design, Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Pharmaceutical Analysis, Pharmacy Practice, Clinical and Hospital Pharmacy, Cell Biology, Genomics and Proteomics, Pharmacogenomics, Bioinformatics and Biotechnology of Pharmaceutical Interest........more details on Aim & Scope).
“Hemodynamic and recovery profile with Dexmedetomidine and Fentanyl in intrac...iosrphr_editor
The IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR) is an open access online & offline peer reviewed international journal, which publishes innovative research papers, reviews, mini-reviews, short communications and notes dealing with Pharmaceutical Sciences( Pharmaceutical Technology, Pharmaceutics, Biopharmaceutics, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Computational Chemistry and Molecular Drug Design, Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Pharmaceutical Analysis, Pharmacy Practice, Clinical and Hospital Pharmacy, Cell Biology, Genomics and Proteomics, Pharmacogenomics, Bioinformatics and Biotechnology of Pharmaceutical Interest........more details on Aim & Scope).
Correlation of Estrogen and Progesterone Receptor expression in Breast Canceriosrphr_editor
The IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR) is an open access online & offline peer reviewed international journal, which publishes innovative research papers, reviews, mini-reviews, short communications and notes dealing with Pharmaceutical Sciences( Pharmaceutical Technology, Pharmaceutics, Biopharmaceutics, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Computational Chemistry and Molecular Drug Design, Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Pharmaceutical Analysis, Pharmacy Practice, Clinical and Hospital Pharmacy, Cell Biology, Genomics and Proteomics, Pharmacogenomics, Bioinformatics and Biotechnology of Pharmaceutical Interest........more details on Aim & Scope).
Analytical Study of Urine Samples for Epidemiology of Urinary Tract Infection...iosrphr_editor
The current study was carried out in District Abbottabad aimed to determine the common urinary
tract infections in local community to determine the epidemiology of significant diseases in asymptomatic patients
of renal disorder. In this study a total of 1000 urine samples were examined during 3rd February to 1st April 2015
from patients attending Ayub Teaching Hospital Abbottabad by using dipstick and microscopic analysis of urine.
There were 638 females and 362 males patients examined during this period. The range of age groups is between
1.5 years to 80 years. Results of this study was reported as Pyuria 11%, Proteinuria 21.1%, Hematuria 10.4%,
Epithelial Cells 8.2%, pH 7.8 %, Granular casts 7.3%, Triple phosphate 6.6%, Calcium oxalate 6.4%, Glycosuria
6.3%, Bacteria 6.2% and mucous 4.1%. This study concludes that routing urinalysis should be performed for all
individuals to diagnose the asymptomatic diseases that will help in simple therapeutic measurements as urinalysis
is a simple step to determine the root of Urinary tract disorders.
Chest sonography images in neonatal r.d.s. And proposed gradingiosrphr_editor
BACKGROUND : Lung sonography has been used to monitor the patients of R.D.S. in
N.I.C.U. in recent times.
AIMS : To Describe and Grade the changes of R.D.S. by lung sonography.
SETTING & DESIGN : Tertiary care institutional set up in a rural medical college.
STUDY DURATION : September 2014 to May 2015. Follow-up variable, upto 2 weeks.
PROSPECTIVE, ANALYTICAL STUDY.
MATERIALS AND METHODS -This was a single institute study approved by the institutional ethics
committee. Prior informed consent was obtained from the parents. 100 consecutive patients admitted in
N.I.C.U. WITH gestational age < 36 weeks with respiratory complaints were enrolled. Chest x-ray was
obtained within few hours of admission and lung sonography was performed within 24 hours. Follow – up
sonography was performed as and when necessary. Sonography image was graded and correlated with chest
xray and clinical picture
The Comprehensive Review on Fat Soluble Vitaminsiosrphr_editor
This review article deals with brief description of fat soluble vitamins with figures and tables
showing statistical analytical data duly quoting the references wherever necessary. The word “soluble” actually
means “able to be dissolved.” Whether a vitamin is classified as 'fat-soluble' or 'water-soluble' has to do with
how the vitamin is absorbed, stored and removed from the body. Vitamins are tiny organic compounds with a
huge impact on the health and well-being of the body. The body needs a small amount of fat soluble vitamins in
order to stay in optimal health. Fat soluble vitamins play an important role in keeping the body healthy and
functioning from immune system and muscle and heart function, easy flow and clotting of blood as well as eye
health. They are critical to health and wellness–particularly reproductive health and wellness. Low-fat, no-fat
and vegan diets are woefully lacking in fat soluble vitamins. However a diet based on traditional foods can
naturally provide these vitamins. Science is still learning about many of the functions of vitamins. "Too much
vitamin A, D, or K can lead to increased levels that are unhealthy and can cause serious health consequences.
Diseased conditions leading to decreased fat absorption leads to decreased absorption of vitamins. The fatsoluble
vitamins work most safely and effectively when obtained them from natural foods within the context of a
diet rich in all their synergistic partners. If fat soluble vitamins are stored for lengthy time they generate threat
for toxicity than water soluble vitamins and such situation even aggravated, provided they are consumed in
excess. Vitamin products, above the legal limits are not considered food supplements and must be registered as
prescription or non-prescription (over-the-counter drugs) due to their potential side effects. Vitamin A and E
supplements do not provide health benefits for healthy individuals, instead they may enhance mortality, and it is
held proved that beta-carotene supplements can be harmful to smokers
Sulphasalazine Induced Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis A Case Reportiosrphr_editor
Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis (TEN) is a rare and life threatening mucocutaneous reaction
characterized by extensive necrosis and detachment of epidermis. The Worldwide incidence of TEN is 0.9 to 1.4
per million populations per year [1]. Here we have discussed a case of Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis secondary
to Sulfasalazine managed with fluid replacement, analgesics, anti-infective therapy aggressive nutritional
support and intravenous high dose steroid therapy.
Keywords- Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis, Sulfasalazine
Evaluation the efficacy of IVIgG in treatment of Hemolytic Disease of Newborniosrphr_editor
Hemolytic disease of newborn (HDN) is an important cause of hyperbilirubinemia in the
neonatal period,and delayed diagnosis and treatment may lead to permanent brain damage. Traditional
neonatal treatment of HDN is intensive phototherapy and exchange transfusion.Intravenous
immunoglobulin(IVIgG) has been introduced as an alternative therapy to exchange transfusion. This study was
conducted to assess the effect of IVIG in HDN .
FIBROLIPOMATOUS HAMARTOMA OF ULNAR NERVE: A RARE CASE REPORT.iosrphr_editor
Nervous fibrolipomatous hamartoma is said to be a rare tumor-like condition involving the peripheral
nerves,in which the epineurium and perineurium are enlarged and distorted by excess of fatty and fibrous tissue
s that infiltrate between and around nerve boundaries. The median nerve is more likely to develop a hamartoma
than other nerves with a predilection for the carpal tunnel.
A fibrolipomatous hamartoma – is a rare, benign, congenital lesion most commonly found in the median nerve,
usually at the level of the wrist or hand.
We report a case of this rare condition in ulnar nerve.
SELF MEDICATION PRACTICES FOR ORAL HEALTH PROBLEMS AMONG DENTAL PATIENTS IN B...iosrphr_editor
Introduction: Self‑ medication is commonly practiced all over the world. Self-medication is defined as the use
of medication by a patient on his own initiative or on the advice of a pharmacist or a lay person instead of
consulting a medical practitioner. The present study was aimed to estimate the prevalence of self-medication for
oral health problems among dental patients in Bengaluru city; to identify triggering factors that could influence
self-medication practices; to identify sources of medications used; to identify sources of information about
medications used; and to identify reasons for self-medication.Study Design: A Cross sectional Study.Methods:A
survey was conducted among 175 subjects among dental patients in Bengaluru city. Data were collected
through a specially designed proforma using a closed‑ ended, self‑ administered questionnaire containing 15
questions, in five sections.
Results: The prevalence of
Clinico-haematological Profile of Falciparum Malaria in a Rural Hospital of T...iosrphr_editor
Aim: To study the clinico-haematological profile malaria in a rural hospital of Tripura.
Material and methods: A cross-sectional hospital-based study was done from at Kulai District
Hospital,Tripura. This hospital based cross sectional study was done on 60 confirmed cases of falciparum
malaria (either by peripheral smear or rapid diagnostic test) admitted in Kulai District Hospital. A case sheet
proforma was prepared and data (demographic profile,clinical feature, investigation, treatment, and
complication) from all indoor patients was collected and analyzed.
Result: Out of 60 patients, 40(66.6%) were males and 20 (33.4%) were females. Most of the patients were
between the age group 21-40 years with the highest prevalence between the age group of 21-30. Fever was the
most common symptom. Anemia was present in 42(70%) patients, out of which 6(10%) patients had severe
anemia. Thrombocytopenia was present in 36(60%) patients.Abnormal liver function tests were observed in
26(43.3%) subjects while abnormal kidney function tests were observed in16(26.6%) patients. All the 60
patients received Artemisinin based antimalarial drugs.
Conclusion: Early detection, prompt management, and adequate supportive therapy may reduce mortality due
to falciparum cerebral malaria.
Indonesian Wild Ginger (Zingiber sp) Extract: Antibacterial Activity against ...iosrphr_editor
Lempuyang gajah (Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Smith), lempuyang pahit (Zingiber amaricans BL.), and
lempuyang wangi (Zingiber aromaticum Vahl.) are used as traditional medicine (jamu) in Indonesia. It is also
used for treatment of microbial infections, helps to increase appetite and stimulate digestion in chickens.
Information on their uses are available, but only limited in the scientific data on their bioactivity. The study was
conducted on the antibacterial effect of organic extracts of these plants with Mycoplasma gallisepticum as the
agent of chronic respiratory disease in chickens. Juice and extracts of fresh and dried rhizome are evaluated
through the disc diffusion assay and minimum inhibitory concentration. Oxytetracyclin (30 µg) are used as
standards. All extracts are individually exhibited as antibacterial activity against Mycoplasma gallisepticum (7
± 0.11 mm to 21 ± 0.86 mm). The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) determination of plants extracts are
ranged from 7.8 mg/ml to 31.2 mg/ml. The preliminary results suggested promising antibacterial properties of
wild ginger from Indonesia, and probably could be used in management of chronic respiratory disease in
chickens.
A case of allergy and food sensitivity: the nasunin, natural color of eggplantiosrphr_editor
Abstract: Allergies and food sensitivities can both be considered as "adverse reactions individualistic" to food.
Are pathological and individual forms because they affect a few individuals in way rather serious; immediate
or delayed reactions occur instead with simple effects histamine, or, in severe cases with respiratory and
anaphylactic shock
The eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is known to cause food allergies in some Asian countries, but detailed
studies on allergies caused by eggplant are lacking, however, it was highlighted the presence of allergens in
edible parts of eggplant with preponderance in the peel .
The purpose of this study was to propose an extraction method rapid, efficient and cost of natural dye from
waste products from the food industry, such as the peels of eggplant, from which it was extracted, isolated and
purified the nasunin,a colored molecule in red-fuchsia.
Nasusin was tested on 58 patients to evaluate the potential sensitizing effect on the skin. The results demonstrate
that allergenic effects are negligible and therefore the nasunin can be used as a colorant in various industrial
sectors with a certain safety margin
Complete NMR Assignment of MogrosidesII A2, II E andIII A1Isolated from Luo H...iosrphr_editor
NMR analysis allowed complete assignments of three known mogrol glycosides, Mogroside IIA2 (1),
II E (2)and IIIA1 (3), isolated from the extracts of Luo Han Guo. Herein, complete 1H and 13C NMR
assignmentsof all threemogrosidesare described based on NMR experiments (1H NMR, 13C NMR, COSY,
HSQC-DEPT, HMBC, NOESY and 1DTOCSY) and mass spectral data.
Nanoemulsion and Nanoemulgel as a Topical Formulationiosrphr_editor
: Nanoemulsion is referred type of emulsion with uniform and extremely small droplet size in the range
of 20-200 nm. Nanoemulsion provides numerous advantages over other carrier such as polymeric nanoparticle
and liposomes, including low cost preparation procedure, high hydrophilic and lipophilic drug loading system
to enhance the longer shelf live upon preserving the therapeutic agents. Incorporating the preparation of
nanoemulsion with hydrogel matrix to produce nanoemulgel exhibited by the two separate systems that forming
it. Nanoemulgel possesses the properties of thixotropic, non-greasy, effortlessly spreadable, easily be removed,
emollient, not staining, soluble in water, longer shelf life, bio-friendly, translucent and agreeable appearance.
Pharmacokinetics of High-Dose Methotrexate in Egyptian Children with Acute Ly...iosrphr_editor
Aim:Since several factors have been shown to influence the clearance of methotrexate, the purpose of this study
was to identify potential relationships between patient covariates and the methotrexate clearance estimates and
deduce a pharmacokinetic model for the estimation of methotrexate clearance in Egyptian pediatric ALL
patients that may help dosage adjustment and achieve target steady-state plasma concentrations in a similar
sittings.
Patients and methods: A total of 94 pediatric patients with B-cell ALL, of whom 70 were the studied population
and 24 were the test population, were treated with four courses of HDMTX doses 2.5 gm/m2
(low-risk arm) or 5
gm/m2
(standard-/high-risk arm) given every other week by intermittent intravenous infusions over 24 hours as
a part of their treatment protocol. Patients were monitored for the 24 hour MTX concentration and the systemic
methotrexate clearance was calculated for each methotrexate dose
Epidemiology of Tuberculosis (TB) in Albania 1998-2009iosrphr_editor
Abstract : In Albania, many people erroneously think that tuberculosis (TB) is a disease of the past-an illness
that no longer constitutes a public health threat. Surveillance is an integral part of tuberculosis (TB) control.
Albania has a highTB notification rate and there are doubts about underreporting. The evolution of the
incidence of tuberculosis is presented, together with more detailed figures over the period 1998-2009. These
figures were obtained by the monthly forms (called 14/Sh) compared with the individual notification data.
Objective: To examine the distribution and sources of increased tuberculosis (TB) morbidity and reporting
system deficiencies in the Albania from 1998 through 2009. Metodology: The study is descriptive one conductet
during the period 1998-2009. The statistical analysis is based on data reported from regional level (regional
epidemiological departments) to the central level (Public Health Institute). Results: The main findings were:
discordance between the collected data (individual form) and reported data (monthly form); tuberculosis
incidence rate shows little oscillations which ranges from 6.67 to 9.2 cases/100.000 population; 50% of the
regions show a lack of information on the confirmation of diagnosis and laboratory examination type used for
confirmation. Conclusion: TB disease in high-risk populations where it is difficult to detect, diagnose, and treat;
limitations of current control measures and the need for new tests and treatments, including an effective
vaccine; improving information system, regulation of individual form and personnel training.
Total Phenol and Antioxidant from Seed and Peel of Ripe and Unripe of Indones...iosrphr_editor
Study on total phenol and antioxidantactivity ofsugar apple fruits of various solvent, part of fruits, and level of ripening. Solvent extraction used were 80% (v/v) methanol, 50% (v/v) acetone, boiling water, and 50% (v/v) ethanol. Part of fruits thatbeen used for samples were seed and peel which are normally by products of sugar apple processing, level of ripening were unripe, and ripe sugar apple fruits. Total phenol was determined by Folin-ciocalteau method. Total antioxidant was quantified by 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl(DPPH) method.Therewas a difference in type of solvent, part of fruits, and level of ripeningon total phenol and antioxidant concentration of sugar apple fruits. Seeds have higher total phenol concentration than peels of this fruits. Unripe sugar apple fruits have higher total phenol and antioxidant than ripe fruit. The best solvent for phenol extraction was ethanol 50%butthe best solvent for antioxidant extraction was acetone 50%.
A Review on Step-by-Step Analytical Method Validationiosrphr_editor
When analytical method is utilized to generate results about the characteristics of drug related samples it is essential that the results are trustworthy. They may be utilized as the basis for decisions relating to administering the drug to patients. Analytical method validation required during drug development and manufacturing and these analytical methods are fit for their intended purpose. To comply with the requirements of GMP pharmaceutical industries should have an overall validation policy which documents how validation will be performed. The purpose of this validation is to show that processes involved in the development and manufacture of drug, production and analytical testing can be performed in an effective and reproducible manner. This review article provides guidance on how to perform validation characteristics for the analytical method which are utilized in pharmaceutical analysis.
A Cross Sectional Study of Ethnic Differences in Occurrence and Severity of A...iosrphr_editor
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are the most widely used "over the counter" medication all over the world despite their complications in different major organs. Present studies envisaged for knowing the occurrence and severity of adverse drug reactions from NSAIDs in different ethnic communities of Sikkim. A cross sectional study was undertaken in the medicine outpatients department of a secondary and tertiary care hospital. The patients belonging to Nepalese, Bhutias, Lepchas ethnic communities and others community (settlers from other parts of India) were included to analyzed the data based on the age and gender, ethnicity and ADRs, drugs and ADRs. Severity assessment was done using Hartwing and Siegel scale and causality assessment by Naranjo scale. Total 109 cases of ADRs, predominating in female were detected. Nepalese were the most affected and Gastrointestinal tract (GIT) being the most affected organ in them. Diclofenac showed maximum number of ADRs in all the communities. Maximum number of cases occurred on single day use (40.36%) of drugs. All the cases were belonging to the "possible category" and the maximum being the mild (72.48%) in nature. It is advisable to consider the ethnic/racial differences equally with other factors, to improve the safety and efficacy of a drug.
A Cross Sectional Study of Ethnic Differences in Occurrence and Severity of A...
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR), www.iosrphr.org, call for paper, research paper publishing, where to publish research paper, journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call for research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, call fo
1. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR)
ISSN: 2250-3013, Vol. 2, Issue 4 (July2012), PP 84-96
www.iosrphr.org
Empirical Analysis of Possible Alternative Sustainable Financing
Options for Primary Health Care Services in Kenya
Timothy C. Okech (PhD)
Chandaria School of Business, United States International University- Africa
Abstract––The Kenya government has over the years reiterated its commitment towards the provision of
quality primary health care (PHC) to her populace. The various macroeconomic performance
experienced in the late 1980s and early 1990s, however affected the government’s ability to sustain the
continued provision of PHC. This is not only demonstrated by the high out-of-pocket spending but also
low budgetary allocation currently estimated at less than ten (10) percent. The funding levels have
negatively affected the ability of the poor to access primary health care while the quality of health care
provided has equally been a concern as witnessed by high incidences of lack of essential drugs and other
medical supplies, low morale amongst the health personnel involved in the provision of primary health
care, lack of medical equipments in most facilities and skewness in the deployment of staff countrywide.
The objective of the study was therefore to examine the various alternative financing mechanisms to
mitigate against the trends, Since various financing mechanisms have been suggested for consideration. In
the study it was found that providers of these services prefer financing mechanisms that pool funds
together to ensure that the poor and other vulnerable are cushioned against the catastrophic health
expenditure. Other mechanisms favored included establishment of specific taxes to finance health care,
and where possible consider issuance of health infrastructure bonds to facilitate construction of modern
health facilities across the country within the decentralized framework of counties. Although these
mechanisms sound promising, their success will depend not only on political and leadership commitment
but also on the ability to identify the poor and where possible provide the necessary safety nets such as
waivers and exemptions. It will also be necessary to establish the necessary legal framework that will
spearhead the collection and management of the funds collected.
Keywords–– Primary health care, financing mechanisms, Prepayment schemes, catastrophic health
expenditures
I. INTRODUCTION
I.1 Background of the Problem
The Kenya government has over the years continued to develop and implement national health policies
and strategies necessary for enhancing the financing of a well-functioning health system. This was however
partly affected by the economic down-turn experienced in the late 1980s and early 1990s. This in the process
affected the government‟s ability to continue providing public goods including PHC. Additionally, the demand
for PHC overstretched the available supply and soon it was evident that the available resources were insufficient
to fully finance the continued provision of quality PHC effectively. At the same time, the budgetary allocation
started to dwindle, while donor funding was subjected to realization of certain macroeconomic conditions. This
led to the introduction of alternative financing mechanisms such as user fees, whose main objective was cost
recovery. The introduction of user-fees coincided with the marked deterioration of health indicators in the
country, frequent shortages of drugs and commodities, as well as low retention of the health workforce.
The policy change was however, considered pro-poor if used to improve access to quality health care,
and help reorient public financing towards serving poor and other vulnerables. Following the policy initiation,
there were however concerns that the fees could limit utilization of PHC particularly by the poor especially in
low income countries. It was however, argued that the charges should be accompanied by appropriate safety
nets that would caution the poor and other vulnerables. This policy change has however, over the years been
seen as negatively affecting access to quality PHC in terms of delays and also subject to sloppy management in
general (GoK, 2010, GoK, 2005). Studies show that user fees through out-of-pocket (OOP) expenditure
represent a major source of health care financing contributing at least 36% of total health expenditures (GoK,
2010; GoK, 2011). This kind of expenditure according to 2010 report by the government leads to the
impoverishment of an estimated 1 million households, while a further 39% of sick people fail to seek treatment.
Similarly, data provided by the Public Expenditure Tracking Survey of 2008, indicates that an average of 30%
84
2. Empirical Analysis of the various alternative sustainable....
(range 0%-65%) of earmarked financial resources from government sources do not reach health centres and
dispensaries. This is a clear indication that PHC is adversely affected. Consequently, the risk of financial
catastrophe and impoverishment is expected to worsen especially among the poor and if necessary safety nets or
other financing mechanisms are not initiated and implemented, the realization of universal coverage may take
longer than expected.
There is also evidence that public financing is skewed towards other sectors compared to the health
sector. For instance in a report by Gitahi (2011), it was observed that out of Kshs 236.6 billion allocated to
social sector in 2009/2010, the Ministry of Education received 73.8% while the Health Sector received a paltry
16.0% of the allocation (see also GoK, 2010). This allocation according to Gitahi (2011) has continued to
contribute towards a funding gap in equipment, drugs, non-pharmaceuticals, health personnel and health
infrastructure countrywide (see also GoK, 2010). Although in nominal terms, the overall government
expenditure on health increased in the last few years, from 16.4 billion in 2003/04 to 39.9 billion in 2009/10
(USD 13.6 per capita), health financing in Kenya continues to pose a major challenge in health care delivery.
This trend continues to be realized despite the government‟s commitment in various policy documents including
Kenya Vision 2030 and the MTEF of 2008. In addition, this level of funding is well below the Abuja declaration
target of 15%, the Economic Recovery Strategy of 12% and the WHO recommended level of US$ 44 per capita
on average (unweighted) in 2009, rising to a little more than US$ 60 per capita by 2015 for low income
countries (GoK, 2009, WHR, 2010). Based on the foregoing discussion, the study sought to examine
empirically, alternatives sustainable financing of public health care in the Kenya‟s context.
1.2 Situational Analysis
Kenya‟s health indicators though showing a mixed trend since independence in 1963 to present, they
continue to lag behind those of the rest of world including sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). During the period, life
expectancy rose from about 43.4 years (1960) to 62 years (1990), before declining and stabilizing at about 52
years (2006). Infant mortality on the other hand dropped from 122 per 1,000 live births (1960) to 63 in 1990,
before rising to 83 in the year 2000, followed by a drop to the current level of 52 (GoK, 2010). The estimates for
the under-five-year mortality rate over the same period were 204 per 1,000 live births, 93, 134 and 77
respectively. Finally, maternal mortality rates still remain high at 414 per 100,000 live births, 650 in 1990 and
1,000 in the year 2000. Evidently, these rates are far above the targets set for the MDGs for the country. Life
expectancy (LE) at birth in Kenya though estimated at a low of 45.2 years during the previous policy period, this
has is estimated to have risen, up to 60 years by 2009 (World Health Statistics, 2009). This trend was reflected
across all age groups, with stagnation/worsening of the health situation seen across all age.
In the country, most disability adjusted life years (DALY) are lost as a result of a double epidemic of
communicable and non-communicable diseases: primarily malaria, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, diabetes, heart
disease and injury. In common with all these disease conditions is the plethora of evidence confirming that they
can all be prevented, using simple cost effective interventions. In the country, there exist compounding
geographical, urban-rural and poverty related gradients in the prevalence of these conditions, as well as health
outcomes. Malaria is considered to account for almost half of morbidity in the country. It is ranked the third
cause of death and an estimated 70% of the population is at risk of infection; with on average about 93 children
dying every day from malaria infection.
Currently more than 2.2 million Kenyans are living with HIV/AIDS while there are over 2 million
HIV/AIDS related orphans in the country. AIDS is the number one cause of mortality in Kenya. Additionally,
tuberculosis has assumed a higher epidemiological significance in the country since the advent of HIV/AIDS. It
carries an annual risk of infection of 1.2% or about 480,000 new cases (2009 national population). Multi-drug-
resistant strains are an emerging public health problem that will greatly increase the cost of treatment and
mortality rates. An estimated 60% of HIV cases are co-infected with tuberculosis. Notification rates in the
country are low at less than 20%. Respiratory infections and diarrhea are ranked first and second, respectively,
as the highest causes of death among children 5 years of age and under. Neonatal deaths from various causes are
by far the most frequent cause of death among children in this age group. Lastly, in 2001 it was estimated that
53.8% of deaths in low income countries, including Kenya, were as a result of non-communicable disease;
mainly cardiovascular disease, injuries, diabetes and cancer. Similarly, 48.9% of DALYs (burden of disease)
were attributed to non-communicable diseases (GoK, 2008; GoK, 2010).
1.3 Health Sector Reforms
The government has over the years recognized that the healthcare financing system is the linchpin of
the healthcare system. Improving the financing of the sector is thus been considered a key priority over the last
two decades. In this regard, various policies and strategies have been initiated over time by the government with
support of various key stakeholders. Among these include Health Policy Framework Paper, National Health
Sector Strategic Plan I & II, Vision 2030 and the constitution. In this sub-section, a brief overview of the
reforms is discussed.
85
3. Empirical Analysis of the various alternative sustainable....
1.3.1 The Health Policy Framework
In 1994, the government developed the Health Policy Framework of 1994 and two successive 5-year
National Health Sector Strategic Plans of 1999-2004 and 2009-10 set the targets and processes driving the
health sector development, as well as healthcare service delivery. In the Health Policy Framework of 1994, the
aim was to introduce reforms, in relation to the way the healthcare services are not only organized but also
financed, delivered and evaluated. Key to the realization of these goals was equitable allocation of government
resources to reduce disparities in health status; increased cost-effectiveness and efficiency of resource allocation
and use. Others were enhanced regulatory role of the government in health care provision; creation of an
enabling environment for increased private sector as well as community involvement in service provision and
financing; and increase and diversify per capita financial flows to the health sector.
In the NHSSP II, important approaches and innovations such as the concept of Kenya Essential
Package of Health (KEPH), the Community Strategy, the Joint Framework of Work and Financing (JPWF) an
essential element for entrenching the Kenya Health Sector-Wide Approaches (KHSWAp), and finally, the
Annual Operational Planning process were emphasized. To operationalize the Health Policy Framework, the
Ministry of Health (MOH) developed the Kenya Health Policy Framework Implementation Action Plan while at
the same time established the Health Sector Reform Secretariat (HSRS) in 1996 under a Ministerial Reform
Committee (MRC) to spearhead and oversee the implementation process. Similarly, a rationalization
programme within the MOH was also initiated. These policy initiatives were aimed at responding to among
others the financing of the public health sector as a bold step towards enhancing access to quality care amongst
the poor and other vulnerables.
As a means of increasing financial access, the National Hospital Insurance Fund Act was repealed and
new legislation enacted in 1998. The new Act provided for the expansion of the benefit package to, among
others, cover out-patient healthcare services, expand coverage to include the informal sector, and provisions for
improving governance. However, NHIF service coverage was not expanded at that time, and the population
continued to experience even greater constraints in affording the user-fees applicable in the public sector, while
the prospects of meeting any of the health goals, including MDGs, remained remote. The situation became
critical in 2002, forcing the Ministry of Health to drastically rethink about the user-fees policy. In the process,
user fees were abolished in the health centres and dispensaries, leaving only the registration fees of KSh 20 and
KSh 10, respectively otherwise known as 10/20 Policy.
1.3.2 The Kenya Vision 2030 and the MTEF 2008-2010
Further commitments by the Kenyan government in pursuing reforms are also reiterated in the Kenya
Vision 2030 and operationalized in the Medium Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF) of 2010. In the
documents, the central role of health as a key pillar in driving Kenya to be a globally competitive and
prosperous nation with a high quality of life equal to that of a middle-income country, by 2030 is emphasized.
The government has further affirmed its commitment of providing “equitable and affordable healthcare at the
highest affordable standard” to its citizens in the MTEF. These are to be realized among other initiatives access
supported by availability of services and financial access - targeting affordability; This was realized through the
provision of robust health infrastructure; strengthening health service delivery (especially through human
resource development strategies); development of health financing instruments such as health bonds, more
effective risk-pooling by transforming NHIF into National Health Services Trust (NHST) while at the same time
ensure AID effectiveness and harnessing the informal sector financing potential. Other mechanisms were
enhancing revenue collection and broadening the benefit package.
2.0 Health Financing in Kenya, Human Resources and Health Infrastructure
2.1 General Financing Sources
The healthcare financing system is not only complex but equally fragmented with respect to how
revenues are raised, managed and disbursed to various spending levels. The GOK funds the health sector
through budgetary allocations to the MOH and related government departments. However, tax revenues are
unreliable sources of health finance, because of macroeconomic conditions such as poor growth, national debt,
and inflation, which often affect the allocation to the health sector. A manifestation of the health budget
shortfalls is the widespread lack of adequate drugs and pharmaceuticals, staff shortages, and poor maintenance
of equipment, transport, and facilities. Over the past two decades, the GOK has pursued a policy of cost sharing
to bridge the gap between actual budgets and the level of resources needed to fund public health sector
activities. The revenue from the cost-sharing programme has continued to grow in absolute terms and as a
percentage of the recurrent government budget. In 2002-03, cost sharing contributed over 8 percent of the
recurrent expenditure and about 21 percent of the non-wage recurrent budget of the MOH (GoK, 2010). This
process is summarized in figure 2.1
86
4. Empirical Analysis of the various alternative sustainable....
Figure 2.1: Healthcare Financing in Kenya
Development Ministries of
Partners Health
HSSF being introduced to channel resources directly to public
Facilities
Formally NHIF (revenue
Employed Collection and
Mandatory
Purchasing)
Contributions
Agreed reimbursement
Line Item
Rates
Informal Budgeting
Voluntary
Workers
Contributions Public
and
Providers
Farmers
In Kind Support
“the poor ”
FBO/NGO/NFP
Providers
Contracting
Private
User-Fees or
providers
Private Insurance
Source: MoH, 2010
Key: ---- Private funds
---- Public funds
Reviews of public expenditures and budgets in the country show that total health spending constitutes
about 8 percent of the total government expenditure while recurrent expenditures have been consistently higher
than the development expenditures, both in absolute terms, and as a percentage of the GDP. Studies reveal that
recurrent expenditure is mostly on program management including wages, with very little spend on drugs and
others medical supplies. Also, the per capita expenditure falls short of the Government of Kenya‟s commitment
to spend 15 percent of its total budget on health based on the Abuja Declaration of 2001. The under-financing of
the health sector has impacts negatively on the poor and other vulnerables on their ability to access quality
health care. Overall health system expenditure has significantly increased in nominal terms, from 17 US$ per
capita, to an estimated 40US$ by 2010 (GoK, 2010). This expenditure increase is primarily driven by
Government and donor resource increases, with proportion of household expenditures reducing as a proportion
of the total expenditures. There is, however, no real increase in health system resources, with health
expenditures as a proportion of GDP, and public expenditures as a proportion of general government
expenditures remaining stagnant during the policy period (GoK, 2010).
2.2 Total Health Expenditures
Reports show that budgetary allocations to the Ministry of Health between 2000 and 2005 have
increased steadily in absolute terms from Ksh. 12 billion in 2000-01 to Ksh. 23 billion in 2004-05. Recurrent
expenditures have increased both in absolute terms and as a proportion of total GOK spending and GDP, while
development expenditures are somewhat variable, reflecting fluctuations in donor spending (GoK, 2005b).
Although the government health budget has increased in absolute terms - from KSh 15.3 billion in 2003/4 to
KSh 34.4 billion in 2007/081 (MPER, 2009) - it has declined significantly as a share of government spending
from 7.66% in 2004/05 to 7.3% in 2007/08 (including on budget donor funding), and from 8.0% in 2002 to
5.2% in 2006 (focusing solely on government financing). This suggests that, as on budget donor funding has
increased, domestic funding has been withdrawn casting doubts on sustainable financing of health care in the
country. As noted elsewhere, these levels remain well below the Abuja Declaration commitment figure of 15%
and the Economic Recovery Strategy target of spending 12% of the budget on health. Similarly, per capita
1
Of this recurrent expenditures accounted for some KSh 23.5 billion
87
5. Empirical Analysis of the various alternative sustainable....
government spending has remained at less than US$ 8, which is below the average for sub-Saharan Africa, with
total health expenditure, as a percentage of GDP, at just 4.8%.
In spite of the budgetary allocation to the ministry, the actual spending is skewed in favor of tertiary
and secondary care facilities, which absorb 70 percent of health expenditures notwithstanding their proximity by
the poor and other vulnerables. Yet primary care units, being the first line of contact with the population,
provide the bulk of health services and are cost effective in dealing with the disease conditions prevalent in
communities. Health personnel expenditures on the other hand are high, compared to expenditures on drugs,
pharmaceuticals, and other medical inputs such as medical equipment and supplies an indication that budgetary
allocation is skewed towards program management as opposed to preventive and curative management. Recent
estimates reveal that personnel spending accounts for about 50 percent of the budget, leaving 30 percent for
drugs and medical supplies, 11 percent for operations and maintenance (O&M) at the facility level and 10
percent for other recurrent expenses.
Expenditures for curative care constitute more than 48 percent of the total MOH budget. Donor
contributions to the health sector have been on the increase, rising from 8 percent of the health budget in 1994-
95 to 16 percent in the fiscal 2001-2002. In some years, donor contributions accounted for over 90 percent of the
development budget of the MOH. In summary, the Ministry of Health Public Expenditure Review (GoK, 2004b)
reported that the flow of funding to health facilities, especially at the primary care level as being poor with high
incidences of leakage estimated at 22 of the user fee revenue collected. Perceptions about the relative efficiency
and effectiveness of existing spending, the budget execution issues mentioned above and the feeling that the
sector is already well catered for by donors, is likely to have had an impact on the reluctance of the government
to substantially increase health funding. Given the current global financial crisis, it appears unlikely that
significant additional external resources will be available, and there may even be some reductions in allocations
by some donors.
On the other hand, NHIF resources accounts for about 10% of public health spending. Services are
purchased from only a few facilities with government hospitals constituting 65% while the remaining 35%
constitute faith-based, private and community-based hospitals (GoK, 2010). NHIF has continued to accumulate
huge surpluses due to under-utilization of the contributions. This under-utilization is attributed to many factors.
These include: i) the narrow benefit package (which has not been expanded despite the legal changes of 1998),
ii) lack of incentives for public sector providers to seek reimbursements; and iii) bureaucracy and sloppy
management of the funds. Although the share of contributions devoted to providing benefits has increased in
recent years, in 2007/08, it was only 45%, and in view of NHIF‟s wide network, administration costs account
for a large share of revenue. Efforts to replace the NHIF with the National Social Health Insurance Fund
(NSHIF) in 2006/07 were unsuccessful when the Act failed to receive presidential assent. The fund is in the
process of piloting out-patient cover with the intention of rolling over to the entire membership.
2.3 Current Sources of Health Care Financing in Kenya
2.3.1 Out-of-Pocket Spending
In the country, out-of-pocket (OOP) spending generates the largest proportion of the revenue used to
access healthcare services. This source contributed 52% and 36% of all the health expenditures in the country in
2002 and 2005, respectively. These funds are used directly at the point of accessing healthcare and are therefore
subject to their actual availability at the time of illness, and the cost of the services. At least 65% of these funds
are destined for use in the private sector. The Ministry of Health is the second most important source of funding,
contributing to about 30% of all health expenditures in the country (almost exclusively for use in the public
sector). Resources from development partners are principally channeled to support direct expenditures in
programmes and projects, particularly those of a non-curative nature. A small proportion of Kenyans have their
health resources channeled into the system though NHIF and private health insurance especially those in formal
employment. The principal feature of the collection process is that it is fragmentary, unpredictable and except
for NHIF, there is no legal or formal provision for how much may be contributed from any of these sources.
Consequently the poor who in most cases are unemployed or employed in the informal sector may be not
assured of accessing healthcare services when they are sick. This is because the government has not been
consistent in meeting its commitments to increase allocations to the health sector (GoK, 2010). In general, heavy
reliance on OOP spending as a source of healthcare financing, remains a major barrier to access, with majority
purchasing poor quality health services in the end.
In terms of access the large majority of Kenyans do not have access to affordable healthcare due to
poverty, currently estimated at 42 percent. According to the Household Health Expenditure Report of 2008,
44% of Kenyans who fall sick do not seek healthcare services, due to lack of finances and many of them either
resort to traditional healers or simply opt to stay at home (GoK, 2008). In the report, it was observed that over
40% of the poor undertake self-diagnosis when sick and where possible resort to self-medication. Figure 2.3
provides a summary of out-of-pocket spending by wealth quintile.
Figure 2.2: Out-of-Pocket Expenditure by Wealth Quintile in Kenya
88
6. Empirical Analysis of the various alternative sustainable....
1,600 4.5
1,400 4
1,200 3.5
Per Capita
3
% of Household
1,000
Share of Household
Expenditure
2.5
KSh per
Expenditure
Capita
800
2
600
1.5
400 1
200 0.5
- 0
Poorest Second Middle Fourth Richest
Wealth Quintile
Source: Kenya Household Health Expenditure and Utilization Survey Report 2007
It is far from clear that such spending offers value for money since 69% of private spending on out-
patient care is for drugs, with little or no evidence on whether this follows the practices of rational use of drugs.
The share of private financing, especially out-of-pocket spending, has declined rapidly in both relative and
absolute terms. According to the latest National Health Accounts, the share of private financing fell from 54% in
2002 to 39.3% in 2006, with much of this due to the increase in the share accounted for by donor support.
Private spending declined in real terms by 9.8% from KSh 30.8 to KSh 27.8 billion over said period. Household
spending dropped from 51% to 36% of total health expenditures2, and spending per capita (inflation adjusted)
declined from KSh 770 to KSh 713. Perhaps more importantly, direct out-of-pocket spending decreased by 29%
from KSh 819 to KSh 578. This huge drop in household spending mirrored a significant increase in flow of
development partner funds, especially from PEPFAR, to the sector, which is however expected to suffer given
the current funding schedule to developing countries including Kenya.
2.3.2 Overreliance on User-Fees Public Facilities to Fund Services
In 2007/08, reported cost sharing revenues amounted to some KSh 1.57 billion (MoH). Revenues have
increased dramatically from around KSh 28m in 1990/91 and KSh 720m in 2000/01. District hospitals
accounted for just below 60 percent of total revenues and provincial hospitals almost 30%. Collections in
Central Province were more than 10 times greater than those in North Eastern Province. Although small, in
absolute terms, they are significant at the operational level, accounting for 61%, 50% and 19% of the provincial,
district and rural health facility operational budgets (excluding salaries), respectively. There has been a system
of waivers and exemptions to cover children under five, TB treatment, malaria drugs, HIV/AIDS treatment and
the poor, but this system is not well defined and is complex to administer, since there are no clear criteria to
determine the patients who qualify. The important role for user-fees, as a mechanism for healthcare financing, is
curtailed largely due to lack of third party payment for the cost of waivers and exemptions instituted to protect
and guarantee access by the needy. As a result, the fee levels have been kept low, thereby undermining its
revenue generating potential, and consequently its ability to support increased provision and availability of
quality services.
2.3.3 Prepayment schemes
In the country, less than 4% of all the health funds are subjected to risk-pooling under both NHIF and
private health insurance otherwise known as health management organizations (HMOs). This is an indication of
insufficient cross-subsidy from among the different socio-economic groups in the country. Similarly, the
purchasing of healthcare services is predominantly personalized (fee-for-service), or input-based (as line item
budgets) in the public sector. As noted earlier, the public sector is not, therefore, able to channel a significant
proportion of health funding to the point of neither use, nor can the low-income groups afford healthcare when
they are sick.
2.3.3 Diversity in the Availability of Healthcare Providers
Although in Kenya there is a robust public/private mix (50:50) in healthcare service providers, due to
inability of a large segment of the population to afford private sector healthcare, there is under-utilization of
these services. Bed occupancy, for example, is on average under 50% in the private sector, while in the public
2
This expenditure is in the form of direct payments, payment into an insurance scheme, or by purchase of a “health card” that
gives access to services for a defined period of time
89
7. Empirical Analysis of the various alternative sustainable....
sector this may exceed 100%. The net result is high unit costs in the private sector and poor quality of care in the
public sector. Figure 2.3 shows the relative functional dominance of each of the principal players in Kenya‟s
healthcare financing system.
Figure 2.3: Financing Healthcare in Kenya
P
D R
O T E
Revenue N A M Others
Out - of - pocket
collection O X I
R U
S M
S
Pooling N No pooling
Ministry of H
Health I Individual
Purchasing
F purchasing
Provision Public providers Private providers
Source: GoK, 2010
Within the public sector there is a heavy concentration of authority over resources by the centre which
curtails the flexibility of the districts in planning for, and using, the allocated resources. The government system
of budget and cash management remains inflexible, and tends to undermine the districts‟ ability to utilise their
budgets fully, culminating in unavailability of services. Health facilities receive much of their support in-kind
with limited scope to reallocate across budget lines in ways that can ensure the available resources are used
optimally to improve the availability of services. These rigidities create inefficiencies and can contribute to low
budget execution. Furthermore, health workers are paid on a salary basis which, whilst good at containing costs,
provides few incentives for greater productivity, or the delivery of better quality services.
Similarly, execution of public expenditures on health is characterized by relatively good execution of
recurrent budgets, but under-spending of development budgets. Despite some improvements, development
spending accounted for only approximately 40% of the development budget (approved printed estimates) in
2004/05, and about 50% during 2005/06, indicating problems with absorption capacity (the ability to effectively
utilise the available funds) and problems of accessing development partner resources. A recent review of health
expenditures revealed that the Ministry of Health (MoH) only spent about 33% of the approved development
budget; with the worst performance in the preventive and promotive health sub-vote (24%), which received
almost half of the approved development budget. Within the recurrent budget, there appears to be on-going
problems with fully executing the drugs and medical consumables, and the purchase of plant and equipment
categories (GoK, 2010). Poor expenditure management has resulted in many stalled development projects, and
the accumulation of large sums of pending expenditures. According to the Health Sector MTEF of 2006/07 –
2008/09, there are also currently some KSh 2.1 billion in stalled construction projects in the MoH (completion
cost), although this is down from KSh 3.5 billion in 2005 (GoK 2005).
Currently, it is estimated that there are more than 20 major donors in the Kenyan health sector (not
including partner groups, self-financing NGOs and mission organizations), mostly disbursing funds through the
public sector that includes the MoH, teaching and research institutions; NGOs and other donor agencies, whose
support is heavily skewed towards certain areas. A substantial proportion of donor financing supports
programmes to expand access to anti-retroviral therapy and on other HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis
programmes. Donor financing also caters for a large proportion of the recurrent expenditure of FBOs and
NGOs. The share of aid in overall funding for health has increased dramatically and now exceeds public sector
financing, making Kenya extremely vulnerable to a downturn in donor support. Its share of total health
expenditure almost doubled from 16% in 2001/02 to 31.6% in 2005/06. It also has the potential to create
significant inflationary pressures and macroeconomic distortions.
While the financing from an increasing number of development partners is shown as part of the
government budget, the contributions from several others, accounting for a significant share of donor resources
for health is still off-budget, with the Ministry of Health having very little control over, and even knowledge
about, their expenditures. This can create distorted spending patterns, as well as the implementation of
programmes that are not key priorities. There are ongoing discussions between the government and development
partners to address this issue, including developing approaches for channelling resources from multiple partners
through a common funding stream in support of government priorities.
It is clear from the foregoing discussion that households spending through out-of-pocket spending, and
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8. Empirical Analysis of the various alternative sustainable....
donors remain the largest contributors of health funds. The private sector, which comprises of households,
private companies, and local foundations, contributed 39% of total health expenditure, with 36% coming from
households, mainly through out of pocket spending in year 2007/08 (NHA, 2009). Such systems of health
financing make it impossible to spread costs over the life-cycle: paying contributions when one is young and
healthy and drawing on them in the event of illness later in life. Consequently, the risk of financial catastrophe
and impoverishment is expected to be high, and achieving universal coverage becoming unattainable. Based on
this, the study sought to examine the public perception of the financing mechanisms for health care services in
Kenya.
2.4 Health Personnel, Infrastructure and Providers
The availability and comprehensiveness of health services offered at a health facility depends, in large
part, on the number of health workers at that facility. According to the Human Resource for Health Strategic
Plan (HRHSP, 2007-10), there are overall staff shortages with 47,247 personnel, against an estimated minimum
requirement of about 72,234. Shortfalls are heavily concentrated in parts of Coast, North Eastern Rift Valley and
Nyanza Provinces; areas that that have the lowest health indicators. Since 2005, a concerted effort has been
made to increase the number of skilled health workers available at the lower levels of the health system with the
intention of enhancing access to PHC. These efforts have however, not produced the desired impact in terms of
realizing desired health outcome as well moving towards the realization of MDGs to which Kenya government
is a signatory. Nonetheless, government personnel remain heavily skewed in favor of hospitals and the better-off
districts. Part of the overall problem can be traced to difficulties in recruitment and retention including:
incentives for locating in hard-to-reach places, general motivation and incentives, and human resources
management. As a result, several public health facilities remain closed due to shortfalls in human resources
(GoK, 2010; Gitahi, 2011). In addition, many public hospitals are dilapidated and do not have access to
appropriate equipment. Concurrently, there are significant gaps in essential specialised care capacity forcing
individuals to seek these services abroad when required.
To circumvent resource flow bottlenecks and to devolve financing in the country, parliament
introduced the Constituency Development Fund (CDF), through which earmarked government allocations are
made to each constituency on the basis of a formula that is heavily weighted on poverty levels. The use of CDF
resources has also added to the infrastructure in an ad hoc way, with facilities developed with little reference to
outstanding needs, or the ability to meet on-going recurrent requirements, which must be met from MoH
resources. Healthcare services are currently provided not only by public facilities, but also by FBO, NGO and
private-for-profit providers. In fact, in the latest NHA, 39.6% of the cost of health services was managed by
non-public providers. To date, little effort has been made to rationalise the service delivery network in the
country, contributing further to access problems.
In terms of providers, the country exhibits a robust public/private mix (50:50) in healthcare service
providers. Due to inability of a large segment of the population to afford private sector healthcare services
primarily attributed to high poverty levels in the country, there is under-utilization of these services. Bed
occupancy, for instance is on average under 50% in the private sector, while in the public sector this may exceed
100%. The net result is high unit costs in the private sector and poor quality of care in the public sector (GoK,
2010). Available statistics the 2003 Household Expenditure and Utilization Survey Report shows that the poor
utilize health care services and that majority of these vulnerable persons are less likely to seek treatment when
ill, compared to the more well-off. Figure 2.4 shows significant variations in utilization of out-patient care
between provinces and between urban and rural areas in the country.
Figure 2.4: Utilization of Health Services by Geographical Location and Wealth Status
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9. Empirical Analysis of the various alternative sustainable....
Source: GoK, 2010
This pattern is also consistent for in-patient care with the rich individuals, on average, making 20 admissions per
1,000 of the population annually, compared to 14 for the poorest quintile. These variations are attributed to the
cost of services. Studies also show that the poor are much more likely to use public facilities, especially for in-
patient care.
3.0 Possible Alternatives Financing Mechanisms for Public Health Care
In this sub-section, various possible financing mechanisms are reviewed. These include risk-pooling
(including micro-insurance, community based health insurance, social insurance, among others), dedicated taxes
and infrastructure bonds as some of health financing mechanisms are briefly discussed.
3.1 Specific Tax levies for health care financing
In various parts of the world, special taxes have been introduced specifically to finance health care
reforms in general and health care financing in particular. This is because the mechanism has the capacity to
generate adequate financial resources and it has a relatively low cost of collection. In the US for instance, an
additional US$ 10 billion annually for global health is raised through the introduction of a tax on air tickets,
foreign exchange transactions, tobacco and alcohol consumption (TIIFHS, 2009). Other sources include a range
of products and services, such as mobile phone calls, imported luxurious products, sugary drinks and foods high
in salt or transfats (Leonhardt, 2010; Holt, 2010; Musango and Aboubacar, 2010; Stenberg et al., 2010). For
instance, introduction of tobacco taxes in some states in Australia in 1983 resulted in a considerable injection of
funds for health promotion which generated US$ 1.2 million which was in the process directed to the „Tobacco
Tax Trust Fund‟ (Holman et al., 1984).
Similarly, in Californian voters approved 25 cents per package increase on cigarette tax in 1988, a
quarter of which was earmarked for anti-smoking education and tobacco-related research (Bal et al., 1990. In
Stenberg et al. (2010), it was estimated that levying such taxes would lead to a reduction in consumption of
alcohol by more than 10%, while tax revenues would more than triple to a level amounting to 38% of total
health spending especially in low income countries (LICs). This could be attributed to habitual nature of these
products and their inelasticity of demand. Ghana, for example, covers 70–75% of funding needs for its National
Health Insurance Scheme with general tax funding, notably through a 2.5% national health insurance levy on
VAT estimated at 12.5 % (Witter and Garshong, 2009). Chile on the other hand, introduced a 1% increase in
VAT in 2003 to finance public health. The VAT-based National Health Insurance Scheme has been able to
support an increase in total health expenditure through domestically generated pooled funds. At the same time it
has lessened the system‟s dependence on direct payments such as user fees as a source of finance (Tsounta,
2009). Analysis by WHO on the potential gains from increasing taxes on tobacco in 22 of the 49 LICs shows
that an excise taxes in these countries range from 11% to 52% of the retail price of the most popular brand of
cigarettes, representing a nominal range of US$ 0.03–0.51 per pack of 20. If these are considered, a 50%
increase in tobacco excise taxes would generate US$ 1.42 billion in additional funds in these countries. These
taxes are however not universal and therefore governments will need to implement those that best suit their
economies
Studies show that the success of these schemes depends on political. For instance, Gabon imposed a
1.5% levy on the post-tax profits of companies that handle remittances and a 10% tax on mobile phone operators
raising an equivalent of US$ 30 million for health in 2009 (Musango and Aboubacar, 2010; Stenberg et al.,
2010). Similarly, the Pakistan government has been taxing the profits of pharmaceutical companies to finance
part of its health spending for many years (Nishtar, 2010). This is thus an indication that there is the potential to
increase solidarity taxes on specific goods and services exist in many low income countries. In practice,
however, a country like Kenya which has a large informal sector tend to focus on taxes that are relatively easy to
collect, especially in the formal-sector especially employees and corporations, import or export duties of various
types and value added tax (VAT).
It is noteworthy that governments and ministries of finance in particular, are generally not enthusiastic
about earmarking taxes for specific purposes as pointed out by Busse (2007). As a result, this should be
carefully done because earmarking some products can be politically sensitive and will invariably be resisted by
particular interest groups. A tax on foreign exchange transactions, for example, may be perceived as a peg on
the banking sector or as a disincentive to exporters/importers which may be perceived have significant on
generation of revenue for the central government. For instance when Gabon introduced a tax on money transfers
in 2009 to raise funds to subsidize health care for low-income groups, some people protested that it constituted
an exchange restriction.
3.2 Infrastructure Bonds
Bonds are considered as long term debt financing, which may cater for the long term investment
expenditures such as expansion, rehabilitation and refurbishment of the dilapidated health infrastructure or the
or construction of new health facilities. General bonds are issued and guaranteed by the central government.
Traditionally, governments issue Treasury Bonds to finance public expenditure. For instance in 2009, the
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10. Empirical Analysis of the various alternative sustainable....
Kenyan government launched the first infrastructure bond (a 12-year bond) worth Kshs. 18.5 billion to finance
water, sewerage and irrigation, roads and energy projects (Central Bank of Kenya, 2009). To attract investors,
the government included incentives such as withholding tax exemption on interest income and listing at the
Nairobi Stock Exchange – this would increase the bond‟s liquidity.
In some instances, municipal bonds may be issued by the local authority as a way of helping local
governments, particularly urban governments to finance critical infrastructure with domestic private capital,
rather than sovereign borrowing by central governments. These bonds are usually exempted from taxes.
Although health care projects in developing countries have not tapped into the bond market, the sale of bonds in
international bonds market has mostly been available to large projects by donor countries where issuance of
these bonds has raised more than US$ 2 billion since 2006 [International Financing Facility for Immunization
(IFFIm), 2010].
3.3 Prepayment Schemes
These include risk pooling schemes such as health insurance which are considered as being
fundamental in improving domestic health financing as a bold step towards the realization of the health related
MDGs in an equitable way. People contribute to a pool that they, or others, can draw on in the event of illness.
According to World Health Report (WHR) of 2010, pooled funds are effective especially since they can cover
prescription medicines, ambulatory care, hospitalization, disease prevention and health promotion all of which
are critical components of PHC. Using this kind of funding, incidence of financial catastrophe, impoverishment
and the inability to access quality care are likely to fall to negligible levels especially among the poor.
This method has been embraced by many countries due to the failures of the user payments schemes
that countries adopted in the last there decades. These have been implemented on a small scale in various
countries including Rwanda, Ghana, Ethiopia and they have been successful in enhancing access to quality care
while at the same time mitigate against catastrophic health expenditure especially among the poor in the society.
Although this seem to work in various world economies, there will be need to caution the poor who may not be
able to pay the necessary premiums. Additionally, the success of these mechanisms will however, depend on
how the public including the private sector insurance conceives the idea and the ability to minimize the expected
transaction costs including management and collection of the funds.
4.0 Methodology and Findings
4.1 Methodology
To secure a representative sample, a descriptive research design was employed to ensure the
assessments of the target population that would represent the general population. The research design was
appropriate for this study as it allowed for the analysis of the views of health care personnel involved in
financing of health care. Both interview schedule and a self administered structured questionnaire were used in
collecting primary data. Additional data was collected from secondary sources including the ministry‟s strategic
plans, draft financing strategy as well as Kenya Vision 2030 and MTEF. Others were relevant journals,
published authoritative and WHO and World Bank publications. Data collected was cleaned and validated
before being coded in a mode that could be picked by the necessary statistical package. Finally, the analysis was
conducted using Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) and MS Excel in terms of frequency tables,
charts and graphs.
4.2 Findings and Discussion
Reported in this sub-section are the various financing mechanisms discussed above. The first sub-
section provides the views of respondents in terms of risk-pooling followed by dedicated taxes and finally
issuance of infrastructure bonds earmarked for health financing.
4.2.1 Prepayment Schemes
Respondents expressed their support for prepayment schemes as these would facilitate risk pooling
mechanisms that could provide a viable financing mechanism capable of protecting the poor from financial
catastrophe. This according to the respondent would enhance solidarity necessary in building a wider movement
towards universal coverage, especially for the poor, while at the same time reduce financial risks associated with
illness. Respondents also noted that the scheme is progressive in that the rich would pay for the poor while the
healthy would pay for the sick. Notwithstanding this almost all the respondents contended that the sick should
not pay a significant share of the costs of health services that they use. According to the respondents necessary
mechanisms were inevitable to assist the poor in paying the requisite premiums in order to caution the poor who
could not afford the premiums.
Regarding contributions, all the respondents reiterated that the contributions should be compulsory
with subsidies for the poor. According to the respondents, if the contributions are voluntary the rich are likely to
seek individualist health insurance from private insurance companies and as a result minimal resources will be
generated. In the process the intended objective of cautioning the poor and other vulnerables against financial
catastrophe would be elusive. Longer-term plans for expanding prepayment and incorporating community as
well as micro-insurance schemes were proposed in order to broaden the resource envelop. Respondents however
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11. Empirical Analysis of the various alternative sustainable....
noted that reaching informal sector has been a challenge with the cost of collection surpassing the revenue
collected. Respondents further noted that efforts need to be initiated in order to reach informal workers and
farmers. Smaller risk pools in the form of community health funds may were thus proposed. However,
according to the respondents would require enhancing the capacity in order to determine the
appropriate/minimum premium levels for such schemes, as well as for the general population of insured persons
covered through formal employment, or other informal group arrangements.
4.2.2 Specific Tax levies earmarked towards financing health care
With regard to specific tax levies, various divergent views were expressed. Whereas majority of the
respondents were of the opinion that specific taxes be introduced to raise adequate financial resources to
improve people‟s health, a few felt that this would not be a good solution for Kenya at this time. One argument
against such taxes is that it constrains the overall fiscal space of the government, and gives rise to similar
requests from other sectors. For those who supported this mechanism, they observed that it provides a stable
revenue stream, whose cost of collection is relatively low for the government if necessary institutional structures
are initiated and implemented. Whereas these findings are in line with the findings by Prakongsai and
Patcharanarumol (2008); Gordon (2009); Stenberg et al (2010); UNITAID (2010); Fryatt (2010); and Nishtar
(2010), they contradict the findings by Lucas (1998). For instance where as Prakongsai et al (2008) noted that
key attribute of an ideal specific tax fund is raising more funds and improving health at the same time reducing
consumption of harmful products such as tobacco or alcohol, Lucas (1998) noted that such new funding
mechanisms attract a high level of interest and scrutiny by government, interest groups such the media,the
community, private sector and lobby groups which in the process may hamper its administration. Lucas further
observed that policy-makers and others tend to have high expectations of what may be achieved by the new
funding in the short or even medium term. For instance, they may expect that the fund will demonstrate a
contribution to economic development, as well as measurable health improvements, in a relatively short time.
Such expectations are unlikely to be realized and may be damaging if not corrected. Respondents were however,
quick to note that implementing these kind of taxes should be done systematically by first identifying the
products that should be targeted for taxation followed by the necessary consultation with key stakeholders such
as politicians, the media, health professionals, key opinion leaders and the general community to get their buy-in
otherwise it is likely to be contested in public as well as the court of law which in the process may send
inappropriate signal in the implementation.
This is because according to the respondents, some products could be politically sensitive and will
invariably be resisted in the process. Additionally, taxes have distortionary effect which may be viewed to
contribute towards deadweight loss to various economic agents. The respondents further observed that once
these have been accomplished, then the case for dedicating part of funds for specific health programmes can be
initiated with the necessary legal framework. Finally, specific organ to administer the generated resources need
to be estimated with the necessary management structures for prudent financial management. The study further
revealed that lack of judicious implementation of a dedicated tax fund would suffer from various challenges.
Among them opposition by the companies affected, as well as the Ministry of Finance and by the agencies such
as sports which are funded by the companies affected. In terms of specific target products, a large majority of
the respondents were of the opinion that tobacco, airtime, air ticket, remittances from the Diaspora, unclaimed
assets in financial institutions and alcoholic drinks should be subject be the first target. Other products suggested
by respondents were sugary drinks and foods high in salt due to their health hazards.
4.2.3 Health Bonds
Innovative modalities for generating revenue, particularly to cover the health needs of the poor, will be
are critical. This includes the option of a health bond and promoting health savings. This is important in the
country as most health facilities are in need of rehabilitation while many cannot handle special cases. A large
majority of the respondents supported debt financing through issuance of infrastructure bond due to its long-
term repayment period. The preference according to respondents was associated with the history of the Kenyan
government‟s use of government guaranteed debt financing with the recent infrastructure bond to finance both
rail and road networks. Although revenue from municipal bonds may still be acceptable, only a minority were in
its favor. This according to the respondents was due to the local government‟s ability to settle their debts in time
and, notwithstanding investors‟ nature of being risk averse. This findings is supported by the recently released
statistics by the Ministry of Local Government that revealed that local authorities in Kenya are in arrears to the
tune of about Ksh 18 billion with only a few capable of meeting recurrent obligation including salaries and
wages. This therefore means that their ability to repay debt obligations when they fall due are limited and
questionable.
Other key issues raised for the success of the facility were level of development of the bond,
government guarantee, the ability to sell the bond before maturity, nature of information asymmetry regarding
bond risks, tax treatment of investor returns and credit rating of the issuer. The study also revealed that bonds
offer several benefits to the issuer including reduced borrowing costs, increased investor base for infrastructure,
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provision of a means of raising large sums of money, assisting to diversify sources of funding, and establishing
a favourable credit history in the capital markets. In terms of the need to issue part of the initial infrastructure
bond to a reputable investor, such as the World Bank, to boost investor confidence, the response was that having
such an anchor investor in the Kenyan market was of little importance. However, the fact that Kenyan investors
have demonstrated their willingness to purchase infrastructure bonds may imply that there is sufficient investor
confidence and hence no need for an anchor investor in the Kenyan infrastructure bond market.
4.2.4 Other financing mechanisms
Respondents also suggested other financing options as a bold step towards enhancing access to quality public
health care. These included:
i) Improving efficiency, accountability and transparency by reducing and changing the role of the State,
Ensuring Services are of adequate quality, strengthening the referral system, making more effective
use of the private Sector;
ii) Strengthening revenue collection through the establishing a new revenue collection agency to ensuring
that the maximum amount of funding is available for purchasing health services ,
iii) More effective risk-pooling mechanisms such as community and micro-insurance;
iv) Harnessing the informal sector financing potential by incorporating entrepreneurs, self-earning
professionals, members from the matatu sector, agricultural sector, the juakali sector and freelance
workers into the NHIF;
v) Broadening the benefits package by NHIF to cover both the in-patient and out-patient costs;
vi) Strengthening provider incentives by developing new approaches to reimbursement; and
vii) Establishing measures for protecting the poor and vulnerable groups by first establishing mechanisms for identifying the
poor, strengthening the provision of health services to poorer groups, initiating mechanisms for covering
the cost of the poor.
4.0 Conclusion and Way Forward
4.1 Conclusion
Based on the findings and literature reviewed, it is clear that there are valiant mechanisms for financing
PHC in Kenya. These include but not limited to establishment of prepayment schemes, establishing a specific
tax levies, issuance of health bonds, enhancing revenue collection as well as establishing mechanisms that wuld
protect poor and other vulnerables from access quality care. For instance, prepayment schemes through risk
pooling would facilitate in spreading the cost of health care and reduce incidences of financial catastrophe and
increase in utilization of health services among the poor in the society. Specific tax funds, on the other hand,
would provide a stable revenue stream for financing health care, promote and protect peoples‟ health. This
according to the respondents however, requires establishment of the necessary legal framework that will
spearhead the required reforms. The respondents however, cautioned that the success of mechanism will depend
on the ability to identify the products on which the tax will be levied followed by an all inclusive consultation
with key stakeholders for consensus building and avoidance of cases of public outbursts that may affect the
collection of the funds. Additionally, establishment of the necessary legal framework upon which the scheme
will be anchored including establishment of the organization to spearhead the process was a key issue raised.
Other additional financing options that were favored by respondents based on the study findings include
improving efficiency, accountability and transparency, harnessing the informal sector financing potential,
Broadening the benefits package by NHIF to cover both the in-patient and out-patient costs; and strengthening
provider incentives by developing new approaches towards reimbursement.
4.2 Way Forward
The success of prepayment involves making the contributions compulsory. However, given the poverty
levels estimated at 42%, there is a segment of the population that may not afford the charges. Therefore, it will
be necessary that safety nets are designed to cushion this group. Thus the government with support from donors
through the proposed Joint Financing Agreement (JFA) could be considered in introducing Health Equity Funds
(HEFs) like in the case of Cambodia or micro-insurances in Rwanda. These however, require capacity building
at local level to manage the schemes and also to minimize on transaction costs unlike in the case of Cambodia
where in the initial phase, the scheme was entirely managed by expatriates. As a first step towards this, it will be
necessary to design a tool that will facilitate in the identification of the poor. The tool developed for National
health Insurance Fund (NHIF) by Okumu (2012) could provide some basis of developing a tool for use nation-
wide. In terms of specific tax levies, it is necessary that wider consultations are embraced to minimize
incidences where these funds are challenged both legally and politically. Legal framework needs to be
established so that the scheme is anchored onto the laws of the country. This should be considered alongside the
establishment of a legal entity that will prudently manage the funds collected.
Additionally, both political and leadership commitment is necessary in order to promote budgetary
allocation towards health sector in line with the Abuja Declaration of 2001. With the increased funding, it will
necessary to address supply factors such as access in terms of physical, coverage and utilization, quality of
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13. Empirical Analysis of the various alternative sustainable....
services in terms of the health package, availability of drugs, quality of personnel and their availability,
availability of necessary equipment, among others. Alternative flow of funds arrangements may therefore be
needed to ensure that allocated funds reach service providers in this regard, donors may need to not only support
the design but also the operationalization of revenue management schemes at all levels of public revenue
spending. Mechanisms to ensure that public funds actually reach their intended target need to be promoted.
Wastage and corruption in the health sector are widespread and substantial resources could be mobilized for the
provision of services by increasing the transparency and accountability of public sector resource management.
To address the problems associated with health facilities, the government needs to embark on the
rehabilitation and refurbishing of public hospitals to ensure that these institutions meet the minimum acceptable
Certification Standards. This will also necessitate the provision of additional equipment and ICT facilities to all
hospitals. Lastly, an efficient revenue collection system is critical to ensuring that the maximum amount of
funding is available for purchasing health services. Since the active purchasing function is so complex, and so
important to the smooth functioning of the healthcare financing system, it makes sense to separate the revenue
collection and purchasing functions. Therefore, one agency can focus on maximizing the amount of revenue,
while another can focus on deriving maximum value from the available revenue. This is done automatically
under the current tax funded model. Under a social insurance model, the government would need to consider
establishing a joint agency to collect all social security related contributions especially those associated with
specific taxes.
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