Final Paper Draft Outline – Week 7
For the second to last homework, you need to submit an outline of your final paper. What does
that mean? You need to read the article “Writing for College: What is an Academic Paper” and
conceptualize what the paper assignment for this course is about:
https://depts.washington.edu/owrc/Handouts/What%20is%20an%20Academic%20Paper.pdf
Next, you need to read the “Final Paper Minimum Requirements” to get a sense of how you shall
start creating the paper. Think of a topic that you are interest the most – it can be a critical paper,
project, applicative hacks – and then apply the instructions from the first two sources indicated.
The draft outline needs to answer:
• what is your topic,
• what are your main sections in the paper,
• what are the preliminary sources you will use,
• how you plan to write in each of these sections/use the sources.
The APA, IEEE, or MLA is required for this assignment. Why? You can just use the same
document to proceed with actually writing the paper, project report, or the white paper of the
hack. You can find the formatting guidelines in the “Paper Guidelines” module in D2L.
Once you have finalized your homework, please take a look at the document named “How to
Read an Academic Paper” that is also attached together in the same D2L module as the other
two. Make sure you read it – it is an excellent and critical tool that you will need in reading the
academic sources you plan to build upon in your paper.
Risking Security: Policies and Paradoxes
of Cyberspace Security
Ronald J. Deibert
University of Toronto
and
Rafal Rohozinski
University of Toronto
Conceptualizations of cyberspace security can be divided into two related
dimensions, articulated as ‘‘risks’’: risks to the physical realm of computer
and communication technologies (risks to cyberspace); and risks that arise
from cyberspace and are facilitated or generated by its technologies, but
do not directly target the infrastructures per se (risks through cyberspace).
There is robust international consensus, growing communities of practice,
and an emerging normative regime around risks to cyberspace. This is less
the case when it comes to risks through cyberspace. While states do collabo-
rate around some policy areas, cooperation declines as the object of risk
becomes politically contestable and where national interests vary widely.
These include the nature of political opposition and the right to dissent
or protest, minority rights and independence movements, religious belief,
cultural values, or historical claims. The contrast between the domains has
led to contradictory tendencies and paradoxical outcomes.
Globalization is generating new security challenges. Modern societies confront a
myriad of risks that threaten economic prosperity, undermine the safety and
security of citizens, and cause significant disruption to society and politics. These
risks range from empowered and mili.
Better Cyber Security Through Effective Cyber Deterrence_The Role of Active C...Brent Guglielmino
This document discusses the challenges of securing cyberspace and proposes a new deterrence model using active cyber defense for the United States. It outlines that cyberspace is different than physical domains in that it is man-made and constantly evolving due to technological advances. Current policy deficiencies exacerbate technical vulnerabilities in cyberspace, threatening national security. The document asserts that America must take action to develop governance and secure its interests in cyberspace. It proposes a deterrence model based on active cyber defense to achieve a more secure cyber domain and realize national security imperatives.
This document provides an overview of cyber ethics, including:
- Defining cyber ethics as the study of the impact of computer technology on ethics and the design of policies for its ethical use.
- Describing the evolution of cyber ethics in four phases from the 1950s to the present.
- Explaining that cyber technology has unique ethical aspects due to its logical malleability and the unintentional power embedded in its design.
- Outlining three perspectives that cyber ethics can be viewed from: as a field of professional ethics, philosophical ethics, or descriptive ethics.
- Highlighting some key ethical issues in cyber technology like privacy, accuracy, intellectual property, and access.
- Providing a strategy
This document discusses cyber ethics and its evolution. It defines cyber ethics as the study of the impact of computer technology on ethics and the design of policies for its ethical use. The evolution of cyber ethics is summarized in four phases from the 1950s to the present. Key issues in each phase included the impact of computers, privacy, intellectual property, computer crime, free speech and more. The document argues cyber ethics is a unique field because computer technology is logically malleable and can be designed with unintentional power, creating new policy vacuums.
Big Data can generate, through inferences, new knowledge and perspectives. The paradigm that results from using Big Data creates new opportunities. Big Data has great influence at the governmental level, positively affecting society. These systems can be made more efficient by applying transparency and open governance policies, such as Open Data. After developing predictive models for target audience behavior, Big Data can be used to generate early warnings for various situations. There is thus a positive feedback between research and practice, with rapid discoveries taken from practice.
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.14677.17120
The document introduces the concept of Web Science and discusses its emergence as a new field of study. It describes the Web Science Research Initiative which aims to take a multidisciplinary approach to examining the Web. It then discusses different perspectives on what constitutes "The Web" from both user and scientific perspectives. Finally, it outlines some of the challenges in understanding the Web that Web Science seeks to address, such as its social and technical aspects as well as how it influences other domains.
This document provides background information on cyber security and examines the potential trade-off between cooperation on cyber security and the proliferation of cyber weapons. It discusses how states' increasing reliance on cyber infrastructure has created new vulnerabilities that can be exploited by cyber weapons. The document also explores the proliferation problem posed by cyber weapons as their code can easily spread and be reused by others. It argues there may be a fundamental choice between cooperating to improve cyber security, which requires disclosure of vulnerabilities, and developing cyber weapons, which relies on keeping vulnerabilities secret. The proliferation of cyber weapons could thus undermine prospects for international cooperation on cyber security.
Cyber-enabled Information Operations -- Inglis 04 27-17 -- SASCDavid Sweigert
Chris Inglis testified before the Senate Armed Services Committee about cyber-enabled information operations. He discussed three trends exacerbating the impact of technology: 1) a new geography of the internet transcending physical borders, 2) people increasingly organizing by ideology rather than proximity, and 3) private and state actors seeing cyberspace as a venue for collaboration, competition, and conflict. Any solution must address technology, people, and the procedures binding them, and emphasize collaboration between private and public sectors to improve resilience across borders.
Electronic copy available at httpsssrn.comabstract=28526.docxAASTHA76
Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2852689
0
The interplay between decentralization and privacy:
the case of blockchain technologies
Primavera De Filippi
CERSA — CNRS — Université Paris II
Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard
Abstract:
Decentralized architectures are gaining popularity as a way to protect one’s privacy against
the ubiquitous surveillance of states and corporations. Yet, in spite of the obvious benefits
they provide when it comes to data sovereignty, decentralized architectures also present
certain characteristics that—if not properly accounted for—might ultimately impinge upon
users’ privacy. While they are capable of preserving the confidentiality of data, decentralized
architectures cannot easily protect themselves against the analysis of metadata. Accordingly,
if not properly designed, decentralized infrastructures intended to promote individual privacy
and autonomy might turn out to be much more vulnerable to governmental or corporate
surveillance than their centralized counterparts.
This paper analyses the case of Bitcoin and other blockchain-based networks, as an example
of decentralized infrastructures which suffers from radical transparency. While they provide
a series of privacy benefits to end-users, the characteristics of these networks present both
advantages and risks to the privacy of end-users. On the one hand, the pseudonymous nature
of many blockchain-based networks allows for people to transact on a peer-to-peer basis,
without disclosing their identity to anyone. On the other hand, the transparency inherent to
these networks is such that anyone can retrieve the history of all transactions performed on a
blockchain and rely on big data analytics in order to retrieve potentially sensitive
information.
The paper concludes that, in spite of the apparent dichotomy between transparency and
privacy, there is no real conflict between the two. With the use of advanced cryptographic
techniques, it is only a matter of time before people identify news ways to preserve
individual privacy in decentralized architectures.
Keywords: blockchain technology, decentralization, privacy, transparency, cryptography.
Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2852689
1
Introduction
With the current state of telecommunication technologies, it is becoming harder to
communicate on the Internet without leaving traces or disclosing information to centralized
third parties —be they governmental agencies or private companies (Lyon, 2014). The trend
towards the growing centralization of online platforms has important privacy implications.
Not only do these unifying network points constitute a single point of failure, they also
qualify as a valuable source of data that might fall prey to hackers. Centralized online
operators can also be coerced by governmental agencies to disclose sensitive information
about their us.
Better Cyber Security Through Effective Cyber Deterrence_The Role of Active C...Brent Guglielmino
This document discusses the challenges of securing cyberspace and proposes a new deterrence model using active cyber defense for the United States. It outlines that cyberspace is different than physical domains in that it is man-made and constantly evolving due to technological advances. Current policy deficiencies exacerbate technical vulnerabilities in cyberspace, threatening national security. The document asserts that America must take action to develop governance and secure its interests in cyberspace. It proposes a deterrence model based on active cyber defense to achieve a more secure cyber domain and realize national security imperatives.
This document provides an overview of cyber ethics, including:
- Defining cyber ethics as the study of the impact of computer technology on ethics and the design of policies for its ethical use.
- Describing the evolution of cyber ethics in four phases from the 1950s to the present.
- Explaining that cyber technology has unique ethical aspects due to its logical malleability and the unintentional power embedded in its design.
- Outlining three perspectives that cyber ethics can be viewed from: as a field of professional ethics, philosophical ethics, or descriptive ethics.
- Highlighting some key ethical issues in cyber technology like privacy, accuracy, intellectual property, and access.
- Providing a strategy
This document discusses cyber ethics and its evolution. It defines cyber ethics as the study of the impact of computer technology on ethics and the design of policies for its ethical use. The evolution of cyber ethics is summarized in four phases from the 1950s to the present. Key issues in each phase included the impact of computers, privacy, intellectual property, computer crime, free speech and more. The document argues cyber ethics is a unique field because computer technology is logically malleable and can be designed with unintentional power, creating new policy vacuums.
Big Data can generate, through inferences, new knowledge and perspectives. The paradigm that results from using Big Data creates new opportunities. Big Data has great influence at the governmental level, positively affecting society. These systems can be made more efficient by applying transparency and open governance policies, such as Open Data. After developing predictive models for target audience behavior, Big Data can be used to generate early warnings for various situations. There is thus a positive feedback between research and practice, with rapid discoveries taken from practice.
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.14677.17120
The document introduces the concept of Web Science and discusses its emergence as a new field of study. It describes the Web Science Research Initiative which aims to take a multidisciplinary approach to examining the Web. It then discusses different perspectives on what constitutes "The Web" from both user and scientific perspectives. Finally, it outlines some of the challenges in understanding the Web that Web Science seeks to address, such as its social and technical aspects as well as how it influences other domains.
This document provides background information on cyber security and examines the potential trade-off between cooperation on cyber security and the proliferation of cyber weapons. It discusses how states' increasing reliance on cyber infrastructure has created new vulnerabilities that can be exploited by cyber weapons. The document also explores the proliferation problem posed by cyber weapons as their code can easily spread and be reused by others. It argues there may be a fundamental choice between cooperating to improve cyber security, which requires disclosure of vulnerabilities, and developing cyber weapons, which relies on keeping vulnerabilities secret. The proliferation of cyber weapons could thus undermine prospects for international cooperation on cyber security.
Cyber-enabled Information Operations -- Inglis 04 27-17 -- SASCDavid Sweigert
Chris Inglis testified before the Senate Armed Services Committee about cyber-enabled information operations. He discussed three trends exacerbating the impact of technology: 1) a new geography of the internet transcending physical borders, 2) people increasingly organizing by ideology rather than proximity, and 3) private and state actors seeing cyberspace as a venue for collaboration, competition, and conflict. Any solution must address technology, people, and the procedures binding them, and emphasize collaboration between private and public sectors to improve resilience across borders.
Electronic copy available at httpsssrn.comabstract=28526.docxAASTHA76
Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2852689
0
The interplay between decentralization and privacy:
the case of blockchain technologies
Primavera De Filippi
CERSA — CNRS — Université Paris II
Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard
Abstract:
Decentralized architectures are gaining popularity as a way to protect one’s privacy against
the ubiquitous surveillance of states and corporations. Yet, in spite of the obvious benefits
they provide when it comes to data sovereignty, decentralized architectures also present
certain characteristics that—if not properly accounted for—might ultimately impinge upon
users’ privacy. While they are capable of preserving the confidentiality of data, decentralized
architectures cannot easily protect themselves against the analysis of metadata. Accordingly,
if not properly designed, decentralized infrastructures intended to promote individual privacy
and autonomy might turn out to be much more vulnerable to governmental or corporate
surveillance than their centralized counterparts.
This paper analyses the case of Bitcoin and other blockchain-based networks, as an example
of decentralized infrastructures which suffers from radical transparency. While they provide
a series of privacy benefits to end-users, the characteristics of these networks present both
advantages and risks to the privacy of end-users. On the one hand, the pseudonymous nature
of many blockchain-based networks allows for people to transact on a peer-to-peer basis,
without disclosing their identity to anyone. On the other hand, the transparency inherent to
these networks is such that anyone can retrieve the history of all transactions performed on a
blockchain and rely on big data analytics in order to retrieve potentially sensitive
information.
The paper concludes that, in spite of the apparent dichotomy between transparency and
privacy, there is no real conflict between the two. With the use of advanced cryptographic
techniques, it is only a matter of time before people identify news ways to preserve
individual privacy in decentralized architectures.
Keywords: blockchain technology, decentralization, privacy, transparency, cryptography.
Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2852689
1
Introduction
With the current state of telecommunication technologies, it is becoming harder to
communicate on the Internet without leaving traces or disclosing information to centralized
third parties —be they governmental agencies or private companies (Lyon, 2014). The trend
towards the growing centralization of online platforms has important privacy implications.
Not only do these unifying network points constitute a single point of failure, they also
qualify as a valuable source of data that might fall prey to hackers. Centralized online
operators can also be coerced by governmental agencies to disclose sensitive information
about their us.
Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies ; 2016 (3)96–11DaliaCulbertson719
Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies ; 2016 (3):96–116
Chad Spensky, Jeffrey Stewart, Arkady Yerukhimovich, Richard Shay, Ari Trachtenberg, Rick
Housley, and Robert K. Cunningham
SoK: Privacy on Mobile Devices – It’s Complicated
Abstract: Modern mobile devices place a wide variety
of sensors and services within the personal space of their
users. As a result, these devices are capable of transpar-
ently monitoring many sensitive aspects of these users’
lives (e.g., location, health, or correspondences). Users
typically trade access to this data for convenient appli-
cations and features, in many cases without a full appre-
ciation of the nature and extent of the information that
they are exposing to a variety of third parties. Never-
theless, studies show that users remain concerned about
their privacy and vendors have similarly been increas-
ing their utilization of privacy-preserving technologies
in these devices. Still, despite significant efforts, these
technologies continue to fail in fundamental ways, leav-
ing users’ private data exposed.
In this work, we survey the numerous components of
mobile devices, giving particular attention to those that
collect, process, or protect users’ private data. Whereas
the individual components have been generally well
studied and understood, examining the entire mobile de-
vice ecosystem provides significant insights into its over-
whelming complexity. The numerous components of this
complex ecosystem are frequently built and controlled
by different parties with varying interests and incen-
tives. Moreover, most of these parties are unknown to
the typical user. The technologies that are employed to
protect the users’ privacy typically only do so within
a small slice of this ecosystem, abstracting away the
greater complexity of the system. Our analysis suggests
that this abstracted complexity is the major cause of
many privacy-related vulnerabilities, and that a funda-
mentally new, holistic, approach to privacy is needed
going forward. We thus highlight various existing tech-
nology gaps and propose several promising research di-
rections for addressing and reducing this complexity.
Keywords: privacy-preserving technologies, mobile, An-
droid, iOS
DOI 10.1515/popets-2016-0018
Received 2015-11-30; revised 2016-03-01; accepted 2016-03-02.
Chad Spensky: University of California, Santa Barbara,
[email protected]
Jeffrey Stewart: MIT Lincoln Laboratory,
[email protected]
1 Introduction
The rapid proliferation of mobile devices has seen them
become integral parts of many users’ lives. Indeed, these
devices provide their users with a variety of increasingly
essential services (e.g., navigation, communication, and
Internet connectivity), as well as useful functionality
(e.g., entertainment and photography). To accommo-
date these services, modern mobile devices are equipped
with various sensors, capable of collecting extremely rich
information about their users and their surroundings.
Users and de ...
For this assignment, review the article abomhara, m., & koien,modi11
The authors investigated cyber security threats and vulnerabilities related to the Internet of Things. They aimed to classify threat types and analyze the characteristics of potential attackers or intruders. The paper reviewed key concepts in IoT like devices and services. It identified common security issues around data confidentiality, privacy, and trust. The authors concluded that understanding threats is important for developing robust security requirements to protect IoT infrastructure and ensure its safe development. However, more research is still needed to address open challenges from resource-constrained devices and evolving attack techniques.
This document discusses the growing dependency of individuals and organizations on cyberspace and the associated risks. It provides historical context on the evolution of the internet from ARPANET. Key points covered include:
- Individuals and organizations have become increasingly reliant on cyberspace for daily activities, work operations, and digital transformation, leaving them vulnerable to cyber threats.
- Emerging areas of focus for cybersecurity are the internet of things and how hackers can access systems through connected devices, as well as exploiting personal devices with stored data.
- Common cyber risks discussed are viruses, service disruptions, phishing, SQL injection attacks, and password attacks. Stricter laws have been implemented in some countries like the
This document discusses cybersecurity risks facing institutions and proposes countermeasures. It begins by explaining how the expansion of cyber space has increased cyber risks and how most countries have developed national cybersecurity strategies in response. However, it notes that institutions also need their own robust cybersecurity strategies to protect against modern cyber threats targeting both infrastructure and personnel.
The document then presents a case study analyzing how open source intelligence (OSINT) techniques using social media and other online sources can expose sensitive personal and institutional data. It demonstrates how cyber criminals could potentially gather usernames, email addresses, location data and other metadata about employees and systems.
Finally, it recommends several countermeasures institutions should take. These include educating employees about metadata risks, implementing
Running Head ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHYANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY .docxhealdkathaleen
Running Head: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 6
Annotated Bibliography on Emerging Cyber Threats
[Name of Institution]
[Name of Writer]
Annotated Bibliography on Emerging Cyber Threats
Source#1
Reference: Kettani, H., & Wainwright, P. (2019, March). On the Top Threats to Cyber Systems. In 2019 IEEE 2nd International Conference on Information and Computer Technologies (ICICT) (pp. 175-179). IEEE.
Summary: This article reveals the threats to the cyber systems even some of them are not known to the common people. The article defines that the latest technology has advanced the cyber systems and these advancements are attractive and beneficial in comparison to the previous systems. However, due to this sophisticated and attractive advancement the individuals, societies, and nations had become dependent on the cyber systems. These systems result in the higher gain and ease of handling since people had relying on the cyber systems. Moreover, the author argues that for the adoption of the proper defense and mitigations to the threats it is necessary to understand cyber threats. The top threats with a brief discussion of threat agents and attack vectors along with the countermeasures are mentioned so that the readers can find knowledge in this regard.
Relevance: This article is of paramount importance because it defines the importance of the topic of research. As the aim of the research is to expose the emerging cyber-attacks and the author of the article “On the Top Threats to Cyber Systems” reveals the importance of the cyber systems which is important for understanding the dependence over the cyber systems. In addition to this, the article is found worth reading because it reveals the emerging cybercrimes and ways of protection too. The study is found relevant because it reveals that cyber systems are important nowadays because they are used in the business systems, control systems, and for accessing the control systems. In other words, the articles provide an overview of the emerging threats and latest trends in the cyber systems.
Source#2
Reference: Parn, E. A., & Edwards, D. (2019). Cyber threats confronting the digital built environment. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management.
Summary: This article determines the cyber systems attack in the sector of the digital built environment. The study gives the idea of emerging crimes that are made to threat the digital and physical assets that are used to form the digital economies. These threats are often made to affect the critical infrastructure of the smart cities. These smart cities are comprised of the cyber systems which also increase the national wealth, preserve health, and provide safety and welfare to the nation. In this regard, it is important to protect the cyber systems from the critical and emerging threats. Additionally, the article reveals the safe an ...
Context, Causality, and Information Flow: Implications for Privacy Engineerin...Sebastian Benthall
The creators of technical infrastructure are under social and legal pressure to comply with expectations that can be difficult to translate into computational and business logics. The dissertation presented in this talk bridges this gap through three projects that focus on privacy engineering, information security, and data economics, respectively. These projects culminate in a new formal method for evaluating the strategic and tactical value of data. This method relies on a core theoretical contribution building on the work of Shannon, Dretske, Pearl, Koller, and Nissenbaum: a definition of information flow as a channel situated in a context of causal relations.
Critical Information Infrastructure Cyberspace Situational Awareness_Measure ...DaveNjoga1
This document discusses situational awareness in cyberspace and critical information infrastructure protection. It begins with background on cyberspace and defines cyberspace situational awareness. It establishes that situational awareness is important for cyberspace security management. The study reveals that comprehensive intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance of cyber incidents is vital but missing for achieving a mature and managed cyberspace. It recommends adopting a framework encompassing technical, social and political aspects to enable sustainable situational awareness, which is key to information governance and achieving development goals.
The Impact of Information System (Internet of Things) on Management and Globa...BRNSSPublicationHubI
This document discusses the impact of information systems and the Internet of Things (IoT) on management and globalization. It describes how IoT has revolutionized decision-making, communication, economics, and other areas due to the evolution of the web and new technologies. However, the rise of IoT has also increased security risks and cyber attacks. An embedded framework is needed to address these security issues and mitigate the negative impacts of IoT technology on society.
Comprehensive U.S. Cyber Framework Final ReportLandon Harrell
This project is a product of the Class of 2019 Bush School of Government and Public Service, Texas A&M University Capstone Program. The project lasted one academic year and involved eight second-year master students. It intends to synthesize and provide clarity in the realm of issues pertaining to U.S. Internet Protocol Space by demonstrating natural partnerships and recommendations for existing cyber incident response. The project was produced at the request of PointStream Inc., a private cybersecurity contractor.
The Cyberspace and Intensification of Privacy Invasioniosrjce
IOSR Journal of Computer Engineering (IOSR-JCE) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of computer engineering and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in computer technology. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
The document discusses the intensification of privacy invasion in cyberspace due to the widespread adoption of social media and mobile computing. It explores the different levels at which cyberspace users are exposed to privacy invasion, including personal information, communication activities, location data, and behavioral and biological data being collected without consent. While cyberspace enables new opportunities, advances in technology are also raising new threats to privacy, integrity, and trust. As interactions cut across borders without existing relationships of trust, protecting individual privacy in cyberspace is challenging and requires addressing social, legal and technical issues.
1Running head CYBERWARCYBER WAR9Outstanding title.docxfelicidaddinwoodie
1
Running head: CYBERWAR
CYBER WAR
9
Outstanding title page formatting
Cyber War
Name
University
Professor
04/28/2018
Introduction Cyber War
Cyber warfare refers to a computer or network-based conflict that disrupts the activities of a state or
organization by deliberate attacking critical infrastructures. Cyber attacks can also be described as an attack by hostile groups such as terrorist or hacker groups aimed, at furthering the goals of a given nation. To have a better understanding, cyber warfare can take different forms such as; viruses that can take down water supplies, military systems, transportation systems, hacking and theft of critical data from government and private institutions. This paper will focus on assessing various mechanism applied in different articles to counter cybersecurity and protect critical infrastructure. Further, by analyzing the results and experience in Xia, Becerra-Fernandez, Gudi, & Rocha-Mier (2011), the essay will also show how
the findings can be utilized in real life scenario.
1. What do the articles have in common?
According to Clemente (2011), the advancement of interconnection between different infrastructures sectors has boosted by the escalation of cyberspace. The author points out that the security
implications are inevitable especially in this era of cyberspace and infrastructure. The main idea in the article involves around the definition of ‘critical’ infrastructure to enable effective prioritization and protection of nodes and connection points. FEMA (2013
), points out that the United States well being relies upon secure critical infrastructure that forms American society. According to Saadawi, & Jordan
, (2011), there is need to establish an international cyber union that will help overcome cybersecurity challenges in securing cyberinfrastructure. This article considers the practical considerations that are associated with EINSTEIN 3 and how this can be used to ensure effective protection of critical infrastructure networks. Having evaluated the main argument of these articles, they all share the aspect of understanding cybersecurity and different ways ensuring infrastructure protection.
2. What are the differences in their assessment of cybersecurity and critical infrastructure protection?
The above articles portray some distinction in their evaluation of cyber war and protection of vital infrastructure. The first article by Clemente (2011), tries to examine how cybersecurity challenges can be overcome by understanding various components in society. The article offers more theoretical approaches to counterattack cybersecurity and protection of critical infrastructures. The second article by FEMA (2013
) is more detailed and comprehensive on the issue of cybersecurity and protection of critical infrastructures in the society. For instance, it offers a plan that will require a federal agency (SSA) to lead a coordinated process for vital infrastructure security within criti ...
A Study of Cyber Security Threats, Challenges in Different Fields and its Pro...ssuser793b4e
This paper reviewed the implications, challenges and the effects of cybercrimes and cybersecurity in the society. It fully defined cybersecurity based on governmental and national view, industrial view and academic view. From this it was concluded that cyber security and cyber-attack is best defined and prevented based on the field of research. This paper review 27 articles on cyber security and cybercrimes and it showed that cyber security is a complex task that relies on domain knowledge and requires cognitive abilities to determine possible threats from large amounts of network data. This study investigates how knowledge in network operations and information security influence the detection of intrusions in a simple network. This research paper also reviewed different strategies used by different researchers to prevent cyber-attack in different areas of work and also exposed the most recent used cyber security attacks, preventions, future threats and prospective ways to avoid cyber-attacks
Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in SocietyS.docxcroysierkathey
Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society
Slow Tech: a quest for good, clean and fair ICT
Norberto Patrignani Diane Whitehouse
Article information:
To cite this document:
Norberto Patrignani Diane Whitehouse , (2014),"Slow Tech: a quest for good, clean and fair ICT", Journal of
Information, Communication and Ethics in Society, Vol. 12 Iss 2 pp. 78 - 92
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JICES-11-2013-0051
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Tobias Matzner, (2014),"Why privacy is not enough privacy in the context of “ubiquitous computing” and
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Michael Lemke, Keith W. Miller, (2014),"On robots as genetically modified invasive species", Journal of
Information, Communication and Ethics in Society, Vol. 12 Iss 2 pp. 122-132 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/
JICES-06-2013-0019
Neil Kenneth McBride, (2014),"ACTIVE ethics: an information systems ethics for the internet age", Journal
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JICES-11-2013-0051
Slow Tech: a quest for good,
clean and fair ICT
Norberto Patrignani
Politecnico of Torino, Torino, Italy, and
Diane Whitehouse
The Castlegate Consultancy, Malton, UK
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to introduce the term Slow Tech as a way of describing
information and communication technology (ICT) that is good, clean an ...
This document discusses China's role in creating international rules and regulations for managing cyberspace. While China has proposed an international code of conduct on cybersecurity to the UN, there is friction between China's authoritarian control over information and liberal democratic values of transparency and openness. The paper will analyze the extent to which China can constructively contribute to international cyber governance given differences between China and Western countries in their approaches to cyber security and information control.
REPORT Risk Nexus - Global Cyber Governance: Preparing for New Business Risks ESADE
The process of globalization, the emergence of new powers, and the increasing relevance of non-state actors are creating a multipolar and interconnected world. In the international arena, political and ideological diversity among the most relevant parties, diffusion of power, and the impact of changing global economics have added complexity to the geopolitical landscape. Businesses now operate in a much more difficult, heterogeneous environment.
This publication has been prepared by Zurich Insurance Group Ltd and ESADE.
Section 1: Emerging technologies will fundamentally change the nature of cyber risk.
Section 2: An inadequate global cyber governance framework.
Section 3: Toward a new governance framework: challenges and opportunities.
This document outlines a framework for the emerging field of Web Science. It discusses the need to understand how decentralized information systems like the World Wide Web have evolved and continue developing in response to scientific, commercial and social pressures. The document proposes that Web Science should take an interdisciplinary approach to both analyzing the Web and engineering its further development in a way that respects its architectural principles and social aspects. It surveys some of the key issues that Web Science may address, such as the development of the Semantic Web and ensuring important properties like privacy.
The document discusses various topics related to computer ethics including:
1. The historical development of computer ethics from the 1940s onwards, with early contributors including Norbert Wiener, Donn Parker, and Joseph Weizenbaum.
2. Key issues in computer ethics including privacy, accuracy, intellectual property, cybercrime, and access. Terminologies related to these issues such as malware, spyware, data protection, and anonymity are also introduced.
3. Different types of cybercrimes like fraud, hacking, and identity theft are outlined.
Final PaperIt was a pleasure to be with you all and you made it fu.docxcharlottej5
Final Paper
It was a pleasure to be with you all and you made it fun and interesting
Based on your knowledge about political leadership of women in Africa, I would like you to discuss why today African women joined the political scene in mass. Do you think that this move to politics is good for the progress of political leadership in the continent? Why or why not.
Good luck
.
Final PaperOne reason that California have been known as the Gol.docxcharlottej5
Final Paper
One reason that California have been known as the Golden State is because of the influence of Hollywood. The well-known reputation of the entertainment of Hollywood has been showed the natural advantages of California, such as the weather, coast, and the natural resources. Also, the Hollywood shows another side of California, which is the world-leading level of technology companies. However, it is controversial to state that California is shown to the world by Hollywood. In fact, I prefer the saying that the history and the multicultural environment breed the great potential of the newborn Hollywood at the first place. While Hollywood shows the diverse cultures in California, it expresses in the influence of the California history by showing the images of different racial people in the films.
California have been a state of immigration, attracting people from the world to migrate the family and invite them to contribute for the development of California. It is fair to say that California was built by the people with different ethnical backgrounds. However, Hollywood has not been treated equally to the contributors with different races. White can be always be the lead of the movie. For example, a white actor can play the role with quality of richness, smartness and toughness. A non-white Hispanic actor can play the role of a billionaire, a drug dealer, a villain, a genius, and a special agent. However, Chinese Americans have the least if the scenes in the Hollywood films. Chinese Americans express a very stereotypical image of neediness, Kungfu, or weakness. In historical speaking, the Chinese were first shown in California in the event of Gosh Rush in the 1800s. The image of Chinese miners in Gold Rush is influent to the image of the Chinese Americans from Hollywood firms. It is hard to truly know the Chinese culture through the media. I doubt that Chinese culture does not assimilate to the society of California. In the Chronicling California, it pointed out that the Chinese culture was not quite “fit” into the California society: “the expulsion of the Chinese is not demanded on the ground that they represent cheap labor... they are regarded by the thoughtful as objectionable because they represent a substitution of unchangeable foreign and hopelessly unassimilative material for that which is malleable and assimilative” (100, Hoikkala and Wallis). Most of the Chinese miners had the strong responsibilities to support their families by sending the money to oversea. The loss of currency conflicts with the California society also indirectly caused the Chinese Exclusion Act later in 1882. Comparing to other immigrants, Chinese suffered the unequal treatments, which is why it is hard to see the Chinese cultures in the early Hollywood films.
While Hollywood has published some great firms about the World War II, it emphasized the victory of the United States, avoiding the fact that how the California government treated unfairly to the.
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Similar to Final Paper Draft Outline – Week 7 For the second to last.docx
Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies ; 2016 (3)96–11DaliaCulbertson719
Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies ; 2016 (3):96–116
Chad Spensky, Jeffrey Stewart, Arkady Yerukhimovich, Richard Shay, Ari Trachtenberg, Rick
Housley, and Robert K. Cunningham
SoK: Privacy on Mobile Devices – It’s Complicated
Abstract: Modern mobile devices place a wide variety
of sensors and services within the personal space of their
users. As a result, these devices are capable of transpar-
ently monitoring many sensitive aspects of these users’
lives (e.g., location, health, or correspondences). Users
typically trade access to this data for convenient appli-
cations and features, in many cases without a full appre-
ciation of the nature and extent of the information that
they are exposing to a variety of third parties. Never-
theless, studies show that users remain concerned about
their privacy and vendors have similarly been increas-
ing their utilization of privacy-preserving technologies
in these devices. Still, despite significant efforts, these
technologies continue to fail in fundamental ways, leav-
ing users’ private data exposed.
In this work, we survey the numerous components of
mobile devices, giving particular attention to those that
collect, process, or protect users’ private data. Whereas
the individual components have been generally well
studied and understood, examining the entire mobile de-
vice ecosystem provides significant insights into its over-
whelming complexity. The numerous components of this
complex ecosystem are frequently built and controlled
by different parties with varying interests and incen-
tives. Moreover, most of these parties are unknown to
the typical user. The technologies that are employed to
protect the users’ privacy typically only do so within
a small slice of this ecosystem, abstracting away the
greater complexity of the system. Our analysis suggests
that this abstracted complexity is the major cause of
many privacy-related vulnerabilities, and that a funda-
mentally new, holistic, approach to privacy is needed
going forward. We thus highlight various existing tech-
nology gaps and propose several promising research di-
rections for addressing and reducing this complexity.
Keywords: privacy-preserving technologies, mobile, An-
droid, iOS
DOI 10.1515/popets-2016-0018
Received 2015-11-30; revised 2016-03-01; accepted 2016-03-02.
Chad Spensky: University of California, Santa Barbara,
[email protected]
Jeffrey Stewart: MIT Lincoln Laboratory,
[email protected]
1 Introduction
The rapid proliferation of mobile devices has seen them
become integral parts of many users’ lives. Indeed, these
devices provide their users with a variety of increasingly
essential services (e.g., navigation, communication, and
Internet connectivity), as well as useful functionality
(e.g., entertainment and photography). To accommo-
date these services, modern mobile devices are equipped
with various sensors, capable of collecting extremely rich
information about their users and their surroundings.
Users and de ...
For this assignment, review the article abomhara, m., & koien,modi11
The authors investigated cyber security threats and vulnerabilities related to the Internet of Things. They aimed to classify threat types and analyze the characteristics of potential attackers or intruders. The paper reviewed key concepts in IoT like devices and services. It identified common security issues around data confidentiality, privacy, and trust. The authors concluded that understanding threats is important for developing robust security requirements to protect IoT infrastructure and ensure its safe development. However, more research is still needed to address open challenges from resource-constrained devices and evolving attack techniques.
This document discusses the growing dependency of individuals and organizations on cyberspace and the associated risks. It provides historical context on the evolution of the internet from ARPANET. Key points covered include:
- Individuals and organizations have become increasingly reliant on cyberspace for daily activities, work operations, and digital transformation, leaving them vulnerable to cyber threats.
- Emerging areas of focus for cybersecurity are the internet of things and how hackers can access systems through connected devices, as well as exploiting personal devices with stored data.
- Common cyber risks discussed are viruses, service disruptions, phishing, SQL injection attacks, and password attacks. Stricter laws have been implemented in some countries like the
This document discusses cybersecurity risks facing institutions and proposes countermeasures. It begins by explaining how the expansion of cyber space has increased cyber risks and how most countries have developed national cybersecurity strategies in response. However, it notes that institutions also need their own robust cybersecurity strategies to protect against modern cyber threats targeting both infrastructure and personnel.
The document then presents a case study analyzing how open source intelligence (OSINT) techniques using social media and other online sources can expose sensitive personal and institutional data. It demonstrates how cyber criminals could potentially gather usernames, email addresses, location data and other metadata about employees and systems.
Finally, it recommends several countermeasures institutions should take. These include educating employees about metadata risks, implementing
Running Head ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHYANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY .docxhealdkathaleen
Running Head: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 6
Annotated Bibliography on Emerging Cyber Threats
[Name of Institution]
[Name of Writer]
Annotated Bibliography on Emerging Cyber Threats
Source#1
Reference: Kettani, H., & Wainwright, P. (2019, March). On the Top Threats to Cyber Systems. In 2019 IEEE 2nd International Conference on Information and Computer Technologies (ICICT) (pp. 175-179). IEEE.
Summary: This article reveals the threats to the cyber systems even some of them are not known to the common people. The article defines that the latest technology has advanced the cyber systems and these advancements are attractive and beneficial in comparison to the previous systems. However, due to this sophisticated and attractive advancement the individuals, societies, and nations had become dependent on the cyber systems. These systems result in the higher gain and ease of handling since people had relying on the cyber systems. Moreover, the author argues that for the adoption of the proper defense and mitigations to the threats it is necessary to understand cyber threats. The top threats with a brief discussion of threat agents and attack vectors along with the countermeasures are mentioned so that the readers can find knowledge in this regard.
Relevance: This article is of paramount importance because it defines the importance of the topic of research. As the aim of the research is to expose the emerging cyber-attacks and the author of the article “On the Top Threats to Cyber Systems” reveals the importance of the cyber systems which is important for understanding the dependence over the cyber systems. In addition to this, the article is found worth reading because it reveals the emerging cybercrimes and ways of protection too. The study is found relevant because it reveals that cyber systems are important nowadays because they are used in the business systems, control systems, and for accessing the control systems. In other words, the articles provide an overview of the emerging threats and latest trends in the cyber systems.
Source#2
Reference: Parn, E. A., & Edwards, D. (2019). Cyber threats confronting the digital built environment. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management.
Summary: This article determines the cyber systems attack in the sector of the digital built environment. The study gives the idea of emerging crimes that are made to threat the digital and physical assets that are used to form the digital economies. These threats are often made to affect the critical infrastructure of the smart cities. These smart cities are comprised of the cyber systems which also increase the national wealth, preserve health, and provide safety and welfare to the nation. In this regard, it is important to protect the cyber systems from the critical and emerging threats. Additionally, the article reveals the safe an ...
Context, Causality, and Information Flow: Implications for Privacy Engineerin...Sebastian Benthall
The creators of technical infrastructure are under social and legal pressure to comply with expectations that can be difficult to translate into computational and business logics. The dissertation presented in this talk bridges this gap through three projects that focus on privacy engineering, information security, and data economics, respectively. These projects culminate in a new formal method for evaluating the strategic and tactical value of data. This method relies on a core theoretical contribution building on the work of Shannon, Dretske, Pearl, Koller, and Nissenbaum: a definition of information flow as a channel situated in a context of causal relations.
Critical Information Infrastructure Cyberspace Situational Awareness_Measure ...DaveNjoga1
This document discusses situational awareness in cyberspace and critical information infrastructure protection. It begins with background on cyberspace and defines cyberspace situational awareness. It establishes that situational awareness is important for cyberspace security management. The study reveals that comprehensive intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance of cyber incidents is vital but missing for achieving a mature and managed cyberspace. It recommends adopting a framework encompassing technical, social and political aspects to enable sustainable situational awareness, which is key to information governance and achieving development goals.
The Impact of Information System (Internet of Things) on Management and Globa...BRNSSPublicationHubI
This document discusses the impact of information systems and the Internet of Things (IoT) on management and globalization. It describes how IoT has revolutionized decision-making, communication, economics, and other areas due to the evolution of the web and new technologies. However, the rise of IoT has also increased security risks and cyber attacks. An embedded framework is needed to address these security issues and mitigate the negative impacts of IoT technology on society.
Comprehensive U.S. Cyber Framework Final ReportLandon Harrell
This project is a product of the Class of 2019 Bush School of Government and Public Service, Texas A&M University Capstone Program. The project lasted one academic year and involved eight second-year master students. It intends to synthesize and provide clarity in the realm of issues pertaining to U.S. Internet Protocol Space by demonstrating natural partnerships and recommendations for existing cyber incident response. The project was produced at the request of PointStream Inc., a private cybersecurity contractor.
The Cyberspace and Intensification of Privacy Invasioniosrjce
IOSR Journal of Computer Engineering (IOSR-JCE) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of computer engineering and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in computer technology. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
The document discusses the intensification of privacy invasion in cyberspace due to the widespread adoption of social media and mobile computing. It explores the different levels at which cyberspace users are exposed to privacy invasion, including personal information, communication activities, location data, and behavioral and biological data being collected without consent. While cyberspace enables new opportunities, advances in technology are also raising new threats to privacy, integrity, and trust. As interactions cut across borders without existing relationships of trust, protecting individual privacy in cyberspace is challenging and requires addressing social, legal and technical issues.
1Running head CYBERWARCYBER WAR9Outstanding title.docxfelicidaddinwoodie
1
Running head: CYBERWAR
CYBER WAR
9
Outstanding title page formatting
Cyber War
Name
University
Professor
04/28/2018
Introduction Cyber War
Cyber warfare refers to a computer or network-based conflict that disrupts the activities of a state or
organization by deliberate attacking critical infrastructures. Cyber attacks can also be described as an attack by hostile groups such as terrorist or hacker groups aimed, at furthering the goals of a given nation. To have a better understanding, cyber warfare can take different forms such as; viruses that can take down water supplies, military systems, transportation systems, hacking and theft of critical data from government and private institutions. This paper will focus on assessing various mechanism applied in different articles to counter cybersecurity and protect critical infrastructure. Further, by analyzing the results and experience in Xia, Becerra-Fernandez, Gudi, & Rocha-Mier (2011), the essay will also show how
the findings can be utilized in real life scenario.
1. What do the articles have in common?
According to Clemente (2011), the advancement of interconnection between different infrastructures sectors has boosted by the escalation of cyberspace. The author points out that the security
implications are inevitable especially in this era of cyberspace and infrastructure. The main idea in the article involves around the definition of ‘critical’ infrastructure to enable effective prioritization and protection of nodes and connection points. FEMA (2013
), points out that the United States well being relies upon secure critical infrastructure that forms American society. According to Saadawi, & Jordan
, (2011), there is need to establish an international cyber union that will help overcome cybersecurity challenges in securing cyberinfrastructure. This article considers the practical considerations that are associated with EINSTEIN 3 and how this can be used to ensure effective protection of critical infrastructure networks. Having evaluated the main argument of these articles, they all share the aspect of understanding cybersecurity and different ways ensuring infrastructure protection.
2. What are the differences in their assessment of cybersecurity and critical infrastructure protection?
The above articles portray some distinction in their evaluation of cyber war and protection of vital infrastructure. The first article by Clemente (2011), tries to examine how cybersecurity challenges can be overcome by understanding various components in society. The article offers more theoretical approaches to counterattack cybersecurity and protection of critical infrastructures. The second article by FEMA (2013
) is more detailed and comprehensive on the issue of cybersecurity and protection of critical infrastructures in the society. For instance, it offers a plan that will require a federal agency (SSA) to lead a coordinated process for vital infrastructure security within criti ...
A Study of Cyber Security Threats, Challenges in Different Fields and its Pro...ssuser793b4e
This paper reviewed the implications, challenges and the effects of cybercrimes and cybersecurity in the society. It fully defined cybersecurity based on governmental and national view, industrial view and academic view. From this it was concluded that cyber security and cyber-attack is best defined and prevented based on the field of research. This paper review 27 articles on cyber security and cybercrimes and it showed that cyber security is a complex task that relies on domain knowledge and requires cognitive abilities to determine possible threats from large amounts of network data. This study investigates how knowledge in network operations and information security influence the detection of intrusions in a simple network. This research paper also reviewed different strategies used by different researchers to prevent cyber-attack in different areas of work and also exposed the most recent used cyber security attacks, preventions, future threats and prospective ways to avoid cyber-attacks
Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in SocietyS.docxcroysierkathey
Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society
Slow Tech: a quest for good, clean and fair ICT
Norberto Patrignani Diane Whitehouse
Article information:
To cite this document:
Norberto Patrignani Diane Whitehouse , (2014),"Slow Tech: a quest for good, clean and fair ICT", Journal of
Information, Communication and Ethics in Society, Vol. 12 Iss 2 pp. 78 - 92
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Michael Lemke, Keith W. Miller, (2014),"On robots as genetically modified invasive species", Journal of
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JICES-06-2013-0019
Neil Kenneth McBride, (2014),"ACTIVE ethics: an information systems ethics for the internet age", Journal
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JICES-11-2013-0051
Slow Tech: a quest for good,
clean and fair ICT
Norberto Patrignani
Politecnico of Torino, Torino, Italy, and
Diane Whitehouse
The Castlegate Consultancy, Malton, UK
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to introduce the term Slow Tech as a way of describing
information and communication technology (ICT) that is good, clean an ...
This document discusses China's role in creating international rules and regulations for managing cyberspace. While China has proposed an international code of conduct on cybersecurity to the UN, there is friction between China's authoritarian control over information and liberal democratic values of transparency and openness. The paper will analyze the extent to which China can constructively contribute to international cyber governance given differences between China and Western countries in their approaches to cyber security and information control.
REPORT Risk Nexus - Global Cyber Governance: Preparing for New Business Risks ESADE
The process of globalization, the emergence of new powers, and the increasing relevance of non-state actors are creating a multipolar and interconnected world. In the international arena, political and ideological diversity among the most relevant parties, diffusion of power, and the impact of changing global economics have added complexity to the geopolitical landscape. Businesses now operate in a much more difficult, heterogeneous environment.
This publication has been prepared by Zurich Insurance Group Ltd and ESADE.
Section 1: Emerging technologies will fundamentally change the nature of cyber risk.
Section 2: An inadequate global cyber governance framework.
Section 3: Toward a new governance framework: challenges and opportunities.
This document outlines a framework for the emerging field of Web Science. It discusses the need to understand how decentralized information systems like the World Wide Web have evolved and continue developing in response to scientific, commercial and social pressures. The document proposes that Web Science should take an interdisciplinary approach to both analyzing the Web and engineering its further development in a way that respects its architectural principles and social aspects. It surveys some of the key issues that Web Science may address, such as the development of the Semantic Web and ensuring important properties like privacy.
The document discusses various topics related to computer ethics including:
1. The historical development of computer ethics from the 1940s onwards, with early contributors including Norbert Wiener, Donn Parker, and Joseph Weizenbaum.
2. Key issues in computer ethics including privacy, accuracy, intellectual property, cybercrime, and access. Terminologies related to these issues such as malware, spyware, data protection, and anonymity are also introduced.
3. Different types of cybercrimes like fraud, hacking, and identity theft are outlined.
Similar to Final Paper Draft Outline – Week 7 For the second to last.docx (20)
Final PaperIt was a pleasure to be with you all and you made it fu.docxcharlottej5
Final Paper
It was a pleasure to be with you all and you made it fun and interesting
Based on your knowledge about political leadership of women in Africa, I would like you to discuss why today African women joined the political scene in mass. Do you think that this move to politics is good for the progress of political leadership in the continent? Why or why not.
Good luck
.
Final PaperOne reason that California have been known as the Gol.docxcharlottej5
Final Paper
One reason that California have been known as the Golden State is because of the influence of Hollywood. The well-known reputation of the entertainment of Hollywood has been showed the natural advantages of California, such as the weather, coast, and the natural resources. Also, the Hollywood shows another side of California, which is the world-leading level of technology companies. However, it is controversial to state that California is shown to the world by Hollywood. In fact, I prefer the saying that the history and the multicultural environment breed the great potential of the newborn Hollywood at the first place. While Hollywood shows the diverse cultures in California, it expresses in the influence of the California history by showing the images of different racial people in the films.
California have been a state of immigration, attracting people from the world to migrate the family and invite them to contribute for the development of California. It is fair to say that California was built by the people with different ethnical backgrounds. However, Hollywood has not been treated equally to the contributors with different races. White can be always be the lead of the movie. For example, a white actor can play the role with quality of richness, smartness and toughness. A non-white Hispanic actor can play the role of a billionaire, a drug dealer, a villain, a genius, and a special agent. However, Chinese Americans have the least if the scenes in the Hollywood films. Chinese Americans express a very stereotypical image of neediness, Kungfu, or weakness. In historical speaking, the Chinese were first shown in California in the event of Gosh Rush in the 1800s. The image of Chinese miners in Gold Rush is influent to the image of the Chinese Americans from Hollywood firms. It is hard to truly know the Chinese culture through the media. I doubt that Chinese culture does not assimilate to the society of California. In the Chronicling California, it pointed out that the Chinese culture was not quite “fit” into the California society: “the expulsion of the Chinese is not demanded on the ground that they represent cheap labor... they are regarded by the thoughtful as objectionable because they represent a substitution of unchangeable foreign and hopelessly unassimilative material for that which is malleable and assimilative” (100, Hoikkala and Wallis). Most of the Chinese miners had the strong responsibilities to support their families by sending the money to oversea. The loss of currency conflicts with the California society also indirectly caused the Chinese Exclusion Act later in 1882. Comparing to other immigrants, Chinese suffered the unequal treatments, which is why it is hard to see the Chinese cultures in the early Hollywood films.
While Hollywood has published some great firms about the World War II, it emphasized the victory of the United States, avoiding the fact that how the California government treated unfairly to the.
Final PaperIndia and China provide two fascinating country case st.docxcharlottej5
Final Paper
India and China provide two fascinating country case studies for comparing political systems, political cultures, economic growth and the future of the world’s two largest populations. Write a research paper comparing the systems, process and policy of these two countries and hypothesizing the future of each political system.
Students must address and compare the following areas:
Political System- to include the political environment, political structure and its functions.
Political Culture- to include system, process and policy levels to include how political socialization occurs in each country and what are the key agents for socialization in each.
Interest Articulation & Aggregation- describe how this occurs in each country.
Compare how public policy is crafted in these two countries
In conclusion, students will hypothesize the direction in which they believe each country will head in the future. Will these countries become more or less democratic? How will their political cultures change with increased economic prosperity? How might interest aggregation and public policy creation change in the future?
Restrict you sources to major newspapers, magazines, news outlets, and professional journals available in the Ashford University Library. Your textbook can also be used as a source.
Writing the Final Paper
The Final Paper:
Must be 10 to 12 double-spaced pages in length, and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.
Must include a title page with the following:
Title of paper
Student’s name
Course name and number
Instructor’s name
Date submitted
Must begin with an introductory paragraph that has a succinct thesis statement.
Must address the topic of the paper with critical thought.
Must end with a conclusion that reaffirms your thesis.
Must use at least six scholarly resources, including a minimum of two from the Ashford University Library.
Must document all sources in APA style, as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.
Must include a separate reference page, formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.
.
Final PaperMust begin with an introductory paragraph that has a .docxcharlottej5
Final Paper
Must begin with an introductory paragraph that has a succinct thesis statement.
Must address the topic of the paper with critical thought.
Must end with a conclusion that reaffirms your thesis.
Must use at least five scholarly resources, including a minimum of two from the Ashford University Library.
Prepare a paper that details the entire criminal justice process for a felony criminal charge filed in a state court. Your paper will:
Summarize all of the steps between arrest, pre-trial, trial, and appeals (both state and federal appeal possibilities).
Address contingencies for each stage of the proceedings and examine all possible outcomes.
Outline the chronological timeline of the criminal justice process.
Analyze how constitutional protections for the defendant work at each stage of the proceeding.
Evaluate whether the system effectively deals with criminal prosecutions, or whether changes or improvements are required.
Create suggestions to make the system more fair and ethical for all those involved.
The paper must be eight to ten pages in length and formatted according to APA style. You must use at least five scholarly sources (at least two of which can be found in the Ashford Online Library) other than the textbook to support your claims. Cite your sources within the text of your paper and on the reference page
.
Final PaperFinal Paper SynopsisThe purpose of this paper .docxcharlottej5
Final Paper
Final Paper Synopsis:
The purpose of this paper will be to simulate a professional analysis of a segment of technology that will contribute to the success of your fictional company. Each student will use the same company. You will choose one of five technologies on which to focus. The complete guidelines are below beginning with the scenario.
Scenario
Overview
JK Incorporated is a 50-year-old retail and distribution grocery company that owns and operates 3,000 stores under different banners across the United States. The mix of products includes products purchased from other manufacturers as well as product that JK manufactures itself. This results in national brands and private labels sold side by side. JK has stores, warehouses, manufacturing facilities, and its own distribution fleet of trucks.
JK has enjoyed many years of success using methods that are now considered out of date and is now no longer leading in the industry. Technically progressive companies have entered the grocery industry and are threatening to disrupt JK and put it out of business entirely. JK has many areas that are in need of analysis to identify the positive impact that newer technology may have on its business.
You have been assigned to choose one of the 4 “current state” issues below and articulate the benefits of using the new technology.
Current State Issues
1. JK is using multiple regional data centers with older and less reliable hardware to deliver technical capabilities like point of sale, distribution logistics, loyalty programs, etc. Each of these data centers has high overhead with regard to management (labor), administration (skills), facilities (buildings, environmentals, security, network, and energy). This issue may be a candidate for the analysis of cloud computing.
2. JK has many distribution centers and trucks. These distribution centers do not integrate with the store systems for the timely tracking of deliveries. The current systems do not allow the store managers to answer simple questions like “where’s my truck” or “where’s my order”. JK also has a limited home delivery or “buy online and pick up in store capability. In essence, the distribution channel stops at the store rather than at the customers home as opposed to up and coming rivals. This issue may be a candidate for an overhaul of the enterprise Warehouse Management System and supply chain optimization.
3. JK has limited knowledge of it’s customers. The company relies primarily on random coupons based on products that need to be moved quickly. The marketing and promotion campaigns rely heavily on newspaper advertisements that promote based on time of year, holidays, or weekly bargains that represent overstock or third party promotions that they pass on to customers. There is a limited mobile and web experience with regard to meal planning, shopping list, personal preferences, allergies, or other localization items. This issue may be a candidate.
Final Paper, Essay Proposal, & Outline·The final essay should .docxcharlottej5
Final Paper, Essay Proposal, & Outline
·
The final essay should be about
6-7 pages
in length
·
The focus of this essay will be to state, explain, develop, and defend a particular thesis based upon some theme in philosophy of religion related to the texts we’ve been reading.
·
The thesis needs to make some specific
claim
(or closely interrelated set of claims) about some topic or theme that we’ve touched on this term, (see list of possible topics below).
·
This claim needs to be stated clearly, explained carefully, fully developed in relation to the kinds of arguments and objections we’ve encountered in texts, by at least two different authors, and defended with philosophical arguments and reasons drawing upon texts we’ve read, ideas of your own, and your own experiences and beliefs.
·
Be sure to relate the theme of your essay to our lives. Why does this claim matter? What difference does it make if you’re right about the thesis?
Topics:
Possible theses can respond to the following topics…
·
Is it appropriate to claim that there is only one true religion?
(Please don’t pick this one, if your answer is “no…”).
·
Do all religions share some common core, so that differences don’t really matter?
·
Does the existence of evil and suffering logically disprove a good all-powerful God?
(Please don’t choose this one if your answer is “yes…”)
·
Does the amount and kind of evil and suffering count against the existence of God? Is any evil truly pointless?
(Again, please don’t choose this one if your answer is “yes…”)
·
Does claiming we cannot know whether any evil is pointless also entail that we cannot know (apart from divine revelation) that God really intends our good?
·
Is it possible for God to make genuinely free creatures who are guaranteed never to do wrong (Please don’t choose this one if your answer is “yes…” either).
·
Is evil and suffering in the world justified by bringing a greater good?
(Please don’t choose this one, if your answer is “no…”).
·
Does Christian belief in the incarnation, suffering, , death, and resurrection of Jesus make a difference for the problem of evil and suffering?
·
What is the nature of evil? Is it a “thing” in this world or is it merely the privation of good?
·
Do even secular values (moral, political, social, etc.) function ultimately in a kind of religious way? What are the limits of tolerance?
·
How can a loving God judge evil and how can God allow some people to choose an ultimate destiny that ends in their own destruction (i.e. Hell)?
·
If Darwinian explanations of the natural order of the world are true, does that exclude the existence of God or make God’s existence superfluous
(Please don’t choose this one if your answer is “yes…”).
·
If Darwinian explanations of the natural order of the world are true, what does that suggest about the nature of divine providence and God’s relation to the creation?
(Please try not to pick this one; thank you)
.
Final Paper – Possible topics You propose the topic, b.docxcharlottej5
This document provides guidance for choosing a topic for a final paper on religion. It suggests choosing a specific religious tradition from a list of options and focusing on a theme like sacred texts, historical development, concepts of the divine, or ways of salvation. It also offers broad categories like religion and politics, environment, gender, or science that topics could relate to. The student must meet with the professor to get the topic approved and will receive help with developing a thesis statement and outline.
Final Paper The summative assignment for this course is to write a .docxcharlottej5
Final Paper The summative assignment for this course is to write a Final Paper on GROUP DEVELOPMENT MODELS focus on a dimension of group activity relevant to the field of human services. Requirements for this assignment are specified very broadly, enabling you to define your topic narrowly or broadly. These are as follows: •Identify a topic or topic area that defines management group activity relevant to human services. This identification will be part of the Week 4 Annotated Bibliography and Final Paper topic choice assignment, which also requires that you identify and annotate no fewer than eight scholarly resources to support your work. Click here to view a list of plausible topics, any of which may provide a plausible starting point for your topic selection. •Summarize what is known and what has been researched in the field surrounding your topic of choice. Include reference to two or three of the most current and important issues, questions, or debates that are guiding practice and research. •Select one of the issues, questions, or debates identified in the previous bullet and provide focused analysis of this subtopic, providing discussion of why the subtopic is important and evaluating the most prominent positions argued. •Support all analysis and argumentation with relevant theory, argumentation, evidence, and research provided in the course and outside sources. Your paper: •Must be 2,000 words in length. •Must cite and integrate no fewer than eight scholarly sources that were published within the past 6 years. No more than two sources published more than 6 years in the past may be cited and integrated if they are recognized as seminal works (classics in the field). •Proper APA format required, including cover page, citations, and reference page
Please complete paper and continue paper that is in attachment below!!!!!
Resources Required Text
Adams, K., & Galanes, G. (2017). Communicating in groups: Application and skills (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Chapter 10: Applying Leadership Principles Required References Active Presence. (2013, October 7). Facilitation skills: Best & worst facilitator practices [Video file]. Retrieved from Facilitation Skills: Best & Worst Facilitator Practices (Links to an external site.) American Psychological Association. (2004). Are six heads as good as twelve? [Web page]. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/research/action/jury.aspx (Links to an external site.) Frederick, J. (2017, June 28). Understanding jurors' nonverbal communication (Links to an external site.). GPSolo eReport, 2(1). Retrieved from https://www.americanbar.org/groups/gpsolo/publications/gpsolo_ereport/2012/august_2012/understanding_jurors_nonverbal_communication/ Lucas, A. (2015, April 15). The Importance of Verbal & Non Verbal Communication [Web page]. Retrieved from https://www.livestrong.com/article/156961-the-importance-of-verbal-non-verbal-communication/ (Links to an external site.) MindTools. (n.d.). .
Final Essay Stage Two
ah W
334: ARTH
Outline and Annotated Bibliography
June 27, 201
2
Outline & Annotated Bibliography
The option I chose for the final project was option (b), to select and write about a feature length film made between 1970-2000. The film I chose is a story by Stephen King, ‘The Green Mile’, directed by Frank Darabont. Below I will outline my final paper for the course, as well as list and discuss a few sources that I will be citing.
· Introduction
· Discuss the making of the film
· The film’s success (box office/awards and nominations)
· Critical reaction to the film
· Personal reaction to the film (what I liked/did not like, critique of main character roles and actors/actresses who played them)
· Discuss direction of film (montage/sound and music)
· Discuss direction of film cont. (cinematography/ special effects)
· Conclusion
· Bibliography
Cinematography of The Green Mile. (2014). Cinematography of The Green Mile. Retrieved 27 June 2017, from https://bnyce82.wordpress.com/
This reference is specific to the cinematography techniques used in the film, ‘The Green Mile’. It provides insight into the various aspects of cinematography, such as the tone of the film, the camera angles and lighting, as well as the dialogue between the characters. This reference will help backup the information I will provide in my final paper.
Darabont, F. (1999). The Green Mile. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VslrToVsu80
This reference is the actual film, ‘The Green Mile’, found on YouTube. I will be watching the entire film to gather information for my final paper. The information I will be looking for while watching this film are the editing techniques used by the director, as well as my personal reaction to draw a general conclusion from.
Ebert, R. (1999). The Green Mile Movie Review & Film Summary (1999) | Roger Ebert. Rogerebert.com. Retrieved 27 June 2017, from http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/the-green-mile-1999
The movie review of, ‘The Green Mile’, by the late Roger Ebert is a perfect reference to gain insight to the critical review of the film upon its release. I will be referencing opinions and points made by the infamous film critic, as he discusses the direction of the film, as well as the actors’ performance.
Kuhn, A., & Westwell, G.(2012). cinematography. In A Dictionary of Film Studies. : Oxford University Press. Retrieved 28 Jun. 2017, from http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199587261.001.0001/acref-9780199587261-e-0124.
This general reference on cinematography is from the Oxford Dictionary of Film Studies. I found this entry very useful during week 4 of the course when it was presented and will use it as a reference for my final paper, as well as future discussions. The entry defines cinematography in film making as capturing movement on film, as well as explains the role of a cinematographer on a movie set.
Week 5 - Assignment: Analyze the Global Sourcing .
final draft requires minimum of 5 pages in length, 12-point Times Ne.docxcharlottej5
final draft requires minimum of 5 pages in length, 12-point Times New Roman Font, double-spaced.
the prompt is
How are “poor teeth” a mutable and/or immutable trait?
Given your response, how do “covering demands” (Yoshino 4) apply to those affected by “poor teeth” and other traits perpetuated by “the privitisation-happy US” (Smarsh 2)?
.
Final Draft should be based on the topic Decision MakingThe .docxcharlottej5
This document provides instructions for a final draft paper on the topic of decision making. It specifies that the paper should be at least 10 pages long, double-spaced using 12-point Times Roman font. A minimum of 10 sources is required, including at least 5 from scholarly journals and recent news articles, with any web-based sources coming from credible and recent sites.
Final Digital Marketing PlanFinal Digital Marketing .docxcharlottej5
Final Digital Marketing Plan
Final Digital Marketing Plan PowerPoint Presentation,
Introduction
In this PowerPoint presentation, we will present our Final Digital Marketing Plan for our product the Concussion Protocol Sensor (CPS). This product idea was created by Simone Harvey and voted on by the remaining team members in team D to implement as our product idea. In the first phase of the marketing plan we outlined a target market and included a segmentation criteria for the Concussion Protocol Sensor. Second, we will developed a digital advertising strategy and included two sample banner ads and a mock landing page for the website in our marketing plan. Third, the presentation will provide examples of three mock web ads and include specifics of where they will be placed. And we will create a budget for a two week advertising campaign.
The second phase of the marketing plan will summarize our plan to reach consumers. Our goal to reach our consumers is by using email marketing to directly send out email advertisements to consumers through the assistance of AWeber. In today’s day and age, social media and instant connection is the best most popular way of connecting with not only friends and family but consumers as well. There are many different forms of social media out there today such as Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn, YouTube and Instagram. We will utilize these platforms in our marketing strategy in an effort to reach as many consumers as possible.
Image:
https://www.google.com/search?q=introduction&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwis697BrJHYAhWD6CYKHVKYDw4Q_AUICigB&biw=1600&bih=805#imgrc=GQKHgrtgNyoTyM:&spf=1513524076251
Target MarketYouth Sports Programs focused on young athletesHigh School students interested in sportsCollege Athletic ProgramsCoaches involved in sports programs
The target market for the CPS would be youth sports programs focused on young athletes, age 6-13; high schools students interested in sports, age 14-18; University athletic programs, and coaches involved in sports.
The ages that would benefit would span from very young children all the way to adults that are active in sports or other activities that could be extreme enough to lead to potential head injuries.
Image source:
http://www.foxphotography.org/
https://www.workinsports.com/blog/high-school-sports-conquering-the-final-frontier-of-sports-broadcasting/
https://www.cbssports.com/college-football/news/ranking-the-top-25-power-five-college-football-coaches-entering-2016/
Demographic Market Segmentation
As it relates to the segmentation criteria we used to determine the target market for the CPS, we chose the Demographic Market Segmentation’s, as it works best with our marketing strategy since the data is easily available and drastically affects buying patterns. Age, income, gender, ethnic background and family life cycle are all important factors of demographic segmentation.
The CPS is going to use an age range of 5-34 years of.
FINAL COURSE PROJECT PRESENTATION (SIGNATURE ASSIGNMENT)You .docxcharlottej5
FINAL COURSE PROJECT PRESENTATION (SIGNATURE ASSIGNMENT)
You will create a 12 to 15 minute presentation via a PowerPoint® presentation that is set up for automatic transitions of slides with voice narration or a Narrated Video Presentation. You will present an overview of the project and provides the project sponsor with an overall view of the project plan. In some cases, the business sponsor/executive will not have time to read the entire plan, so they would prefer a presentation highlighting the key points of the project. You should include the project baseline start and finish dates for the project. You should also include a short table with the high-level budget that indicates the baseline total planned budget amount for the overall project within your presentation. The following sections and information should also be included.
Section A: Summary
Part 1: Planning, Monitoring, and Execution
Part 2: Communication Plan
Part 3: Project Status including Quality and Performance Levels
Section B: Project Plan
Part 1: Milestones
Part 2: Review of MS Project® Schedule
Part 3: Review of MS Project® Resources
Part 4: Review of MS Project® Budget
Section C: Project Budget/Schedule Analysis
Comparison of Actual vs Budgeted Costs
Explanation of Cost Variances (EV)
Explanation of Schedule Variance (EV)
Section D: Project Overview
Needs Assessment and Business Strategy
Leadership & Management (Project Organization & Leadership Style)
Section E: Conclusion
Section F: Lessons Learned Report
Please review the rubric for this presentation to ensure all requirements are accomplished with your presentation. This presentation will be submitted by the end of week 7.
You will automatically be assigned to two other presentations to conduct your peer reviews that will be due by Saturday of Week 8.
Note!
The video or presentation will involve a process-orientated task by analyzing the process of completing the project, analyzing the results of the project, and evolving transformation of the results and issues of the project into a summary of the project along with a lessons-learned report (Processes). The collection of data from performing the project would be conducted by the student, which will be analyzed and synthesized. The student through whatever means that is effective that can include Excel® and/or Microsoft® Project® will transform this data into a final management report (Data). After using tools such as Excel® and/or Project®, the student will use a microphone to create narration for a slide presentation via PowerPoint® with automatic transitions, Movie Maker, PowerPoint® Video Tool, or other such presentation/video tools available to the student. Either the PowerPoint® or resulting MP4 video will be embedded to a discussion thread for asynchronous discussion activity (Devices). Finally, a peer review process will follow the submission of the presentation that provides an integral network of outsiders.
Final Course PaperWrite about the impacts of health informatic.docxcharlottej5
Final Course Paper
Write about the impacts of health informatics on various sectors of health care practice
(including
patient safety, consumer engagement in health care, telemedicine, public health, disease management
)
using evidence based references as needed
.
It should be about 6-7 pages (not including the title and reference pages) long, 12 font size, double spaced.
Please use APA style for citations and references.
Citation/references should be included both within the text and in the list of bibliography/references at the end of the paper.
This assignment is due on Saturday 22 February 2020 by 6 PM PST.
Grading Rubric for Week Three Writing Assignment:
Title page (APA style) 2 pts
Appropriate Introduction 5 pts
Evidence based discussion of all listed topics (each topic is worth 7 points) 35 pts
Grammar, spelling, clear expression 3 pts
Citations and References (APA style)
5 pts
.
Final Communication ProjectNew Testament 1.) Pick a Scriptur.docxcharlottej5
This document provides instructions and grading criteria for a final communication project on a passage from the New Testament for a class on the New Testament. Students are asked to:
1) Choose a Scripture passage that interested them from the semester.
2) Identify their medium of communication (e.g. painting, paper, music).
3) Provide the context of the passage.
4) Write a reflection explaining their project and answering questions about their chosen medium, passage, and how it relates to the gospel.
The project will be graded on clear communication, preparation, interaction with Scripture, interaction with audience, and meeting time limits.
Final Case Study and Strategic PlanRead the Walt Disney Company .docxcharlottej5
Final Case Study and Strategic Plan
Read the Walt Disney Company case, and from the perspective of an executive with the firm, prepare a strategic plan to grow the business over the next three years. The years are 2020, 2021, 2022 and beyond..
http://robins.richmond.edu/documents/cases/WaltDisney.pdf
Your strategic plan must be future-oriented and include the following:
1. A critique of the company’s mission statement based on the article ‘Mission Statements ’ http://onstrategyhq.com/resources/mission-statements/#Defining%20Your%20Mission
2.
a. "The mission of The Walt Disney Company is to be one of the world's leading producers and providers of entertainment and information. Using our portfolio of brands to differentiate our content, services and consumer products, we seek to develop the most creative, innovative and profitable entertainment experiences and related products in the world."
3. One- to two-sentence vision statement for the company.
4. An assessment of the targeting and segmentation strategy of the company within its five major segments.
5. An evaluation of the external environment (industry, market, and the general environment), and the internal situation (core competencies, brand reputation and loyalty, and customer-value proposition) of the company.
6. A SWOT analysis detailing on the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats that may affect the organization. Choose three or four areas from your SWOT analysis and explain why the areas you have chosen are essential to your strategic plan. NOTE: The student’s previous SWOT analysis is at the very end of this document. Please do not copy word-for-word. Only use the previous SWOT analysis as a reference to complete item #6 of the assignment.
7. An assessment of the implications of digital TV and internet-based business models on the strategies of the company.
8. An evaluation of the factors determined Disney’s international diversification strategies. Use the analytical framework proposed for the study of global media conglomerates (fig 9.4.- on page two.
a. Chan-Olmstead, S.M. (2005). Competitive strategy for media firms. London: Routledge.
It is also highly recommended that you search through the specialized journals in media management (e.g., Journal of Media Economics, Journal of Media Business Studies, International Journal of Media Management, and Academy of Management Journal).
The strategic plan
· Must be 12 to 15 double-spaced pages in length (not including title and references pages) and formatted according to APA style.
· Must include a separate title page with the following:
· Title of strategic plan
· Student’s name
· Course name and number
· Instructor’s name
· Date submitted
· Must use at least five scholarly sources in addition to the course text. Remember to incorporate information that you have learned from this course as well as your personal experience.
· Must document all sources in APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.
· All wri.
Fina Assessment Project The objective of this project is for stude.docxcharlottej5
Fina Assessment Project
The objective of this project is for students to apply the database design principles to a real-life scenario. This is a practical design project – students must create and submit the database, as well as documentation for the items below. The students will review database requirements and produce the following:
Part One: Database in Access and Rationale Document (0-60 points) Database Design and Rationale (0-30 points)
Access database with normalized tables: A set of tables in at least third-normal form is required for completion of this project. Complete table structures are required; students must also determine if primary or any other keys are required for each table. The student must also describe, in detail, and in a separate document, the rationale he/she used in developing the specified set of tables, as well as the specific fields in the tables.
· Rationale used in developing the specified set of tables, as well as the specific fields in the tables, is provided (Separate file for upload to Blackboard).
· Fieldnames are all single-valued; each column has a distinct name; all the values in a column are values of the attribute that is identified by the column name; the order of columns and rows is immaterial; each row is distinct.
· Database and tables are created in Access.
· Correct table relationships are established in Access.
· Referential integrity, cascade update and cascade delete are used appropriately
Keys (0-10 points)
· All appropriate keys have been identified and their functions described in the rationale document
· Primary key is a minimal collection of columns on which all columns are functionally dependent.
Report Rationale (0-10 points)
Three potential reports described in the rationale document that could be generated in response to user requests; supporting queries and reports must be included (ex.: report of number viewers that viewed each movie each year; correct sorting and grouping) in the Access database. Rationale required in the rationale document for why each report could provide important information for decision-making; queries must specify criteria for record selection, as well as grouping, sorting and any other requirements for the specific report (included in Rationale file described in Database/Tables above.)
· Three reports that could be used in response to user requests are identified.
· Rationale for why each report could provide important information for decisionmaking is provided.
· Reports must be created in Access and use the correct queries as the source.
Supporting Queries (0-10 points)
· Three queries are provided, and specify criteria for record selection, as well as grouping, sorting and any other requirements for the specific report.
· Queries are not simple listings with simple criteria, but must use more advanced functions, such as sorting, grouping and aggregate functions (counts, averages, etc).
Part Two: E-R Diagram (0-10 points)
E-R diagram: An E-.
FIN 571 Final Exam Question 1 Which of the following is c.docxcharlottej5
FIN /571 Final Exam
Question 1
Which of the following is considered a hybrid organizational form?
[removed]
corporation
[removed]
sole proprietorship
[removed]
limited liability partnership
[removed]
partnership
Question 2
Which of the following is a principal within the agency relationship?
[removed]
the CEO of the firm
[removed]
a shareholder
[removed]
the board of directors
[removed]
a company engineer
Question 3
Teakap, Inc., has current assets of $ 1,456,312 and total assets of $4,812,369 for the year ending September 30, 2006. It also has current liabilities of $1,041,012, common equity of $1,500,000, and retained earnings of $1,468,347. How much long-term debt does the firm have?
[removed]
$1,844,022
[removed]
$2,303,010
[removed]
$2,123,612
[removed]
$803,010
Question 4
Which of the following presents a summary of the changes in a firm’s balance sheet from the beginning of an accounting period to the end of that accounting period?
[removed]
The statement of working capital.
[removed]
The statement of cash flows.
[removed]
The statement of retained earnings.
[removed]
The statement of net worth.
Question 5
Efficiency ratio
: Gateway Corp. has an inventory turnover ratio of 5.6. What is the firm's days's sales in inventory?
[removed]
57.9 days
[removed]
64.3 days
[removed]
65.2 days
[removed]
61.7 days
Question 6
Leverage ratio:
Your firm has an equity multiplier of 2.47. What is its debt-to-equity ratio?
[removed]
1.47
[removed]
0
[removed]
1.74
[removed]
0.60
Question 7
Which of the following is not a method of “benchmarking”?
[removed]
Evaluating a single firm’s performance over time.
[removed]
Identify a group of firms that compete with the company being analyzed.
[removed]
Utilize the DuPont system to analyze a firm’s performance.
[removed]
Conduct an industry group analysis.
Question 8
Present value:
Jack Robbins is saving for a new car. He needs to have $ 21,000 for the car in three years. How much will he have to invest today in an account paying 8 percent annually to achieve his target? (Round to nearest dollar.)
[removed]
$26,454
[removed]
$16,670
[removed]
$19,444
[removed]
$22,680
estion 9
PV of multiple cash flows:
Ferris, Inc., has borrowed from their bank at a rate of 8 percent and will repay the loan with interest over the next five years. Their scheduled payments, starting at the end of the year are as follows—$450,000, $560,000, $750,000, $875,000, and $1,000,000. What is the present value of these payments? (Round to the nearest dollar.)
[removed]
$2,615,432
[removed]
$2,815,885
[removed]
$2,431,224
[removed]
$2,735,200
Question 10
PV of multiple cash flows:
Ajax Corp. is expecting the following cash flows—$79,000, $112,000, $164,000, $84,000, and $242,000—over the next five years. If the company's opportunity cost is 15 percent, what is the present val.
FIN 315 Fall 2018 Case Study Assignment due Dec 6 midnightNot .docxcharlottej5
FIN 315 Fall 2018 Case Study Assignment due Dec 6 midnight
Not more than 2 pages single spaced
Instructions & Questions:
Read the HBR case, and prepare a written memo response addressed to me. Answer the following questions a concisely as possible. Restate each question, followed by your response, in the same order as presented. Cite sources used (including the HBR case, and also any other materials you research in helping you answer the questions). The assignment must be submitted through Blackboard ONLY in MS-Word format (no PDF or alternative formats; they will not be graded).
1. Explain the unique aspects of the shadow banking business model.
a. What types of institutions comprise this industry?
b. What is maturity and liquidity transformation?
c. What is the funding profile of these types of institutions?
d. Why does shadow banking exist?
e. What gaps does it fill in the economy?
2. What are the advantages of the shadow banking industry? What are the risks? How can they be
mitigated?
3. Should the shadow banking industry be more comprehensively regulated, and why/why not?
4. GE Capital:
f. In your view, why is (is not) GE Capital a shadow bank? Why should the market/Reddy (Sifnos) care about such a characterization?
g. What does GE Capital’s historical ROE suggest about the profit potential for nonbank financial institutions vis-à-vis traditional commercial banks?
h. Why did GE initiate the GE Capital Exit plan? Was it successful? What would be the impact if GE successfully petitions its SIFI designation?
i. How much equity is tied up in GE Capital’s capital conservation buffer?
UV7199
Oct. 3, 2016
This public-sourced case was prepared by George (Yiorgos) Allayannis, Professor of Business Administration, and Jeffrey Allen (MBA ’16). It was written
as a basis for class discussion rather than to illustrate effective or ineffective handling of an administrative situation. Names of characters and the company
for which those characters work are fictional. Copyright 2016 by the University of Virginia Darden School Foundation, Charlottesville, VA. All rights
reserved. To order copies, send an e-mail to [email protected] No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, used in a
spreadsheet, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—without the permission of the Darden School Foundation.
GE and the Shadow Banking Landscape
Well, my plan is more comprehensive. And frankly, it’s tougher because of course we have to deal with the
problem that the banks are still too big to fail…But we also have to worry about some of the other players—
AIG, a big insurance company; Lehman Brothers, an investment bank. There’s this whole area called “shadow
banking.” That’s where the experts tell me the next potential problem could come from. I want to make sure
we’re going to cover everybody, not what caused the problem last ti.
FIN 320 Final Project Guidelines and Rubric Final Pro.docxcharlottej5
FIN 320 Final Project Guidelines and Rubric
Final Project Part I
Part I Overview
Business professionals typically need to demonstrate a core set of financial knowledge to earn the job and to succeed on a job. For this part of the assessment,
you will be given a scenario in which you are asked to illustrate your financial management knowledge.
This part of the final project addresses the following course outcomes:
Analyze the roles and responsibilities of financial managers in confirming compliance with federal and shareholder requirements
Differentiate between various financial markets and institutions by comparing and contrasting options when selecting appropriate private and corporate
investments
Part I Prompt
You have completed an internship in the finance division of a fast-growing information technology corporation. Your boss, the financial manager, is considering
hiring you for a full-time job. He first wants to evaluate your financial knowledge and has provided you with a short examination. When composing your answers
to this employment examination, ensure that they are cohesive and read like a short essay.
Your submission must address the following critical elements:
I. Analyze Roles and Responsibilities for Compliance
A. Examine the types of decisions financial managers make. How are these decisions related to the primary objective of financial managers?
B. Analyze the various ethical issues a financial manager could potentially face and how these could be handled.
C. Compare and contrast the different federal safeguards that are in place to reduce financial reporting abuse. Why are these considered
appropriate safeguards?
II. Investment Options
A. If a private company is “going public,” what does this mean, and how would the company do this? What are the advantages of doing this? Do
you see any disadvantages? If so, what are they?
B. How do the largest U.S. stock markets differ? Out of those choices, which would be the smartest private investment option, in your opinion?
Why?
C. Compare and contrast the various investment products that are available and the types of institutions that sell them.
Final Project Part I Rubric
Guidelines for Submission: Ensure that your employment examination is submitted as one comprehensive and cohesive short essay. It should use double
spacing, 12-point Times New Roman font, and one-inch margins. Citations should be formatted according to APA style.
Critical Elements Exemplary (100%) Proficient (85%) Needs Improvement (55%) Not Evident (0%) Value
Roles and
Responsibilities:
Examine
Meets “Proficient” criteria and
includes examples in analysis
Comprehensively examines the
types of decisions financial
managers make, including how
these decisions are related to
their primary objective
Examines the types of decisions
financial managers make,
including how these decisions are
related to their primary objective,
but .
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
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accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
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9
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Final Paper Draft Outline – Week 7 For the second to last.docx
1. Final Paper Draft Outline – Week 7
For the second to last homework, you need to submit an outline
of your final paper. What does
that mean? You need to read the article “Writing for College:
What is an Academic Paper” and
conceptualize what the paper assignment for this course is
about:
https://depts.washington.edu/owrc/Handouts/What%20is%20an
%20Academic%20Paper.pdf
Next, you need to read the “Final Paper Minimum
Requirements” to get a sense of how you shall
start creating the paper. Think of a topic that you are interest
the most – it can be a critical paper,
project, applicative hacks – and then apply the instructions from
the first two sources indicated.
The draft outline needs to answer:
• what is your topic,
• what are your main sections in the paper,
• what are the preliminary sources you will use,
• how you plan to write in each of these sections/use the
sources.
The APA, IEEE, or MLA is required for this assignment. Why?
You can just use the same
document to proceed with actually writing the paper, project
report, or the white paper of the
hack. You can find the formatting guidelines in the “Paper
2. Guidelines” module in D2L.
Once you have finalized your homework, please take a look at
the document named “How to
Read an Academic Paper” that is also attached together in the
same D2L module as the other
two. Make sure you read it – it is an excellent and critical tool
that you will need in reading the
academic sources you plan to build upon in your paper.
Risking Security: Policies and Paradoxes
of Cyberspace Security
Ronald J. Deibert
University of Toronto
and
Rafal Rohozinski
University of Toronto
Conceptualizations of cyberspace security can be divided into
two related
dimensions, articulated as ‘‘risks’’: risks to the physical realm
of computer
and communication technologies (risks to cyberspace); and risks
that arise
from cyberspace and are facilitated or generated by its
technologies, but
do not directly target the infrastructures per se (risks through
cyberspace).
3. There is robust international consensus, growing communities
of practice,
and an emerging normative regime around risks to cyberspace.
This is less
the case when it comes to risks through cyberspace. While
states do collabo-
rate around some policy areas, cooperation declines as the
object of risk
becomes politically contestable and where national interests
vary widely.
These include the nature of political opposition and the right to
dissent
or protest, minority rights and independence movements,
religious belief,
cultural values, or historical claims. The contrast between the
domains has
led to contradictory tendencies and paradoxical outcomes.
Globalization is generating new security challenges. Modern
societies confront a
myriad of risks that threaten economic prosperity, undermine
the safety and
security of citizens, and cause significant disruption to society
and politics. These
risks range from empowered and militant nonstate actors to
technological and
human-made processes, such as environmental degradation and
global warming.
Risk mitigation has become a routine matter of good public
policy.
Cyberspace represents a special category of risk.1 A term once
found only in
science fiction novels, cyberspace describes the human-made
domain for action
4. 1There are perennial debates about how to define cyberspace
and distinguish it from related concepts, like the
Internet. The latter is typically defined as ‘‘a worldwide
network of computer networks that use the TCP ⁄ IP network
protocols to facilitate data transmission and exchange.’’
Although this definition is important and at the core
of the subject matter under investigation in this paper, it is
primarily focused on the material infrastructure of
networked devices while excluding from consideration other
important non-physical elements and characteristics.
In this paper, we adopt the definition of cyberspace recently put
forward by the US Department of Defense. Accord-
ing to the US Department of Defense’s National Strategy for
Military Operations in Cyberspace (2006:3), cyberspace
is as ‘‘a domain characterized by the use of electronics and the
electromagnetic spectrum to store, modify, and
exchange data via networked systems and associated physical
infrastructures.’’ There are several benefits of this
broader definition: First, it covers more than just networked
computers, and includes cellular technologies,
space-based systems, and other technologies that are not at first
blush usually associated with the Internet. Second,
the reference to cyberspace as a ‘‘domain’’ allows for inclusion
of non-physical elements, such as ideas and virtual
realities, which are increasingly the subject of securitization
today.
� 2010 International Studies Association
International Political Sociology (2010) 4, 15–32
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that exists as a consequence of an interconnected and
interdependent global
communications and computing infrastructure. Cyberspace
connects more than
half of all humanity and is an indispensable component of
political, social, eco-
nomic, and military power worldwide. In strategic terms,
cyberspace is accepted
now as a domain equal to land, air, sea, and space.
Predictably, in the post-9/11 era, cyberspace is the focus of
security concerns
as states weigh the risks and benefits of omnipresent global
connectivity. How-
ever, cyberspace presents special security challenges, for a
variety of reasons.
First, and most importantly, it is a communication network that
is organized
transnationally and not through the institutional structures of
the state system.
Although states and individuals may claim sovereignty or
ownership over seg-
ments of cyberspace, particularly parts of its material
infrastructure, or even opt
6. out of it entirely, once in they are never fully in control.
Cyberspace has emergent
properties, in other words, that elude state control.
Second, and closely related, cyberspace is operated as a mix of
public and private
networks. Governance of cyberspace, like its architecture, is
distributed, and does
not take place within a singular forum or point of control
(Dutton and Peltu 2007).
Even the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
(ICANN),
that is most often associated with Internet governance issues, is
only narrowly
concerned with domain and routing management and not with
the full panoply
of cyberspace governance issues (Mueller 2002). There are
instead numerous
sites of cyberspace governance, from spectrum allocation to
copyright and intel-
lectual property regulation to content filtering and cyber-crime
(among many
others). Each of these sites involves numerous stakeholders,
including govern-
ments, businesses, and civil society networks. In addition,
private sector actors
from multiple countries operate most of the core infrastructural
components of
cyberspace. What James Der Derian (2003) calls
‘‘heteropolarity’’ perhaps best
characterizes the state of cyberspace governance.
Third, unlike other domains, such as the sea, land, air, or space,
cyberspace is
a human-made domain in constant flux based on the ingenuity
7. and participation
of users themselves. One of the core design features of
cyberspace is the end-to-
end principle, which allows for generative technologies to be
introduced into
cyberspace by end users as long as they conform to the basic
protocols of inter-
connectivity (Saltzer, Reed, and Clark 1984). The latter
introduces not only great
variation and constant innovation, but also new and unforeseen
security risks
(Zittrain 2007). It also creates major problems for regulation,
insofar as regula-
tors are always chasing a moving target. In other words,
cyberspace is a domain
of constant transformation and a high degree of complexity.
Fourth, cyberspace is comprised of both a material and a virtual
realm—a
space of things and ideas, structure and content. Theorists and
observers of cyber-
space often focus on one of these elements to the exclusion or
diminution of
the other, but both are important and interdependent.
Cyberspace is indeed a
‘‘consensual hallucination’’ as Gibson (1984) famously defined
it, but one that
could not exist without the physical infrastructure that supports
it. Attempts to
control and monitor the virtual realm of cyberspace often begin
with interven-
tions in the physical infrastructure, at key Internet chokepoints
(Deibert, Palfrey,
Rohozinski, and Zittrain 2008). However, these efforts are
never entirely compre-
hensive; once released into cyberspace, the distributed
8. properties of the network
help ideas and information circulate, duplicate and proliferate.
Even radical
measures, such as disconnecting the Internet entirely as was
done recently in
Burma and Nepal, can only limit, but not entirely contain the
flow of ideas.
In this paper, we examine processes of securing cyberspace and
their wider
implications. Drawing from the sociologist Ulrich Beck, we do
so by first disaggre-
gating cyberspace security into two related but distinct
dimensions, articulated as
‘‘risks’’: risks to the physical realm of computer and
communication technologies
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9. and their associated networks (risks to cyberspace, commonly
known as critical
infrastructure protection); and risks that arise from cyberspace
and are facilitated
or generated by its associated technologies, but do not directly
target the infra-
structures per se (risks through cyberspace). As we show, there
is a robust interna-
tional consensus, growing communities of practice, and even an
emerging
normative regime around critical infrastructure protection. Even
in military areas,
where states compete for strategic advantage and have
developed doctrines for
operations in cyberspace, there is, for the moment, a reluctance
to employ overt
computer-based attacks against other state’s national
information infrastructures
and a mutual deterrent norm is slowly developing, albeit in fits
and starts.
This is less the case when it comes to risks through cyberspace.
While states do
collaborate around some policy areas where consensus and
mutual interests can
be found (for example, ‘‘piracy,’’ and to a lesser degree child
pornography),
cooperation declines as the object of risk becomes politically
contestable and
where national interests can vary widely. These include the
nature of political
opposition and the right to dissent or protest, minority rights
and independence
movements, religious belief, cultural values, or historical
claims.
10. The contrast between policies around these two domains has led
to contradic-
tory tendencies. States seek policy coordination and regulations
so as to make
cyberspace a more secure, safe, and predictable environment
recognizing its stra-
tegic importance to economic and social development. These
efforts to combat
risks to the network are driven by a desire to sustain-through-
security a friction-
free and distributed global communications environment. At the
same time,
regime type and legitimacy varies greatly between states, and
actions taken in
response to risks through cyberspace can have the opposite
effect, introducing fric-
tion in the form of filtering of undesirable content, intimidation
and self-censor-
ship through pervasive surveillance, and even the disabling or
disconnection of
critical infrastructures in an attempt to neutralize the risks
posed by networked
political or social actors.
This paper examines the larger implications of these seemingly
paradoxical
tendencies. We suggest that securing cyberspace is not a simple
balkanization of
the Internet or a ‘‘return of the state,’’ as some have suggested
(Goldsmith and
Wu 2006). Rather, it is a complex process entwining both the
development of
universally accepted norms and ever-expanding ‘‘rules of the
game,’’ state regu-
lation of issues of vital domestic, political and cultural concern,
privatization of
11. risk mitigation, and the internationalization of public policy.
Risk Society
In a globalizing world, risk mitigation has become a routine
matter of politics,
good public policy, and a major market segment in its own
right. Politicians
employ risk in lieu of ideology as a justification for policies
ranging from eco-
nomic and social development to national security and
international aid. Risk
mitigation, management, and governance are now widely
studied, propagated
and institutionalized techniques of governance.
The German sociologist Ulrich Beck (1992) first teased out the
connections
between ‘‘risks’’ and modern industrialism and globalization
organized around a
historical narrative of modern social development. According to
Beck, European
and North American life has undergone a series of historical
transformations,
from traditional to modern to reflexive, as a result of a variety
of economic,
political, and social factors. In the last and latest period
coinciding with contem-
porary times, individualism and human agency have become
more pronounced.
Educated individuals and skilled labor forces have reflected on
the institutions
that surround them, and have questioned their legitimacy—a
development Beck
famously refers to as ‘‘reflexive modernization’’ (see also
Giddens 1990).
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There are several elements of Beck’s risk society thesis that
pertain to our anal-
ysis and from which we draw inspiration. First, and most
importantly, is the
notion of ‘‘risk’’ itself, and the social redistribution of risks.
According to Beck,
the central principle of industrial society is the distribution of
goods and ser-
vices, while the central principle of the risk society is the
distribution of ‘‘bads,’’
or risks. In general terms, risk is simply defined as the
possibility of incurring
loss. Analyzing how risks are distributed tells us much about
the functioning and
politics of particular societies. One of the more remarkable
aspects of securing
13. cyberspace is the way in which some risks are distributed by
states to private
actors and the consequences that flow from that redistribution.
A second element of Beck’s thesis is the artificial or
constructed nature of
risks. Here, our analysis both overlaps and parts ways with the
Copenhagen
school of securitization (Buzan, Wæver, and de Wilde 1998;
Stritzel 2007). Like
that school, and Beck’s risk society thesis, we take the position
that risks are
socially constructed. Unlike the Copenhagen school, however,
we do not limit
our analysis to discourses and discourse analysis, but broaden it
to include non-
discursive, indeed even physical structures, that shape and limit
notions of secu-
rity and risk. In our analysis, the technological characteristics
of cyberspace itself
are restrictive factors that shape the realm of the possible in
ways that discourse
alone cannot explain.
Third, like Beck, we place a great deal of emphasis on
unintended and often
paradoxical consequences of risk mitigation.2 For Beck, a
central characteristic
of reflexive modernization is the tendency for risk mitigation to
beget further
risk, and so on, until the mitigation of risk becomes the central
element of poli-
tics and public policy. Each risk mitigation strategy breeds new
uncertainty and
unpredictable consequences, which in turn require further
mitigation, often
14. undermining risk mitigation strategies in other sectors of
society. As the title of
our paper suggests, there is a paradox at the heart of some of
the ways in which
states are securing cyberspace, which leads to an insecurity of a
different sort.
To understand that paradox, the two different conceptions of
risks emerging
from cyberspace need to be unpacked and evaluated separately:
risks to cyber-
space and risks through cyberspace.
Risks to Cyberspace: Critical Infrastructure Protection
As the Internet was specifically designed to be a resilient
communications network,
security vulnerabilities have always been a major factor with
which to
contend and are at the core of the network’s distributed
architecture. These vul-
nerabilities have become more pronounced, however, as
cyberspace has grown
from an experimental network, to a university-based research
network, to an inte-
gral part of the global political economy on which all modern
societies exist
(Kleinrock 2008). Cyberspace is the domain through which
electronic clearances
take place, irrigation systems are controlled, hospitals and
educational systems
interconnect, and governments and private industries of all
types function. It
2Anthony Giddens (1990:153) best describes the dynamics in
this regard: ‘‘Design faults and operator failure
15. clearly fall within the category of unintended consequences, but
the category includes much more. No matter how
well a system is designed and no matter how efficient is the
operators, the consequences of its introduction and
function, in the contexts of the operation of other systems and
of human activity in general, cannot be wholly pre-
dicted. One reason for this is the complexity of systems and
actions that make-up world society. But even if it were
conceivable—as in practice it is not—that the world (human
action and the physical environment) could become a
single design system, unintended consequences would persist.
The reason for this is the circularity social knowl-
edge, which affects in the fist instance the social rather than the
natural world. In conditions of modernity, the
social world can never form a stable environment in terms of
the input of new knowledge about its character and
functioning. New knowledge (concepts, theories, findings) does
not simply render the social world more transpar-
ent, but alters its nature, spinning it off in novel directions.’’
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16. can be found aboard nuclear submarines and bicycles, watches
and air traffic
control systems—it is ubiquitous and pervasive, and is most
acutely felt when it is
absent.
The vulnerability of cyberspace to malicious or accidental
disruption came to
light in several high profile incidents, including the infamous
1988 Morris Worm
in which a virulent program was mistakenly released on the
Internet causing
worldwide traffic to come to a standstill. Beginning in the
1990s, it became more
common to hear scenarios involving actors targeting the
Internet (and cyber-
space more broadly) to bring about widespread havoc—
famously coined an
‘‘electronic pearl harbor’’ by President Clinton’s National
Cyber-Security Advisor,
Richard Clarke (Denning 2000). Whether through
cyberterrorism, or through
accident, a growing recognition of all advanced societies’
increasing dependence
on cyberspace has brought about ever more pronounced efforts
at cyberspace
securitization. Although there have been many that have been
rightly skeptical
of the scope of the claims made, as well as the interests served
by the articulation
of threats, there has been a growing consensus among advanced
industrialized
states around defining cyberspace as a key national asset and
17. critical infrastruc-
ture to be secured.
There are numerous policy documents, legislative and
institutional initiatives,
and analyses around securing critical infrastructures (Dunn
Cavelty 2008; Lewis
2008). Rather than attempt to be comprehensive, our aim here is
instead to
highlight several crosscutting characteristics of these
initiatives. A growing num-
ber of states have created new institutions or re-tasked existing
ones with the
mandate to either oversee critical infrastructure security and ⁄ or
make recom-
mendations as to how the security should be undertaken. In
almost all cases, a
similar justification is employed pointing to society’s growing
dependence on
information and communication technologies, the vulnerabilities
that exist in
these systems, and the steps that need to be taken to secure
cyberspace to keep
it functioning as the infrastructure of the global political
economy, either from
deliberate attack or disruption through accident (Lewis 2008).
The latter is the
area with, not surprisingly, the greatest scope for policy
divergences among
states. Generally speaking, though, among advanced
industrialized economies,
like Canada, the United States, and the countries of Europe and
parts of Asia,
there is recognition of the significant role played by private
actors in the consti-
tution of cyberspace and the need for public-private
18. partnerships. Many coun-
tries are unwilling, or their constituencies would not tolerate,
heavy-handed
regulations that impose requirements on private actors from the
state.
Second, and related, is that there is a particular ideological
notion of cyber-
space that is supported by these policies, one closely related to
the functioning
of global capitalism. This may seem self-evident, but it is
important to under-
score and scrutinize. Although discussions of Internet security
are often couched
in technical-functional terms, the political economy of critical
infrastructure is
never absent and broad values always inform security policies.
The often unspo-
ken logic of securing critical infrastructures is to support and
sustain a friction-
free communications environment in which ideas ⁄ data ⁄
purchase orders ⁄ financial
transactions move freely and with as much speed as possible
across borders and
around the word (Deibert 2002). Disruption to critical
infrastructures means,
first and foremost, disruption to global capital markets.
Third, there is a delicate matter of balancing the security
requirements of criti-
cal infrastructure protection with national security imperatives,
and in particular
the collection of intelligence. In many states, the main agency
charged with criti-
cal infrastructure protection is also the central agency charged
with signals intel-
19. ligence and actionable electronic information (Bronk 2008). In
part, this is a
vestige of the critical assurance role played by these agencies
for governments’
communications and increasingly for businesses. Both the
Communications
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Security Establishment Canada (CSEC) and National Security
Agency (NSA) pro-
vide due diligence for government encryption standards, for
example, a role that
has continued and in fact broadened to include private actors.
Although prima facie this may seem appropriate, the risk
distribution creates a
significant tension for a variety of reasons. First, many of these
organizations
20. operate in secrecy and with limited public accountability, and
have both a track
record and putative interest in having covert access to private
communications.
Since much of the operation of critical infrastructures is in
private hands, it cre-
ates a tension between the interests of national security agencies
and private
actors and raises major privacy concerns, particularly as many
of the companies
themselves are constituted as multi-national or transnational
joint ventures.
Second, and as will be explained in more detail below, the
effort to secure
cyberspace by these agencies has been used to justify a massive
expansion of
surveillance powers, and even in some cases an alteration to the
very framework
of that which is to be protected.3
Third, although national critical infrastructure initiatives are the
most
common, there is a slow but steady internationalization of
critical infrastructure
protection initiatives, policy coordination, and legislation.
These include initia-
tives at the regional, inter-state, and global levels. The G8,
APEC, CoE, the
OECD, NATO, and the ITU (IMPACT) all have cyber-security
initiatives of some
sort (Hosein 2008; ITU 2008). There is also sub-state policy
coordination among
critical infrastructure bodies, in particular the Computer
Emergency Response
Teams (CERTs) that have been set up in countries around the
world, through
21. the mechanism of the Forum of Incident Response and Security
Teams (FIRST).
These initiatives are noteworthy for a variety of reasons. First,
they suggest a
growing international consensus and norm around the
importance of securing
critical infrastructures along the lines of the principles outlined
earlier. Second,
they represent a nascent ‘‘internationalization’’ of public
policy, particularly in
areas of early warning, notification, harmonization of law
enforcement, data
retention, and best security practices (although that has yet to
be fully realized,
as will be explained below). Third, the mix of private and
public actors involved
in these initiatives gives them an embeddedness (and thus
stickiness) in state-society
relations and across multiple jurisdictions. Fourth, and most
importantly, they
represent a growing recognition of the mutual interdependence
generated by
cyberspace. Although protection of national assets is obviously
first priority
among states worldwide, there is also acknowledgment that
cyberspace cannot
truly be secured single-handedly and that the definition of
‘‘national assets’’
itself is problematic for this very reason.
The emerging norm around securing critical infrastructures, and
the recogni-
tion of mutual interdependence of cyberspace, can be seen most
clearly in the
limits that shape states’ offensive operations in cyberspace. A
growing number of
22. states have developed or are exploring doctrines around
offensive operations in
cyberspace. These doctrines are a legacy of a variety of factors:
the ‘‘revolution
in military affairs,’’ a greater understanding of the
vulnerabilities of cyberspace
and ways to exploit those vulnerabilities, the natural
imperatives of defense orga-
nizations whose mandate is to pursue military technologies to
their fullest limits,
and also a growing recognition of, and need to counteract, the
risks through
cyberspace that are described in more detail below. However,
the limits to these
actions are also widely acknowledged and a variety of legal and
technical factors
prohibit offensive operations (Kelsey 2008). For example,
during the 2003
3Here we see starkly an illustration of how risk mitigation and
distribution begets further risk, in this case to pri-
vacy. One example of this is the recent exploration at a UN
working group, supported by both the Chinese and US
national security agencies, for an end to anonymity online
through an infrastructural alteration to cyberspace to
allow for Internet Protocol (IP) trace-backing (McCullagh
2008).
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invasion of Iraq, the full range of offensive computer network
attack capabilities
was constrained by both legal restrictions and the fears of a
cascading effect on
European financial institutions.4
Certainly there are many gaps in critical infrastructure
protection, and
legitimate questions that are raised about the ways in which
critical infra-
structure protection policies are conceived and implemented.
Short-sighted and
wrong-headed solutions to cyberspace security are plentiful and
well
documented by researchers, and many of the institutions created
to secure
risks to cyberspace are inadequately resourced, improperly
designed, and lack
mechanisms to share information across borders. However, in
spite of these
gaps and questions, a growing ‘‘community of practice’’ is
emerging in the
area of critical infrastructure protection that is spreading
internationally (Adler
2005). This community of practice includes a large cross
24. section of states and
private sector actors that shares a common vision of that which
is to be
secured and why.
Risks Through Cyberspace: Dealing with Dark and Resistance
Nets5
Cyberspace, in particular the Internet, has made networking
between like-
minded individuals and groups possible on a global scale and
has contributed to
a massive explosion of civic networks. Powerful, easy-to-use
search technologies,
media of self-expression, like blogs, and communicative
systems make it easy to
form virtual communities, connect causes, and organize
political activities. Global
civic networks have consistently been the earliest adopters of
Internet technolo-
gies for their collective activities, and oftentimes have been at
the forefront of
innovative uses of new media, like SMS, VoIP, Facebook,
Twitter, and blogs. The
medium’s constitutive architecture—distributed, decentralized,
and relatively
cheap and easy to employ—‘‘fits’’ with the organizational and
political ‘‘logic’’
of global civic networks (Naughton 2001). Local causes seek
and find moral and
financial support on a global basis and consequently, local
politics can now play
to a global audience.
But the technological explosion of civil society has not emerged
without unin-
25. tended and even negative consequences, particularly for
nondemocratic,
authoritarian, and competitive authoritarian states (Way and
Levitzsky 2002).
Cyberspace has enabled new, nimble and distributed challenges
to these regimes,
manifest in vigorous, mobilized opposition movements,
protests, and in some
cases, even revolutionary challenges to political authority. In
many countries,
cyberspace presents the only medium of expression not rigidly
or traditionally
controlled by the state. Activists in even the most tightly
controlled societies, like
Uzbekistan, Burma, Iran, China, Vietnam, Belarus, Tunisia, and
Vietnam, are
able to find links across borders and mobilize support for their
cause through
the medium of cyberspace. For these regimes, these movements
represent a new,
fluid, and very formidable security risk. We call these risks
through cyberspace
that challenge nondemocratic, authoritarian, and competitive
authoritarian
regimes, resistance networks.
4One rather perverse outcome of these constraints is that they
may create an incentive for states to offload or
outsource offensive computer operations to third parties or
criminal organizations and thus allow for plausible
deniability. For example, in several recent instances involving
DDoS computer network attacks on adversaries of the
Russian state, there was unverified, but circumstantially
compelling evidence connecting criminal organizations
involved in the attacks with Russian security forces. It is
noteworthy that China’s doctrine of enlisting the people,
26. and nationalist fervor, in offensive computer network attacks is
compatible with such an incentive structure. Such
offloading and outsourcing allow states plausible deniability
although capitalizing on some of the limited outcomes
of offensive computer network operations, examples of which
are picked up in more detail in subsequent sections
of this article.
5The following section draws from Deibert and Rohozinski
(2008).
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Even among democratic states, the explosion of civic networks
has presented
serious challenges, though of a slightly different nature. Just as
progressive
and social justice groups have made use of the Internet to
advance global
27. norms, so too have a wide variety of militant groups, extremists,
criminal orga-
nizations, and terrorists to serve more ulterior purposes.
Cyberspace has facili-
tated their activities in much the same way as it has for more
benign civil
society networks that often get more attention, but the aims of
these groups
are often criminal, covert, and sometimes violent. We call these
risks through
the network dark nets, of which there are two different sorts
(Deibert and
Rohozinski 2008).
The most well known of the dark nets are armed social
movements, which can
represent a multiplicity of local causes, but whose ability to
share tactics, con-
tacts, and at times, drink from the same ideological well, make
them appear as a
unified global network. In the post-9/11 era, Al Qaeda and the
Jihad movements
represent the most visible manifestation of this kind of armed
social movement.
However, they are by no means the first and only networks of
this kind. Many of
the ‘‘new wars’’ (as Mary Kaldor calls them) that occurred
during the 1990s were
fought essentially as transnational civil wars where participants
pursued both gue-
rilla and conventional warfare against government and rival
groups (Kaldor
1999). In conflicts that included Sri Lanka, Somalia, former
Yugoslavia, West
Africa and Chechnya, ‘‘new wars’’ demonstrated that armed
social movements
28. are capable of challenging and at times defeating state actors
without the need
of state-based patrons or backers.
More importantly, this new generation of armed social actors
has also increas-
ingly embraced cyberspace (Rohozinski 2004). They recognize
the capacity
afforded by cyberspace to ‘‘effect’’ both their supporters and
opponents. Signi-
ficantly, it was these groups, rather than militaries of the First
World War, that
were the first to leverage cyberspace as means to wage
information operations
redefining the main battlefield away from the military and
towards the political
sphere (Weimann 2006b). Beginning with the first Chechen war,
the video
taping of attacks on the Russian military became more
important than the
military significance of the attacks themselves. When shown to
supporters, as well
as the Russian public (via rebroadcast in Russian television, and
later on the In-
ternet) their shock value was enough to convey the impression
that the Russian
military was being defeated. Similar tactics were adopted and
further refined by
Hezbollah in its resistance against Israeli occupation of
Southern Lebanon prior
to their withdrawal in 2001, and again in the 2006 summer war.
Attacks were
documented and produced in the form of music videos, that
were both broad-
cast across Hezbollah’s terrestrial TV station, (al Manar) as
well as made available
29. for download from a website, the movement established as part
of its strategic
communications and information warfare strategy (Pahlavi
2007; Wehrey 2002).
These video shorts proved highly effective, and have since
undergone several
significant evolutions, paralleling the spread and popularity of
such on-line
resources as YouTube and Twitter that are used by ‘‘civil’’
networks. They are
now one of the key instruments used by these movements to
attract interest in
their causes and are a significant feature of the more than
4,500+ active jihad
websites, chat rooms, and forums (Weimann 2006a; Kimmage
2008). As the
resources necessary for producing multimedia technologies
continue to fall, and
access to inexpensive digital cameras and computers increases,
the threshold and
number of video and other multimedia products in circulation
has grown expo-
nentially, while the age of the producers has declined. During
the early months
of the second Intifada, for example, several of the more
compelling PowerPoint
slides circulating on the Internet depicting the brutality of the
Israeli reoccupa-
tion of the West bank were produced by a 14-year-old living in
a refugee camp
in Lebanon.
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In addition to changing the nature of the conflicts, cyberspace
has also
served to change the nature of the movements themselves. They
have elimi-
nated the need for strict command and control, especially for
smaller and
more marginal movements who can now claim legitimacy for
their actions by
‘‘virtually’’ piggy-backing on the perceived effectiveness and
success of others.
It also gives the impression of a unity and scale among groups
that in reality,
simply does not exist. As a result, much as the discourse of
human rights and
other universal issues provides an intellectual center that binds
many civil
networks together, the depictions, forums, and shared virtual
spaces of resis-
tance, wrapped in religious undertones, provide a means for
smaller, more
31. local struggles to identify with and benefit from a broader
ideological pool that
serves to demonstrate that resistance is not only possible, but
positively effective
(Kohlmann 2008).
Cyberspace is only one domain used by armed social movements
in the pursuit
of their cause, but it is certainly the one that, because of its
largely unregulated
character and relative freedom of access, causes the greatest
concern for states
under threat from such actors. It is seen, at least in part, as the
sea in which
global militants find sanctuary of the kind that Mao postulated
in his classical
treatise on people’s war. The difficulty, then as it is now, is
how to effectively
separate the insurgents from the people, or armed social
movements from cyber-
space, in a manner that does not destroy the latter. In this study
again the
unintended and paradoxical consequences or risk mitigation
strategies becomes
apparent.
Transnational criminal networks are a second form of dark nets.
These
actors, who can be large or small, local or transnational, exploit
the relative
anonymity offered by cyberspace as well as the absence of
harmonized
national laws defining cybercrime, to circumvent or avoid
prosecution. Cyber-
crime is typically broken down into two distinct realms: old
crimes, such as
32. fraud, child pornography, and theft (including digital
‘‘piracy’’), which have
been adapted to the new possibilities offered by the emergence
of the e-econ-
omy (Brenner 2001); and new crimes that are unique to
cyberspace, such as
phishing attacks, spam, or the use of malware, cyber-espionage,
and distrib-
uted denial-of-service attacks (DDoS), which would not have
emerged without
it (Brenner 2005; Wall 2005). In both cases, jurisdictions with
poorly function-
ing or nonexistent laws are used to hide otherwise criminal
activities out of
the reach of authorities in jurisdictions where they are clearly
criminalized
(Wall 2007). What Michael Froomkin (1997) characterized as
‘‘regulatory arbi-
trage’’ allows cybercriminals to exploit the lowest state
denominators as safe
harbors, electronically moving to lax jurisdictions when the net
tightens or
laws are progressively harmonized.
Globally, the incidence of cybercrime is reported to be
increasing in both
developed and developing economies. In Russia, for example,
acknowledged as
a source of some of the most imaginative forms of cybercrime,
incidences
reportedly grew by almost 300% between 2003 and 2006. Yet,
accurate compar-
ative statistics makes measuring global cybercrime difficult. For
example, in the
United States—an economy where the economic losses caused
by cybercrime
33. were cited by one Treasury Board official as exceeding $105
billion—only in
2006 did the Department of Justice belatedly begin the process
of establishing
a baseline for measuring cybercrime. In part, the absence of
reliable statistics
belies the difficulty faced by local police and justice
institutions when faced
with having to police activities that may not be defined or
considered criminal
in their jurisdiction (or against which they have few tools).
Indeed, the very
concept of jurisdiction itself is confused in cyberspace. Brenner
and Koops
(2004:3) elaborate:
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Acts on the Internet that are legal in the state where they are
34. initiated may
be illegal in other states, even though the act is not particularly
targeted at that
single state. Jurisdiction conflicts abound, both negative (no
state claims jurisdic-
tion) and positive (several states claim jurisdiction at the same
time). Above all,
it is unclear just what constitutes jurisdiction: is it the place of
the act, the coun-
try of residence of the perpetrator, the location of the effect, or
the nationality
of the owner of the computer that is under attack? Or all of
these at once?
Securing Risks Through Cyberspace
The state responses to risks through the network are much more
diverse, com-
petitive, and characterized by self-help policies than are risks to
the network,
where an emerging norm and growing international cooperation
can be dis-
cerned. Even in areas where one might anticipate international
coopera-
tion—control of child pornography, for example—the primary
responses have
been nationally based. In other areas, such as dealing with
extremists, militants,
and anti-regime resistance networks, perceptions of threats and
national interests
vary too widely for there to be any meaningful policy
coordination and national
controls predominate. Indeed, in certain cases, states support,
illicitly or other-
wise, the dark and resistance nets that pose challenges to other
states as part of
35. inter-state competition. Self-help policies also tend to
predominate because the
policy instruments deployed—filtering, surveillance, and
information warfare
attacks—tend to be highly secretive, lack transparency and
accountability and fall
within the realm of national security and military strategy.
Significantly, some of
the policies taken to secure risks through cyberspace are having
the paradoxical
outcome of undermining the very object of security in the risks
to cyberspace
domain.
The one risk through cyberspace where there is significant
policy coordination
is cybercrime, and in particular dealing with theft of intellectual
property and
fraud, although even here the coordination is limited mostly to
industrialized
countries. The most far-reaching is the Council of Europe’s
Cybercrime Conven-
tion, signed and ratified by 15 states, and signed but not yet
ratified by a further
28 in Europe and elsewhere (Weber 2003). Among other things,
the convention
harmonizes policies around dealing with crimes in cyberspace,
including those
relating to data retention and information sharing for law
enforcement and
intelligence. Outside of the convention’s regime, however,
national policies and,
most importantly, state capacities differ widely, allowing
criminal organizations to
triage among jurisdictions and find safe harbor within corrupt
and failed states
36. or where legal enforcement of existing laws is lax. Criminal
networks, therefore,
are able to continue to multiply and expand into new regions
and activities.
Russian hackers are implicated with identity theft and credit
card fraud in the
United States and Europe. Nigerian gangs have become
omnipresent in a variety
of scams and wire fraud, whereas Chinese, Iranian, Malaysian,
Thai, Peruvian
and Israeli networks preside over a global distribution network
of pirated DVDs
and software (USTR 2008).
Filtering, Surveillance, and Information Attacks
Several self-help and competitive strategies are employed by
states to deal with
risks through cyberspace, introducing friction and disruption to
cyberspace.
The starkest example is Internet filtering. Once thought
impossible in cyber-
space, Internet content filtering is now a widespread global
practice. Solid com-
parative research around Internet filtering practices is generally
lacking.
A notable exception is the research of the OpenNet Initiative
(ONI), which has
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documented the growth in scope, scale and sophistication of
Internet filtering
practices since 2002 (Deibert et al. 2008, 2010).6 Whereas in
the early 2000s,
there were only a handful of states blocking access to
information, the latest
research of the ONI has documented more than 40 countries.
Filtering technolo-
gies are installed at key Internet chokepoints, and work by
preventing requests
for URLs, IPs, or domain names of banned content from being
carried through
(Villeneuve 2006). Although methods vary widely, most states
implement Inter-
net filtering practices by imposing upon Internet service
providers (ISPs) respon-
sibility for blocking access to a pre-determined list of websites,
IP addresses, and
services, while others impose nationwide uniform controls at
international gate-
ways. Other filtering systems can be implemented at more local
levels, such as
Internet cafes. The countries that are described by the ONI as
‘‘pervasive’’ filter-
38. ers of Internet content—China, Burma, Vietnam, Thailand, Iran,
Syria, Saudi
Arabia, UAE, Bahrain, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Ethiopia—
routinely block
access to the websites, forums, and blogs of political
opposition, human rights,
independence, minority rights, alternative faiths, and cultural
groups. Almost all
of them do so without public accountability or transparency.
As the scope, scale, and sophistication of Internet censorship
and surveillance
has increased, so too has the market for the technologies
employed for such
ends. ONI research has empirically verified the use of a range
of commercial
technologies used in national filtering regimes around the
world. For example,
the ONI has documented the use of a product called Smartfilter,
made by the
US company Secure Computing Inc., in the filtering systems of
Kuwait, Oman,
Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates, and Iran. The
US-produced
Netcache is often used in conjunction with filtering products
like Smartfilter and
is employed in Iran; the US product Websense was used in Iran,
and is now used
by Yemen; the US product Fortinet is employed in Burma;
Cisco routers filter at
the backbone level in China; and Singapore uses the US product
Surfcontrol.
There are issues of accountability and transparency having to do
with the pro-
prietary nature of these commercial filtering technologies.
39. Filtering software
works by having lists of categorized websites and keywords that
can be activated
by customers, and which are updated typically through online
connections to
databases operated by the companies. The companies
themselves treat the lists
as intellectual property and normally do not disclose what sites
are included
and ⁄ or how they are categorized. Although some companies,
like Secure
Computing, allow tests of their filtering software online, none
of the companies
openly discloses the contents of their lists to public scrutiny.
The lack of
openness, although understandable from a commercial
perspective, has signi-
ficant public policy implications when commercial filtering
software is used at a
national level to filter access to information on public networks,
as happens in
numerous countries around the world today.
There are related questions around the involvement of search
engines and
other Internet service companies that collude with governments
that violate
6The authors are two of four founders and principal
investigators. The other two are John Palfrey and Jonathan
Zittrain. The ONI’s methodology combines technical and
contextual research. Two lists of websites are checked in
each of the countries tested: a global list (constant for each
country) and a local list (different for each country).
The global list is composed of internationally relevant websites
with provocative or objectionable content in English.
40. The local lists are designed individually for each country to
unearth unique filtering and blocking behavior. In
countries where Internet censorship has been reported, the local
lists also include those sites that were alleged to
have been blocked. These lists, however, are not meant to be
exhaustive. The actual tests are run from within each
country using specially designed software. Where appropriate,
the tests are run from different locations to capture
the differences in blocking behavior across ISPs and across
multiple days and weeks to control for normal connec-
tivity problems. The completion of the initial accessibility
testing is just the first step in our evaluation process.
Additional diagnostic work is performed to separate normal
connectivity errors from intentional tampering. There
are a number of technical alternatives for filtering the Internet,
some of which are relatively easy to discover. Others
are difficult to detect and require extensive diagnostic work to
confirm.
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41. human rights. In order to gain a toehold in such jurisdictions,
companies have
been required to filter access to information on search engines,
or comply with
‘‘local laws’’ that contain none of the safeguards around due
process and privacy
that are typically found in liberal democratic regimes (Maclay
2010). In one of
the most egregious cases, the American Internet company
Yahoo! turned over
email records to the Chinese government leading to the arrest of
three people,
Jiang Lijun, Shi Tao, and Li Zhi. In testimony before the US
Congress, Yahoo!
said that they had no choice but to comply with the request, that
‘‘Yahoo! China
was legally obligated to comply with the requirements of
Chinese law enforce-
ment… or face the possibility of ‘‘criminal charges, including
imprisonment.
Ultimately, US Companies in China face a choice: comply with
Chinese law, or
leave.’’7 These cases illustrate the ways in which the
distribution of risk mitiga-
tion strategies to private actors can create serious accountability
gaps, and ulti-
mately pervert the very service being delivered. Ironically, the
best and brightest
of Silicon Valley, once heralded by their own advertisements as
‘‘wiring the
world’’ and ‘‘connecting individuals,’’ are here being asked to
do precisely the
opposite.
42. Internet filtering is a practice spreading not only among
authoritarian and
democratically challenged states, it is one that is becoming
increasingly wide-
spread among industrialized democratic states as well, in
particular as a response
to the dark nets of online child pornography. This issue is
especially puzzling for
the propensity of self-help in spite of widespread condemnation
and available
mechanisms for international coordination (Villeneuve 2010).
Around the world,
children are sexually abused with the images and videos of that
abuse uploaded
and circulated in cyberspace—a practice that is nearly
universally illegal.
Although international policy coordination mechanisms have
been created
through the Council of Europe, and through such voluntary
arrangements as IN-
HOPE, the primary tool states are using to deal with online
child pornography is
by nationally based filtering schemes, typically carried out by
private ISPs and
national police and civilian agencies. Countries that have
implemented filtering
technology solutions for access to child pornography include
Australia (in
progress), Norway (September 2004), Germany (February
2005), Sweden
(May 2005), Denmark (October 2005), Canada (November
2006), Switzerland
(January 2007), Italy (January 2007), the Netherlands
(September 2007), and
Finland (January 2008).
43. Blocking access to child pornography through filtering is not
the only one
available to deal with online child pornography. An alternative
method is to
locate the source of the information (where it is hosted), issue a
take-down
notice to the provider, and arrest and prosecute those who post
or circulate the
information, if possible.8 However, this alternative tactic is less
often employed,
and in fact has been actually decreasing ever since national
filtering schemes
have begun to spread. This has led to the rather curious
situation in which coun-
tries filter child pornography hosted in countries that are party
to the Cybercri-
me Convention or the INHOPE notification system, rather than
sharing
information about such images and requesting the offending
information be
removed. As Nart Villeneuve reports, ‘‘in one particularly
awkward case, a Dutch
blogger found that the Dutch National Police were adding
domestically hosted
child pornography sites to their blocklist rather than taking
legal action against
the owners’’ (Villeneuve 2010:70).
7Testimony of Michael Callahan, Senior Vice President and
General Counsel, Yahoo! Inc., before the Subcom-
mittees on Africa, Global Human Rights and International
Operations, and Asia and the Pacific, February 15, 2006.
Recently, several major Internet services companies have
entered into a self-regulation pact called the Global
Network Initiative (GNI). The effectiveness of such self-
regulation is untested and still questionable.
44. 8Interestingly, this is the very same strategy often employed
with considerable effectiveness to deal with copy-
right violations online.
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Why the reliance on self-help when it comes to child
pornography? There
appear to be several reasons. First, there is a growing
legitimization of Internet
filtering solutions, based on their growing use in national,
private, and some
public contexts, such as schools and libraries. In spite of the
fact that these tech-
nologies are widely prone to error, they provide a simple and
easy panacea for a
serious problem and can be delegated by governments to private
actors and sold
45. to uninformed public audiences as a viable solution. Credible
opposition to such
schemes is rare, given the hot-button nature of the topic and
fear of guilt by
association. Second, although there are mechanisms in place for
international
policy coordination and information sharing, as mentioned
above many residual
roadblocks stand in the way of law enforcement coordination
across borders.
Police tend to work in national jurisdictions, and seek
convictions in their own
territorial spaces, first and foremost. The incentives to facilitate
take-down
notices that result in convictions in other territorial
jurisdictions are relatively
low. The incentives drop even further for countries outside of
the so-called
Atlantic Alliance (Canada, United States, United Kingdom, New
Zealand, and
some European countries), where police cooperation is virtually
non-existent.
The ONI’s research suggests filtering is a fast-moving and
evolving trend,
particularly among authoritarian and competitive authoritarian
regimes. First
generation filtering relies on passive means where lists of
banned websites are
loaded into routers such that requests to the servers hosting
those websites were
denied. These classic methods, used by countries such as China,
Iran, and Saudi
Arabia, are relatively unsophisticated and easy to defeat.
Moreover, they are also
difficult to hide. As ONI testing reveals, it is relatively easy to
46. determine what
content is being filtered, and by whom. As a result, countries
engaging in first
generation filtering have been quickly targeted by advocacy
groups and labeled
as ‘‘pariahs.’’ It is therefore hardly surprising that first
generation methods are
being supplanted by ‘‘second’’ and ‘‘third generation’’
strategies designed to be
more stealthy, dynamic, and often ‘‘offensive’’ in nature
(Deibert et al. 2010).
Evidence gathered by ONI points to several emerging trends
that characterize
these next-generation filtering strategies. First, this new
generation of blocking is
applied temporarily, to coincide with particular events when a
certain type of
information has greatest value (or potential for disruption). This
is particularly
true during elections or protests, when interest in media
reporting and political
communications is heightened, and where the consequences of
an electoral
loss or awareness of a mass gathering may have major
repercussions. In several
cases—the February 2005 election in Kyrgyzstan (which led to
the toppling of
President Askar Akayev in the ‘‘Tulip revolution’’), the 2006
presidential
elections in Belarus, the 2007 demonstrations Burma (the so-
called Saffron
Revolution), and the 2008 protests in Tibet—ONI documented
this type of
‘‘just-in-time’’ blocking against key opposition media and
political sites. Second,
47. the methods used in second generation blocking are different. In
the Kyrgyzstan
and Belarus cases, for example, filtering of access to sites and
services was
achieved through offensive means, by attacking web servers
hosting information
with DDoS attacks, which flooded the servers with requests
rendering them
unable to respond (as opposed to passive interception and
blocking of requests
for web sites and service). In the Kyrgyz case, these attacks
were accompanied by
an ultimatum to the ISP hosting the websites, demanding that
they be removed. In
the case of Belarus, DDoS attacks were accompanied by other
tactics, such as intro-
ducing deliberate errors in domain name servers (which are
necessary for finding
servers on the Internet), and thus temporarily shutting down all
Internet access in
Minsk. These second-generation techniques are not restricted to
technologically
sophisticated states. During 2007, Ethiopia, Uganda, and
Cambodia shut down
access to SMS services during politically sensitive times,
presumably in recognition
that these technologies offer a means for opposition movements
to mobilize.
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Next-generation control strategies, such as just-in-time
blocking, can include
an even more pernicious example of self-help policies to deal
with risks
through the network: covert or semi-covert support of dark and
resistance net-
works. China, Russia, Burma, Iran, Belarus (among others) have
been accused
of supporting criminal organization and third parties to
denigrate resistance
networks, although determining the exact involvement of the
government in
each case is difficult. For example, China’s adversaries—the US
government,
Tibetan groups, the Falun Gong, pro-democracy groups—have
all experienced
increasingly sophisticated information warfare attacks,
including distributed
denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks, the use of Trojan horses and
viruses, cyber-
espionage, and targeted malware. Using forensic investigative
techniques,
researchers have been able to trace back some of these attacks
and espionage
49. networks to control servers in mainland China, the most famous
of which
being the ‘‘GhostNet’’ system (Information Warfare Monitor
2009). However,
determining whether the Chinese government itself is
responsible for the
attacks has not been possible given the ease by which such
attacks can be
launched through anonymous means or launched by private
actors for com-
mercial or illicit gain. It is instructive to note in this respect
that part of
China’s explicit information warfare strategy is to enlist the
‘‘people’s’’ support,
and there is a very vibrant nationalist-patriotic hacker
community in China that
erupts in defense of the Chinese regime whenever domestic
political incidents
arise. Likewise, several recent conflicts involving adversaries of
Russia have
experienced massive DoS attacks, including Estonia and
Georgia. However,
researchers have not been able to conclusively determine
whether the Russian
government is the source of the attacks, whether the attacks
were contracted
out to criminal organizations, or whether they originate from
patriotic hackers,
or some combination. We might infer that such outsourcing to
private actors
may in fact become more common because of the attractions of
plausible deni-
ability it affords to the regimes involved.
The risks posed by both dark and resistance networks have
contributed to a
50. massive expansion of electronic surveillance among all
countries, a significant
portion of it carried out through extra-legal means and ⁄ or
downloaded to
private companies. The attacks of 9/11 were a definite
watershed in this regard.
Following upon revelations that the hijackers employed
cyberspace as an organi-
zational domain to carry out the attacks, there was widespread
support for more
enhanced monitoring powers for law enforcement and
intelligence. The United
States quickly adopted wide-ranging legislation, in the form of
the PATRIOT
Act, which expanded the scope for electronic surveillance.
Numerous countries
around the world then passed legislation similar to the United
States PATRIOT
Act, requiring lawful access provisions for law enforcement to
be undertaken by
private ISPs.
Some non-democratic countries have used the excuse of the war
on terror and
followed the normative lead of the United States to legitimize
their surveillance
of opposition and minority. In several countries, notably Egypt,
a combination of
surveillance and selective prosecution is used to effectively
curtail bloggers, and
specific minority groups (especially the gay and lesbian
community). In 2008,
Russia expanded the powers previously established by SORM-
II, which obliged
ISPs to purchase and install equipment that would permit local
FSB offices to
51. monitor the Internet activity of specific users. The new
legislation makes it possi-
ble to monitor all Internet traffic and personal usage without
specific warrants.
The legislation effectively brings into the open covert powers
that were previ-
ously assigned to FAPSI, with the twist of transferring to the
entire ISPs the costs.
In many countries, Internet cafes are monitored by secret police
both physically
and through remote surveillance technologies. The measures
present a clear
warning to anyone seeking the anonymity of cyberspace to
voice political
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criticism or express alternative lifestyles: you can be found, and
you can be
52. prosecuted.
Since much of cyberspace flows through private networks, state
surveillance
measures target and often force the cooperation of businesses,
especially those
operating in national jurisdictions. For example, in the United
States a whistle-
blower revealed that the Bush administration had authorized
extra-legal wiretaps
on the US-based Internet exchange points of Tier 1 ISPs,
including AT&T and
Verizon, in order to monitor traffic passing through those hubs.
Another exam-
ple is a recent report that uncovered a major surveillance system
on the Chinese
version of the popular Internet telephone software, Skype
(Villeneuve 2009).
The full-text chat messages of TOM-Skype users, along with
Skype users who
communicated with TOM-Skype users, were regularly scanned
for sensitive
keywords, and if present, the resulting data were uploaded and
stored on servers
in China, ostensibly to be passed to Chinese security services.
The captured
messages contained specific keywords relating to sensitive
political topics such as
Taiwan independence, the Falun Gong, and political opposition
to the
Communist Party of China. This one case was revealed because
of a combination
of dogged detective work and sloppy information security on
the part of
TOM-Skype; presumably, though, many other targeted
surveillance attacks on
53. Internet services exist through covert channels.
Although far from exhaustive, the previous section highlights
some of the ways
in which states are attempting to secure against risks through
cyberspace. Of par-
ticular note is the extent to which self-help policies
predominate, transparency
and accountability are rare, risk mitigation includes outsourcing
to third parties
and illicit networks, and competition is often fierce. In
attempting to neutralize
risks through cyberspace, states are turning to filtering,
blocking, surveillance,
and information warfare tactics. These tendencies point to an
increasingly com-
petitive cyberspace commons where states, individuals, civil
society and dark and
resistance nets jostle for agency and advantage, often at the
expense of cyber-
space itself.
The Paradoxes of Risking Security
Securing cyberspace has become one of the major global policy
areas of the 21st
century. Although a growing literature has emerged about
cyberspace security,
very little of it covers the full range of risks and responses or
the implications of
the politics surrounding it. In this paper, we have untangled and
analyzed two
different risks associated with cyberspace security: risks to
cyberspace, and risks
through cyberspace. Although often confused, the two are
distinct, not least of
54. which in terms of levels of international cooperation and state
policies, but even
more so in terms of the way they can work at cross-purposes.
In the former area, risks to cyberspace, a growing international
norm has
emerged that sees cyberspace as vital to economics,
government, society, and cul-
ture. Policies have focused on securing systems that support a
friction-free global
communications environment in which commerce can flourish,
data can be
exchanged without corruption, and infrastructures can operate
without signifi-
cant downtime or disruption. The norm may in fact be leading to
some of the
most significant (though rarely acknowledged by Internet
governance experts)
institutions of international Internet governance through a wide
variety of regio-
nal and international regimes and sub-state communities of
practice. At the same
time, there are clearly some gaps in areas of international
notification, including
in those involving child pornography and cyber-espionage.
Risks through the network involve much wider divergence
among states, an
emphasis on national policies and self-help, and most
significantly policies
whose outcome are having the opposite effect of those
associated with risks to
29Ronald J. Deibert and Rafal Rohozinski
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cyberspace. Ironically, in other words, security policies in
response to risks
through cyberspace are creating insecurities around cyberspace
itself. The
responses to the two ‘‘risks’’ operate at cross-purposes. The
aim of ‘‘risks to’’ is
to secure a friction-free, distributed and resilient global
communications net-
work. The aim of ‘‘risks through,’’ on the other hand, is to
introduce friction
and disruption through filtering, surveillance, and computer
network attacks.
Whether and how these two risk domains will co-exist into the
future, and what
implications will follow for international security, are areas
worthy of further
investigation.
Securing cyberspace has definitely entailed a ‘‘return of the
state’’ but not in
56. ways that suggest a return to the traditional Westphalian
paradigm of state sover-
eignty. First, efforts aimed at combating risks to the network
are supporting a
worldwide, interconnected domain of communications that, in
turn, is facilitat-
ing a rapid expansion of transnational non-state actor activities.
Second, many of
the policies described above entail devolution of
responsibilities and authority to
private actors. This includes the imposition of surveillance,
mining, and data
retention responsibilities to ISPs and other cyberspace service
companies (search
engines, cellular phone operators) in both democratic and
nondemocratic envi-
ronments. Privatization of a different sort is also implicated in
the outsourcing
of computer network attacks to illicit networks and criminal
organizations.
Privatization of security has become an area of active
investigation among some
theorists lately; this analysis suggests privatization of
intelligence and computer
network attacks should be added to that area. Lastly, the efforts
taken to combat
cybercrime, to harmonize laws across state jurisdictions, and to
facilitate interna-
tional policing and intelligence can be seen as an
internationalization of the
state, albeit among a core group of industrialized states.
Together these trends suggest that the paradoxes of securing
cyberspace will
ensure the continuation of a complex and multifaceted domain,
one that defies
57. simple and extreme characterizations. Cyberspace will continue
to be tugged in
heteropolar directions: from the ingenuity of end users who
develop technolo-
gies that have system-wide effects; from states who intervene to
try to shape, limit
and disable adversarial sources of information; from major
commercial providers
centralizing information and communication in ‘‘cloud’’
computing systems; to
anonymous tunneled networks hardened by advanced encryption
technologies.
This domain, like others before it, is an object of geopolitical
contestation that
at once shapes and constrains the nature of that contestation.
Unlike sea, land,
air and space, though, it is a domain entirely created, sustained
and ultimately
transformed by ongoing human interaction and competition.
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CNS440 – Homework – Week 6
You will find the following article in the Week 6 Module in
D2L:
66. Deibert, Ronald J, and Rafal Rohozinski. 2010. “Risking
Security: Policies and Paradoxes of
Cyberspace Security.” International Political Sociology 4 (1):
15–32. doi:10.1111/j.1749-
5687.2009.00088.x.
You need to read it carefully and critically review it. Please
carefully read or recall the “Writing
a Critical Review Guidelines” included in the Course Logistics
Module in D2L.
There is no minimum or maximum page limit. The grading is
based on the substance of your
arguments in the review, rather than a simple summary of the
article and word/page count.
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hmtl
What is an Academic Paper?
WRITING FOR COLLEGE
67. How It Differs From Writing in High School
One of the first things you'll discover as a college student is
that writing in college is
different from writing in high school. Certainly a lot of what
your high school writing
teachers taught you will be useful to you as you approach
writing in college: you will want
to write clearly, to have an interesting and arguable thesis, to
construct paragraphs that are
coherent and focused, and so on.
Still, many students enter college relying on writing strategies
that served them well in high
school but that won't serve them well here. Old formulae, such
as the five-paragraph
theme, aren't sophisticated or flexible enough to provide a
sound structure for a college
paper. And many of the old tricks - such as using elevated
language or repeating yourself so
that you might meet a ten-page requirement - will fail you now.
So how does a student make a successful transition from high
school to college?
The first thing that you'll need to understand is that writing in
college is for the most part a
particular kind of writing, called "academic writing." While
academic writing might be
defined in many ways, there are three concepts that you need to
understand before you
write your first academic paper.
1. Academic writing is writing done by scholars for other
68. scholars. Writing done by
scholars for scholars? Doesn't that leave you out? Actually, it
doesn't. Now that you are in
college you are part of a community of scholars. As a college
student, you will be engaged
in activities that scholars have been engaged in for centuries:
you will read about, think
about, argue about, and write about great ideas. Of course,
being a scholar requires that
you read, think, argue, and write in certain ways. Your
education will help you to
understand the expectations, conventions, and requirements of
scholarship. If you read on,
so will this Web site.
2. Academic writing is devoted to topics and questions that are
of interest to the
academic community. When you write an academic paper, you
must first try to find a
topic or a question that is relevant and appropriate. But how do
you know when a topic is
relevant and appropriate? First of all, pay attention to what your
professor is saying. She
will certainly be giving you a context into which you can place
your questions and
observations. Second, understand that your paper should be of
interest to other students
and scholars. Remember that academic writing must be more
than personal response. You
must write something that your readers will find useful. In other
words, you will want to
write something that helps your reader to better understand your
topic, or to see it in a new
way.
69. 3. This brings us to our final point: Academic writing should
present the reader with
an informed argument. To construct an informed argument, you
must first try to sort out
what you know about a subject from what you think about a
subject. Or, to put it another
way, you will want to consider what is known about a subject
and then to determine what
you think about it. If your paper fails to inform, or if it fails to
argue, then it will fail to meet
the expectations of the academic reader.
Page 2 of 9
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http://www.depts.washington.edu/owrc
Adapted from
www.dartmouth.edu/~writing/materials/student/ac_paper/what.s
hmtl
CONSTRUCTING AN INFORMED ARGUMENT
What You Know
When you sit down to write an academic paper, you'll first want
to consider what you know
about your topic. Different writing assignments require
different degrees of knowing. A
short paper written in response to a viewing of Alfred
Hitchcock's Rear Window, for
70. example, may not require you to be familiar with Hitchcock's
other works. It may not even
require you to have mastered the terms important to film
criticism - though clearly any
knowledge you bring to the film might help you to make a
thoughtful response to it.
However, if you are asked to write an academic paper on the
film, then you will want to
know more. You will want to have certain terms in hand so that
you can explain what
Hitchcock is doing in key moments. You will want to be
familiar with Hitchcock's other films
so that you can understand what themes are important to him
and his work. Moreover, if
you are watching this film in an upper-level film class, you will
want to be aware of different
critical perspectives on Hitchcock's films and on films in
general, so that you can "place"
your argument within the larger ongoing conversation.
When you sit down to write an academic paper, ask yourself
these questions:
What do I know about my topic?
where, why,
how?
might be important to my
topic?
71. topics?
now about this genre?
What seems important to me about this topic?
points would I focus on?
How does this topic relate to other things that I know?
understand it in new
ways?
What DON'T I know about my topic?
What You Think
You'll discover as you consider the questions listed above that
you are moving beyond what
you know about a topic and are beginning to consider what you
think. In the process of
really thinking about your topic, your aim is to come up with a
fresh observation. After all,
72. Page 3 of 9
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hmtl
it's not enough to summarize in a paper what is already known
and talked about. You must
also add something of your own to the conversation.
Understand, however, that "adding something of your own" is
not an invitation simply to
bring your own personal associations, reactions, or experiences
to the reading of a text. To
create an informed argument, you must first recognize that your
writing should be analytical
rather than personal. In other words, your writing must show
that your associations,
reactions, and experiences of a text have been framed in a
critical, rather than a personal,
way.
How does one move from personal response to analytical
writing?
Summarize.
First, summarize what the primary text is saying. You'll notice
that you can construct
several different summaries, depending on your agenda.
Returning to the example of
Hitchcock's film, you might make a plot summary, a summary
73. of its themes, a summary of
its editing, and so on. You can also summarize what you know
about the film in context. In
other words, you might write a summary of the difficulties
Hitchcock experienced in the
film's production, or you might write a summary of how this
particular movie complements
or challenges other films in the Hitchcock canon. You can also
summarize what others have
said about the film. Film critics have written much about
Hitchcock, his films, and their
genre. Try to summarize all that you know.
Evaluate.
The process of evaluation is an ongoing one. You evaluate a
text the moment you encounter
it, and - if you aren't lazy - you continue to evaluate and to re-
evaluate as you go along.
Evaluating a text is different from simply reacting to a text.
When you evaluate for an
academic purpose, it is important to be able to clearly articulate
and to support your own
personal response. What in the text is leading you to respond a
certain way? What's not in
the text that might be contributing to your response? Watching
Hitchcock's film, you are
likely to have found yourself feeling anxious, caught up in the
film's suspense. What in the
film is making you feel this way? The editing? The acting? Can
you point to a moment in the
film that is particularly successful in creating suspense? In
asking these questions, you are
straddling two intellectual processes: experiencing your own
personal response, and
74. analyzing the text.
Analyze.
This step in constructing an informed argument asks you first to
consider the parts of your
topic and then to examine how these parts relate to each other
or to the whole. To analyze
Hitchcock's film, you may want to break the film down by
examining particular scenes, point
of view, camera movements, and so on. In short, you'll want to
ask: What are the
components of Hitchcock's film, and how do these components
contribute to the film's
theme? How do they contribute to Hitchcock's work as a whole?
When you analyze, you
break the whole into parts so that you might see the whole
differently. In the process of
analysis, you find things that you might say.
Synthesize.
When you analyze, you break down a text into its parts. When
you synthesize, you look for
connections between ideas. Consider once again the Hitchcock
film. In analyzing this film,
you might come up with elements that seem initially disparate.
You may have some
observations that at first don't seem to gel. Or you may have
read various critical
perspectives on the film, all of them in disagreement with one
another. Now would be the
time to consider whether these disparate elements or
observations might be reconciled, or
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hmtl
synthesized. This intellectual exercise requires that you create
an umbrella argument -
some larger argument under which several observations and
perspectives might stand.
CHOOSING AN APPROPRIATE TOPIC
Many students writing in college have trouble figuring out what
constitutes an appropriate
topic. Sometimes the professor will provide you with a prompt.
She will give you a question
to explore, or a problem to resolve. When you are given a
prompt by your professor, be
sure to read it carefully. Your professor is setting the
parameters of the assignment for you.
She is telling you what sort of paper will be appropriate.
In many cases, however, the professor won't provide you with a
prompt. She might not
even give you a topic. For example, in a psychology course you
might be asked to write a
paper on any theory or theories of self. Your professor has
given you a subject, but she has
not given you a topic. Nor has she told you what the paper
should look like. Should it
76. summarize one of the theories of self? Should it compare two or
more theories? Should it
place these theories into some historical context? Should it take
issue with these theories,
pointing out their limitations?
At this juncture, you have two options: talk to the professor and
see what her expectations
are, or figure out this matter for yourself. It's always a good
idea to talk with the professor.
At the very least, you'll want to find out if the professor wants a
report or a paper. In other
words, is your professor looking for information or argument?
Chances are she'll want you to make an argument. It will be up
to you to narrow your topic
and to make sure that it's appropriately academic. As you think
about a topic, ask yourself
the following questions:
have you constructed a
question that will require a complex, thoughtful answer?
pages? Or is the
question impossibly broad?
words, have you
considered the historical and cultural circumstances that
77. influenced this text? Have
you considered what other scholars have said about it?
question? Or will she say,
"So what?"
Your Topic elsewhere in this
Web site.
FINDING A RHETORICAL STANCE
When writing an academic paper, you must not only consider
what you want to say, you
must also consider to whom you are saying it. In other words,
it's important to determine
not only what you think about a topic, but also what your
audience is likely to think. What
are your audience's biases? Values? Expectations? Knowledge?
To whom are you writing,
and for what purpose?
When you begin to answer all of these questions, you have
started to reckon with what has
been called "the rhetorical stance." "Rhetorical stance" refers to
the position you take as a
writer in terms of the subject and the reader of your paper.
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Consider Your Position
Let's first consider your relationship to your topic. When you
write a paper, you take a stand
on a topic. You determine whether you are for or against,
passionate or cool-headed. You
determine whether you are going to view this topic through a
particular perspective
(feminist, for example), or whether you are going to make a
more general response. You
also determine whether you are going to analyze your topic
through the lens of a particular
discipline - history, for example. Your stance on the topic
depends on the many decisions
you have made in the reading and thinking processes.
In order to make sure that your stance on a topic is
appropriately analytical, you might
want to ask yourself some questions. Begin by asking why
you've taken this particular
stance. Why did you find some elements of the text more
important than others? Does this
prioritizing reflect some bias or preconception on your part? If
you dismissed part of a text
as boring or unimportant, why did you do so? Do you have
personal issues or experiences
that lead you to be impatient with certain claims? Is there any
part of your response to the
text that might cause your reader to discount your paper as
biased or un-critical? If so, you
79. might want to reconsider your position on your topic.
Consider Your Audience
Your position on a topic does not by itself determine your
rhetorical stance. You must also
consider your reader. In the college classroom, the audience is
usually the professor or your
classmates - although occasionally your professor will instruct
you to write for a more
particular or more general audience. No matter who your reader
is, you will want to
consider him carefully before you start to write.
What do you know about your reader and his stance towards
your topic? What is he likely to
know about the topic? What biases is he likely to have?
Moreover, what effect do you hope
to have on the reader? Is your aim to be controversial?
Informative? Entertaining? Will the
reader appreciate or resent your intention?
Once you have determined who your reader is, you will want to
consider how you might
best reach him. If, for example, you are an authority on a
subject and you are writing to
readers who know little or nothing about it, then you'll want to
take an informative stance.
If you aren't yet confident about a topic, and you have more
questions than answers, you
might want to take an inquisitive stance.
In any case, when you are deciding on a rhetorical stance,
choose one that allows you to be
sincere. You don't want to take an authoritative stance on a
subject if you aren't confident
80. about what you are saying. On the other hand, you can't avoid
taking a position on a
subject: nothing is worse than reading a paper in which the
writer has refused to take a
stance. What if you are of two minds on a subject? Declare that
to the reader. Make
ambivalence your clear rhetorical stance.
Finally, don't write simply to please your professor. Though
some professors find it flattering
to discover that all of their students share their positions on a
subject, most of us are
hoping that your argument will engage us by telling us
something new about your topic -
even if that "something new" is simply a fresh emphasis on a
minor detail. Moreover, it is
impossible for you to replicate the "ideal paper" that exists in
your professor's head. When
you try, you risk having your analysis compared to your
professor's. Do you really want that
to happen?
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81. CONSIDERING STRUCTURE
In high school you might have been taught various strategies for
structuring your papers.
Some of you might have been raised on the five paragraph
theme, in which you introduce
your topic, come up with three supporting points, and then
conclude by repeating what
you've already said. Others of you might have been told that the
best structure for a paper
is the hour-glass model, in which you begin with a general
statement, make observations
that are increasingly specific, and then conclude with a
statement that is once again
general.
When you are writing papers in college, you will require
structures that will support ideas
that are more complex than the ones you considered in high
school. Your professors might
offer you several models for structuring your paper. They might
tell you to order your
information chronologically or spatially, depending on whether
you are writing a paper for a
history class or a course in art history. Or they may provide you
with different models for
argument: compare and contrast, cause and effect, and so on.
But remember: the structure
for your argument will in the end be determined by the content
itself. No prefab model
exists that will provide adequate structure for the academic
argument. (For more detailed
advice on various ways to structure your paper, see Writing:
82. Considering Structure and
Organization.)
When creating an informed argument, you will want to rely on
several organizational
strategies, but you will want to keep some general advice in
mind.
Introductions:
Your introduction should accomplish two things: it should
declare your argument, and it
should place your argument within the larger, ongoing
conversation about your topic. Often
writers will do the latter before they do the former. That is, they
will begin by summarizing
what other scholars have said about their topic, and then they
will declare what they are
adding to the conversation. Even when your paper is not a
research paper you will be
expected to introduce your argument as if into a larger
conversation. "Place" your argument
for your reader by naming the text, the author, the issues it
raises, and your take on these
issues. (For more specific advice on writing a good
introduction, see Introductions and
Conclusions.)
Thesis Sentence:
Probably you were taught in high school that every paper must
have a declared thesis, and
that this sentence should appear at the end of the introduction.
While this advice is sound, a
thesis is sometimes implied rather than declared in a text, and it
can appear almost
83. anywhere - if the writer is skillful.
Still, if you want to be safe, your paper will have a declared
thesis and it will appear where
the reader expects it to appear: at the end of the introduction.
Your thesis should also be an
arguable point - that is, it should declare something that is
interesting and controversial.
Because your thesis is probably the single most important
sentence in your paper, you will
want to read more about it in Developing Your Thesis.
The Other Side(s):
Because every thesis presents an arguable point, you as a writer
are obligated to
acknowledge in your paper the other side(s) of an argument.
Consider what your opponents
might say against your argument. Then determine where and
how you want to deal with the
opposition. Do you want to dismiss the opposition in the first
paragraph? Do you want to list
each opposing argument and rebut them one by one? Your
decisions will determine how you
structure your paper.
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