The document discusses how the rise of the citizen-soldier transformed war-making in the 19th century in America and Europe. It explores how the citizen-soldier became a right of passage for American men to prove their citizenship and masculinity through participation in battles like the Mexican War. European societies also increasingly tied citizenship and masculinity to military service. However, the ideals of the citizen and the obedient soldier were in conflict.

1. Student no: 42779006
Callum Craigie
MHIS221: RESEARCH ESSAY
Essay Question: How did the rise of the “citizen-soldier” transform war-making
in the nineteenth century?
The citizen soldier of the 19th century was in it’s self a transformation of the
participation of citizens soldiers in battle, participation of citizens and the
perceptions of the citizen soldier in American and European society. The
American and European citizen soldiers of the 19th century will be of primary
study. Transformation in war-making will be debated with the concept of what is
considered the citizen soldier in the 19th century. The American citizen solider
was a necessity and a right of passage to become a citizen worthy of the
revolutionary founders, but however challenged by traditional Protestant
perceptions. American militia martial culture of the 19th century was
certification of one’s masculinity and a right of passage into citizenship that
made citizen soldier participation in warfare a necessity. The European citizen
soldier became further masculinized cementing male dominated citizen soldier
warfare with the purpose exclusion of females. The citizen soldier ideology is
challenged by the 19th century American and European liberties of the citizen.
The purpose of the American citizen soldier is a right of passage to which one
becomes a citizen considered worthy of the revolutionary founders. According
the Laver’s writings of Kentucky militia history, the 19th century was for

2. American society a transition, but also a further utilisation of the militia martial
culture for the definition of the citizen1. In 1846 during the Mexican War a
Captain Robert F. Pullman of the Allen County Volunteers (a militia) petitioned to
Governor Owsley for his militia’s right as “citizen soldiers” to test themselves in
battle, Pullman wrote; “Give us a chance, we want to see it we can fight”2. The
Americans of the 19th century considered citizenship as membership and
participation in a militia3. The militia was considered as a way for American
citizens to proof they were worthy of the American revolutionaries of the 18th
century. Mark Kann who reviews English political philosophy of the 17th century
and 19th century American political philosophy, uses John Locke an English
political philosopher of the 17th century that is regarded influential to the
philosophies of the founders4. John Locke a pre-revolutionary source, further
draws a direct connection to the militia citizen soldier in the subordination of
self-interest and self-control in the defense of the community5. John Locke who
was a source of interpretation for the American Republic is a source that argues
it is in the tradition of militiamen to be a protector of the community. “In combat
volunteer militiamen hoped to prove himself worthy of the martial legacy of his
forefathers- the Revolutionaries of 1776 and the heroes of 1812 and ensure
1 Laver, Harry, ‘Citizen more than Soldiers: The Kentucky Militia and Society in
the Early Republic, University of Nebraska Press, 2007, p. 101.
2 Capt. Robert F. Pullman to Governor William Owsley, June 1, 1846, William
Owsley’s executive papers, Illinois State Historical Library, accessed
16/05/2014, URL: https://vufind.carli.illinois.edu/vf-
isl/Search/Home?lookfor=Capt.+Robert+F.+Pullman+to+Governor+William+Ow
sley%2C+June+1%2C+1846%2C+William+Owsley’s+executive+papers.++&type
=all&start_over=1&submit=Find
3 Eubank, Damon, ‘A Time for Heroes’, Lewiston, N.Y; Lampeter: Edwin Mellen
Press, 2004, p. 176.
4 Delaney, Tim. The march of unreason: science, democracy, and the new
fundamentalism Oxford University Press, New York, 2005. p. 18.
5 Kann, Mark, ‘One on the Man Question’, Temple University Press, 1991, p. 180.

3. himself honor in the community’s collective memory as a true man”6.
Accordingly Ricardo Herrera’s study of self government and the citizen soldier’s
participation from the late 18th century into the 19th century considers the
phycology of the American soldier and their military service, as a form a
certification for their republicanism. Encompassing their citizenship and
participation in the ‘republican experiment’7. The militia of the 19th century
provided an opportunity for Americans to become citizens worthy of the
founding revolutionaries of the 18th century through their participation in
examples such as the Mexican War.
The citizen soldier is considered by other sources to be contrary to the
Protestant tradition in regards to self-restraint and discipline. Jack Greene’s
works of late British colonial America, argue self-restraint and discipline were in
the 19th century Protestant American tradition and not of the citizen soldier
counter to Laver, Kann and Locke. Greene doesn’t argue that the militia citizen
solider didn’t have the self-restraint and discipline qualities, but those qualities
were already in the citizen before becoming a citizen soldier8. Greene in his
study of 18th century America highlighted sermons and pamphlets promoted
both civic and moral virtue that allowed adolescent boys to mature into
manhood9. Thus it is in Green’s perspective the 18th century was the beginning of
6 Laver, Harry, ‘Citizen more than Soldiers: The Kentucky Militia and Society in
the Early Republic, University of Nebraska Press, 2007, p. 101.
7 Herrera, Ricardo, ‘Self governance and the American citizen as soldier, 1775-
1861’, The Journal of Military History, Vol. 65, No. 1, Jan 2001, p.21.
8 Greene, Jack, ‘Imperatives, Behaviors and Identities: Essays in Early American
Cultural History’, University of Virginia Press, 1992, p. 218.
9 Greene, Jack, ‘Imperatives, Behaviors and Identities: Essays in Early American
Cultural History’, University of Virginia Press, 1992, p. 218.

4. self-restraint and discipline in the Protestant tradition and not in the 19th
century citizen solider.
American militia martial culture of the 19th century was certification of one’s
masculinity and a right of passage into citizenship. “In the nineteenth century,
despite the transition to a market economy and the consequent evolution of
masculinity, Americans continued to associate the military with manhood, a
relationship most men experienced as citizen soldiers”10. The citizen-soldier
militia of the 19th century was the symbol of American masculinity and
membership of a militia was certification of been a man11. According to Laver
“Uniforms and military training conveyed a degree of manliness, but facing a
hostile enemy and the possibility of death on the battlefield was the ultimate
discriminator of manhood. In battle a man tested the strength of his character,
the core element of his masculine identity”12. Thus the participation as a citizen
soldier in the militia was considered to be a right of passage that established
ones masculinity and right to citizenship as an masculine figure that was tested
in strength and character in battlefield.
Counter to the perception of the American citizen soldier and masculinity in the
19th century, European citizen soldiers are argued to have identified masculinity
with military service before the 19th century. Alan Forrest argues French soldiers
10 Laver, Harry, ‘Citizen more than Soldiers: The Kentucky Militia and Society in
the Early Republic, University of Nebraska Press, 2007, p. 101.
11 Mrozak, Donald, ‘The Habit of Victory: The American Military and Cult of
Manliness’, New York St Martin’s Press, 1987, p. 234.
12 Laver, Harry, ‘Citizen more than Soldiers: The Kentucky Militia and Society in
the Early Republic, University of Nebraska Press, 2007, p. 101.

5. pre Revolution had been long associated in French culture and European cultural
legacy as a symbol of Masculinity13. Forrest illustrates however, 19th century
French society further masculinize the citizen soldier. In Jacobin Revolutionised
France although society moved away from traditional conceptions of status and
responsibility, military service became once again gender specific with
responsibility for males only14. Forest quotes Robert Nye who was studies the
origins of modern masculinity in French culture; “If the Third Republic revived
the language of the Jacobin Republic in identifying citizenship with manliness, it
also promoted a cult of honor appealing to notions of personal honor and
chivalry as a means of renewing and reinvigorating the fatherland”15. This is
contrary to signs of feminism Jacobin society produced such as liberal divorce
and inheritance laws that were not gender biased16. The European perception of
masculinity and the citizen solider is also apparent with the American
perception. However 19th century for European society was only a further
implementation of masculinity in the citizen solider, American society in 19th
century masculinized the citizen solider, however European society had already
done so in previous centuries.
13 Forest, Alan, ‘Citizenship and Masculinity; The Revolutionary citizen solider
and his legacy’, In Representing Masculinity: Male Citizenship in Modern
Western Culture, edited by Stefan Dudink, Karen Hagemann, and Anna Clark,
New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. Ch. 6, p. 111.
14 Forest, Alan, ‘Citizenship and Masculinity; The Revolutionary citizen solider
and his legacy’, In Representing Masculinity: Male Citizenship in Modern
Western Culture, edited by Stefan Dudink, Karen Hagemann, and Anna Clark,
New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. Ch. 6, p. 113.
15 Nye. A, Robert, ‘Masculinity and Male Codes of Honor in Modern France’,
Princeton University Press, 1993, p. 153.
16 Forest, Alan, ‘Citizenship and Masculinity; The Revolutionary citizen solider
and his legacy’, In Representing Masculinity: Male Citizenship in Modern
Western Culture, edited by Stefan Dudink, Karen Hagemann, and Anna Clark,
New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. Ch. 6, p. 112.

6. The American citizen soldier was a hierarchy of selectively only males within
19th century American society. The militia was an exclusive institution that
restricted participation to only white males, with the exclusion of women, racial
and ethnic minorities17. Laver illustrates the militia was organisation that was
‘fraternal’ and bridged class differences but for white males only18. It created a
unified community that was the hierarchy of white males19. According to the
citizen-soldier been a member of a militia, a woman, and racial or ethnic
minority could never be a citizen-solider. “There is no society I am aware of in
which women are principally, or even occasionally warriors”20. Therefore the
citizen-soldier was primarily in the 19th century American point of view
exclusive for white males and was an opportunity selectively for them to prove
their worthiness of the forefathers.
American and European 19th century citizen soldiers appear in history to have
apparent in two conflicting ideologies. The freedom of a citizen conflicts with the
ideology of the complete obedience of the soldier. Elizabeth Samet, associate
professor of English and American Military Academy considers the 19th century
American citizen soldier with obedience as the cultural narrative21. Herrera
17 Laver, Harry, ‘Citizen more than Soldiers: The Kentucky Militia and Society in
the Early Republic, University of Nebraska Press, 2007, p. 102.
18 Laver, Harry, ‘Citizen more than Soldiers: The Kentucky Militia and Society in
the Early Republic, University of Nebraska Press, 2007, p. 103.
19 Laver, Harry, ‘Citizen more than Soldiers: The Kentucky Militia and Society in
the Early Republic, University of Nebraska Press, 2007, p. 103.
20 Gilmore. D. David, ‘Man hood in the Making: Cultural concepts of Masculinity’,
Yale University Press, 1990, p. 121.
21 Samet. D Elizabeth, ‘Willing Obedience: Citizens, Soldiers, and the Progress of
Consent in America, 1776-1898’, Stanford University Press, 2003.

7. reviews Samet arguing; “Samet draws upon and juxtaposes the writings of a
handful of elite Americans in fleshing out her picture of citizenry struggling
between the contending demands of obedience and liberty”22. Samet argues that
the citizen solider in order to perform military duties in the preservation of the
liberty must sacrifice ones freedom with complete obedience as soldier.
According to Herrera, Samet describes Americans consisting of “two
metaphorical” bodies, one as a citizen and one as a soldier23. Further more Samet
argues the two bodies conflict with each other with the citizen’s exercising of
liberty and the soldiers exercising of obedience. Samet’s argument is further
cemented by Thomas Hippler’s in historical review of 18th to 19th century
military reform, in French and Prussian society. According to Hippler the citizen
solider is contrary and dangerous to the new principles of liberty and equality.
Hippler describes the Amour de la patrie (love for the fatherland) ideology with
similarities to Samet. Hippler’s like Samet’s American citizen soldier is based on
obedience to the community and not the individual. Hippler describes with
citizen taking up arms with conscription contrary to individual civic rights for
good of the defense of the community24. It apparent 19th century American and
European obedient citizen solider ideologies both had the issue of conflicting
with the ideology of the citizen liberties.
22 Herrera, Ricardo, ‘The Journal of Military History’, Vol. 68, No. 3, Jul. 2004, p.
969.
23 Herrera, Ricardo, ‘The Journal of Military History’, Vol. 68, No. 3, Jul. 2004, p.
969.
24 Hippler. T, Citizens, Soldier and National Armies: Military Service in France
and Germany, 1789-1830, Ch. 4, Routledge, 2008.

8. In conclusion the citizen soldier of the 19th century was in it’s self a
transformation of the participation of citizens soldiers in battle, participation of
citizens and the perceptions of the citizen soldier in American and European
society. The American militia of the 19th century provided an opportunity for
Americans to prove their self restraint and discipline and become citizens
worthy of the founding revolutionaries of the 18th century through their
participation in examples such as the Mexican War. How it is debated that the
18th century was the beginning of self-restraint and discipline in the Protestant
tradition and not in the 19th century citizen solider. The participation as a citizen
soldier in the militia was considered to be a right of passage that established
ones masculinity and right to citizenship as a masculine figure that was tested in
strength and character in warfare. The European perception of masculinity and
warfare are transformed by the citizen solider by the further implementation of
masculinity in the citizen solider. Furthermore European and American 19th
century warfare transformed to conflict with the citizen soldier considered being
obedient, however counter to their citizen liberties.
Bibliography:
Delaney, Tim. The march of unreason: science, democracy, and the new
fundamentalism Oxford University Press, New York, 2005.

9. Capt. Robert F. Pullman to Governor William Owsley, June 1, 1846, William
Owsley’s executive papers, Illinois State Historical Library, accessed
16/05/2014,
URL: https://vufind.carli.illinois.edu/vf-
isl/Search/Home?lookfor=Capt.+Robert+F.+Pullman+to+Governor+William+Ow
sley%2C+June+1%2C+1846%2C+William+Owsley’s+executive+papers.++&type
=all&start_over=1&submit=Find
Eubank, Damon, ‘A Time for Heroes’, Lewiston, N.Y; Lampeter: Edwin Mellen
Press, 2004.
Forest, Alan, ‘Citizenship and Masculinity; The Revolutionary citizen solider and
his legacy’, In Representing Masculinity: Male Citizenship in Modern Western
Culture, edited by Stefan Dudink, Karen Hagemann, and Anna Clark, New York:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
Gilmore. D. David, ‘Man hood in the Making: Cultural concepts of Masculinity’,
Yale University Press, 1990.
Greene, Jack, ‘Imperatives, Behaviors and Identities: Essays in Early American
Cultural History’, University of Virginia Press, 1992.
Herrera, Ricardo, ‘Self governance and the American citizen as soldier, 1775-
1861’, The Journal of Military History, Society for Military History, Vol. 65, No. 1,
Jan 2001.

10. Hippler. T, Citizens, Soldier and National Armies: Military Service in France and
Germany, 1789-1830, Ch. 4, Routledge, 2008.
Kann, Mark, ‘One on the Man Question’, Temple University Press, 1991.
Laver, Harry, ‘Citizen more than Soldiers: The Kentucky Militia and Society in the
Early Republic, University of Nebraska Press, 2007.
Mrozak, Donald, ‘The Habit of Victory: The American Military and Cult of
Manliness’, New York St Martin’s Press, 1987.
Nye. A, Robert, ‘Masculinity and Male Codes of Honor in Modern France’,
Princeton University Press, 1993.
Samet. D Elizabeth, ‘Willing Obedience: Citizens, Soldiers, and the Progress of
Consent in America, 1776-1898’, Stanford University Press, 2003.