FINAL DRAFT Literature Review.docx

RUNNING HEAD:THE BLACK DEAF CULTURE
The Deaf Experience: African American Edition
Kamya Hazer
Department of Social Work
SOWK 203 Writing in Social Work
Professor Charlene Stewart
May 16, 2022

RUNNING HEAD: THE BLACK DEAF EXPERIENCE 2
The Deaf Experience: African American Edition
A Review of the Literature
In America and other countries, there are many people with marginalized identities.
Marginalized identities are important parts of a person or group of people that are often
discriminated against, belittled, and criticized (Chapple et al., 2021, pg.571). Usually, minorities
and people with disabilities are mistreated although people cannot help who they are. Two
examples of marginalized groups are black people and deaf people. However, when thinking
about the deaf community, one often thinks about sign language (ASL, BSL, SASL, etc.) and
institutions such as Gallaudet University. When thinking of the black community one often
thinks of racism, the civil rights movement, the Harlem renaissance, and more. Many people are
aware of some struggles that deaf individuals and black individuals face but do anyone ever stop
to wonder about black deaf individuals? Two marginalized identities, two oppressive constructs
wrapped into one person. Most people are aware of the hardships that automatically come with
having a darker skin tone and identifying as black but try being black and deaf. Deaf people were
known for being considered “deaf and dumb” for years. Chapple (2019) says, "Deaf individuals
have historically been characterized as deaf and dumb and are often thought to be mute even
though most deaf individuals are verbal. Deaf individuals are often referred to as hearing
impaired even though the Deaf community does not approve of this characterization, as it
perpetuates the stereotype that deaf individuals are broken, in need of repair and inferior to the
hearing majority population” (Chapple, 2019, pg. 189). In addition to the deaf community,
during the civil war era when black slaves were “free” black people still endured segregation
within the education system, social justice system, healthcare system, and more. Has anyone

ever thought of how black people with disabilities, specifically deafness lived in those times? Or
how do black deaf individuals endure the racism and audism that still exists in society now? On
the contrary, there have been many achievements, accolades, inventions, etc. celebrated within
the black community over the years but how many of those successes included black deaf
creators? In this literature review, the reader will be educated on the lived experiences, feelings,
and creations of black deaf women and men. The reader will also learn about their families and
the daily survival of being black and caring for their black deaf child. Each article discusses
intersectionality, the feelings of invisibility and exclusion, and the advantages/disadvantages of
being black and deaf. Most of the scientific journal articles were research-based and used
different approaches to conduct their research and collect the data. There are many anecdotes,
historical facts, and literary information included in this review. In the end, the reader should be
more aware of the black deaf community and will hopefully have a better perspective of
individuals living with multiple marginalized identities.

Article 1
Anderson, G. B., & Dunn, L. M. (2016). Assessing Black Deaf History: 1980s to the
Present. Sign Language Studies, Vol. 17, No. 1(: Assessing the Field of Deaf History:
Scholarship, Pedagogy, and Public History (Fall 2016), pp. 71-77.
Summary
Anderson and Dunn (2016) focus on the contributions made by black deaf individuals
beginning in the 1980s to currently. The author began with the first publication, “Black and Deaf
in America: Are we that different” by Ernest Hairston and Linwood Smith, which was a key
contribution to the black deaf community. After the book was published, the author then explains
the founding of the National Black Deaf Advocates (NBDA) which was established in 1982. The
NBDA served as a springboard for the black and deaf community because it emerged many
black deaf leaders, scholars, etc. (Anderson & Dunn, 2016, 73). Following the creation of the
NBDA in the 1980s, the authors continued into the 1990s and named the different advancement
opportunities in leadership for black deaf individuals. Lastly, the authors transitioned into the
2000s era and slightly discussed the interview/ project that one of the authors, Anderson,
conducted amongst black deaf students from the South.
Assessment
In this article, the authors (Anderson & Dunn, 2016) briefly explain specific historic
moments within the black deaf community, beginning with their origin in the 1980s. The authors
included many references as to how they were able to gain all this knowledge about the historical
facts of the black deaf community. However, the authors participate in important roles in the
deaf community. There is a small note after the abstract that states that Glenn B. Anderson is an

associate professor in an interpreter education program and Lindsay M. Dunn is a lecturer in the
Department of ASL and Deaf Studies. Additionally, Anderson and Dunn (2016) served on the
Board of National Black Deaf Advocates from 2011 to 2015 (Anderson & Dunn, 2016, pg. 71).
More details about the authors being included in the NBDA were provided in the article stating
that “[i]n 1994 Glenn Anderson became the first black Deaf individual to be elected chairperson
of the Gallaudet University Board of Trustees; Lindsay Dunn was the first to be appointed as
special assistant to the president for diversity and community relations…” (Anderson & Dunn,
2016, pg. 73) In addition, as mentioned in the summary, Anderson (2016) briefly discusses the
interview with black deaf students from the South but specifically the students who attended the
Arkansas School for the Deaf. He interviews people from four different time eras basically when
the “colored department” was placed in separate buildings on the campus when the “colored
department” was relocated to off-campus when the integration of black and white students
began, and students who never experienced segregated schooling (Anderson & Dunn, 2016, pg.
75). Interviewing alumni from those time periods was a challenging task however the author,
Anderson (2016), was able to retrieve his information from the different individuals and learned
that once the school began to integrate, a lot of the black deaf historical records were
“misplaced” or lost. Hence, the reason why this article begins in the 1980s, most of the alumni
Anderson (2016) spoke to were from the 1930s.
Reflection
This article is a great beginning piece for my literature review topic because it introduces
the history of the black deaf community. The researchers do not give a lot of details for each
historical event; however, they highlight important times within the community and emphasize
their accomplishments. The researchers mainly include the contributions made by individuals

within the black deaf community but also signify the challenges of these individuals. For
example, the researchers explain how black deaf history was being erased post-integration and
how there were not many leaders of color represented amongst the deaf community therefore the
black deaf individuals emerged and advanced also known as “the Black deaf Renaissance”. The
researchers help introduce the concept of this renaissance and briefly uncover the history of these
black deaf leaders and individuals.

Article 2
Toliver- Smith, A. & Gentry, B. (2017). Investigating Black ASL. A Systematic Review
American Annals of the Deaf, 161(5), 560-570.
Summary
In this article, the researchers conducted a study about Black ASL (American Sign
Language); how it is influenced by African American English, and its differences from the
original ASL usually used by white people. The first realization was that there is no universal
sign language. The research is a part of a study that is describing the “linguistic” features of one
such variety of ASL used by black signers usually known as Black ASL (Toliver-Smith, et al.,
2017, pg. 157). The study will be comparing Standard English, black ASL, and AAE (African
American English). The researchers started with the geographical and social conditions that led
to the creation of Black ASL. The researchers found that because segregation continued within
the southern schools and black deaf students lacked educational opportunities that began the
development of Black ASL (Toliver-Smith, et al., 2017, pg. 158). One focal point that was
researched was “voiceless mouthing.” The first major issue for the researcher was finding the
distinction between mouthing and mouth gestures. The second major issue with mouthing was
figuring out whether words were fully mouthed or partially mouthed because it was noted that
words were shortened by the signers. The third issue was the relationship between mouthing and
the grammatical function of the English item being mouthed. The fourth issue was that mouthing
is not a part of “real” ASL and is not universal however, many individuals in the sign language
communities accept mouthing as a necessary part of the language. Anecdotes were collected and
a data set was created to determine how much “mouthing” was used for black signers in
comparison to white signers. Researchers, Toliver-Smith (2017) and Gentry (2017) found that

for both races’ nouns were mouthed more frequently. For phrases and sentences, it was found
that the young black signers would mouth phrases or sentences but would miss certain
consonants. Toliver-Smith (2017) and Gentry (2017) also found that older black men and women
& young black males showed no continuous mouthing in comparison to young black women and
white signers. After this research, Toliver-Smith (2017) and Gentry (2017) decided to collect
data from signers 35 and under who attended integrated school because they noted that some of
the important features of Black ASL variation are related to facial expression and body
movement. The researchers learned that the black signers would use the meaning of words in
ASL to represent/mean an AAE word in Black ASL. White signers were often confused because
they would understand the original ASL word versus the newer Black ASL. The researchers
concluded that “[b]lack signers seem to endorse the common perception that Black ASL tends to
use a larger signing space than does White ASL. Finally, although not conclusive, our data do
offer further evidence of language change and the increasing participation of Deaf African
Americans in the larger African American community” (Toliver-Smith et al., 2017, pg. 166).
Assessment
In this article, Toliver-Smith (2017) and Gentry (2017) conduct research to explore the
language of black deaf individuals. Anecdotes were collected from students from the segregated
period of education to the integrated period. One of the researchers was a student in the
transitional period from segregated to integrated. The researcher admitted that going to a newly
integrated school took adjustment because it was hard to understand the white students and
teacher’s ASL (Toliver- Smith et al,. 2017, pg. 158-159). At the end of the study, there is a small
section that provides brief biographies of each researcher. Most of the researchers are students or

teachers at Gallaudet University. One researcher specifically does research on different
languages and cultures.
Reflection
This article is useful to my literature review because it relates to the main topic of black
deaf culture. Toliver-Smith (2017) and Gentry (2017) conducted research that helps the reader to
better understand sign language for black people. Although this is not a historical article and is
more research-based, it included facts and anecdotes that described the reasoning behind creating
a language within a language. The researchers also compare the way Black deaf signers and
white deaf signers sign ASL. Therefore, the information helps the reader see how segregation
played a major role in black deaf culture and their language.

Article 3
Chapple, R. L. (2019). Toward a Theory of Black Deaf Feminism: The Quiet Invisibility
of a Population. Affilia: Journal of Women and Social Work, 34(2), 186-198. SAGE
publishing. DOI: 10.1177/0886109918818080
Summary
The researcher, Chapple (2019), focuses on black deaf women’s experiences and how the
intersectionality approach can help others better understand black deaf women's lives.
Intersectionality is a theory that believes that there is an overlapping of individuals' social
identities (i.e., race, gender, sexual orientation, disability, etc.) and the oppression and/or stigma
attached to said identities (Chapple et al., 2021, pg. 186). Chapple (2019), emphasizes how the
negative social constructs of being black, being a woman, and being deaf can negatively impact
black deaf women (Chapple, 2019, pg. 187). The researcher also introduces the topic of black
deaf feminism by breaking down each identity and explaining the struggles dealt with the
specific identity. Chapple (2019) begins with the oppression of being a black woman and focuses
on how there are so many negative stereotypes and “derogatory assumptions” affiliated with
their identity. Next, Chapple (2019) begins to examine how deaf people are viewed as deaf &
dumb, and how people assume they are broken and in need of repair. Deaf women are rarely
discussed and when it is discussed the research is usually focused more on white deaf women
without taking into consideration the racial differences. Chapple (2019) says, “[t]hese studies and
others often highlight some of the intersectional challenges that deaf women face but tend to
ignore other marginalized identities'' (Chapple, 2019, pg. 189). Chapple (2019) then intertwines
the 3 intersections of race, gender, and deafness, and further emphasizes that being a black deaf
woman is mostly overlooked and rarely includes all 3 identities. Chapple (2019) included that

most black deaf women reported that they feel “pressured to choose between their blackness and
deafness in order to be accepted within either the Black or deaf communities” (Chapple, 2019,
pg. 190). Lastly, Chapple (2019) discussed different theories of feminism and how they can
relate to a theory of Black Deaf Feminism. Chapple (2019) concludes by stating that “the basis
for a Black deaf feminist framework is not to negate existing social theories but rather to build an
intersectional approach that includes marginalized groups previously absent and invisible in
mainstream scholarship” (Chapple, 2019, pg. 194).
Assessment
In this article, Chapple (2019) spreads the awareness of black deaf women and how they
are often invisible within society and their very own communities. Chapple (2019) is very
credible because she is a social worker and importantly is a mother of a black deaf young
woman. Chapple (2019) provides a paragraph about giving birth to her daughter, Arabelle, and
finding out that she was deaf. The information worried her because not only was she about to
raise a “disabled” child, but her child was also a black woman. Chapple (2019) understood the
struggles of being a black woman, but she knew her daughter would have to endure the
oppression that comes with both identities. As a social worker, it is important to thrive for social
justice and assist the oppressed as much as possible to liberation. Therefore, Chapple (2019)
decided to be the voice for black young women. Chapple (2019) includes opinions from other
deaf women, including her daughter, who expresses their feelings on topics about their identity.
For example, Chapple (2019), says that her daughter, Arabelle, went into detail about her
experience in the workforce and the uneasy feelings and prejudgments she felt from others
(Chapple, 2019, pg. 191). Chapple (2019) also breaks down the oppression of each identity and

then brings them together. This writing tactic helps the reader to understand the distinctions of
struggles in each identity and realize how challenging it is to encompass all of them in one.
Reflection
In my opinion, this article was very informative, and the research brought awareness to
this invisible part of a population that is often overlooked. The article is useful in this literature
review because it adds a specific view to not just black deaf people but black deaf women and
their everyday struggles. Chapple (2019) brings out important points that the average person,
unfortunately, does not consider. To me, the main theme of this article is to emphasize inclusion
and acceptance amongst black deaf women. Chapple (2019) encourages the readers to use an
intersectionality approach when thinking of women in the black community and the deaf
community; to understand their struggles and their strengths. Since Chapple (2019) is a social
worker, the reader can feel her affection and passion for advocacy for black deaf women.
Personally, I feel more aware, and I sympathize with and commend these women for being able
to endure such oppression.

Article 4
Kara, N., & Harvey, C. (2017). The social construction of ‘deafness’: explored through
the experiences of Black South African mothers raising a deaf child. South African
Journal of Psychology, 47, 72-83. SAGE Publishing. 10.1177/0081246316648517
Summary
This study is about black mothers in South Africa with deaf children and the social
construction of deafness. The researchers also show how these constructs affect these mothers’
well-being and their relationship with their children. The researchers compare the definition of
the word disability in society’s perception to the actual definition of being deaf and compare it
with the African traditional/ societal view of deafness. The researchers, Kara & Harvey (2017),
state that, “[t]raditional African beliefs understand deafness to be a manifestation of mysterious
fate, supernatural causes, or ancestral punishment, and the deaf individual is often viewed as a
burden to society” (Kara & Harvey, 2017, pg. 73). In South Africa, early intervention and
identification are not often used for children with disabilities, which in the long run impacts the
child’s development (Kara & Harvey, 2017, pg. 74). The research conducted included six black
South African hearing mothers with children between the ages of 3 to 8 years old, who lived in
South Johannesburg. Kara & Harvey (2017) conducted the research by asking a series of
questions that focused on how the mothers felt about raising their deaf children. Most of the
mothers expressed that finding out the diagnosis of their child’s deafness made it stressful and
difficult for them to relate to or cope with their child. Kara & Harvey (2017) emphasized the
importance of increasing awareness and normalizing deafness in the South African culture to
transition from the stigma and oppression attached to being deaf. The research showed that the
mothers adopted Christianity as their religion and rejected the traditional African beliefs around

deafness. Kara & Harvey (2017) explain how religion can be used as a coping mechanism that
increases confidence and empowerment within individuals. Furthermore, the research showed
how the mothers experienced pity from their family and friends (Kara & Harvey, 2017, pg. 78).
Those actions and emotions were disturbing to the mothers. From this expression, Kara &
Harvey (2017) continued with the point that society views deafness as a negative identity and
because of that it causes inferiority and discrimination amongst the deaf individual.
Assessment
In this article, Kara & Harvey (2017), conduct a study with black South African mothers
and collect their emotional experiences of being mothers to deaf children. Kara & Harvey (2017)
are credible because they both worked in the Department of Psychology at a University in South
America. Using 1 on 1 interviews was a good tactic for conducting the research which is a
strength of the article because it provides a great amount of detail and emotion in their responses.
Kara & Harvey (2017) asked questions such as, “[c]an you tell me some of your experiences of
raising a deaf child? Have you had to face certain challenges or deal with certain thoughts and
feelings? ...[w]hat did you feel when you were told that your child was d/Deaf and heard more
about the condition?” (Kara & Harvey, 2017, pg. 75). In opposition to the interview tactic, the
participants were very specific which does not leave room for different answers. For example, all
the mothers were black Christian South Africans mothers of deaf children. The answers may
have differed if they were atheist South African mothers. Having different mothers to interview
would have provided a variety of perspectives on these mothers' experiences versus most of their
answers being similar due to their same belief systems. Overall, the article was very insightful.
Reflection
This article is useful to my literature review because Kara & Harvey (2017) provides a
point of view from the caregivers of the individuals in the deaf community. I was once told by

my grandmother that people are usually more concerned about the patient in need and never ask
about the caregiver. Kara & Harvey (2017) sheds light on the genuine emotions and difficulties
of a black person caring for their deaf child. As previously stated above, it was a good tactic to
have 1 on 1 interviews with these mothers because it provided a comfortable space for the
mothers to be transparent. In class, we learned about social workers exercising cultural
competency in the workplace and with clients. Reading about the traditional South African views
and hearing these mothers' initial reactions would have probably been disheartening to the
sensitive ear. However, knowing that all cultures are different I was interested to learn that in
South Africa being deaf is an “ancestral punishment” and more (Kara & Harvey, 2017, pg. 81).
This article is relevant because Kara & Harvey (2017) educates the reader on other black
cultures' views of deafness and causes the reader to compare the black deaf culture from the
previous articles to this one.

Article 5
Stapleton, L. D. (2016). Audism and Racism: The Hidden Curriculum Impacting Black
d/Deaf College Students in the Classroom. Audism and Racism, Vol. 67, 149-168. The
Negro Educational Review
Summary
In this article, the researcher, Stapleton (2016), emphasizes how black deaf students share
characteristics with everyone in the deaf community but also have the issues faced with being
black (i.e., historical and systemic racism). The purpose of the study, “is to understand the ways
in which racism and audism might still contribute to the hidden curriculum in the college
classroom and how Black d/Deaf college students resist this oppression” (Stapleton, 2016, pg.
149). The researcher touches on the experience of intersectionality and how it impacts the
educational successes of black deaf individuals. Stapleton (2016) provides a paragraph to define
microaggression and how black students experience this kind of racism commonly on a micro or
macro level (Stapleton, 2016, pg. 151). Specifically, black deaf students dealing with
intersectionality, must endure microaggression of racism and audism. Stapleton (2016) covers
resistance and how deaf students resist audism, black students resist micro aggressive racism,
and how this study will show how black deaf students resist both. The study included
specifically, “two men, four women, multiple Black identities, all are culturally Deaf (three
auditorily hard of hearing), preferred language ASL, and one was born internationally and five
were born in the U.S. Participants attended four different 4-year institutions and graduated
between 2007-2013” (Stapleton, 2016, pg. 154) and collected their reflections of their college
experience. As a result, Stapleton (2016) found that most of the alumni were able to name

moments when they were discriminated against by racism or audism. However, some were not
sure how to differentiate their mistreatment and wondered if it was because they were black or
because they were deaf. The first point the study proved was that invisibility was the most
common racist and audist microaggression experienced (Stapleton, 2016, pg. 159). The students
explained how some faculty lacked cultural competence and their way of resistance was to
surround themselves with their family and peers who encouraged and reassured them of who
they are. The next key point Stapleton (2016) focused on was trivialization. The faculty did not
realize their hearing privilege and the importance of making accommodations for students who
were hard of hearing/deaf (i.e., having an interpreter) (Stapleton, 2016, pg.160). As “resistance”,
the alumni opted to get sign language interpreters themselves and connect with peers to help
figure out helpful ways to continue in the educational system. The last point from the results of
the study was how white hearing students had more advantages than black deaf students.
Stapleton (2016) signifies how it is important for teachers to be able to change or create teaching
styles that appeal to and accommodate all students. In the conclusion of the research, the students
gave suggestions on how to prevent the microaggression of racism and audism toward black deaf
students (Stapleton, 2016, pg. 162). For example, taking the time to become aware of the deaf
community and their culture.
Assessment
This study was immaculate, Stapleton (2016) did a great job. The study included
diversity amongst the participants, detailed responses, problem-solving approaches, definitions
of newer concepts, and overall, a great perspective of black deaf college students. Stapleton
(2016) expresses her reasoning behind why she conducted this study by saying, “I come to this
work as a Black hearing feminist, a critical scholar-practitioner, and Deaf Studies assistant

professor. The wellbeing of Bd/Deaf students and their educational experiences are important
because Bd/Deaf students’ matter.” (Stapleton, 2016, pg. 154). After displaying the results of
her study, Stapleton (2016) adds her own suggestions that could help improve the educational
environment for black deaf college students. Stapleton (2016) believes that it is important to be
inclusive of everyone and faculty should be educated and aware of their students'
intersectionality.
Reflection
This article is helpful in my literature review because it narrows down the perspective of
black deaf students in college. The previous researchers in the articles prior focused more
broadly on black deaf individuals, but Stapleton (2016) changes and adds a new outlook on the
black deaf experience. This research takes place in a classroom setting and describes the issues
within the educational system for black deaf individuals. In comparison to the previous research,
Stapleton (2016) focuses on intersectionality and invisibility which seems to be a common theme
amongst all black deaf individuals. However, Stapleton (2016) introduces microaggression of
racism and audism, trivialization, and resistance. This provides the readers with knowledge of
new issues that arise in being black and deaf but also shows how these black deaf individuals
overcome the issues faced.

Article 6
Chapple, R. L., Bridwell, B. A., & Gray, K. L. (2021). Exploring Intersectional Identity
in Black Deaf Women: The Complexity of the Lived Experience in College. Affilia:
Feminist Inquiry in Social Work, 36(4), 571-592. SAGE Publishing.
10.1177/0886109920985769
Summary
In this article, the researchers, Chapple, et al (2021), focused on bringing awareness to
the experiences of black deaf women on college campuses in order to prevent self-isolation.
Overall, “[t]his study explored the ways that intersectional identity can impact the lived
experiences for Black Deaf women on a predominately White, male, and hearing college campus
by examining the following: (1) Black Deaf women’s understanding of their intersecting
identities, (2) the lived experiences of Black Deaf women on a college campus, and (3) the social
construction of gender, race, and Deafness on a college campus” (Chapple et al., 2021, pg. 571-
572). In this study the researchers used grounded theory approach which is, “an interactive
process that involves the constant comparison of data collection, analysis, and theory” (Chapple
et al., 2021, pg. 576). There are 14 participants between the ages of 18-28 years old that are
black deaf college women in all stages of education (undergraduate and graduate students) of a
predominantly white (Hearing and Deaf) institution. During the participant observation, the
researchers realized that there was a lot of self-segregation between the hearing and deaf
students, the hearing black and white students, and the black deaf and black hearing students
(Chapple et al., 2021, pg. 578). The research found that many deaf students were often rejected
which is why they felt disconnected from the hearing students. For example, if one of the black
deaf women expressed interest in a hearing black man they were commonly denied because they

were deaf (Chapple et al., 2021, pg. 579). Moreover, the researchers also conducted research
using focus groups and individual interviews. In the interview, they asked the women to describe
themselves and many of the women acknowledged that they were more than black and deaf; they
described themselves as strong, kind, fun, goofy, friendly, caring, and more (Chapple et al.,
2021, pg. 582). Unfortunately, most people prejudge them based on the stereotypes associated
with being black and deaf. For example, one participant spoke of the struggles of living on
campus and continuously being confronted and questioned by people because she is black, deaf,
and lesbian (Chapple et al., 2021, pg. 582). Most of the women felt shunned in classroom
settings and excluded from the black culture or the deaf culture which was predominantly white.
Another theme found was “the role of intersectional racism, ableism, and sexism on campus. The
participants overwhelmingly stated they felt the campus environments they interacted in were
dominated by privileged groups (e.g., hearing male professors and students in the classroom). In
some cases, their gender identity became more apparent versus their racial or Deaf identity”
(Chapple et al., 2021, pg. 587). In the end, Chapple, et al (2021) goal was to bring attention to
Black deaf women who have been stereotyped, criticized, and discriminated against in academic
and social research but also to assist in the researcher's development of the Black Deaf Feminism
theory (Chapple et al., 2021, pg. 588).
Assessment
This study addressed the experiences of black deaf women in college. One of the
researchers of this article was an author of a previous article in this literature review named,
Toward a Theory of Black Deaf Feminism: The Quiet Invisibility of a Population. The other
researchers are also credible and provided a paragraph of their backgrounds related to this study
saying, “The second author has a background in public health researching health disparities

among the Deaf community, Critical Deaf studies (DeafCrit), and sign language interpreting.
The third author is the Godmother of a Deaf woman, who has a background in social justice–
orientated advocacy and research in the areas of social identity development of Black,
Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer,
intersex, and asexual individuals in the context of social media and the gaming industry.”
(Chapple et al., 2021, pg. 572). In the study, the researchers use their prior knowledge and work
experiences in DeafCrit, DisCrit, and intersectionality approaches in this study to help allow
them to add more conversation and invisibility within the community and education. Overall the
researchers gave a great perspective of the black deaf women and their everyday lives attending
a PWI.
Reflection
This article is useful to my literature review because it dives into the point of view of
college students, like the previous article, but specifically black deaf college women. The
researchers, Chapple, et al (2021) help the reader to learn other attributes about black deaf
women and their struggles in social settings, i.e., dating. I also like how the researchers included
the viewpoints of a diverse group of women who live with different marginalized identities. That
perspective allows the readers to see the other issues black deaf women must face in addition to
being black and deaf. Chapple, et al (2021) touched on a central theme that has been noted
throughout the other articles on intersectionality and invisibility. Overall, the researchers have
served their purpose in bringing awareness to the lives of black deaf women in educational and
social settings.

Article 7
Borum, V. (2019). African American Hearing Families with Deaf Children: A Review of
the Literature. JADARA, 37(1), 1-25.
Summary
The researcher, Borum (2019), reviews the literature that discusses the impact of deafness
in African American families. Borum (2019) compares the impact of deafness in black families
vs. Hispanic and white families. For example, according to the study, “76 percent of African
American fathers showed positive attitudes toward their children with disabilities despite the
high levels of stress” (Borum, 2019, pg. 2). Anecdotes are provided from different black deaf
individuals explaining the positive impact their families have had on their many successes
despite the stressful situation they were placed in (i.e., segregated times, low income, living in
public housing, etc.). Borum (2019) then moves to the topic of early identification and how the
process of diagnosing children of color takes longer than white children. The researcher says that
“[a]ll families reported concerns about the quality of services, whether they would receive the
services they need; if they ask for a particular service, would they then be required to receive
unwanted services; and, if simply asking for services would warrant removal of the person with a
disability from the home” (Borum, 2019, pg. 9). Borum (2019) points out how black culture is
underappreciated and ignored. According to the research, most black parents that receive medical
and social services are usually painted as dysfunctional and lacking effective parenting styles
(Borum, 2019, pg. 10). The researcher also explained the complexities of deafness in detail by
differentiating congenitally deaf individuals & adventitiously deaf individuals, prelingually deaf
& post lingually deaf, bilateral & unilateral deafness, and conductive hearing loss &
sensorineural loss (Borum, 2019, pg. 12). Following the complexities, Borum (2019) touched on

the cultural aspects of black deaf children and their differences from other races. Lastly, the
researcher discussed the “sociolinguistic aspects of black English [and how the] differences in
cultural values can further influence the family's relationship with professionals in many ways.
For instance, language and communication styles are deeply embedded in cultural contexts and
assumptions regarding acceptable communicative interactions between family and child and may
vary from family to family” (Borum, 2019, pg. 17) in regard to the topic of African Americans
being known to experience issues with professionals in social and medical services. They are
often misunderstood due to the black cultural differences.
Assessment
This article is comparable to a literature review itself. Borum (2019) provided different
authors' literature to help readers better understand the process of being deaf and how it affects
black families in contrast to other racial communities. Borum (2019) has her Ph.D., MSW, and is
the director of the social work department at Ryerson University. This research is very
informative and has many supporting details that help inform the readers of all of the
complexities of deafness, black families, and black culture.
Reflection
This research is useful to my literature review because Borum (2019) provides a
perspective of black families with deaf children and some obstacles they face. Borum (2019)
presented a great amount of information. The researcher explained points one at a time so that
the reader truly has a good understanding of each topic. For example, Borum (2019) defined
different types of deafness that can be diagnosed and the process of the diagnosis before
explaining why the process is difficult for families of color. Overall, the information provided

within the study supports the main theme of this review and provides an important perspective
on black deaf individuals' experiences.

Article 8
Albert, T. (2018). Passing It On: Counseling, Advising, and Mentoring Deaf and Hard of
Hearing Students of Color. Odessey: New Directions in Deaf Education, v.19, 30-33.
ERIC Institute of Education Sciences.
Summary
In this article, the author shared his story of being born deaf and growing up to become a
counselor for students, especially deaf students. He attended public schools up until he was 16
years old and transferred to Louisiana School of the Deaf, where he fell in love with deaf culture
and met many deaf, deaf-blind, deaf-disabled, hard of hearing, and late-deafened students
(Albert, 2018, pg. 30). Later the author went on to continue his education at the National
Technical Institute for the Deaf, which opened many doors for him i.e., met black and deaf
people for the first time, wrote and directed plays about historical black figures, and attended a
conference with the NBDA (Albert, 2018, pg. 32). After attending the NBDA conference, Albert
(2019) sparked an interest in mentoring black deaf youth. Later, Albert (2019) received his
bachelor’s and master’s in social work at Gallaudet University and became an educator (Albert,
2018, pg. 32). Lastly, Albert (2019) discussed the services provided in his passion for advising,
counseling, and mentorship. For example, the author mentions his social/cultural programs, co-
curricular activities, and events which included: cultural heritage months, student discussions,
leadership retreats, and different job opportunities (Albert, 2018, pg. 33). Albert (2019) is a black
and deaf social worker proving that being a marginalized individual with intersecting identities
does not hinder an individual from reaching their goals and working in their passion.
Assessment

The author, Albert (2018), provides a lighter tone to the literature review in the form of
an anecdote. One could say the article was somewhat in the form of an autobiography, but this
article is more focused on the author’s attributions and achievements of becoming a social
worker/counselor as a deaf black man. Albert (2018) took the reader down a chronological path
of his life as he unfolds and discusses his personal development and what led him to his many
achievements/roles. For example, the author stated “I also explored my personal heritage, writing
and directing plays about Frederick Douglass; Martin Luther King, Jr.; Thurgood Marshall; and
Harriet Tubman—all American heroes who were African American. I met people from diverse
cultures and backgrounds, and I was challenged to become more creative and confident as I
prepared myself for the future.” (Albert, 2018, pg. 31). Overall, Albert (2019) is very
encouraging and proves that despite the social constructs of the author's marginalized identities,
he too can succeed. The author stated, “[t]hey did not believe that a black person could be
professionally successful until they saw it with their own eyes” (Albert, 2018, pg. 32).
Reflection
Although this article was not completely research-based it is still useful to my literature
review. As previously stated, Albert (2019) adds a lighthearted tone to the review. Most of the
articles cover research about racism, audism, and the struggles of being black and deaf however
this article is the opposite. Albert (2019) is similar to the first article in this literature review
whereas they both discuss the contributions and successes made by black deaf individuals. Albert
(2019) proves to the readers that the stigmas associated with being black and deaf do not restrain
the individual from succeeding in life. Although the author faced some challenges, he, like many
other black deaf individuals, has fulfilled his goals and dreams.

Article 9
Lucas, C., Bayley, R., McCaskill, C., & Hill, J. (2015). The intersection of African
American English and Black American Sign Language. International Journal of
Bilingualism, 19(2), 156-168. sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav. DOI:
10.1177/1367006913489204
Summary
In this research, Lucas et al., (2015), focus on African American English, American Sign
Language, and Black American Sign Language. The researchers conduct research amongst
black signers to learn more about how all of the factors of language intersected to create the main
language black deaf signers use which is Black ASL. Lucas et al., (2015) say, “that the
prolonged segregation of Black and White students in the southern schools for the deaf, as well
as the lack of educational opportunities for Black deaf students in some states, created the
conditions for the development of a separate variety of ASL” (Lucas et al., 2015, pg. 158). That
founding explains why Black ASL is not the same as American Sign Language because black
deaf individuals were not exposed to or taught the same language (ASL) as the white deaf
individuals. Lucas et al., (2015) then discussed the factors of AAE and how its implemented into
Black ASL. The researchers explained how in their discussions with the African American
signers they would use some words like the “N-word” and other words that ONLY black people
use but use the signs from ASL that may mean another word. For example, Lucas et al., says “[a]
long discussion also focused on what looked to be the phrase, “What’s up, n_____?” One
participant clarified that what was meant by the sign was actually “nerd”, so that the phrase was,
“What’s up, nerd?" This participant stated that his White friends were alarmed to see the phrase

until it was explained that the meaning intended was “nerd”. The phrase STUPID FOOL was
also briefly discussed as being a Black usage and the sign PLEASE was used in a discussion
about big city traffic: “POWERFUL, WOW (gesture), PLEASE.” (Lucas et al., 2015, pg. 163).
Assessment
The research presented in this study is useful to this literature review because it compares
to the prior articles that discuss the sociolinguistic factors for the black deaf community. The
researchers for this article are credible because some of them are professors at Gallaudet
University. Lucas et al., (2015) videotaped 96 African American signers in the southern part of
the United Stated (Lucas et al., 2015, pg. 158). The researchers really delve into the history of
being segregated and its affect on the black signers language. Asking about slurs that most
African Americans use was very effective
Reflection
Reading this article reminds me of the article prior by (Toliver- Smith & Gentry, 2017).
The two articles provided data that was very similar and useful for this literature review.
Personally, I was interested in learning about the black slurs that are usually used by black
people and how the black deaf indivifuals were able to make it it their own to incorproare the
black culture into their language. Lucas et atl., (2015) provided a very informative study and
educated the reader on the background and culture of black deaf individuals of their language.

Synthesis
Understanding Intersectionality
Throughout many articles in this literature review, a common theme of understanding
intersectionality appeared. Chapple (2019) provides a definition of intersectionality which is a
theory that believes that there is an overlapping of individuals' social identities (i.e. race, gender,
sexual orientation, disability, etc) and the oppression and/or stigma attached to said identities.
Being black and deaf makes an individual marginalized because of the stereotypes and stigmas
attached to each identity. In many studies, the black deaf individuals experienced some sort of
discrimination because others of the majority did not understand or relate to their intersectional
identities. Stapleton stated that she, “...encouraged faculty to take responsibility for educating
themselves about intersectional pedagogy—that is, teaching practices that include the
experiences, stories, and knowledge of diverse intersected social identities” (Stapleton, 2016, pg.
162). Most of the articles emphasize the importance of being aware of the intersectionality of
black deaf individuals, provide examples/anecdotes from black deaf individuals that describe the
negative experiences due to the lack of knowledge, and include the benefits of understanding
intersectionality.
Negative Effects of Social Construct
Almost every article included the daily battles faced with being deaf and black due to the
social constructs and stigmas placed in society. Many of the studies in these articles included
anecdotes from different black deaf individuals experiences and families with black deaf
children. Most the black deaf individuals described themselves as feeling invisible and excluded
from both the deaf and black communities (Chapple, 2019), (Kara & Harvey, 2017), and

(Chapple et al., 2021). Specifically in Kara & Harvey's (2017) article, the mothers described a
feeling of blame and grief because their pre-desired plans that they imagined before finding out
about their children's diagnosis disappeared once the child was diagnosed deaf. In other words,
most mothers fantasize about the futures of their children starting from the prenatal and infancy
phase meanwhile not knowing anything about the child. Therefore, resulting in disappointment
when they find out their child is nothing like how they expected. In Borum's (2019) article, the
black hearing families encounter problems such as being low income and not receiving
appropriate medical and social services due to being black. These issues created stress for these
families because they had to figure out how to properly take care of their deaf children. These
researchers all mentioned how those in the authority of these black deaf individuals had no prior
knowledge of the meaning and the daily life of being deaf. Lastly, the most common negative
effect was racism and audism. As stated previously, most hearing individuals of any race
displayed some type of audism towards the black deaf individuals which produced negative
feelings of rejection and invisibility. Every black deaf individual experienced racism either on a
micro or macro level due to the social constructs placed on the black community and that dates
back into history.
The Advancements of the black deaf community
Another theme that was commonly seen throughout the literature review was the
advancements made throughout the black deaf community’s history. There were many stories
and examples given that were leaning more toward the negative side of being black and deaf
however there are great moments also. In Anderson & Dunn's (2016) article the main focus was
on mentioning the contributions and uprisings of black and deaf individuals. For example, the
article included the creation of the National Black and Deaf Association and many black deaf

leaders. In addition to the “black deaf renaissance” (Anderson & Dunn, 2016) as the authors
named it, there was the creation of Black ASL. Toliver-Smith, A., & Gentry, B. (2017) studied
the sociolinguistic advancements of the black deaf community and its relation to African
American English. Personally, learning about the creation of this language was interesting
because it adds to black culture and more importantly black deaf culture. Lastly, Stapleton
(2016) discussed how the black deaf students “resisted” the racism and audism microaggression.
Coming from segregated times, and overall racial injustice the action of resistance shows the
growth of black deaf individuals. The research found that the students used “[a]spirational
Capital [which] is having the aspiration to succeed and achieve despite societal barriers and
beyond limiting expectations, and having the gumption to seek out, find, and act on alternative
paths if barriers are unable to be broken. Linguistic Capital [which] is having language or access
to learn a first or second language, including English and/or American Sign Language, as well as
having the ability to name and critique inequity and differential treatment. Navigational Capital
[which] is having the ability to maneuver through oppressive educational systems and spaces that
were not created for or by Bd/Deaf people. Social Capital [which] is having a network (i.e.,
interpreters, professors, advisors) on- or off-campus to assist with emotional support, obtain
educational resources, and counter negative social stereotypes about Black and d/Deaf people.
Familial Capital [which] is having kin and chosen family (i.e., close friends) who offer emotional
and moral support, pass down cultural values (e.g., the importance of education), and create a
space in which oppression resistance behavior could be observed. Resistant Capital [which]is
having the awareness that oppression is real and directly affects Bd/Deaf people in unique ways,
as well as the desire and ability to learn and use oppositional skills to challenge and change

social inequities (Stapleton, 2016, 153-154). All of the capital frameworks, creations of
language, and historical success stories add to the many advancements of deaf black people.

Conclusion
This literature review has provided the reader with ample information and a great
perspective of the black and deaf community. The review starts with an introduction to the
history of the black deaf community and its many advancements and contributions (Anderson &
Dunn, 2016). The reader learns of the education of black deaf students during segregated times
and how it resulted in the language of Black ASL (Toliver-Smith, A., et al., 2017). The reader
later learns the racism that is still currently instilled in education today. For example, how
Stapleton (2016) discusses the continuous microaggression hidden in the classroom setting of
college campuses. Next, Chapple et al.(2021) conduct their research that gives an even more
specific perspective of black deaf college women with a diverse set of intersectionalities and
their experience attending a PWI. This review also provides the perspective of caregivers;
interestingly enough the caregiver's standpoints from different countries and cultural
backgrounds. Kara & Harvey (2017) conducts their study of mothers of black deaf children in
South Africa and Borum (2019) provides information about black hearing families with black
deaf children. The reader also learns different key terms, processes, and acceptable actions
towards the deaf community. Overall, this review incorporates a lot of data and information to
help bring awareness, perspective, and understanding of the black deaf experience to its readers.

References
Albert, T. (2018). Passing It On: Counseling,Advising, and Mentoring Deaf and Hard of
Hearing Students of Color. Odessey: New Directions in Deaf Education, v.19, 30-33.
ERIC Institute of Education Sciences.
Anderson, G. B., & Dunn, L. M. (2016). Assessing Black Deaf History: 1980s to the
Present. Sign Language Studies, Vol. 17, No. 1(: Assessing the Field of Deaf History:
Scholarship, Pedagogy, and Public History (Fall 2016)), pp. 71-77.
Borum, V. (2019). African American Hearing Families with Deaf Children: A Review of
the Literature. JADARA, 37(1), 1-25. https://repository.wcsu.edu/jadara/vol37/iss1/4
Chapple, R. L. (2019). Toward a Theory of Black Deaf Feminism: The Quiet Invisibility
of a Population. Affilia: Journal of Women and Social Work, 34(2), 186-198. SAGE
publishing. DOI: 10.1177/0886109918818080
Chapple, R. L., Bridwell, B. A., & Gray, K. L. (2021). Exploring Intersectional Identity
in Black Deaf Women: The Complexity of the Lived Experience in College. Affilia:
Feminist Inquiry in Social Work, 36(4), 571-592. SAGE Publishing.
10.1177/0886109920985769
Kara, N., & Harvey, C. (2017). The social construction of ‘deafness’: explored through
the experiences of Black South African mothers raising a deaf child. South African
Journal of Psychology, 47, 72-83. SAGE Publishing. 10.1177/0081246316648517
Lucas, C., Bayley, R., McCaskill, C., & Hill, J. (2015). The intersection of African
American English and Black American Sign Language. International Journal of
Bilingualism, 19(2), 156-168. sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav. DOI:
10.1177/1367006913489204

Stapleton, L. D. (2016). Audism and Racism: The Hidden Curriculum Impacting Black
d/Deaf College Students in the Classroom. Audism and Racism, Vol. 67, 149-168. The
Negro Educational Review.
Toliver- Smith, A., & Gentry, B. (2017). Investigating Black ASL. A Systematic Review
American Annals of the Deaf, 161(5), 560-570.

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