1.
HOW
FATHERS
AND
FATHER
FIGURES
CAN
SHAPE
CHILD
HEALTH
AND
WELLBEING
OVERVIEW
We
shouldn’t
underestimate
the
vast
importance
of
fathers
in
children’s
lives,
not
only
because
children
‘need
and
love
their
dads’
,
but
also
because
o
f
the
significant
impact
that
fathers
have
on
the
social,
cognitive,
emotional
and
physical
well-­‐being
of
children
from
infancy
to
adolescence
and
with
lasting
influences
into
their
adult
life.
GROWING
UP
IN
AUSTRALIA
@
2013
The
landscape
of
childhood
has
altered
dramatically
since
many
parents
were
children
themselves:
•
"Involved fathers bring positive benefits to their
children that no other person is as likely to bring."
Popenoe,
D .
(1996)
p.163.
This
summary
of
evidence
is
based
on
a
review
of
literature
and
research
published
primarily
in
the
last
10
years.
As
there
is
a
vast
volume
of
research
relating
to
parenting
and
children
more
generally,
the
review
focused
on
evidence
relating
specifically
to
the
influence
of
fathers
and
father
figures.
•
•
Child
Development
Social
Skills
and
Rela:onships
•
Mental
Health
&
Self-­‐
Esteem
FATHERS
While
there
is
a
growing
body
of
evidence
about
the
role
of
fathers
in
children’s
lives,
there
are
also
knowledge
gaps,
and
the
quality
of
evidence
varies.
Although
a
concerted
effort
has
been
made
to
capture
evidence
about
the
positive
influences
of
fathers
on
child
development
and
wellbeing,
it
is
pertinent
to
note
that
studies
to
date
h ave
more
often
focused
on
the
negative
impacts
of
poor
or
absent
fathering
on
children.
Quite
a
number
of
studies
have
investigated
very
specific
subsets
of
fathers
(such
as
incarcerated
fathers
or
those
with
serious
substance
addiction
issues),
but
for
the
purpose
of
this
overview,
we
have
primarily
focused
on
evidence
that
is
applicable
to
general
populations.
Tobacco,
Alcohol
&
Drug
Use
School
Engagement
&
Performance
Bullying
•
Adolescent
Sexual
Behaviour
Delinquent
Behaviours
Overweight/Obesity
&
Physical
Ac:vity
Figure
1:
Key
Evidence
Themes
The
demographic
profile
of
families
has
changed,
with
higher
rates
of
single
parent
households,
parental
divorce
and
b lended
families2.
‘Stay
at
home’
parenting
is
increasingly
rare,
with
both
parents
often
working
and/or
working
longer
hours2.
New
modes
of
working
such
as
fly
in
fly
out
(FIFO)
alter
family
dynamics
and
ways
of
life3,4.
The
world
h as
also
changed
in
ways
that
impact
on
children:
such
as
new
technologies,
and
greater
fear
and
uncertainty
(globally
and
locally).
In
turn
this
has
fostered
a
protective
culture
of
“cotton
wool
kids”
and
“helicopter
parenting”,
but
this
can
stifle
children’s
independent
mobility
and
discovery
of
the
world5,6.
Australian
children
are
not
as
‘healthy’
as
they
once
were,
with
many
insufficiently
active
and
growing
rates
of
overweight
and
obesity,
mental
health
issues
and
concerning
levels
of
adolescent
alcohol
and
drug
use7.
They
are
however
much
less
likely
to
smoke
cigarettes
than
previous
generations8.

2.
CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
There
is
growing
evidence
and
attention
to
the
importance
of
early
childhood
development
and
how
this
has
flow
on
impacts
throughout
childhood
and
into
adult
life.
Although
research
on
parenting
has
tended
to
focus
more
on
mothers
or
families
in
general,
there
is
m ounting
evidence
supporting
the
critical
role
of
fathering.
“Available evidence clearly demonstrates the importance of fathers to the
developmental health and well-being of their children. While fathers’ traditional
breadwinning role remains important, the paternal role is now recognised to be much
broader than this, reflecting societal change in role expectations for women, as well
as increasing knowledge about the contribution of paternal influences to children’s
developmental well-being.” Wilson,
K
&
Prior,
M.
(2011)
p.
405.
Evidence
from
a
systematic
review
of
18
studies,
indicates
that
father
engagement
positively
9,10
affects
social,
behavioural,
psychological
and
cognitive
outcomes
of
children .
More
8
specifically,
high
levels
of
father
involvement
have
been
linked
to :
• higher
levels
of
cognitive
and
social
competence
• increased
social
responsibility
and
capacity
for
empathy
• positive
self-­‐control
and
self-­‐esteem
• more
positive
interactions
with
siblings
• fewer
school
adjustment
difficulties
and
better
academic
progress
Whilst
both
parents
play
critical
roles
in
the
early
development
of
child
security
and
attachment,
some
influences
are
more
pronounced
among
fathers
or
mothers.
For
instance,
evidence
suggests
that
fathers
contribute
most
to
providing
play
exploration
which
helps
develop
emotional
and
behavioural
self-­‐regulation,
whilst
mothers
tend
to
be
the
providers
of
comfort
in
times
of
11
distress .
These
early
experiences
with
fathers
can
help
foster
“secure
exploration”
of
challenging
12
or
unknown
situations
and
this
can
have
a
lasting
impact
through
childhood .
Fathers
can
further
contribute
indirectly
to
child
development,
as
research
indicates
mothers
are
more
patient,
flexible,
emotionally
responsive,
sensitive,
and
available
to
their
infants
and
young
children
when
13
they
are
supported
and
encouraged
by
the
child’s
father .
DOES
ONE
MATTER
MORE?...
QUANTITY
AND
QUALITY
OF
FATHER
INVOLVEMENT
While
there
are
differing
views
and
findings
surrounding
the
relative
importance
of
quality
and
quantity
in
relation
to
fathering,
overall,
both
are
important.
Quality:
A
father
who
spends
lots
of
time
interacting
with
his
children
but
does
so
in
a
critical
or
demeaning
way
may
be
doing
harm
rather
than
good,
as
it
can
8
negatively
affect
self-­‐esteem .
Quantity:
Insufficient
time
hinders
the
building
and
maintenance
of
a
positive
father-­‐child
relationship.
It
has
also
been
argued
that
dads
who
don’t
spend
much
time
with
their
children
may
lack
confidence
or
understanding
of
8.
their
child’s
characteristics
Significant
father
absence
in
a
family
can
have
a
deleterious
effect
on
children’s
8
development .
SOCIAL
SKILLS
AND
RELATIONSHIPS
“Supportive parenting behaviours in which the father provides expressive
and instrumental affection, nurturance, interest and companionship enhance
children’s self-esteem, life satisfaction and social competence “
Harris,
K.
et
al.
(1998)
p.
202
Current
literature
indicates
that
fathers
play
a
particularly
critical
role
in
fostering
social
skills
and
capacity
for
positive
relationships
in
their
children.
Fathers
who
demonstrate
8
positive
behaviours
such
as
accessibility,
engagement
and
responsibility
contribute
to :
• better
psychosocial
adjustment
• higher
levels
of
social
competence
• increased
social
responsibility,
social
maturity
and
life
skills
• more
positive
child/adolescent-­‐father
relationships
Recent
research
also
highlights
that
fathers
play
a
distinct
(as
in
different
to
mothers)
and
integral
role
in
children’s
socialisation.
For
example,
a
US
study
of
parental
involvement
during
the
transition
from
childhood
to
adolescence
found
that
the
social
time
(time
with
parents
in
the
presence
of
others)
that
teenagers
spent
with
fathers
was
significantly
associated
with
increased
social
competence
(eg
social
skills,
effective
social
interactions),
15
but
the
same
effect
was
not
observed
for
m others .
Conversely,
poor
paternal
relationships
and
fathering
behaviours
can
have
a
lasting
effect
on
children’s
social
adjustment
and
relationships.
A
2012
study
highlights
that
the
perception
of
a
poor
father-­‐child
relationship
during
childhood
is
associated
with
poorer
adult
social
functioning,
significantly
decreased
likelihood
of
secure
adjustment
style,
and
a
16
significantly
increased
risk
of
avoidant
or
dependent
attachment
styles .

3.
MENTAL
HEALTH
AND
SELF-­‐ESTEEM
“Overall, father love appears to be as heavily
implicated
as mother love in offsprings’ psychological
well-being and health, as well as in an array of
psychological and behavioural problems.”
Rohnern,
R.
&
Veneziano,
R.
(2001)
p.
11
Much
of
the
research
on
fathering
has
focused
on
its
implications
for
child
and
adolescent
mental
health,
with
compelling
evidence
that
fathering
has
significant
protective
and
positive
effects
on
the
mental
health
of
children
across
various
ages
and
stages
of
development.
Being
warm
and
18
19
9
supportive ,
involved ,
and
engaged
with
their
child
are
among
fathering
traits
that
have
been
shown
to
positively
impact
a
child’s
m ental
health.
Conversely,
poor
father-­‐child
relationships
can
negatively
impact
on
a
child’s
mental
health,
both
in
childhood
and
later
during
adolescence
and
20
in
adulthood .
In
a
recent
study,
poor
quality
early
father-­‐child
relationships
were
consistently
associated
with
an
increased
prevalence
of
adult
mental
health
disorders
such
as
depression,
bipolar,
anxiety
disorders
and
phobias.
This
was
irrespective
of
socio-­‐economic
status
and
perceived
16
quality
of
childhood
maternal
relationship
or
current
social
relationships .
that
depressive
symptoms
in
fathers
are
associated
with
One
study
noted
21
increased
father-­‐child-­‐conflict
and
child
externalising
symptoms ,
whilst
another
study
found
that
lower
father
involvement
was
significantly
linked
22
to
lower
life
satisfaction
in
teenage
boys .
The
transition
through
puberty
and
into
adolescence
is
a
challenging
time
for
many
young
people,
with
heightened
risk
of
mental
health
issues.
During
this
period,
the
father-­‐child
relationship
can
be
a
significant
protective
factor.
For
example,
youths
who
spend
m ore
one-­‐on-­‐one
time
with
their
father
have
been
found
to
have
higher
general
self-­‐worth
than
those
15
spending
less
time
with
their
father .
Fathers
are
also
important
to
their
teenage
children’s
health
seeking
behaviours,
with
one
study
demonstrating
adolescents
were
more
likely
to
seek
treatment
for
depression
when
their
fathers
demonstrated
warmth
18
and
supportiveness .
Recent
parenting
books
often
highlight
the
importance
of
fathers
in
the
lives
23
of
boys,
particularly
as
they
transition
into
and
through
adolescence .
However,
fathers
play
a
critical
role
for
daughters
also,
including
positive
influences
on
their
mental
wellbeing.
A
recent
retrospective
study
with
young
adult
females
found
that
father
involvement
and
father
nurturing
during
childhood
were
significantly
positively
correlated
with
daughter’s
24
self-­‐esteem
and
life
satisfaction
in
early
adulthood .
Fathers need to stay mentally healthy themselves, as
this enhances their ability to be a great dad, and to enjoy
the experiences of being a father. Taking care of their
own health
and mental wellbeing also enables fathers to
cope better with challenges or stresses that parenting
might bring.
SO
WHAT
AFFECTS
A
MAN’S
CAPACITY
TO
“FATHER”?
Most
m en
aspire
to
be
great
fathers
to
their
children,
but
some
life
circumstances
can
make
this
more
challenging.
!. SPOUSAL
RELATIONSHIP
&
PARENTAL
CONFLICT
Parental
conflict
is
associated
with
behavioural
problems
and
other
negative
impacts
on
children,
regardless
of
whether
the
parents
live
!"
together
or
apart .
Spousal
conflict
can
in
fact
negate
the
benefits
for
children
of
protective
factors
such
as
father
involvement
or
co-­‐
!"
residence .
Mothers’
involvement
with
their
child
and
support
of
fathers
has
also
been
noted
as
important
to
paternal
involvement
and
the
!"
quality
of
the
father-­‐child
relationships .
!. CO-­‐RESIDENCE
WITH
CHILD
While
it
is
not
always
possible
for
fathers
to
live
in
the
same
house
as
their
children,
overall
this
has
been
found
to
have
a
positive
effect
on
fathering
and
father-­‐child
relationships.
Relatedly,
co-­‐residence
is
associated
with
higher
!"
father
involvement
and
child
wellbeing .
Nonetheless,
it
should
be
noted
that
longitudinal
research
indicates
that
contact
between
children
and
fathers
living
away
has
been
increased
significantly
over
the
past
few
!"
decades .
!. OWN
EXPERIENCE
OF
FATHERING
Thoughts
about
their
own
fathers
and
experiences
as
children
are
a
backdrop
on
which
!"
men
build
their
own
fathering
identify .
How
men
negotiate
the
demands
of
fatherhood
is
also
linked
to
their
own
experience
of
fathering.
For
example,
men
whose
fathers
were
involved
in
raising
them,
have
been
found
to
show
more
positive
fathering
behaviours
such
as
!"
nurturance,
warmth
and
responsibility .
Conversely,
m en
not
close
to
their
own
fathers
are
less
likely
to
define
fathering
in
terms
of
a
nurturing
role,
and
more
likely
to
view
it
!"
primarily
as
a
breadwinner
role .
!. ADVERSITY
&
LIFE
CIRCUMSTANCES
At
a
population
level,
a
fathers’
disadvantaged
socio-­‐economic
circumstance
can
affect
their
child’s
wellbeing
both
directly,
through
the
!"
provision
of
financial
support ,
and
indirectly,
through
increased
risk
of
factors
such
as
father
!"
absence,
domestic
violence ,
mental
health
!"
!!
problems ,
or
incarceration .
This
has
implications
for
targeting
support
to
fathers
who
face
difficult
life
circumstances.

4.
TOBACCO,
ALCOHOL
AND
DRUG
USE
While
m uch
of
the
evidence
relates
to
the
influence
of
parents
and
the
home
environment
more
generally
on
the
risk
and
extent
of
substance
use
in
children
and
adolescents,
a
growing
number
of
studies
focus
more
specifically
on
the
important
role
of
fathers
in
preventing
smoking
uptake,
under-­‐age
drinking
and
illicit
drug
use.
Indeed,
some
of
the
research
specific
to
fathers
indicates
that
their
influence
on
alcohol
and
illicit
drug
use
in
children
and
adolescents
may
be
distinct
and
stronger
than
that
of
mothers.
For
instance:
•
Research
indicates
that
within
dual
parent
families,
fathers
have
a
significant
protective
effect
on
their
child’s
risk
of
having
tried
alcohol,
cigarettes
or
marijuana,
even
after
controlling
for
mother-­‐child
relationship,
maternal
monitoring,
other
maternal
characteristics,
family-­‐
and
household-­‐level
34
characteristics,
and
child-­‐level
characteristics .
•
Youth
from
father-­‐only
households
have
been
reported
to
engage
in
higher
levels
of
cigarette,
alcohol,
and
marijuana
use
than
those
from
m other-­‐only
or
35
dual-­‐parent
households .
Alcohol
Research
shows
that
parental
influences
regarding
vulnerabilities
for
alcohol
use
may
be
specific
to
parent–child
gender
matches
for
some
pathways,
and
specific
to
fathers
or
mothers
(irrespective
of
child
gender)
for
other
pathways.
For
example,
having
an
authoritarian
father
has
been
found
to
increase
neurotic
symptoms
in
the
tension
reduction
pathway
to
alcohol-­‐related
problems
among
36
male
offspring,
but
not
female
offspring .
• Heavy
drinking
or
alcoholism
in
fathers
(but
not
m others)
has
been
associated
with
earlier
onset
and
heavier
levels
of
alcohol
use,
and
increased
risk
of
transition
to
hazardous
consumption
or
alcohol
disorders
by
children
or
37,38
teenagers
.
• Protective
factors
such
as
parent-­‐child
closeness
and
discipline
have
been
significantly
associated
with
reduced
chance
of
alcohol
consumption
and
39
reduced
risk
of
a
recent
alcohol
binges
in
the
case
of
fathers
but
not
mothers .
Illicit
Drugs
•
Fathers
can
be
influential
in
their
absence
as
family
structure
and
living
arrangements
are
particularly
critical
to
illicit
drug
initiation
and
perception.
For
example,
children
of
single
parent
or
step
parent
homes
are
at
significantly
35,40
higher
risk
than
those
of
dual
biological
parent
household
.
• Within
father-­‐only
homes
girls
appear
to
be
at
highest
risk,
with
one
study
indicating
that
their
inhalant,
marijuana,
and
amphetamine
use
significantly
exceeded
that
of
daughters
living
with
single
m others,
whereas
gender
of
the
41
parent
was
not
associated
with
sons’
usage .
• When
regarding
protective
factors,
father
communication
appears
to
reduce
risk
42
of
marijuana
use
in
sons
but
not
daughters .
Tobacco
smoking
• The
smoking
behaviour
and
attitudes
of
both
fathers
and
m others
can
influence
the
likelihood
of
smoking
experimentation.
Both
mother’s
and
father’s
smoking
are
significant
predictors
of
smoking
in
adolescents,
yet
the
probability
of
ever
smoking
has
been
reported
to
be
m ost
strongly
associated
with
frequency
of
43
mothers’
smoking .
44
• Mothers’
smoking
has
been
particularly
linked
to
girls
and
there
is
some
34,45
evidence
to
indicate
that
father-­‐son
relationships
are
also
significantly
linked
.
• Stronger
effects
of
father’s
smoking
have
been
found
for
smoking
initiation
among
adolescent
boys,
although
these
effects
were
dependent
on
father
co-­‐
46
residence .
•
FATHER
VERSUS
MOTHER
INFLUENCES
ON
SUBSTANCE
USE
Whether
fathers
or
mothers
have
a
greater
or
different
influence
on
substance
use
is
not
strongly
established
and
the
evidence
is
at
times
37
inconsistent .
Some
studies
report
a
unique
or
greater
effect
for
fathers
compared
with
mothers;
others
focus
on
parents
more
collectively.
In
a
2012
US
survey
of
1003
teenagers,
those
who
reported
an
excellent
relationship
with
their
dad
were
four
times
less
likely
to
have
used
marijuana,
and
two
times
less
likely
to
have
used
alcohol,
but
similar
patterns
were
observed
for
teen
perceptions
of
their
relationship
with
47
their
mother .
What
is
clear
is
that
the
vulnerability
of
children
is
exacerbated
if
both
parents
have
drug
or
alcohol
issues
47
themselves .
Conversely,
the
consistency
of
parental
role
m odelling,
attitudes
and
rules
regarding
drug
and
alcohol
also
emerge
as
important
48
protective
factors .
WHAT
CAN
FATHERS
(AND
PARENTS)
DO
TO
PREVENT
SUBSTANCE
USE?
Parental
factors
shown
to
reduce
the
likelihood
of
adolescent
initiation
and
use
of
alcohol,
tobacco
35,49-­‐51
or
illicit
drugs
include
:
• substance-­‐specific
rules
• parental
modelling
of
abstinence
or
low
consumption
• limiting
availability
of
substance
to
the
child
• parental
monitoring
of
child’s
consumption
• parent-­‐child
relationship
quality
eg.
acceptance,
involvement,
warmth,
communication
• parental
norms
about
initiation/
consumption
• positive
mother-­‐father
relationship

5.
SCHOOL
ENGAGEMENT
AND
PERFORMANCE
In
addition
to
the
collective
influence
of
parents
on
children’s
attitudes
towards,
and
engagement
with
school,
there
is
a
growing
body
of
evidence
about
the
important
contribution
fathers
can
make
to
the
school
preparedness
and
performance
of
their
children,
with
far
reaching
implications
across
their
development
and
into
52,25
adulthood
.
A
2011
literature
review
into
fathering
and
child
wellbeing
noted
that
positive
fathering
8
contributes
to :
• fewer
school
adjustment
problems
• better
academic
progress
• enhanced
occupational
achievements
in
adulthood
Children’s
positive
and
negative
school
outcomes
have
been
linked
to
father
beliefs
(eg.
about
teachers),
perceptions,
school
involvement
(eg.
motivation
for
involvement,
53
father-­‐teacher
relationship
quality),
efficacy
and
child
attachment .
Additionally,
father
absence
has
been
linked
to
higher
incidence
of
negative
outcomes
such
school
54
suspension
and
expulsion .
Other
research
has
highlighted
that
paternal
support
may
function
complimentarily
with
maternal
support,
with
fathers
particularly
associated
with
social
competence
in
the
52
school
setting
whilst
mothers’
more
so
with
academic
competence .
This
research
further
indicates
that
fathers’
support
may
be
most
critical
where
levels
of
mother
8
support
are
lower
.
Research
also
indicates
an
intergenerational
link
between
a
father
and
child’s
school
achievements,
which
is
partially
attributable
to
a
father’s
expectations
of
his
child’s
55
educational
achievements .
In
one
study
fathers’
academic
achievements
and
peer
relations
at
school
were
directly
related
to
these
same
factors
in
their
offspring,
regardless
of
the
fathers’
educational
attainment,
or
both
the
fathers’
and
the
children’s
55
general
cognitive
abilities .
BULLYING
Parents
play
a
pivotal
role
in
both
the
risk
of
their
child
being
a
bully,
and
a
victim
of
bullying,
and
there
is
some
evidence
to
indicate
that
fathers
and
m others
may
influence
bullying
and
victimisation
in
distinct
ways.
Parent–child
conflict
has
been
noted
as
a
potent
predictor
of
both
bullying
and
victimization.
Low
parent
involvement
or
support
is
also
implicated
in
bullying,
with
one
study
finding
that
both
low
father
and
low
mother
involvement
contribute
significantly
56
and
independently
to
bullying
behaviour
in
adolescents .
Witnessing
domestic
violence
57,58
and
child
maltreatment
are
also
predictors
of
bullying
however,
child
maltreatment
is
57
concurrently
associated
with
victimisation
too .
High
levels
of
child
disclosure
(communication
with
parents)
are
protective
against
bullying,
however
poor
59
communication
with
parents
conversely
predicts
bullying
beahviours .
When
looking
specifically
at
paternal
influences,
an
Israeli
study
found
that
children
of
authoritarian
fathers
tended
to
associate
more
with
bully
friends
and
the
highest
degrees
of
bullying
were
d
emonstrated
when
adolescents
had
authoritative
fathers
and
valued
60
power
themselves .
Another
US
study
concluded
that
whether
paternal
employment
is
full-­‐
or
overtime,
if
a
child
perceives
they
do
not
spend
enough
time
with
their
father,
the
61
risk
of
bullying
behaviours
significantly
increases .
Nonetheless,
fathers
can
also
have
a
positive
impact,
with
results
from
a
UK
study
suggesting
a
buffering
effect
for
perceived
father
involvement
which
protects
teenage
22
boys
from
extreme
victimization .
Parent-­‐child
communication,
meeting
children's
friends,
and
encouraging
children
academically
have
also
associated
with
lower
bullying
62
odds .
Furthermore,
the
father-­‐child
relationship
appears
to
be
particularly
critical
when
56
mother
involvement
is
lower .
FATHERS
WHO
WORK
AWAY
New
patterns
of
work-­‐life
such
as
FIFO
have
created
families
where
dads
are
part
absent,
part
present,
but
research
into
how
this
impacts
on
child
wellbeing
is
only
just
emerging
in
the
published
literature.
A
recent
West
Australian
study
found
that
having
a
‘FIFO
father’
was
not
a
discreet
homogeneous
risk
factor
for
children,
with
evidence
suggesting
that
boys
and
girls
may
deal
differently
with
such
father
absences3.
However,
this
and
another
WA
study4
found
elevated
stress
among
mothers
in
such
households,
which
Bradbury
suggests
indicates
“mothers
may
buffer
the
strains
of
regular
family
disruption
from
the
other
family
members’3.
This
supports
other
international
research
with
fishermen
and
truck
drivers
which
found
mothers
play
a
critical
role
in
maintaining
the
father-­‐child
connection
when
fathers
work
away63.
WHAT
ABOUT
CHILDREN
WITH
NO
FATHER
O R
NO
CONTACT
WITH
THEIR
BIOLGOCIAL
FATHER?
In
today’s
society,
many
children
do
not
live
with
their
biological
father
or
have
lost
their
dad.
The
most
critical
thing
is
that
they
have
the
love,
support
and
involvement
of
a
‘father
figure’
-­‐
this
could
be
a
grandparent,
uncle,
neighbour,
coach
or
family
friend.
Children
in
families
without
any
father
figure
are
more
vulnerable
to
poorer
health
and
wellbeing
outcomes
such
school
adjustment
problems
and
poorer
academic
outcomes8,
and
children
in
father
absent
homes
are
more
likely
to
have
problems
in
emotional
and
psychosocial
adjustment
and
exhibit
a
variety
of
internalising
and
externalising
behaviours13.
Close,
stable
relationships
between
stepfathers
and
stepchildren,
and
also
between
stepfathers
and
non-­‐resident
fathers
are
associated
with
better
adolescent
wellbeing
and
outcomes64.
Noted
benefits
include
improved
grades,
higher
self
–efficacy,
fewer
internalising
or
externalising
behaviours,
and
less
acting
out
in
school64.
The
level
of
closeness
and
support
that
stepfathers
provide
can
also
continue
into
young
adulthood
even
when
the
child
has
left
home65.

6.
ADOLESCENT
SEXUAL
BEHAVIOUR
Much
of
the
research
into
fathers’
influences
on
adolescent
sexual
behaviour
(early
or
risky
sexual
activity)
has
focussed
on
the
risks
associated
with
absent
fathers
or
negative
fathering
behaviours.
Father
absence
is
a
critical
contributor
to
adolescent
sexual
risk
behaviour
in
both
sons
and
daughters.
Research
has
demonstrated
the
importance
of
a
father
figure
in
reducing
the
risk
of
early
66
fatherhood
with
sons
of
teenage
fathers
8
times
more
likely
to
become
teen
fathers
themselves,
67,68
compared
with
sons
of
older
fathers
.
This
is
true
of
daughters
too,
and
it
has
been
indicated
that
odds
of
increased
sexual
risk
behaviours
or
teenage
pregnancy
are
lowest
when
fathers
are
present
throughout
childhood,
are
increased
when
fathers
are
absent
later
in
childhood,
and
peak
when
69
fathers
are
absent
from
an
early
age .
In
a
US
study,
daughters
who
experienced
early
father
absence
were
2.01
times
m ore
likely
to
engage
in
sexual
risk
behaviour
and
3.15
times
more
likely
to
have
a
teenage
regnancy,
whilst
in
New
Zealand
the
odds
were
2.14
and
3.19
times
higher
p
70
respectively .
L
ower
monitoring
(knowing
a
child’s
whereabouts)
by
fathers
has
also
been
significantly
associated
with
early
first
sexual
intercourse
among
girls,
and
with
not
using
a
condom
71
during
last
intercourse
among
boys .
Conversely,
father
support
has
been
associated
with
protective
sexual
behaviours
such
as
increased
72
condom
use
in
adolescents,
irrespective
of
whether
the
teenager
co-­‐resided
with
their
father .
In
one
study,
girls
who
had
a
close
relationship
with
their
father
were
found
to
be
less
likely
to
report
a
young
age
for
first
sexual
intercourse,
whereas
this
was
not
found
for
closeness
to
mothers
or
for
73
sons .
Although
teenagers
experience
significantly
more
discomfort
in
discussing
sexual
behaviours
74
with
fathers
rather
than
mothers ,
interventions
involving
fathers
indicate
positive
outcomes
such
as
75
increased
condom
use .
There
is
growing
concern
about
the
sexualisation
of
children
in
the
media,
and
fathers
have
been
found
to
have
a
n
important
role
to
play
in
how
sexual
media
socialises
their
daughters.
In
one
study,
females
whose
fathers
often
communicated
about
sex
with
them
were
found
to
be
less
likely
to
engage
in
sexually
risky
behaviours
despite
exposure
to
this
sexual
media,
whereas
the
same
76
influence
was
not
evident
for
communication
with
mothers .
DELINQUENCY
FATHERS
BENEFIT
FROM
FATHERING
ALSO….
• Higher
levels
father
involvement
are
associated
with
more
positive
child–
father
and
adolescent–
11,89
father
relationships
which
are
beneficial
to
both
father
and
child
• Men
who
are
involved
fathers
are
more
likely
to
feel
self-­‐confident
and
effective
as
parents
and
to
find
parenthood
more
13
satisfying .
• Fathers
who
are
involved
in
their
children’s
lives
are
more
likely
to
be
more
satisfied
with
life,
and
to
feel
less
psychological
distress,
and
have
greater
empathetic
13
understanding
of
others .
• There
is
some
evidence
that
men’s
emotional
involvement
with
their
children
can
act
as
a
buffer
against
work
related
90
stresses .
There
is
a
pocket
of
research
stemming
predominantly
from
the
criminology
field,
which
has
looked
at
the
relationship
between
fathering
and
child
engagement
in
delinquent
behaviours.
Fathers
have
been
highlighted
as
the
most
critical
figure
in
child
and
adolescent
delinquency,
with
one
study
noting
that
arrests
of
the
77
father
predicted
a
boy's
delinquency
independently
of
all
other
arrested
relatives .
This
is
supported
by
research
which
found
that
sons
whose
fathers
had
at
least
one
prison
sentence,
had
2.06
times
higher
odds
of
having
a
criminal
conviction
than
those
whose
78
fathers
had
no
sentences .
This
was
even
more
pronounced
for
daughters
who
were
2.66
times
more
likely
to
have
a
criminal
78
conviction
if
their
father
had
one
or
more
prison
sentences .
Fathers
can
also
have
a
protective
influence
against
delinquency
and
anti-­‐social
behaviour,
with
one
longitudinal
study
indicating
that
higher
non-­‐resident
father
involvement
predicted
subsequent
decreases
in
adolescent
delinquency,
particularly
for
youth
with
79
initial
engagement
in
delinquent
activities .
It
is
important
to
note
that
whether
biologically
related
or
not,
co-­‐residence
with
a
father
figure
is
also
protective
against
delinquent
behaviours
such
as
property,
violent
or
drug
related
crime,
and
taking
part
in
a
gang
80
fights,
particularly
in
m ales .
OVERWEIGHT/OBESITY
AND
PHYSICAL
ACTIVITY
The
paternal
influence
on
child
and
adolescent
weight
is
particularly
strong,
with
some
evidence
suggesting
fathers
are
more
influential
81
than
mothers
in
childhood
overweight
and
obesity .
A
father’s
BMI
(Body
Mass
Index)
has
been
found
to
predicts
sons’
and
daughters’
82
BMI
independent
of
offspring’s
alcohol
intake,
smoking,
physical
fitness,
and
father’s
education .
It
has
also
been
associated
with
83,84
physical
activity
in
children
across
various
developmental
stages,
from
toddlers
through
to
adolescents
.
Paternal
influence
has
been
linked
to
numerous
factors
such
as
encouragement
of
physical
activity
(eg.
verbal
encouragement,
paying
85
86
86
sports
fees) ,
modelling
positive
behaviours
and
influencing
diet
(eg.
restriction,
provision,
pressuring) .
Play
may
also
be
to
be
an
important
factor
as
unlike
mothers,
fathers
tend
to
bond
with
children
by
encouraging
exploration
and
challenges
through
play
and
87
physical
activity
.
Targeting
fathers
has
been
effectively
used
as
a
novel
and
efficacious
approach
to
improving
health
behaviours
in
88
their
children .

7.
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International
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of
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2010;35(3):436-­‐447.
89. Lamb
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Role
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Hoboken,
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Wiley;
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90. Barnett
RC,
Marshall
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Pleck
JH.
Men's
multiple
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their
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This
review
of
evidence
was
undertaken
for
the
Fathering
Project
June
2013.
Suggested
citation:
Wood,
Lisa
and
Lambin,
Estée
(2013).
How
fathers
and
father
figures
can
shape
child
health
and
wellbeing.
The
University
of
Western
Australia.
Acknowledgements:
Imogen
Kerruish,
Grace
McKie
and
Tanner
Perham