This document provides an analysis of how modern tragedies have adapted the concept of fate or an unavoidable downfall presented in ancient Greek tragedies to make it relatable to modern audiences. It discusses how William Shakespeare's King Lear and Eugene O'Neill's Long Day's Journey into Night replaced the ancient idea of fate with the modern concept of inheritance and familial ties, over which individuals have no control. This allows the plays to still inspire pity and fear in audiences by showing how the characters are products of their family situation rather than being truly at fault for their own demise.

1. Kayla Pigeon
Dr. Britton
English 787
11 May 2015
Family, Fate and the Emergence of the Modern Tragedy
Tragedy has traditionally followed certain attributes throughout history,
many of which are outlined in Aristotle’s Poetics. Aristotelian tragedy operates under the
assumption that tragic events are a product of fate that cannot be avoided by the
protagonist. Thus the tragic heroes are truly pitiable as they are not at fault for their own
demise. The modern audience does not have the same belief system of the ancient Greeks
and the idea of fate is lost upon it. How then can the playwright invoke pity and fear? In
Shakespeare’s King Lear and Eugene O’Neill’s Long Day’s Journey into Night, the
blame for the tragic event travels from the intangible Fates to inheritance and familial
situation. In King Lear the tragedy stems from the family’s position as royalty and the
subsequent succession of the throne. This play begins the move of fate into the family but
is still entwined with the divine as the King is meant to be a ruler, appointed by the gods.
Eugene O’Neill’s play takes this a step further, eliminating any presence of God or gods,
and focusing on the addictions and traits passed on from parent to child. These are
considered factors of non-genetic inheritance in psychology. The further away from
Aristotle the less likely it is for people to believe in a divine fate. As times change
tragedy, has to adapt and develop in order to maintain its core purpose of inspiring pity
and fear. The developments in Shakespeare’s King Lear and Eugene O’Neill’s Long
Day’s Journey into Night demonstrate a break from traditional tragedy and reveals that
the modern substitute for the Fates of Greek tragedy is family and the lack of control over
birth and inheritance, which together successfully recreates the effect of unavoidable fate
and the resulting catharsis, that was inspired by ancient Greek tragedy.

2. Kayla Pigeon Pigeon
Dr. Britton
English 787
11 May 2015
2
In Soren Kierkegaard’s essay “The Tragic in Ancient Drama Reflected in The
Tragic in Modern Drama” written in 1843, he discusses the differences between ancient
and modern tragedy and what provides the lack of pity and fear in modern tragedy. In
ancient tragedy, “even if the individual moves freely, he nevertheless rested in substantial
determinants, in the state, in family, in fate. This substantial determinant is the essential
fateful factor in Greek Tragedy and is its essential characteristic. The hero’s downfall,
therefore is not a result solely of his actions but is also a suffering, whereas in modern
tragedy the hero’s downfall is not really suffering but is a deed”(Kierkegaard 143). This
is the key point that inheritance is meant to move beyond. Kierkegaard talks about the
lack of empathy in the modern audience and the complete placement of guilt on the
modern tragic hero. This guilt results in a character, whose fall is their own fault and who
is seen as bad or evil. The context or history of a character is not considered, they are
simply their own antagonists. The lack of empathy from the audience essentially means
that there is no modern tragedy because part of the definition of tragedy, is that it needs to
inspire pity and fear. Kierkegaard was writing before Eugene O’Neill’s time and it is with
the ideas of inheritance that the problems with modern tragedy presented by Kierkegaard
are resolved.
Inheritance is the way in which modern tragedy finds a substitute for fate. This
inheritance emerges in several different ways. First there is the inheritance of material
goods in this instance land in King Lear. Next there is the inheritance of the throne in
other words the succession of power. Thirdly is the inheritance of a family condition,
being born into a micro-culture that influences your actions or the non-genetic

3. Kayla Pigeon Pigeon
Dr. Britton
English 787
11 May 2015
3
inheritance. In Aristotle’s Poetics pity and fear is found not through the lack of control in
inheritance, but in the idea that fate is the force behind everything that happens. This is
achieved through focusing not on the individual, “Tragedy is the imitation of actions and
life not men”(Aristotle 60). Thus the best form of tragedy according to Aristotle is where
a seemingly average person falls because of a mistake, or hamartia. Not to be confused
with a fatal character flaw but rather a mistake that was not his or her fault. This would
arouse pity and fear, because if the character did not do anything wrong and still suffered
a horrible fate, so could the people in the audience. This formula relies on a belief in fate
or gods that is not paralleled in the modern audience.
Shakespeare’s King Lear walks the line between divine fate and inheritance
making it an interesting stop on the way to modern tragedy. The theme of primogeniture
weighs strongly on this text and is placed in context with a contemporary argument to
Shakespeare involving the merits of primogeniture vs. partible inheritance. Partible
inheritance is when the inheritance is divided among the children something that was not
the norm in the kingdom(s) (Cooley 328). In Ronald Cooley’s “Kent And Primogeniture
in King Lear,” King Lear’s decision to divide his kingdom is carefully scrutinized and
the character of Kent also becomes an interesting focal point. There was a stereotype of
the men of Kent being very loyal, an attribute seen in the way Kent continually supports
Lear. However it was also true that the land of Kent was known for practicing partible
inheritance. Cooley argues that the play, “attempts to disengage inheritance and
succession from familial affection (or rather, to display the tragic consequence of linking
them”(Cooley 328). Shakespeare uses Kent who of all people should support Lear’s

4. Kayla Pigeon Pigeon
Dr. Britton
English 787
11 May 2015
4
decision to split the kingdom, “Upon thy foul disease. Revoke thy doom”(King Lear
1.1.165) he does this to reinforce the idea that it is wrong for Lear to divvy up the
Kingdom. The play is dealing with the issues of inheritance but the divine element is still
there. King Lear is attempting to defy the divine power that makes him the king and
instead of following the normal rules, intends to divide his kingdom. He is not separating
family from state, which also amounts to not separating family and divine will. In doing
so he stops Goneril from becoming the queen, which is her right as the eldest daughter.
Thus In King Lear the familial relations become tied with divine will. It seems that
through trying to defy the gods and making a rash decision about Cordelia, Lear brings
about his own fate. He swears “Now by Apollo” and Kent replies, “Now, by Apollo,
King/ Thy Swearest thy gods in vain”(King Lear 1.1.159-61). Lear has forsaken the gods
and Kent knows they will not help him now and he has also made a mistake in family
matters. King Lear shows the beginnings of family as an uncontrollable element of
tragedy.
Ideas of inheritance are prevalent because of the political context of when
Shakespeare was writing King Lear. Elizabeth I would have just passed away in 1603 and
James VI and I, would have just become king. The Tudor line was full of questions of
succession, these ranged from questions of legitimacy, the lack of the male heir, the
politically backed Jane Grey and finally the succession of a Scottish king to the throne.
James I was interested in creating a new united singular kingdom of Britain, this shift can
be seen even in the changes of script between the quartos and the folio text from the word
“kingdoms” to “kingdom”(Cooley 330). James I also discusses his desire to avoid

5. Kayla Pigeon Pigeon
Dr. Britton
English 787
11 May 2015
5
division of the kingdoms in his Basilicon Doron, which was essentially a hand book to
his son prince Henry and also a piece of propaganda, “In case it please God to provide
you to all these three kingdoms, make your eldest sonne Issac, leaving him all your
kingdoms; and provide the rest with private possessions: Otherwayes by deviding your
kingdomes, yee shall leave the seed of division and discord among your posteritie.”
James I was warning his son against what could happen if the kingdoms were divided. If
they were to divide there could be the possibility of one son wishing to control more, or
to separate from the other two kingdoms, that would result in fighting and disunion. This
idea is played out exactly in the actions of Goneril and Reagan who fight with each other
and both want total control over the kingdom. Shakespeare is using the contemporary
argument and applying it to an earlier time period in order to show the audience what
tragic events are results of familial ties in succession.
The people in King Lear and Shakespeare’s world were valued by their “worth
and familial ties”(Elden 148) which have everything to do with birth and inheritance. In
Stuart Elden’s “The Geopolitics Of King Lear: Territory, Land, Earth,” he discusses the
way land possession and dowry is handled in King Lear. He argues that King Lear
already knows which daughter will get what land based on their current home and
husband. Albany married to Goneril is in the North near Scotland, Cornwall the South
near Wales and the center section likely intended for Cordelia with whichever suitor she
picks. It becomes clear that Lear already knows exactly how he is going to divvy out land
when he says, “Give me the map there. Know that we have divided/ In three our
kingdom; and tis our fast intent/ To shake all cares and business from our age/ Conferring

6. Kayla Pigeon Pigeon
Dr. Britton
English 787
11 May 2015
6
them on younger strengths” the kingdom has already been divided, the following game is
just a show (King Lear 1.1.35-38). However when Cordelia responds the way she does
Lear overreacts rashly a consequence of familial ties and emotion. Elden argues that this
originally was set up to essentially “buy off the two dukes” in order to be able to govern
the whole kingdom and keep it united (Elden 152). Edmund and Edgar are an interesting
subplot in regard to these issues of land in the play. They are two of the only men besides
Lear who are not named after land and are both in the process of acquiring or being
denied land. Edmund attempts to overthrow the rules of primogeniture, “Legitimate
Edgar I must have your land” (King Lear 2.1.16). Edmund is older but is also a bastard
son and so he is not supposed to inherit. Subsequently he becomes his father’s favorite
through deceit and it eventually costs Gloucester his eyes. This is similar to how Lear is
driven out by his ungrateful daughters, becomes mad and eventually loses the only
daughter who really loved him, Cordelia. Shakespeare is fortifying his argument about
the danger of family in the business of inheritance, this time with a bastard son instead of
younger daughters.
Inheritance is not always a physical tangible thing like land or a crown, it can
simply be the environment a person inherits just by being born into a particular family, an
event, which the individual has no control over. In Miklos Toth’s article “Mechanisms of
Non-Genetic Inheritance and Psychiatric Disorders” he establishes the presence of non-
genetic traits that are inherited from a parent, “ Inheritance is typically associated with
the Mendelian transmission of information from parents to offspring by alleles (DNA
sequence). However, empirical data clearly suggest that traits can be acquired from

7. Kayla Pigeon Pigeon
Dr. Britton
English 787
11 May 2015
7
ancestors by mechanisms that do not involve genetic alleles, referred to as non-genetic
inheritance”(Toth 1). According to Toth these non-genetic inheritances include parental
experience and exposure to certain environments that are not limited from one generation
to another but across multiple generations. Another article entitled “Inheritance is Where
Pysiology Meets Evolution,” by Entienne Danchin and Arnaud Pochevill, takes this
further, “Culture clearly shows that social learning, which constitutes a major process of
development and accommodation, also allows the transmission of key adaptive
information across generations”(Danchin and Pocheville 2309). This scientific
assessment of the influence of surrounding brings weight to the way in which familial ties
can influence not only an individual but also multiple generations. The science of culture
easily replaces the mystical gods as an ominous intangible force, one that cannot be
influenced by a person.
Eugene O’Neill uses these non-genetic inheritances to create the tragedy of Long
Day’s Journey into Night. All of the characters echo each other. An important concept to
grasp is the fact that in a family not only does an individual not have control over the
other members but they also have no say in what family or micro-culture they are born
into. Edmund is a good example of this because he is the representation of O’Neill in this
autobiographical play. Edmund did not choose to be born into a family where the father
was an absent actor with a drinking problem and his mother would hold a grudge against
his brother, for the death of another sibling or where the mother was an addict. None of
these things are Edmunds fault, “He was born nervous and too sensitive and that’s my
fault”(O’Neill 2.2) Mary implies that her mental state while pregnant and after have made

8. Kayla Pigeon Pigeon
Dr. Britton
English 787
11 May 2015
8
Edmund the way he is. Tyrone’s drinking and the general theme of addiction also carries
across the family, both Edmund and Jaime are alcoholics like their father. Tyrone is
blamed for the way that it affects Jaime, “Do you remember what a happy healthy baby
he was, James? The one-night stands and filthy trains and cheap hotels and bad food
never made him cross or sick” (O’Neill 3.1). The culture of the way that the boys were
brought up is what leads to their actions and their tragic situations of suffering. The lack
of control in their fate based on the family that they were born into is what inspires pity
and fear in a modern audience.
In Long Day’s Journey into Night, Eugene O’Neill uses ideas of inheritance to
bring fate within the realm of the family by implying that an individual is a product of
their situation like in Danchin and Pocheville’s article. This however was one not the first
time in fact; Mourning Becomes Electra is considered a precursor to this play. In Miriam
Chirico’s “Moving Fate Into The Family: Tragedy Redefined In O'Neill's Mourning
Becomes Electra,” she defines the way in which O’Neill brings the characters of the
Fates into the family. She begins by quoting a diary of O’Neill where he wonders if it
were, “possible to get [a] modern psychological approximation of the Greek sense of fate
into such a play, which an audience today, possessed in no belief of gods or supernatural
retribution, could accept and be move by.” This quote proves that O’Neill was
consciously thinking about how to relay a tragedy to a modern audience. In order to do
this O’Neill removed almost all mention of the word fate from the play and also the
character of the prophet or seer. O’Neill does something similar in Long Day’s Journey
into Night where there seems to be a separation from the church the family once knew,

9. Kayla Pigeon Pigeon
Dr. Britton
English 787
11 May 2015
9
they no longer attend the Catholic church and Mary no longer lives in the convent. When
Tyrone explains that he has prayed for their mother Edmund responds, “Then Nietzsche
must be right. He quotes from thus Spake Zarathustra. ‘God is dead: of his pity for many
hath God died’”(O’Neill 1.2). The absence of a divine force in the play means that the
blame cannot be placed upon fate. Instead fate has to lie in the family. In order to still
inspire pity and fear however the blame cannot be placed on any single character because
as Kierkegaard said that would not be pitiable. Instead it needs to take shape in the form
of an outer force within the mortal realm. Chirico argues that O’Neill transforms the
Furies (Fates) of Greek tragedy “into Mannon family members that harangue and torture
each other until the point of death”(Chirico 88). This is echoed in Long Day’s Journey
into Night, none of the characters will allow for the others to forget their past, “How can
any one of us forget? Strangely. That’s what makes it so hard-for all of us. We can’t
forget”(O’Neill 1.1). Mary does not allow for her sons to forget about their drinking
problem or for Jaime to live down the fact that he is the reason her other son died as a
baby. She also will not let Tyrone forget about the way in which he is partially to blame
for her addiction by hiring a cheap doctor and their lifestyle because of his profession as
an actor. None of the family members can let Mary forget that she continually
disappoints them by returning to morphine and has attempted suicide. The family
members are sealing each other fates by refusing to let go of the past and continually
applying it to the present, thus they have no escape from their individual fates framed by
their family members and the families micro-culture.

10. Kayla Pigeon Pigeon
Dr. Britton
English 787
11 May 2015
10
Eugene O’Neill is also breaking from his own literary inheritance of what tragedy
is meant to be. In Chirico’s essay she discusses how the portraits of the family’s
ancestors in Mourning Becomes Electra act as a “chorus of omniscient ancestors who
watch silently and incriminate”(Chirico 90). In Long Day’s Journey into Night however,
it is not portraits of ancestors of the Tyrone family but instead a portrait of Shakespeare
that hangs on the wall. His presence has a lot to do with Tyrone’s acting career but it is
also in a way a literary ancestor watching and judging the new form of tragedy being
displayed on the stage below him. The play constantly quotes and is brought into context
with Shakespeare but with distinct difference. In Chris West’s “Tragic Inheritance And
Tragic Expression In Long Day's Journey Into Night” he goes into deep discussion of the
play’s interaction with Shakespeare’s work signifying one of the main differences
between the Shakespearean tragedy and Eugene O’Neill’ as the presence of “an absolute
terminus” in other words an end to the tragedy usually a death (West 24). Eugene
O’Neill’s play does not necessarily end, because Mary has slipped into this state before,
“All we can do is try to be resigned-again”(O’Neill 4.1). Tyrone brings the audiences
attention to this fact and this lack of an end, which is a departure from traditional tragic
form, may even exceed to pity and fear inspired in the audience. Who realize the family
will continually be tortured with no foreseeable resolution. The presence of
Shakespeare’s portrait is a Meta moment, which brings the attention to the real
inheritance of literary form that Eugene O’Neill, is reinventing.
Both Long Day’s Journey Into Night and King Lear are plays that deal with ideas
of inheritance in different ways. In King Lear the beginning of inheritance as a key

11. Kayla Pigeon Pigeon
Dr. Britton
English 787
11 May 2015
11
component in the genre of tragedy are seen, through the importance of the succession of
the throne and the way in which family and familial ties can tragically interfere with that
succession. In Long Day’s Journey into Night, Eugene O’Neill recreates the tragic form
using inheritance as the means by which a character falls. Thus preserving the pity and
fear felt by the audience in a tragedy, by placing the blame on a believable, yet still
uncontrollable force. Tragedy has long been a relatively rigid form with the ideas
presented by Aristotle reigning until recent history, as the proper form of tragedy.
However the modern viewer is less likely to believe in a God or gods governing their fate
like the ancient Greeks and so the pity and fear is lost, unless the form adapts to the
times. The theme of inheritance is an important way in which tragedy has evolved in
order to survive. Without pity and fear there is no tragedy, so the presence of a believable
fate in inheritance, is crucial to the success of tragedy on the modern stage.

12. Kayla Pigeon Pigeon
Dr. Britton
English 787
11 May 2015
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Works Cited
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Chirico, Miriam M. "Moving Fate Into The Family: Tragedy Redefined In O'Neill's
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Cooley, Ronald W. "Kent And Primogeniture In King Lear." SEL Studies In English
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Danchin, Entienne, and Arnaud Pacheville. "Inheritance Is Where Physiology Meets
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Guy, John. The Tudors: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford Paperbacks, 2000.
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13. Kayla Pigeon Pigeon
Dr. Britton
English 787
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Johann P. Sommerville. 1st ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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O’Neill, Eugene. A Long Day’s Journey into Night, New Haven: Yale University
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Toth, Miklos. "Mechanisms of Non-Genetic Inheritance and Psychiatric Disorders."
Neuropsychopharmacology (2014). Neuropsychopharmacology, at the
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