Examination of Modern Leadership
Module 1: Leadership: History, Fundamentals, and the Modern Context
Module 1 content establishes the context for the entire course dedicated to the examination of modern and postmodern leadership. The introduction of critical theory and its use in ORG561 provides a framework for investigation. The context of social, economic, political, and technological environments informs an exploration of modern and postmodern leadership approaches. Emphasis on leader self-awareness sets the stage for reflection, introspection, and personal leadership development.
Learning Outcomes
1. Compare and contrast historical leadership concepts against modern and postmodern organization needs.
2. Analyze leadership approaches using a critical framework.
3. Construct a personal leadership biography.
For Your Success & Readings
A key to success in ORG561 is to start early, build, reflect, reinforce, build, reflect, and reinforce.
Begin each week’s study by reading and comprehending the learning outcomes. Learning outcomes are always revealed in assignments, discussions, and lectures. Likewise, learning outcomes are reflected in rubrics, which are used as objective measures for scoring and grading. Establish the learning outcomes as your checklist for success.
In Module 1 criticaltheory is introduced through the readings, lecture, discussion, and Critical Thinking Assignment. The critical approach provides new frameworks on which to research leadership. You may not be familiar with critical inquiry, so seize the opportunity to advance your analytic skills. You are expected to use one or more critical frames in each module of this course. Take the time this week to fully understand the reasoning and context of critical theory.
Studying the history of leadership requires reading publications from earlier eras. Notice that some of the required and recommended readings for Module 1 are not current publications, but these contribute to understanding the earlier periods of organization and leadership study.
Postmodern leadership literature expounds on the notion that self-awareness is a critical component required to lead. In ORG561, the thread of self-examination is woven throughout the course. You will have opportunities to move beyond reflection to develop a better understanding of personal assumptions and biases, skills and competencies, and professional development plans, all related to leadership. Embrace the opportunity!
Required
· Introduction and Chapters 1 & 2 in Leadership: A Critical Text
· Axley, S. R. (1990). The practical qualities of effective leaders. Industrial Management, 32(5), 29-31.
· Brocato, B., Jelen, J., Schmidt, T., & Gold, S. (2011). Leadership conceptual ambiguities.Journal of Leadership Studies, 5(1), 35-50. doi:10.1002/jls.20203
· Gandolfi, F., & Stone, S. (2016). Clarifying leadership: High-impact leaders in a time of leadership crisis. Revista De Management Comparat International, 17(3), 212-224.
· Blom, M. .
18 Volume 18, Issue 1, March 2017 Review of.docxdrennanmicah
18 Volume 18, Issue 1, March 2017 Review of International Comparative Management
The Emergence of Leadership Styles:
A Clarified Categorization
Franco GANDOLFI1
Seth STONE2
Keywords: leadership, leadership styles, leadership categories, categorization
JEL classification: M12, M14
Introduction
The world is in the midst of a leadership crisis. Despite the fact that there is
a vast body of literature on leadership, it has remained one of the most misunderstood
business phenomena (Gandolfi & Stone, 2016). Thus, it becomes of paramount
importance to understand the consequences, both positive and negative, that emerge
from the various known and validated leadership styles found in modern-day
organizations. Further, it is critical to have metrics in the form of known attributes
of effective leadership to serve as a benchmark for the effectiveness of each
leadership style. A thorough understanding of both the potency and effectiveness of
recognized leadership styles will benefit the academic and professional communities
alike.
Therefore, the purpose of this article is to showcase the different leadership
styles in practice in organizations today and to provide a categorization of existing
leadership styles. A key objective of this research is to compare leadership styles to
a functional and comprehensive working definition of leadership. With this in mind,
1 Dr. Franco GANDOLFI, Georgetown University, Email: [email protected]
2 Dr. Seth STONE, Regent University, Email: [email protected]
Abstract
The study of leadership has become a prominent scholarly and professional focus
in an ever-changing, multi-dimensional globalized world. Despite abundant scientific and
anecdotal work on the effectiveness and potency of “good” leadership, several leadership-
related questions have remained unanswered. For instance, what does good, effective
leadership look like? What is a leadership ‘style’ at its most basic? What leadership styles
are at a leader’s disposal? While leadership may be seen as one of the most over-
researched topics, it remains one of the most misunderstood phenomena of our time
(Gandolfi & Stone, 2016). This conceptual paper addresses the notion of a leadership style
and purports to categorize the ever-increasing pool of leadership styles that emerge both
in scholarly and professional circles. The paper culminates in a graphic depiction of the
categorization of leadership styles based on the scientific work of Lewin, Lippit, and White
(1939).
mailto:[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
Review of International Comparative Management Volume 18, Issue 1, March 2017 19
this work begins with a brief review of a working definition of leadership and the
key empirically researched attributes of effective leaders. The article then provides
a deeper analysis o.
Dwight
Evaluation
Leadership style assessments certainly have a place within the organization. The effectiveness of a leadership style assessment will depend on what type of assessment and what the organizational needs are. Multi-source feedback assessments are supposed to give a 360 degree look at a leader and give the organization a valuable outcome in the evaluation of the leader (MacKie, 2015). Using multi-source feedback assessments can be extremely beneficial as long as the assessment is properly paired with the organizational goals and needs. Assessing a leader from multi perspectives is truly a holistic approach. But, organizations need to recognize that no leadership style assessment is not without its limitations.
Next, the behavior approach is one of four approaches to leadership. Three of which all have weaknesses; traits, skills, and behavior. But the fourth approach to leadership, the situational approach demonstrates the flexibility of a leader (Northouse2016, 2016). In today’s dynamic and complex business environment, flexible leaders bring the most value to an organization. The situational approach allows the leader to apply the other three approaches given the circumstances. As an Army leader I found this approach to be extremely effective while leading in combat and non-combat situations.
Explanation of Usefulness
Of equal importance is the usefulness leadership style assessments and the behavior approach have on an organization. Once an organization has clearly defined the goals and purpose of conducting an assessment, and then subsequently the correct assessment is used, the results will certainly help the organization. In this case, using an assessment to evaluate the benefits of a behavior approach to leadership will allow the organization to determine what needs to be done, how it needs to be done, and how fast it needs to be done (Saxena, 2014). Additionally, the behavior approach (if the relationship behavior is used), can give subordinates the motivation needed to achieve the desired outcome through a better understanding of themselves.
Explanation of Impact
The impact of leadership assessments on an individual can be positive or negative. Again, this directly correlates to the goals and expectations of the organization when the assessment is implemented. For the individual, it could potentially identify strengths and weaknesses. Thus, giving the individual the opportunity to grow and learn from the assessment. Simultaneously, the organization discovers how these strengths and weaknesses fit into the organization’s goals. Once they have identified where and how an individual nest into the organization, a holistic approach to achieving those goals can be developed (Northouse2016, 2016). In comparison, using a behavior approach assessment will yield valuable information about subordinates’ behavior patterns. Which equates to the organization knowing and understanding their employees. Understanding behavio.
CREATIVE SERVANT LEADERSHIP: A NEW WAY OF BEING AND LEADING OTHERSIAEME Publication
The world is crying out for moral, ethical, creative and effective leadership that serves others, invests in their development and fulfills a shared vision. Amongst the many leadership styles the one that best represents the ideals embodied in the human factor (HF) is servant-leadership. Leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an individual and group towards the achievement of a goal. In any given situation creativity and servant leadership have various characteristics in common. Both have attracted attention across world a wide range of professional, educational, and socio-political fields. Creative servant leadership thinking skills and behaviours support a person as a leader.
A Systematic Literature Review of Servant Leadership Theoryi.docxransayo
A Systematic Literature Review of Servant Leadership Theory
in Organizational Contexts
Denise Linda Parris • Jon Welty Peachey
Received: 20 February 2012 / Accepted: 8 April 2012 / Published online: 22 April 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract A new research area linked to ethics, virtues,
and morality is servant leadership. Scholars are currently
seeking publication outlets as critics debate whether this
new leadership theory is significantly distinct, viable, and
valuable for organizational success. The aim of this study
was to identify empirical studies that explored servant
leadership theory by engaging a sample population in order
to assess and synthesize the mechanisms, outcomes, and
impacts of servant leadership. Thus, we sought to provide
an evidence-informed answer to how does servant leader-
ship work, and how can we apply it? We conducted a sys-
tematic literature review (SLR), a methodology adopted
from the medical sciences to synthesize research in a sys-
tematic, transparent, and reproducible manner. A disci-
plined screening process resulted in a final sample
population of 39 appropriate studies. The synthesis of these
empirical studies revealed: (a) there is no consensus on the
definition of servant leadership; (b) servant leadership
theory is being investigated across a variety of contexts,
cultures, and themes; (c) researchers are using multiple
measures to explore servant leadership; and (d) servant
leadership is a viable leadership theory that helps organi-
zations and improves the well-being of followers. This
study contributes to the development of servant leadership
theory and practice. In addition, this study contributes to the
methodology for conducting SLRs in the field of manage-
ment, highlighting an effective method for mapping out
thematically, and viewing holistically, new research topics.
We conclude by offering suggestions for future research.
Keywords Leadership � Leadership theory � Servant
leadership � Systematic literature review
Introduction
Leadership is one of the most comprehensively researched
social influence processes in the behavioral sciences. This is
because the success of all economic, political, and organi-
zational systems depends on the effective and efficient
guidance of the leaders of these systems (Barrow 1977). A
critical factor to understanding the success of an organiza-
tion, then, is to study its leaders. Leadership is a skill used to
influence followers in an organization to work enthusiasti-
cally towards goals specifically identified for the common
good (Barrow 1977; Cyert 2006; Plsek and Wilson 2001).
Great leaders create a vision for an organization, articulate
the vision to the followers, build a shared vision, craft a path
to achieve the vision, and guide their organizations into new
directions (Banutu-Gomez and Banutu-Gomez 2007; Kotter
2001). According to Schneider (1987), the most important
part in build.
18 Volume 18, Issue 1, March 2017 Review of.docxdrennanmicah
18 Volume 18, Issue 1, March 2017 Review of International Comparative Management
The Emergence of Leadership Styles:
A Clarified Categorization
Franco GANDOLFI1
Seth STONE2
Keywords: leadership, leadership styles, leadership categories, categorization
JEL classification: M12, M14
Introduction
The world is in the midst of a leadership crisis. Despite the fact that there is
a vast body of literature on leadership, it has remained one of the most misunderstood
business phenomena (Gandolfi & Stone, 2016). Thus, it becomes of paramount
importance to understand the consequences, both positive and negative, that emerge
from the various known and validated leadership styles found in modern-day
organizations. Further, it is critical to have metrics in the form of known attributes
of effective leadership to serve as a benchmark for the effectiveness of each
leadership style. A thorough understanding of both the potency and effectiveness of
recognized leadership styles will benefit the academic and professional communities
alike.
Therefore, the purpose of this article is to showcase the different leadership
styles in practice in organizations today and to provide a categorization of existing
leadership styles. A key objective of this research is to compare leadership styles to
a functional and comprehensive working definition of leadership. With this in mind,
1 Dr. Franco GANDOLFI, Georgetown University, Email: [email protected]
2 Dr. Seth STONE, Regent University, Email: [email protected]
Abstract
The study of leadership has become a prominent scholarly and professional focus
in an ever-changing, multi-dimensional globalized world. Despite abundant scientific and
anecdotal work on the effectiveness and potency of “good” leadership, several leadership-
related questions have remained unanswered. For instance, what does good, effective
leadership look like? What is a leadership ‘style’ at its most basic? What leadership styles
are at a leader’s disposal? While leadership may be seen as one of the most over-
researched topics, it remains one of the most misunderstood phenomena of our time
(Gandolfi & Stone, 2016). This conceptual paper addresses the notion of a leadership style
and purports to categorize the ever-increasing pool of leadership styles that emerge both
in scholarly and professional circles. The paper culminates in a graphic depiction of the
categorization of leadership styles based on the scientific work of Lewin, Lippit, and White
(1939).
mailto:[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
Review of International Comparative Management Volume 18, Issue 1, March 2017 19
this work begins with a brief review of a working definition of leadership and the
key empirically researched attributes of effective leaders. The article then provides
a deeper analysis o.
Dwight
Evaluation
Leadership style assessments certainly have a place within the organization. The effectiveness of a leadership style assessment will depend on what type of assessment and what the organizational needs are. Multi-source feedback assessments are supposed to give a 360 degree look at a leader and give the organization a valuable outcome in the evaluation of the leader (MacKie, 2015). Using multi-source feedback assessments can be extremely beneficial as long as the assessment is properly paired with the organizational goals and needs. Assessing a leader from multi perspectives is truly a holistic approach. But, organizations need to recognize that no leadership style assessment is not without its limitations.
Next, the behavior approach is one of four approaches to leadership. Three of which all have weaknesses; traits, skills, and behavior. But the fourth approach to leadership, the situational approach demonstrates the flexibility of a leader (Northouse2016, 2016). In today’s dynamic and complex business environment, flexible leaders bring the most value to an organization. The situational approach allows the leader to apply the other three approaches given the circumstances. As an Army leader I found this approach to be extremely effective while leading in combat and non-combat situations.
Explanation of Usefulness
Of equal importance is the usefulness leadership style assessments and the behavior approach have on an organization. Once an organization has clearly defined the goals and purpose of conducting an assessment, and then subsequently the correct assessment is used, the results will certainly help the organization. In this case, using an assessment to evaluate the benefits of a behavior approach to leadership will allow the organization to determine what needs to be done, how it needs to be done, and how fast it needs to be done (Saxena, 2014). Additionally, the behavior approach (if the relationship behavior is used), can give subordinates the motivation needed to achieve the desired outcome through a better understanding of themselves.
Explanation of Impact
The impact of leadership assessments on an individual can be positive or negative. Again, this directly correlates to the goals and expectations of the organization when the assessment is implemented. For the individual, it could potentially identify strengths and weaknesses. Thus, giving the individual the opportunity to grow and learn from the assessment. Simultaneously, the organization discovers how these strengths and weaknesses fit into the organization’s goals. Once they have identified where and how an individual nest into the organization, a holistic approach to achieving those goals can be developed (Northouse2016, 2016). In comparison, using a behavior approach assessment will yield valuable information about subordinates’ behavior patterns. Which equates to the organization knowing and understanding their employees. Understanding behavio.
CREATIVE SERVANT LEADERSHIP: A NEW WAY OF BEING AND LEADING OTHERSIAEME Publication
The world is crying out for moral, ethical, creative and effective leadership that serves others, invests in their development and fulfills a shared vision. Amongst the many leadership styles the one that best represents the ideals embodied in the human factor (HF) is servant-leadership. Leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an individual and group towards the achievement of a goal. In any given situation creativity and servant leadership have various characteristics in common. Both have attracted attention across world a wide range of professional, educational, and socio-political fields. Creative servant leadership thinking skills and behaviours support a person as a leader.
A Systematic Literature Review of Servant Leadership Theoryi.docxransayo
A Systematic Literature Review of Servant Leadership Theory
in Organizational Contexts
Denise Linda Parris • Jon Welty Peachey
Received: 20 February 2012 / Accepted: 8 April 2012 / Published online: 22 April 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract A new research area linked to ethics, virtues,
and morality is servant leadership. Scholars are currently
seeking publication outlets as critics debate whether this
new leadership theory is significantly distinct, viable, and
valuable for organizational success. The aim of this study
was to identify empirical studies that explored servant
leadership theory by engaging a sample population in order
to assess and synthesize the mechanisms, outcomes, and
impacts of servant leadership. Thus, we sought to provide
an evidence-informed answer to how does servant leader-
ship work, and how can we apply it? We conducted a sys-
tematic literature review (SLR), a methodology adopted
from the medical sciences to synthesize research in a sys-
tematic, transparent, and reproducible manner. A disci-
plined screening process resulted in a final sample
population of 39 appropriate studies. The synthesis of these
empirical studies revealed: (a) there is no consensus on the
definition of servant leadership; (b) servant leadership
theory is being investigated across a variety of contexts,
cultures, and themes; (c) researchers are using multiple
measures to explore servant leadership; and (d) servant
leadership is a viable leadership theory that helps organi-
zations and improves the well-being of followers. This
study contributes to the development of servant leadership
theory and practice. In addition, this study contributes to the
methodology for conducting SLRs in the field of manage-
ment, highlighting an effective method for mapping out
thematically, and viewing holistically, new research topics.
We conclude by offering suggestions for future research.
Keywords Leadership � Leadership theory � Servant
leadership � Systematic literature review
Introduction
Leadership is one of the most comprehensively researched
social influence processes in the behavioral sciences. This is
because the success of all economic, political, and organi-
zational systems depends on the effective and efficient
guidance of the leaders of these systems (Barrow 1977). A
critical factor to understanding the success of an organiza-
tion, then, is to study its leaders. Leadership is a skill used to
influence followers in an organization to work enthusiasti-
cally towards goals specifically identified for the common
good (Barrow 1977; Cyert 2006; Plsek and Wilson 2001).
Great leaders create a vision for an organization, articulate
the vision to the followers, build a shared vision, craft a path
to achieve the vision, and guide their organizations into new
directions (Banutu-Gomez and Banutu-Gomez 2007; Kotter
2001). According to Schneider (1987), the most important
part in build.
1. Traditional Approaches to Leaders’ Impact on OrganizationsSTatianaMajor22
1. Traditional Approaches to Leaders’ Impact on Organizations
Scores of research studies are built on the assumption that effective leadership is a key component essential for organizational success. From the battlefield to the boardroom, we are told, wins and losses are determined by decisions and behaviors of those who lead. The plethora of leadership-training programs may be an indicator that many perceive (or even assume) that there is a direct relationship between leaders and organization performance. In The Leadership Gap: Building Capacity for Competitive Advantage, Weiss and Molinaro (2005) established their premise by stating “leadership has become the primary source of competitive advantage in organizations around the world” (p. 4). These authors used case-study methods to reinforce the ideas that organizations’ lack of leadership capacity can be addressed through leadership development.
But both in research and organizations, there are those who challenge the “effective leadership = enhanced performance” supposition (Dihn, Lord, Gardner, Meuser, Liden, & Hu, 2014; Storey, 2010).
LePine, Zhang, Crawford, and Rich (2016) conducted a three-part study to test relationships among charismatic leadership, stress, and performance. Subjects were members of the United States Marine Corps. Findings suggested that charismatic leader behavior negated the negative effects of stressors on performance according to assessments by the leaders or their supervisors. And these authors found that high-level stressors were more positively viewed when charismatic leader behaviors were exhibited. However, the researchers discovered that charismatic leader behavior did not influence how Marines perceived stressors. An underlying assumption in LePine, Zhang, Crawford, and Rich’s (2016) research was that leaders do affect performance. The results, while not conclusive enough to reject the assumption, did open avenues for new dialogue and recommendations for further testing.
Dihn, Lord, Gardner, Meuser, Liden, and Hu (2014) suggested that the preponderance of research on leadership behaviors and traits may have led to assumptions about an overstated influence of the individual. In Module 1 we examined the evolution of leadership approaches from the early modern era to the postmodern era. We know that context—such as environment, capital, and goals—influences organizational design, structure, and management/leadership practices. We learned that a stable organization relies on controls to gain efficiency. Leader-centric thinking was readily accepted in the modern organization. And, research studies were designed around those assumptions, perhaps even reinforcing those assumptions.
More recently, organizations shifted structures, philosophies, and operating procedures to adapt to social, economic, political, and technological pressures. Even so, leadership researchers continued to outpace other scholars who investigated additional variables that might impact org ...
LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENTA REVIEW IN CONTEXTDavid V. Day.docxcroysierkathey
LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT:
A REVIEW IN CONTEXT
David V. Day*
The Pennsylvania State University
Interest in leadership development is strong, especially among practitioners. Nonetheless, there
is conceptual confusion regarding distinctions between leader and leadership development, as
well as disconnection between the practice of leadership development and its scientific foundation.
The present review examines the field of leadership development through three contextual
lenses: (1) understanding the difference between leader development and leadership development
(conceptual context); (2) reviewing how state-of-the-art development is being conducted in the
context of ongoing organizational work (practice context); and (3) summarizing previous research
that has implications for leadership development (research context). The overall purpose is to
bridge the practice and science of leadership development by showing the importance of building
both human and social capital in organizations. Specific practices that are reviewed include 360-
degree feedback and executive coaching, mentoring and networking, and job assignments and
action learning. Practices and research are framed in terms of a general need to link leader
development, which is primarily based on enhancing human capital, with leadership development
that emphasizes the creation of social capital in organizations.
In the traditional organization—the organization of the last one hundred
years—the skeleton or internal structure, was a combination of rank and
power. In the emerging organization, it has to be mutual understanding and
responsibility.
—Peter F. Drucker, Managing in Times of Great Change
Interest in leadership development appears to be at its zenith. One indicator of
this interest is seen in survey results highlighting the increased attention and re-
sources given to leadership development (The Conference Board, 1999). Many
organizations are viewing leadership as a source of competitive advantage and are
investing in its development accordingly (McCall, 1998; Vicere & Fulmer, 1998).
* Direct all correspondence to: David V. Day, Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State
University, University Park, PA 16802; e-mail: [email protected]
Leadership Quarterly, 11(4), 581–613.
Copyright 2001 by Elsevier Science Inc.
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
ISSN: 1048-9843
582 LEADERSHIP QUARTERLY Vol. 11 No. 4 2000
Another indicator of the burgeoning interest in leadership development is the
number of current publications on the topic. One of the most notable offerings is the
Center for Creative Leadership Handbook of Leadership Development (McCauley,
Moxley, & Van Velsor, 1998), which summarizes much of what Center researchers
and trainers have learned about leadership development over the past 30 years. In
addition, there are a number of recently published books and book chapters devoted
to various aspects of leadership development (e.g., Conger & Benjamin, 19 ...
LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENTA REVIEW IN CONTEXTDavid V. Day.docxjeremylockett77
LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT:
A REVIEW IN CONTEXT
David V. Day*
The Pennsylvania State University
Interest in leadership development is strong, especially among practitioners. Nonetheless, there
is conceptual confusion regarding distinctions between leader and leadership development, as
well as disconnection between the practice of leadership development and its scientific foundation.
The present review examines the field of leadership development through three contextual
lenses: (1) understanding the difference between leader development and leadership development
(conceptual context); (2) reviewing how state-of-the-art development is being conducted in the
context of ongoing organizational work (practice context); and (3) summarizing previous research
that has implications for leadership development (research context). The overall purpose is to
bridge the practice and science of leadership development by showing the importance of building
both human and social capital in organizations. Specific practices that are reviewed include 360-
degree feedback and executive coaching, mentoring and networking, and job assignments and
action learning. Practices and research are framed in terms of a general need to link leader
development, which is primarily based on enhancing human capital, with leadership development
that emphasizes the creation of social capital in organizations.
In the traditional organization—the organization of the last one hundred
years—the skeleton or internal structure, was a combination of rank and
power. In the emerging organization, it has to be mutual understanding and
responsibility.
—Peter F. Drucker, Managing in Times of Great Change
Interest in leadership development appears to be at its zenith. One indicator of
this interest is seen in survey results highlighting the increased attention and re-
sources given to leadership development (The Conference Board, 1999). Many
organizations are viewing leadership as a source of competitive advantage and are
investing in its development accordingly (McCall, 1998; Vicere & Fulmer, 1998).
* Direct all correspondence to: David V. Day, Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State
University, University Park, PA 16802; e-mail: [email protected]
Leadership Quarterly, 11(4), 581–613.
Copyright 2001 by Elsevier Science Inc.
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
ISSN: 1048-9843
582 LEADERSHIP QUARTERLY Vol. 11 No. 4 2000
Another indicator of the burgeoning interest in leadership development is the
number of current publications on the topic. One of the most notable offerings is the
Center for Creative Leadership Handbook of Leadership Development (McCauley,
Moxley, & Van Velsor, 1998), which summarizes much of what Center researchers
and trainers have learned about leadership development over the past 30 years. In
addition, there are a number of recently published books and book chapters devoted
to various aspects of leadership development (e.g., Conger & Benjamin, 19.
TRAIT THEORIES Throughout history, strong leaders—Buddha, Napoléon.docxturveycharlyn
TRAIT THEORIES Throughout history, strong leaders—Buddha, Napoléon, Mao, Churchill, Roosevelt, Reagan—have been described in terms of their traits. Trait theories of leadership thus focus on personal qualities and characteristics. We recognize leaders like South Africa’s Nelson Mandela, Virgin Group CEO Richard Branson, Apple co-founder Steve Jobs, and American Express Chairman Ken Chenault as charismatic, enthusiastic, and courageous. The search for personality, social, physical, or intellectual attributes that differentiate leaders from non-leaders goes back to the earliest stages of leadership research. Early research efforts to isolate leadership traits resulted in a number of dead ends. A review in the late 1960s of 20 different studies identified nearly 80 leadership traits, but only five were common to four or more of the investigations. By the 1990s, after numerous studies and analyses, about the best we could say was that most leaders “are not like other people,” but the particular traits that characterized them varied a great deal from review to review. It was a confusing state of affairs. A breakthrough, of sorts, came when researchers began organizing traits around the Big Five personality (ambition and energy are part of extraversion, for instance), giving strong support to traits as predictors of leadership. A comprehensive review of the leadership literature, when organized around the Big Five, has found extraversion to be the most important trait of effective leaders, but it is more strongly related to the way leaders emerge than to their effectiveness. Sociable and dominant people are more likely to assert themselves in group situations, but leaders need to make sure they’re not too assertive—one study found leaders who scored very high on assertiveness were less effective than those who scored moderately high. Unlike agreeableness and emotional stability, conscientiousness and openness to experience also showed strong relationships to leadership, though not quite as strong as extraversion. Overall, the trait approach does have something to offer. Leaders who like being around people and are able to assert themselves (extraverted), who are disciplined and able to keep commitments they make (conscientious), and who are creative and flexible (open) do have an apparent advantage when it comes to leadership, suggesting good leaders do have key traits in common. One reason is that conscientiousness and extraversion are positively related to leaders’ self-efficacy, which explained most of the variance in subordinates’ ratings of leader performance.5 People are more likely to follow someone who is confident she’s going in the right direction. Another trait that may indicate effective leadership is emotional intelligence (EI), discussed in Chapter 4. Advocates of EI argue that without it, a person can have outstanding training, a highly analytical mind, a compelling vision, and an endless supply of terrific ideas but still not make a ...
Write 2–3 pages to support a job application in which you provide yo.docxsleeperfindley
Write 2–3 pages to support a job application in which you provide your definition of leadership, how it can positively impact an organization, and how it's different from management.
In the 21st century, the study of leadership is multidisciplinary, with contributions from the fields of history, philosophy, psychology, political science, business, and education (Northouse, 2007). There are almost as many definitions of
leadership
as there are people who have tried to define it. Although we intuitively know what the word means, it has different meaning for different people. Manning and Curtis (2012) explained, "Leadership is social influence. It means leaving a mark. It is initiating and guiding, and the result is change" (p. 2).
SHOW LESS
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the following course competencies and assessment criteria:
Competency 1: Evaluate the purpose and relevance of leadership.
Develop a definition of leadership.
Explain how leadership can positively impact an organization.
Competency 2: Evaluate how leadership strengths apply in the workplace and within the community.
Explain a strategy to develop leadership skills.
Develop a definition of management.
Explain the differences between leadership and management.
References
Manning, G., & Curtis, K. (2012).
The art of leadership
(4th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Northouse, G. (2007).
Leadership theory and practice
(4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Suggested Resources
The resources provided here are optional. You may use other resources of your choice to prepare for this assessment; however, you will need to ensure that they are appropriate, credible, and valid. The
BUS-FP3012 – Fundamentals of Leadership
Library Guide can help direct your research, and the Supplemental Resources and Research Resources, both linked from the left navigation menu in your courseroom, provide additional resources to help support you.
Multimedia
Click
Three Circles of Effective Leadership
|
Transcript
to watch a presentation based on Blanchard and Zigarmi's
Leadership and the One-Minute Manager
.
Capella University Library Resources
Hopen, D. (2010).
The changing role and practices of successful leaders
.
Journal for Quality and Participation
,
33
(1), 4–9.
NBC Learn Video
NBC News. (2009, September 2).
Portraits of leadership [Video]
. NBC Learn.
This production assembles a collage of iconic leaders, such as Martin Luther King Jr., to illustrate concepts of everyday leadership.
Bookstore Resources
These resources are available from the
Capella University Bookstore
:
Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2017).
The leadership challenge: How to make extraordinary things happen in organizations
(6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Introduction, "Making Extraordinary Things Happen in Organizations."
Chapter 1, "When Leaders Are at Their Best."
Chapter 3, "Clarify Values."
Chap.
PersonalityLeadership LinkageThere is a link between an individ.docxmattjtoni51554
Personality/Leadership Linkage
There is a link between an individual’s personality and the leadership style with which individuals are most comfortable and therefore more likely to use. The connection between personality and leadership style has been well noted by several researchers and leadership specialists (Bass, 2000, 2008; Pillai, Schriesheim, & Williams, 1999; de Charon, 2003).
It is important to understand your natural leadership style…so you can capitalize on your natural leadership strengths (or be aware of and address your natural weaknesses) for your career development, self-fulfillment and success at the workplace.
Journal of Leadership Education Volume 8, Issue 2 – Fall 2009 114
The 16 personality types created by Myers and Briggs (Myers & McCaulley, 1985) and adapted by Keirsey and Bates (1984) are a combination of:
EI (extroversion or introversion)
EI are ways in which people gather energy. E types are people who recharge when they are around people. I types are those who need solitude to re-energize.
SN (sensing or intuition)
S types are those who thrive on facts and Ns are those who tend to make decisions based on hunches.
TF (thinking or feeling)
T types are logical and objective in the decisions they make and Fs are more subjective and take things personally.
PJ (perceiving or judging).
Ps like to keep their options open and Js prefer deadlines.
No type is better than the other. They are all just ways in which we interact with the world and make decisions. Understanding these differences can, however, provide insights.
Being a Leader
Everyone, at some time in life, is asked to be a leader, whether to lead a classroom discussion, coach a children’s soccer team, or direct a fund-raising campaign. Many situations require leadership. A leader may have a high profile (e.g., an elected public official) or a low profile (e.g., a volunteer leader in Big Brothers Big Sisters), but in every situation there are leadership demands placed on the individual who is the leader.
Being a leader is challenging, exciting, and rewarding, and carries with it many responsibilities. This chapter discusses different ways of looking at leadership and their impacts on what it means to be a leader.
DEFINING LEADERSHIP
At the outset, it is important to address a basic question: What is leadership? Scholars who study leadership have struggled with this question for many decades and have written a great deal about the nature of leadership (Antonakis, Cianciolo, & Sternberg, 2004; Bass, 1990; Conger & Riggio, 2007). In leadership literature, more than 100 different definitions of leadership have been identified (Rost, 1991). Despite these many definitions, a number of concepts are recognized by most people as accurately reflecting what it is to be a leader.
INTRODUCTION TO LEADERSHIP
Leadership has long intrigued humankind and has been the topic of extensive literature for centuries. The earliest writings include philosophies of leade.
Understand the framework of leadership effectiveness.
The objectives: To understand Leadership characteristic categories,
scientific research study in leadership and
basic of leadership styles
THE LIVED EXPERIENCE OF THE STRATEGIC LEADER: WHAT EFFECTIVE CEOs DO, HOW THE...Sewells MSXI
Our Sub Saharan South Africa CEO, Dr. George Nyabadza explores the Lived Experience Of A Strategic Leader in his paper published in the Asia Pacific Journal of Business & Management.
Examine how nature is discussed throughout The Open Boat.” Loo.docxcravennichole326
Examine how nature is discussed throughout “The Open Boat.” Look at the literary critical piece by Anthony Channell Hilfer. Once you have established your own ideas, consider how Hilfer discusses nature in the short story and analyze the following questions: What does nature mean to the men aboard the boat? or Do their perceptions of nature shift throughout the story? Why or why not?
Do their perceptions of nature shift throughout the story? Why or why not?
Write down a loose response about what I think of the question and what I remember of the story.
ICE method.
I introduce the citation
C the citation itself
E explain its meaning to your argument.
The scenes shift with no discernable rhyme or reason. Crane invites every reader in. Critic Anthony Channell Hilfer disagrees with point, saying, “Crane’s image is an accusation of the putative picturesque spectators” (Hilfer 254). Hilfer’s challenge goes against what Crane is trying to do, by making nature a copilot through the reading.
3. Nature as Protagonist in “The Open Boat”
Anthony Channell Hilfer
Texas Studies in Literature and Language, Volume 54, Number 2, Summer
2012, pp. 248-257 (Article)
Published by University of Texas Press
DOI:
For additional information about this article
[ Access provided at 9 Apr 2020 17:36 GMT from Marymount University & (Viva) ]
https://doi.org/10.1353/tsl.2012.0012
https://muse.jhu.edu/article/476402
https://doi.org/10.1353/tsl.2012.0012
https://muse.jhu.edu/article/476402
Anthony Channell Hilfer248
3. Nature as Protagonist in “The Open Boat”
The bottom of the sea is cruel.
—Hart Crane, “Voyages”
As many critics have argued, questions of perspective and epistemology are
central to Stephen Crane’s “The Open Boat” (Kent; Hutchinson). The story’s
first sentence famously clues us to this: “None of them knew the color of
the sky” (68). But behind the uncertainties of perspective is a determinable
ontology, a presence, or rather, I shall argue, a sort of presence, the existence
of which implies a rectified aesthetic response. This response emerges, how-
ever, from negations, denials, and occultations: what is not seen, who is not
there, and what does not happen.3 Here again, when we look at nature we
behold things that are not there and miss “the nothing that is.”
Fully as much as Stevens in “The Snow Man,” Crane is concerned
with certain conventions of representation: personification, the pictur-
esque, the American sublime, and the melodramatic, which although it
does not inform “The Snow Man” is played on in Stevens’s “The Ameri-
can Sublime.” Crane’s story is intertextual with nature poetry, sentimental
poetry, hymns, and landscape art, as well as with Darwinism, theological
clichés, and, less obviously, theological actualities. For the most part these
conventions add up to what the Stevens poem declares is “not there.” To
get to “the nothing that is” we must first traverse this ocean of error. Doing
so helps keep our p.
Examine All Children Can Learn. Then, search the web for effec.docxcravennichole326
Examine
"All Children Can Learn"
. Then, search the web for effective, evidence-based differentiated strategies that are engaging, motivating, and address the needs of individual learners.
First, provide five evidence-based strategies:
Two instructional strategies (i.e., graphic organizers),
Two instructional tools (e.g., technology tool, device or iPad App, Web Quests, etc.),
One activity (e.g., Think-Pair-Share).
Second, for the two instructional strategies you listed explain how you can alter each to address the classroom needs you designed in Weeks One and Two and how the modification is relevant to the theory of differentiation.
.
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1. Traditional Approaches to Leaders’ Impact on OrganizationsSTatianaMajor22
1. Traditional Approaches to Leaders’ Impact on Organizations
Scores of research studies are built on the assumption that effective leadership is a key component essential for organizational success. From the battlefield to the boardroom, we are told, wins and losses are determined by decisions and behaviors of those who lead. The plethora of leadership-training programs may be an indicator that many perceive (or even assume) that there is a direct relationship between leaders and organization performance. In The Leadership Gap: Building Capacity for Competitive Advantage, Weiss and Molinaro (2005) established their premise by stating “leadership has become the primary source of competitive advantage in organizations around the world” (p. 4). These authors used case-study methods to reinforce the ideas that organizations’ lack of leadership capacity can be addressed through leadership development.
But both in research and organizations, there are those who challenge the “effective leadership = enhanced performance” supposition (Dihn, Lord, Gardner, Meuser, Liden, & Hu, 2014; Storey, 2010).
LePine, Zhang, Crawford, and Rich (2016) conducted a three-part study to test relationships among charismatic leadership, stress, and performance. Subjects were members of the United States Marine Corps. Findings suggested that charismatic leader behavior negated the negative effects of stressors on performance according to assessments by the leaders or their supervisors. And these authors found that high-level stressors were more positively viewed when charismatic leader behaviors were exhibited. However, the researchers discovered that charismatic leader behavior did not influence how Marines perceived stressors. An underlying assumption in LePine, Zhang, Crawford, and Rich’s (2016) research was that leaders do affect performance. The results, while not conclusive enough to reject the assumption, did open avenues for new dialogue and recommendations for further testing.
Dihn, Lord, Gardner, Meuser, Liden, and Hu (2014) suggested that the preponderance of research on leadership behaviors and traits may have led to assumptions about an overstated influence of the individual. In Module 1 we examined the evolution of leadership approaches from the early modern era to the postmodern era. We know that context—such as environment, capital, and goals—influences organizational design, structure, and management/leadership practices. We learned that a stable organization relies on controls to gain efficiency. Leader-centric thinking was readily accepted in the modern organization. And, research studies were designed around those assumptions, perhaps even reinforcing those assumptions.
More recently, organizations shifted structures, philosophies, and operating procedures to adapt to social, economic, political, and technological pressures. Even so, leadership researchers continued to outpace other scholars who investigated additional variables that might impact org ...
LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENTA REVIEW IN CONTEXTDavid V. Day.docxcroysierkathey
LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT:
A REVIEW IN CONTEXT
David V. Day*
The Pennsylvania State University
Interest in leadership development is strong, especially among practitioners. Nonetheless, there
is conceptual confusion regarding distinctions between leader and leadership development, as
well as disconnection between the practice of leadership development and its scientific foundation.
The present review examines the field of leadership development through three contextual
lenses: (1) understanding the difference between leader development and leadership development
(conceptual context); (2) reviewing how state-of-the-art development is being conducted in the
context of ongoing organizational work (practice context); and (3) summarizing previous research
that has implications for leadership development (research context). The overall purpose is to
bridge the practice and science of leadership development by showing the importance of building
both human and social capital in organizations. Specific practices that are reviewed include 360-
degree feedback and executive coaching, mentoring and networking, and job assignments and
action learning. Practices and research are framed in terms of a general need to link leader
development, which is primarily based on enhancing human capital, with leadership development
that emphasizes the creation of social capital in organizations.
In the traditional organization—the organization of the last one hundred
years—the skeleton or internal structure, was a combination of rank and
power. In the emerging organization, it has to be mutual understanding and
responsibility.
—Peter F. Drucker, Managing in Times of Great Change
Interest in leadership development appears to be at its zenith. One indicator of
this interest is seen in survey results highlighting the increased attention and re-
sources given to leadership development (The Conference Board, 1999). Many
organizations are viewing leadership as a source of competitive advantage and are
investing in its development accordingly (McCall, 1998; Vicere & Fulmer, 1998).
* Direct all correspondence to: David V. Day, Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State
University, University Park, PA 16802; e-mail: [email protected]
Leadership Quarterly, 11(4), 581–613.
Copyright 2001 by Elsevier Science Inc.
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
ISSN: 1048-9843
582 LEADERSHIP QUARTERLY Vol. 11 No. 4 2000
Another indicator of the burgeoning interest in leadership development is the
number of current publications on the topic. One of the most notable offerings is the
Center for Creative Leadership Handbook of Leadership Development (McCauley,
Moxley, & Van Velsor, 1998), which summarizes much of what Center researchers
and trainers have learned about leadership development over the past 30 years. In
addition, there are a number of recently published books and book chapters devoted
to various aspects of leadership development (e.g., Conger & Benjamin, 19 ...
LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENTA REVIEW IN CONTEXTDavid V. Day.docxjeremylockett77
LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT:
A REVIEW IN CONTEXT
David V. Day*
The Pennsylvania State University
Interest in leadership development is strong, especially among practitioners. Nonetheless, there
is conceptual confusion regarding distinctions between leader and leadership development, as
well as disconnection between the practice of leadership development and its scientific foundation.
The present review examines the field of leadership development through three contextual
lenses: (1) understanding the difference between leader development and leadership development
(conceptual context); (2) reviewing how state-of-the-art development is being conducted in the
context of ongoing organizational work (practice context); and (3) summarizing previous research
that has implications for leadership development (research context). The overall purpose is to
bridge the practice and science of leadership development by showing the importance of building
both human and social capital in organizations. Specific practices that are reviewed include 360-
degree feedback and executive coaching, mentoring and networking, and job assignments and
action learning. Practices and research are framed in terms of a general need to link leader
development, which is primarily based on enhancing human capital, with leadership development
that emphasizes the creation of social capital in organizations.
In the traditional organization—the organization of the last one hundred
years—the skeleton or internal structure, was a combination of rank and
power. In the emerging organization, it has to be mutual understanding and
responsibility.
—Peter F. Drucker, Managing in Times of Great Change
Interest in leadership development appears to be at its zenith. One indicator of
this interest is seen in survey results highlighting the increased attention and re-
sources given to leadership development (The Conference Board, 1999). Many
organizations are viewing leadership as a source of competitive advantage and are
investing in its development accordingly (McCall, 1998; Vicere & Fulmer, 1998).
* Direct all correspondence to: David V. Day, Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State
University, University Park, PA 16802; e-mail: [email protected]
Leadership Quarterly, 11(4), 581–613.
Copyright 2001 by Elsevier Science Inc.
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
ISSN: 1048-9843
582 LEADERSHIP QUARTERLY Vol. 11 No. 4 2000
Another indicator of the burgeoning interest in leadership development is the
number of current publications on the topic. One of the most notable offerings is the
Center for Creative Leadership Handbook of Leadership Development (McCauley,
Moxley, & Van Velsor, 1998), which summarizes much of what Center researchers
and trainers have learned about leadership development over the past 30 years. In
addition, there are a number of recently published books and book chapters devoted
to various aspects of leadership development (e.g., Conger & Benjamin, 19.
TRAIT THEORIES Throughout history, strong leaders—Buddha, Napoléon.docxturveycharlyn
TRAIT THEORIES Throughout history, strong leaders—Buddha, Napoléon, Mao, Churchill, Roosevelt, Reagan—have been described in terms of their traits. Trait theories of leadership thus focus on personal qualities and characteristics. We recognize leaders like South Africa’s Nelson Mandela, Virgin Group CEO Richard Branson, Apple co-founder Steve Jobs, and American Express Chairman Ken Chenault as charismatic, enthusiastic, and courageous. The search for personality, social, physical, or intellectual attributes that differentiate leaders from non-leaders goes back to the earliest stages of leadership research. Early research efforts to isolate leadership traits resulted in a number of dead ends. A review in the late 1960s of 20 different studies identified nearly 80 leadership traits, but only five were common to four or more of the investigations. By the 1990s, after numerous studies and analyses, about the best we could say was that most leaders “are not like other people,” but the particular traits that characterized them varied a great deal from review to review. It was a confusing state of affairs. A breakthrough, of sorts, came when researchers began organizing traits around the Big Five personality (ambition and energy are part of extraversion, for instance), giving strong support to traits as predictors of leadership. A comprehensive review of the leadership literature, when organized around the Big Five, has found extraversion to be the most important trait of effective leaders, but it is more strongly related to the way leaders emerge than to their effectiveness. Sociable and dominant people are more likely to assert themselves in group situations, but leaders need to make sure they’re not too assertive—one study found leaders who scored very high on assertiveness were less effective than those who scored moderately high. Unlike agreeableness and emotional stability, conscientiousness and openness to experience also showed strong relationships to leadership, though not quite as strong as extraversion. Overall, the trait approach does have something to offer. Leaders who like being around people and are able to assert themselves (extraverted), who are disciplined and able to keep commitments they make (conscientious), and who are creative and flexible (open) do have an apparent advantage when it comes to leadership, suggesting good leaders do have key traits in common. One reason is that conscientiousness and extraversion are positively related to leaders’ self-efficacy, which explained most of the variance in subordinates’ ratings of leader performance.5 People are more likely to follow someone who is confident she’s going in the right direction. Another trait that may indicate effective leadership is emotional intelligence (EI), discussed in Chapter 4. Advocates of EI argue that without it, a person can have outstanding training, a highly analytical mind, a compelling vision, and an endless supply of terrific ideas but still not make a ...
Write 2–3 pages to support a job application in which you provide yo.docxsleeperfindley
Write 2–3 pages to support a job application in which you provide your definition of leadership, how it can positively impact an organization, and how it's different from management.
In the 21st century, the study of leadership is multidisciplinary, with contributions from the fields of history, philosophy, psychology, political science, business, and education (Northouse, 2007). There are almost as many definitions of
leadership
as there are people who have tried to define it. Although we intuitively know what the word means, it has different meaning for different people. Manning and Curtis (2012) explained, "Leadership is social influence. It means leaving a mark. It is initiating and guiding, and the result is change" (p. 2).
SHOW LESS
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the following course competencies and assessment criteria:
Competency 1: Evaluate the purpose and relevance of leadership.
Develop a definition of leadership.
Explain how leadership can positively impact an organization.
Competency 2: Evaluate how leadership strengths apply in the workplace and within the community.
Explain a strategy to develop leadership skills.
Develop a definition of management.
Explain the differences between leadership and management.
References
Manning, G., & Curtis, K. (2012).
The art of leadership
(4th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Northouse, G. (2007).
Leadership theory and practice
(4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Suggested Resources
The resources provided here are optional. You may use other resources of your choice to prepare for this assessment; however, you will need to ensure that they are appropriate, credible, and valid. The
BUS-FP3012 – Fundamentals of Leadership
Library Guide can help direct your research, and the Supplemental Resources and Research Resources, both linked from the left navigation menu in your courseroom, provide additional resources to help support you.
Multimedia
Click
Three Circles of Effective Leadership
|
Transcript
to watch a presentation based on Blanchard and Zigarmi's
Leadership and the One-Minute Manager
.
Capella University Library Resources
Hopen, D. (2010).
The changing role and practices of successful leaders
.
Journal for Quality and Participation
,
33
(1), 4–9.
NBC Learn Video
NBC News. (2009, September 2).
Portraits of leadership [Video]
. NBC Learn.
This production assembles a collage of iconic leaders, such as Martin Luther King Jr., to illustrate concepts of everyday leadership.
Bookstore Resources
These resources are available from the
Capella University Bookstore
:
Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2017).
The leadership challenge: How to make extraordinary things happen in organizations
(6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Introduction, "Making Extraordinary Things Happen in Organizations."
Chapter 1, "When Leaders Are at Their Best."
Chapter 3, "Clarify Values."
Chap.
PersonalityLeadership LinkageThere is a link between an individ.docxmattjtoni51554
Personality/Leadership Linkage
There is a link between an individual’s personality and the leadership style with which individuals are most comfortable and therefore more likely to use. The connection between personality and leadership style has been well noted by several researchers and leadership specialists (Bass, 2000, 2008; Pillai, Schriesheim, & Williams, 1999; de Charon, 2003).
It is important to understand your natural leadership style…so you can capitalize on your natural leadership strengths (or be aware of and address your natural weaknesses) for your career development, self-fulfillment and success at the workplace.
Journal of Leadership Education Volume 8, Issue 2 – Fall 2009 114
The 16 personality types created by Myers and Briggs (Myers & McCaulley, 1985) and adapted by Keirsey and Bates (1984) are a combination of:
EI (extroversion or introversion)
EI are ways in which people gather energy. E types are people who recharge when they are around people. I types are those who need solitude to re-energize.
SN (sensing or intuition)
S types are those who thrive on facts and Ns are those who tend to make decisions based on hunches.
TF (thinking or feeling)
T types are logical and objective in the decisions they make and Fs are more subjective and take things personally.
PJ (perceiving or judging).
Ps like to keep their options open and Js prefer deadlines.
No type is better than the other. They are all just ways in which we interact with the world and make decisions. Understanding these differences can, however, provide insights.
Being a Leader
Everyone, at some time in life, is asked to be a leader, whether to lead a classroom discussion, coach a children’s soccer team, or direct a fund-raising campaign. Many situations require leadership. A leader may have a high profile (e.g., an elected public official) or a low profile (e.g., a volunteer leader in Big Brothers Big Sisters), but in every situation there are leadership demands placed on the individual who is the leader.
Being a leader is challenging, exciting, and rewarding, and carries with it many responsibilities. This chapter discusses different ways of looking at leadership and their impacts on what it means to be a leader.
DEFINING LEADERSHIP
At the outset, it is important to address a basic question: What is leadership? Scholars who study leadership have struggled with this question for many decades and have written a great deal about the nature of leadership (Antonakis, Cianciolo, & Sternberg, 2004; Bass, 1990; Conger & Riggio, 2007). In leadership literature, more than 100 different definitions of leadership have been identified (Rost, 1991). Despite these many definitions, a number of concepts are recognized by most people as accurately reflecting what it is to be a leader.
INTRODUCTION TO LEADERSHIP
Leadership has long intrigued humankind and has been the topic of extensive literature for centuries. The earliest writings include philosophies of leade.
Understand the framework of leadership effectiveness.
The objectives: To understand Leadership characteristic categories,
scientific research study in leadership and
basic of leadership styles
THE LIVED EXPERIENCE OF THE STRATEGIC LEADER: WHAT EFFECTIVE CEOs DO, HOW THE...Sewells MSXI
Our Sub Saharan South Africa CEO, Dr. George Nyabadza explores the Lived Experience Of A Strategic Leader in his paper published in the Asia Pacific Journal of Business & Management.
Similar to Examination of Modern LeadershipModule 1 Leadership History, F.docx (20)
Examine how nature is discussed throughout The Open Boat.” Loo.docxcravennichole326
Examine how nature is discussed throughout “The Open Boat.” Look at the literary critical piece by Anthony Channell Hilfer. Once you have established your own ideas, consider how Hilfer discusses nature in the short story and analyze the following questions: What does nature mean to the men aboard the boat? or Do their perceptions of nature shift throughout the story? Why or why not?
Do their perceptions of nature shift throughout the story? Why or why not?
Write down a loose response about what I think of the question and what I remember of the story.
ICE method.
I introduce the citation
C the citation itself
E explain its meaning to your argument.
The scenes shift with no discernable rhyme or reason. Crane invites every reader in. Critic Anthony Channell Hilfer disagrees with point, saying, “Crane’s image is an accusation of the putative picturesque spectators” (Hilfer 254). Hilfer’s challenge goes against what Crane is trying to do, by making nature a copilot through the reading.
3. Nature as Protagonist in “The Open Boat”
Anthony Channell Hilfer
Texas Studies in Literature and Language, Volume 54, Number 2, Summer
2012, pp. 248-257 (Article)
Published by University of Texas Press
DOI:
For additional information about this article
[ Access provided at 9 Apr 2020 17:36 GMT from Marymount University & (Viva) ]
https://doi.org/10.1353/tsl.2012.0012
https://muse.jhu.edu/article/476402
https://doi.org/10.1353/tsl.2012.0012
https://muse.jhu.edu/article/476402
Anthony Channell Hilfer248
3. Nature as Protagonist in “The Open Boat”
The bottom of the sea is cruel.
—Hart Crane, “Voyages”
As many critics have argued, questions of perspective and epistemology are
central to Stephen Crane’s “The Open Boat” (Kent; Hutchinson). The story’s
first sentence famously clues us to this: “None of them knew the color of
the sky” (68). But behind the uncertainties of perspective is a determinable
ontology, a presence, or rather, I shall argue, a sort of presence, the existence
of which implies a rectified aesthetic response. This response emerges, how-
ever, from negations, denials, and occultations: what is not seen, who is not
there, and what does not happen.3 Here again, when we look at nature we
behold things that are not there and miss “the nothing that is.”
Fully as much as Stevens in “The Snow Man,” Crane is concerned
with certain conventions of representation: personification, the pictur-
esque, the American sublime, and the melodramatic, which although it
does not inform “The Snow Man” is played on in Stevens’s “The Ameri-
can Sublime.” Crane’s story is intertextual with nature poetry, sentimental
poetry, hymns, and landscape art, as well as with Darwinism, theological
clichés, and, less obviously, theological actualities. For the most part these
conventions add up to what the Stevens poem declares is “not there.” To
get to “the nothing that is” we must first traverse this ocean of error. Doing
so helps keep our p.
Examine All Children Can Learn. Then, search the web for effec.docxcravennichole326
Examine
"All Children Can Learn"
. Then, search the web for effective, evidence-based differentiated strategies that are engaging, motivating, and address the needs of individual learners.
First, provide five evidence-based strategies:
Two instructional strategies (i.e., graphic organizers),
Two instructional tools (e.g., technology tool, device or iPad App, Web Quests, etc.),
One activity (e.g., Think-Pair-Share).
Second, for the two instructional strategies you listed explain how you can alter each to address the classroom needs you designed in Weeks One and Two and how the modification is relevant to the theory of differentiation.
.
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Examine each of these items, which are available on the internet:
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2) For art, find Giovanni Bellini's ST. FRANCIS IN THE DESERT; you might want to read up on the background of this wonderful painting. Not only St. Francis, but what else do you notice i the painting?
3) For architecture, look at the church at Melk Abbey, Austria; BE SURE to look at the interior shots. Again,
this is high Baroque--but in post-Reformation Catholicism, it had a political aim, too; can you figure it out?
After you have analyzed these, telling what you think the artists/musicians valued and were trying to express, tell me what
YOU think about them! Remember, if you read up on these items, LIST THE WORKS YOU CONSULTED! That way, you avoid plagiarism.
write a 1-page paper on each of these three, telling 1) where they found this value, 2) why it was important “back then,” and 3) is it still around today.
.
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Examine a scenario that includes an inter-group conflict. In this sc.docxcravennichole326
Examine a scenario that includes an inter-group conflict. In this scenario, you are recognized as an authority in cross-cultural psychology and asked to serve as a consultant to help resolve the conflict. You will be asked to write up your recommendations in a 6-page paper not including your title and reference page.
Darley, J.M. & Latané, B. (1968). Bystander interview in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8
(4), 377-383.
Scenario: Culture, Psychology, and Community
Imagine an international organization has approached you to help resolve an inter-group conflict. You are an authority in cross-cultural psychology and have been asked to serve as a consultant based on a recent violent conflict involving a refugee community in your town and a local community organization. In the days, weeks, and months leading up to the violent conflict, there were incidents of discrimination and debates regarding the different views and practices people held about work, family, schools, and religious practice. Among the controversies has been the role of women’s participation in political, educational, and community groups
.
Part 1: Developing an Understanding
(2 pages)
Based on the scenario, explain how you can help integrate the two diverse communities so that there is increased understanding and appreciation of each group by the other group. (
Note
: Make sure to include in your explanation the different views and practices of cultural groups as well as the role of women.)
Based on your knowledge of culture and psychology, provide three possible suggestions/solutions that will help the community as a whole. In your suggestions make sure to include an explanation regarding group think and individualism vs. collectivism.
Part 2: Socio-Emotional, Cognitive, and Behavioral Aspects
(2 pages)
Based on your explanations in Part 1, how do your suggestions/solutions impact the socio-emotional, cognitive, and behavior aspects of the scenario and why?
Part 3: Gender, Cultural Values and Dimensions, and Group Dynamics
(2 pages)
Explain the impact of gender, cultural values and dimensions, and group dynamics in the scenario.
Further explain any implications that may arise from when working between and within groups.
Support your Assignment by citing all resources in APA style, including those in the Learning Resources.
.
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Examine a current law, or a bill proposing a law, that has to do with technology and criminal activity. The law can be at the state or federal level. Identify the law or bill, where it comes from, and its purpose or intent. Next, identify positive outcomes if the law is successful. Finally, identify at least two unintended consequences that the law could bring about. . . DUE 4/18, 2021
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Exam IT 505
Multiple Choice (20 questions , 2 points each)
Please Submit a word document of your exam. Please DO NOT repeat the questions. Only submit your answers for example 1.A, 2. B……Ect
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A. high data rate B. high-speed interface
C. distributed access D. extended distance
2. Problems with using a single Local Area Network (LAN) to interconnect devices
on a premise include:
A. insufficient reliability, limited capacity, and inappropriate network
interconnection devices
B. insufficient reliability, limited capacity, and limited distances
C. insufficient reliability, limited distances, and inappropriate network
interconnection devices
D. limited distances, limited capacity, and inappropriate network
interconnection devices
3. Which of following is NOT one of the designs that determines data rate and
distance?
A. the number of senders B. the number of receivers
C. transmission impairment D. bandwidth
4. The fact that signal strength falls off with distance is called ________________.
A. bandwidth B. attenuation
C. resistance D. propagation
5. Which of the following is NOT one of the distinguishing characteristics for optical
fiber cables compared with twisted pair or coaxial cables?
A. greater capacity B. lower attenuation
C. electromagnetic isolation D. heavier weight
6.________ is a set of function and call programs that allow clients and servers to intercommunicate.
A. IaaS B. SQL C. API D. Middleware
7. A computer that houses information for manipulation by networked clients is a __________.
A. server B. minicomputer C. PaaS D. broker
8. ________ is software that improves connectivity between a client application and a server.
A. SQL B. API C. Middleware D. SAP
9. The inability of frame relay to do hop by hop error control is offset by:
A. its gigabit speeds B. its high overhead
C. the extensive use of in-band signaling D. the increasing reliability of networks
10. All Frame Relay nodes contain which of the following protocols?
A. LAPB B. LAPD
C. LAPF Core D. LAPF Control
11. The technique employed by Frame Relay is called __________.
A. inband signaling B. outband signaling
C. common channel signaling D. open shortest path first routing
12. In ATM, the basic transmission unit is the ________.
A. frame B. cell
C. packet D. segment
13. When using ATM, which of the following is NOT one of the advantages for the
use of virtual paths?
A. less work is needed to set a virtual path
B. the network architecture is simplified
C.
EXAM
Estructura 8.1 - Miniprueba A
Verbos
Complete the chart with the correct verb forms.
infinitivo
seguir
(1) [removed]
yo
(2) [removed]
morí
tú
seguiste
(3) [removed]
nosotras
seguimos
(4) [removed]
ellos
(5) [removed]
murieron
Completar
Fill in the blanks with the correct preterite forms of the verbs in parentheses.
Diego y Javier [removed] (conseguir) un mapa.
Esta mañana usted [removed] (despedirse) de los estudiantes.
Tú [removed] (sentirse) mal ayer.
La semana pasada yo no [removed] (dormir) bien.
Amparo [removed] (preferir) comer en casa.
Oraciones
Write sentences using the information provided. Use the preterite and make any necessary changes.
Modelo
Edgar / preferir / pollo asado
Edgar prefirió el pollo asado.
Álvaro y yo / servir / los entremeses
[removed]
¿quién / repetir / las instrucciones?
[removed]
ayer / yo / despedirse / de / mis sobrinos
[removed]
ustedes / dormirse / a las diez
[removed]
La cena
Fill in the blanks with the preterite form of the appropriate verbs from the list. Four verbs will not be used.
abrir
conseguir
escoger
leer
mirar
pedir
preferir
probar
repetir
sentirse
servir
vestirse
Anoche Jorge, Iván y yo salimos a cenar a Mi Tierra, un restaurante guatemalteco. Nosotros
(1) [removed]
este lugar porque Jorge
(2) [removed]
una reseña (
review
) en Internet que decía (
said
) que la comida es auténtica y muy sabrosa. No es un restaurante elegante; entonces nosotros
(3) [removed]
de bluejeans. De verdad, en Mi Tierra mis amigos y yo
(4) [removed]
como (
like
) en casa. El camarero que nos
(5) [removed]
fue muy amable. Para empezar, Jorge e Iván
(6) [removed]
tamales, pero yo
(7) [removed]
esperar el plato principal: carne de res con arroz y frijoles. Comimos tanto (
so much
) que no
(8) [removed]
nada de postre (
dessert
). ¡Fue una cena deliciosa!
.
Examine current practice guidelines related to suicide screeni.docxcravennichole326
Examine current practice guidelines related to suicide screening and prevention and how they could pertain to John.
Choose two of the following questions to answer as part of your initial post.
What events in John's life created a "downward spiral" into homelessness and hopelessness? Which events were related to social needs, mental health needs, and medical needs, and which could health care have addressed?
What were some of the barriers John faced in accessing medical care and mental health care?
How does homelessness and mental illness intersect? Do you believe homelessness may develop because of a mental health issue, or do you believe those who become homeless eventually sink into psychological despair?
The tipping point for many people who live at the margins of society may be things that could have been managed given the right support. How can your role as an APRN help identify, alleviate, or support those who are in need like John?
In your own experience, have you encountered a homeless individual? What was that like? Do you recall what you were thinking?
Please include at least three scholarly sources within your initial post.
Rubric:
Discussion Question Rubric
Note:
Scholarly resources are defined as evidence-based practice, peer-reviewed journals; textbook (do not rely solely on your textbook as a reference); and National Standard Guidelines. Review assignment instructions, as this will provide any additional requirements that are not specifically listed on the rubric.
Discussion Question Rubric – 100 PointsCriteriaExemplary
Exceeds ExpectationsAdvanced
Meets ExpectationsIntermediate
Needs ImprovementNovice
InadequateTotal PointsQuality of Initial PostProvides clear examples supported by course content and references.
Cites three or more references, using at least one new scholarly resource that was not provided in the course materials.
All instruction requirements noted.
40 points
Components are accurate and thoroughly represented, with explanations and application of knowledge to include evidence-based practice, ethics, theory, and/or role. Synthesizes course content using course materials and scholarly resources to support importantpoints.
Meets all requirements within the discussion instructions.
Cites two references.
35 points
Components are accurate and mostly represented primarily with definitions and summarization. Ideas may be overstated, with minimal contribution to the subject matter. Minimal application to evidence-based practice, theory, or role development. Synthesis of course content is present but missing depth and/or development.
Is missing one component/requirement of the discussion instructions.
Cites one reference, or references do not clearly support content.
Most instruction requirements are noted.
31 points
Absent application to evidence-based practice, theory, or role development. Synthesis of course content is superficial.
Demonstrates incomplete understandin.
Examine Case Study Pakistani Woman with Delusional Thought Processe.docxcravennichole326
Examine Case Study: Pakistani Woman with Delusional Thought Processes.
You will be asked to make three decisions concerning the medication to prescribe to this client. Be sure to consider factors that might impact the client’s pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic processes.
At each decision point stop to complete the following:
Decision #1
Which decision did you select?
Why did you select this decision? Support your response with evidence and references to the Learning Resources.
What were you hoping to achieve by making this decision? Support your response with evidence and references to the Learning Resources.
Explain any difference between what you expected to achieve with Decision #1 and the results of the decision. Why were they different?
Decision #2
Why did you select this decision? Support your response with evidence and references to the Learning Resources.
What were you hoping to achieve by making this decision? Support your response with evidence and references to the Learning Resources.
Explain any difference between what you expected to achieve with Decision #2 and the results of the decision. Why were they different?
Decision #3
Why did you select this decision? Support your response with evidence and references to the Learning Resources.
What were you hoping to achieve by making this decision? Support your response with evidence and references to the Learning Resources.
Explain any difference between what you expected to achieve with Decision #3 and the results of the decision. Why were they different?
Also include how ethical considerations might impact your treatment plan and communication with clients.
BACKGROUND
The client is a 34-year-old Pakistani female who moved to the United States in her late teens/early 20s. She is currently in an “arranged” marriage (her husband was selected for her since she was 9 years old). She presents to your office today following a 21 day hospitalization for what was diagnosed as “brief psychotic disorder.” She was given this diagnosis as her symptoms have persisted for less than 1 month.
Prior to admission, she was reporting visions of Allah, and over the course of a week, she believed that she was the prophet Mohammad. She believed that she would deliver the world from sin. Her husband became concerned about her behavior to the point that he was afraid of leaving their 4 children with her. One evening, she was “out of control” which resulted in his calling the police and her subsequent admission to an inpatient psych unit.
During today’s assessment, she appears quite calm, and insists that the entire incident was “blown out of proportion.” She denies that she believed herself to be the prophet Mohammad and states that her husband was just out to get her because he never loved her and wanted an “American wife” instead of her. She tells you that she knows this because the television is telling her so.
She currently weighs .
Examine current international OB issues that challenge organizat.docxcravennichole326
Examine current international OB issues that challenge organizational leaders to resolve critical issues involving cross-cultural communication, negotiation, leadership, motivation, decision-making, among others.
(1) identify the key organizational behavior issues facing management,
(2) what impact the international environment has on these issues,
(3) strategies management should use to overcome these issues,
(4) how these strategies will impact the overall organizational operations, and
(5) identify the potential costs and risks to the organizations of implementing the newly developed strategies.
Offer a set of recommendations, which must be derived from both data and theory. Teams must include aspects of global leadership, global motivation and global team-management in their work.
APA format, Times New Roman (12), 20-25 pages, No plagiarism.
.
Executive Program Practical Connection Assignment .docxcravennichole326
Executive Program Practical Connection Assignment
Component Proficient (15 to 20 points) Competent (8 to 14 points) Novice (1 to 7 points) Score
Assignment
Requirements
Student completed all required
portions of the assignment
Completed portions of the
assignment
Did not complete the required
assignment.
Writing Skills,
Grammar, and APA
Formatting
Assignment strongly demonstrates
graduate-level proficiency in
organization, grammar, and style.
Assignment is well written, and ideas
are well developed and explained.
Demonstrates strong writing skills.
Student paid close attention to spelling
and punctuation. Sentences and
paragraphs are grammatically correct.
Proper use of APA formatting. Properly
and explicitly cited outside resources.
Reference list matches citations.
Assignment demonstrates graduate-
level proficiency in organization,
grammar, and style.
Assignment is effectively
communicated, but some sections
lacking clarity. Student paid some
attention to spelling and
punctuation, but there are errors
within the writing. Needs attention
to proper writing skills.
Use of APA formatting and citations
of outside resources, but has a few
instances in which proper citations
are missing.
Assignment does not demonstrate
graduate-level proficiency in
organization, grammar, and style.
Assignment is poorly written and
confusing. Ideas are not
communicated effectively. Student
paid no attention to spelling and
punctuation. Demonstrates poor
writing skills.
The assignment lacks the use of APA
formatting and does not provide
proper citations or includes no
citations.
Maintains
purpose/focus
Submission is well organized and has a
tight and cohesive focus that is
integrated throughout the document
Submissions has an organizational
structure and the focus is clear
throughout.
Submission lacks focus or contains
major drifts in focus
Understanding of
Course Content
Student demonstrates understand of
course content and knowledge.
Student demonstrates some
understanding of course content
and knowledge.
Student does not demonstrate
understanding of course content and
knowledge.
Work Environment
Application
Student strongly demonstrates the
practical application, or ability to apply,
of course objectives within a work
environment.
Student demonstrates some
practical application, or ability to
apply, of course objectives within a
work environment.
Student does not demonstrate the
practical application, or ability to
apply, of course objectives within a
work environment.
Executive Program Practical Connection Assignment
At UC, it is a priority that students are provided with strong educational programs and courses that
allow them to be servant-leaders in their disciplines and communities, linking research with practice and
kn.
Executive Program Practical Connection Assignment Component .docxcravennichole326
Executive Program Practical Connection Assignment
Component
Proficient (15 to 20 points)
Competent (8 to 14 points)
Novice (1 to 7 points)
Score
Assignment Requirements
Student completed all required portions of the assignment
Completed portions of the assignment
Did not complete the required assignment.
Writing Skills, Grammar, and APA Formatting
Assignment strongly demonstrates graduate-level proficiency in organization, grammar, and style.
Assignment is well written, and ideas are well developed and explained. Demonstrates strong writing skills. Student paid close attention to spelling and punctuation. Sentences and paragraphs are grammatically correct.
Proper use of APA formatting. Properly and explicitly cited outside resources. Reference list matches citations.
Assignment demonstrates graduate-level proficiency in organization, grammar, and style.
Assignment is effectively communicated, but some sections lacking clarity. Student paid some attention to spelling and punctuation, but there are errors within the writing. Needs attention to proper writing skills.
Use of APA formatting and citations of outside resources, but has a few instances in which proper citations are missing.
Assignment does not demonstrate graduate-level proficiency in organization, grammar, and style.
Assignment is poorly written and confusing. Ideas are not communicated effectively. Student paid no attention to spelling and punctuation. Demonstrates poor writing skills.
The assignment lacks the use of APA formatting and does not provide proper citations or includes no citations.
Maintains purpose/focus
Submission is well organized and has a tight and cohesive focus that is integrated throughout the document
Submissions has an organizational structure and the focus is clear throughout.
Submission lacks focus or contains major drifts in focus
Understanding of Course Content
Student demonstrates understand of course content and knowledge.
Student demonstrates some understanding of course content and knowledge.
Student does not demonstrate understanding of course content and knowledge.
Work Environment Application
Student strongly demonstrates the practical application, or ability to apply, of course objectives within a work environment.
Student demonstrates some practical application, or ability to apply, of course objectives within a work environment.
Student does not demonstrate the practical application, or ability to apply, of course objectives within a work environment.
.
Executive Program Group Project Assignment Component Profi.docxcravennichole326
Executive Program Group Project Assignment
Component
Proficient (15 to 20 points)
Competent (8 to 14 points)
Novice (1 to 7 points)
Score
Assignment Requirements
Student completed all required portions of the assignment
Completed portions of the assignment
Did not complete the required assignment.
Writing Skills, Grammar, and APA Formatting
Assignment strongly demonstrates graduate-level proficiency in organization, grammar, and style.
Assignment is well written, and ideas are well developed and explained. Demonstrates strong writing skills. Student paid close attention to spelling and punctuation. Sentences and paragraphs are grammatically correct.
Proper use of APA formatting. Properly and explicitly cited outside resources. Reference list matches citations.
Assignment demonstrates graduate-level proficiency in organization, grammar, and style.
Assignment is effectively communicated, but some sections lacking clarity. Student paid some attention to spelling and punctuation, but there are errors within the writing. Needs attention to proper writing skills.
Use of APA formatting and citations of outside resources, but has a few instances in which proper citations are missing.
Assignment does not demonstrate graduate-level proficiency in organization, grammar, and style.
Assignment is poorly written and confusing. Ideas are not communicated effectively. Student paid no attention to spelling and punctuation. Demonstrates poor writing skills.
The assignment lacks the use of APA formatting and does not provide proper citations or includes no citations.
Maintains purpose/focus
Submission is well organized and has a tight and cohesive focus that is integrated throughout the document
Submissions has an organizational structure and the focus is clear throughout.
Submission lacks focus or contains major drifts in focus
Understanding of Course Content
Student demonstrates understand of course content and knowledge.
Student demonstrates some understanding of course content and knowledge.
Student does not demonstrate understanding of course content and knowledge.
Work Environment Application
Student strongly demonstrates the practical application, or ability to apply, of course objectives within a work environment.
Student demonstrates some practical application, or ability to apply, of course objectives within a work environment.
Student does not demonstrate the practical application, or ability to apply, of course objectives within a work environment.
Criteria Excellent Satisfactory Less than Satisfactory Not Completed
Log
Completion
4 points
Food logs are
complete with detailed
food/beverage items
3 points
Food logs are
complete but lack
some detail on
food/beverage items
(3 pts)
2 points
Food logs are
complete are missing
substantial detail on
food/beverage items
0 points
Student did not
complete this
component of the
project.
/ 4
Por.
Executive Practical Connection Activityit is a priority that stu.docxcravennichole326
Executive Practical Connection Activity
it is a priority that students are provided with strong educational programs and courses that allow them to be servant-leaders in their disciplines and communities, linking research with practice and knowledge with ethical decision-making. This assignment is a written assignment where students will demonstrate how this course research has connected and put into practice within their own career.
Assignment:
Provide a reflection of at least 500 words (or 2 pages double spaced) of how the knowledge, skills, or theories of this course have been applied, or could be applied, in a practical manner to your current work environment. If you are not currently working, share times when you have or could observe these theories and knowledge could be applied to an employment opportunity in your field of study.
Requirements:
· Provide a 500 word (or 2 pages double spaced) minimum reflection.
· Use of proper APA formatting and citations. If supporting evidence from outside resources is used those must be properly cited.
· Share a personal connection that identifies specific knowledge and theories from this course.
· Demonstrate a connection to your current work environment. If you are not employed, demonstrate a connection to your desired work environment.
· You should NOT, provide an overview of the assignments assigned in the course. The assignment asks that you reflect how the knowledge and skills obtained through meeting course objectives were applied or could be applied in the workplace.
MY ROLE: BIGDATA/KAFKA ADMIN
Need Plagiarism report for this Assignement.
****Directions
Choose from one of the following tweets and answer the 4 questions, Include at least one scholarly source***** The link is included in each tweet for more information.
1. Identify a healthcare issue within your community and explain the issue to your class colleagues. (You may use the same issue you identified in Week 2, but please expand your responses to address this week's focus).
2. Describe the type of healthcare policy you would advocate for in an effort to change this issue.
3. What type of campaign would you need to launch in order to gather a network of support?
4. Compose a Tweet that describes what you have shared with your class colleagues. Remember, Twitter only allows for 140 characters so you will need to be concise.
1. NR708HealthPol Retweeted
Tara Heagele, PhD, RN, PCCN, EMT@TaraHeagele
#NurseTwitter Hurricane season starts today! Helping Vulnerable People Before Disasters Strike | Campaign for Action https://campaignforaction.org/helping-vulnerable-people-before-disasters-strike/#.XtUB00-UAZ4.twitter …
Helping Vulnerable People Before Disasters Strike | Campaign for Action
Floods, tornadoes, heat waves, blizzards, earthquakes, and hurricanes threaten the health and well-being of millions of people each year
campaignforaction.org
13h
·
·
2. NR708HealthPol Retweeted
Diana Mason@djmasonrn
By @AmyAnderso.
Executive FunctionThe Search for an Integrated AccountMari.docxcravennichole326
Executive Function
The Search for an Integrated Account
Marie T. Banich
Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, and Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado at Boulder;
Department of Psychiatry, University of Colorado Denver
ABSTRACT—In general, executive function can be thought
of as the set of abilities required to effortfully guide be-
havior toward a goal, especially in nonroutine situations.
Psychologists are interested in expanding the under-
standing of executive function because it is thought to be a
key process in intelligent behavior, it is compromised in a
variety of psychiatric and neurological disorders, it varies
across the life span, and it affects performance in compli-
cated environments, such as the cockpits of advanced
aircraft. This article provides a brief introduction to the
concept of executive function and discusses how it is
assessed and the conditions under which it is compromised.
A short overview of the diverse theoretical viewpoints re-
garding its psychological and biological underpinnings is
also provided. The article concludes with a consideration
of how a multilevel approach may provide a more inte-
grated account of executive function than has been previ-
ously available.
KEYWORDS—executive function; frontal lobe; prefrontal
cortex; inhibition; task switching; working memory; atten-
tion; top-down control
Like other psychological constructs, such as memory, executive
function is multidimensional. As such, there exists a variety of
models that provide varying viewpoints as to its basic component
processes. Nonetheless, common across most of them is the idea
that executive function is a process used to effortfully guide
behavior toward a goal, especially in nonroutine situations.
Various functions or abilities are thought to fall under the rubric
of executive function. These include prioritizing and sequencing
behavior, inhibiting familiar or stereotyped behaviors, creating
and maintaining an idea of what task or information is most
relevant for current purposes (often referred to as an attentional
or mental set), providing resistance to information that is dis-
tracting or task irrelevant, switching between task goals, uti-
lizing relevant information in support of decision making,
categorizing or otherwise abstracting common elements across
items, and handling novel information or situations. As can be
seen from this list, the functions that fall under the category of
executive function are indeed wide ranging.
ASSESSING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION
The very nature of executive function makes it difficult to
measure in the clinic or the laboratory; it involves an individual
guiding his or her behavior, especially in novel, unstructured,
and nonroutine situations that require some degree of judgment.
In contrast, standard testing situations are structured—partic-
ipants are explicitly told what the task is, given rules for per-
forming the task, and provide.
Executive Compensation and IncentivesMartin J. ConyonEx.docxcravennichole326
Executive Compensation and Incentives
Martin J. Conyon*
Executive Overview
The objective of a properly designed executive compensation package is to attract, retain, and motivate
CEOs and senior management. The standard economic approach for understanding executive pay is the
principal-agent model. This paper documents the changes in executive pay and incentives in U.S. firms
between 1993 and 2003. We consider reasons for these transformations, including agency theory, changes
in the managerial labor markets, shifts in firm strategy, and theories concerning managerial power. We show that
boards and compensation committees have become more independent over time. In addition, we demonstrate
that compensation committees containing affiliated directors do not set greater pay or fewer incentives.
Introduction
E
xecutive compensation is a complex and con-
troversial subject. For many years, academics,
policymakers, and the media have drawn atten-
tion to the high levels of pay awarded to U.S.
chief executive officers (CEOs), questioning
whether they are consistent with shareholder in-
terests.1 Some academics have further argued that
flaws in CEO pay arrangements and deviations
from shareholders’ interests are widespread and
considerable.2 For example, Lucian Bebchuk and
Jesse Fried provide a lucid account of the mana-
gerial power view and accompanying evidence.3
Marianne Bertrand and Sendhil Mullainathan too
provide an analysis of the ‘skimming view’ of CEO
pay.4 In contrast, John Core et al. present an
economic contracting approach to executive pay
and incentives, assessing whether CEOs receive
inefficient pay without performance.5 In this pa-
per, we show what has happened to CEO pay in
the United States. We do not claim to distinguish
between the contracting and managerial power
views of executive pay. Instead, we document the
pattern of executive pay and incentives in the
United States, investigating whether this pattern
is consistent with economic theory.
The Context: Who Sets Executive Pay?
B
efore examining the empirical evidence pre-
sented in this paper, it is important to consider
the pay-setting process and who sets executive
pay. The standard economic theory of executive
compensation is the principal-agent model.6 The
theory maintains that firms seek to design the most
efficient compensation packages possible in order to
attract, retain, and motivate CEOs, executives, and
managers.7 In the agency model, shareholders set
pay. In practice, however, the compensation com-
mittee of the board determines pay on behalf of
shareholders. A principal (shareholder) designs a
contract and makes an offer to an agent (CEO/
manager). Executive compensation ameliorates a
moral hazard problem (i.e., manager opportunism)
arising from low firm ownership. By using stock
options, restricted stock, and long-term contracts,
shareholders motivate the CEO to maximize firm
value. In other words, shareholders try to design
optimal compensation packages .
Executing the StrategyLearning ObjectivesAfter reading.docxcravennichole326
Executing the Strategy
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Distinguish good operational plans from weak ones.
• Detail the value of tracking progress on all operational plans.
• Discuss why emergent strategies occur and how they might affect an organization’s
current strategy.
• Implement the ten basic steps of a generic strategic formulation process.
• Manage, improve, and evaluate an existing strategic management process.
Chapter 9
Neil Webb/Ikon Images/Getty Images
spa81202_09_c09.indd 247 1/16/14 10:08 AM
CHAPTER 9Section 9.1 Managing Operational Plans
Implementing a strategy (see Figure 1.1) in the real world is not a leisurely swim across
a calm pond on a sunny day, but rather like crossing from one bank of a raging river to
the other, encountering hidden eddies, fog, driving rain, lightning, and riptides along the
way. While it is not impossible to reach the other bank (the goal), the task often becomes
one of overcoming obstacles and making constant adjustments without losing sight of the
goal. Implementation is like that. Even the most brilliant strategy is worthless if it cannot
be implemented.
This chapter focuses on strategy execution and its difficulties. Part of the chapter is devoted
to assessing, improving, and managing the strategy formulation process itself.
9.1 Managing Operational Plans
The process for obtaining board approval of operational plans is covered in this chapter.
Exactly what is it that gets approved? An operational plan is a document that specifies the
projects or tasks that must be accomplished to achieve particular operational objectives.
Many of these plans will contain activities that are ongoing. Some will include plans for
enhanced or new services. Details specified in operational plans include the names of those
who will be involved and the indi-
vidual responsible for each one, what
equipment will be needed, when each
will start and end, and the estimated
costs for each activity. Given the level
of detail required, it should come as
no surprise that an operational plan
for a large functional unit, such as the
nursing department in a hospital, can
run to many pages, as there are lots of
activities to be detailed. Operational
plans for small HSOs such as physi-
cian clinics and community health
centers may be just a few pages long
unless new strategic initiatives are to
be undertaken.
It takes contributions from everyone
who will be involved in that HSO’s
operations to create such plans. They
will make sure that continuing cur-
rent operations are included in the plans, which is easily done. What adds a level of com-
plexity and difficulty is incorporating additional tasks demanded by a change in strategy.
Consider the following scenarios, which illustrate the difficulty in creating operational
plans that involve more than simply repeating what was done the previous year:
Javier Larrea/age fotostock/Getty Ima.
Executing Strategies in a Global Environment Examining the Case of .docxcravennichole326
Executing Strategies in a Global Environment: Examining the Case of Federal Express 5-7 pages
Requirements:
1.
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Discuss how the social growth and development in infancy are related to the development of the five senses (hearing, sight, taste, smell, and touch) and speech. [300 word count, 2 References, 2 Citations, Original Academic Writing only]
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Analyze the significant developments of each substage in Piaget’s stage of Sensorimotor development; explain in terms of object permanence and imitation. Contrast these with information-processing perspectives. [300 word count, 2 References, 2 Citations, Original Academic Writing only]
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The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
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Overview on Edible Vaccine: Pros & Cons with Mechanism
Examination of Modern LeadershipModule 1 Leadership History, F.docx
1. Examination of Modern Leadership
Module 1: Leadership: History, Fundamentals, and the Modern
Context
Module 1 content establishes the context for the entire course
dedicated to the examination of modern and postmodern
leadership. The introduction of critical theory and its use in
ORG561 provides a framework for investigation. The context of
social, economic, political, and technological environments
informs an exploration of modern and postmodern leadership
approaches. Emphasis on leader self-awareness sets the stage
for reflection, introspection, and personal leadership
development.
Learning Outcomes
1. Compare and contrast historical leadership concepts against
modern and postmodern organization needs.
2. Analyze leadership approaches using a critical framework.
3. Construct a personal leadership biography.
For Your Success & Readings
A key to success in ORG561 is to start early, build, reflect,
reinforce, build, reflect, and reinforce.
Begin each week’s study by reading and comprehending
the learning outcomes. Learning outcomes are always revealed
in assignments, discussions, and lectures. Likewise, learning
outcomes are reflected in rubrics, which are used as objective
measures for scoring and grading. Establish the learning
outcomes as your checklist for success.
In Module 1 criticaltheory is introduced through the readings,
lecture, discussion, and Critical Thinking Assignment. The
critical approach provides new frameworks on which to research
leadership. You may not be familiar with critical inquiry, so
seize the opportunity to advance your analytic skills. You are
expected to use one or more critical frames in each module of
this course. Take the time this week to fully understand the
reasoning and context of critical theory.
2. Studying the history of leadership requires reading publications
from earlier eras. Notice that some of the required and
recommended readings for Module 1 are not current
publications, but these contribute to understanding the earlier
periods of organization and leadership study.
Postmodern leadership literature expounds on the notion
that self-awareness is a critical component required to lead. In
ORG561, the thread of self-examination is woven throughout
the course. You will have opportunities to move beyond
reflection to develop a better understanding of personal
assumptions and biases, skills and competencies, and
professional development plans, all related to leadership.
Embrace the opportunity!
Required
· Introduction and Chapters 1 & 2 in Leadership: A Critical
Text
· Axley, S. R. (1990). The practical qualities of effective
leaders. Industrial Management, 32(5), 29-31.
· Brocato, B., Jelen, J., Schmidt, T., & Gold, S.
(2011). Leadership conceptual ambiguities.Journal of
Leadership Studies, 5(1), 35-50. doi:10.1002/jls.20203
· Gandolfi, F., & Stone, S. (2016). Clarifying leadership: High-
impact leaders in a time of leadership crisis. Revista De
Management Comparat International, 17(3), 212-224.
· Blom, M. (2016). Leadership studies – A Scandinavian
inspired way forward? Scandinavian Journal of Management,
32(2), 106-111. Retrieved from, https://www-sciencedirect-
com.csuglobal.idm.oclc.org/science/article/pii/S0956522116300
215 .
· Kooskora, M., & Piigli, M. (2015). Discussion of the
leadership profile of female top executives. Journal of
Management & Change, 34/35(1/2), 107-122.
· Mumford, E. (1906, September). The origins of
leadership. American Journal of Sociology 12(2) 216-240.
Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2762385.
· Parker, M. (1992). Post-modern organizations or postmodern
3. organization theory? Organization Studies, 13(1), 001-17.
Recommended
· Cheng, B. S., Chou, L. F., Wu, T. Y., Huang, M. P., & Farh, J.
L. (2004). Paternalistic leadership and subordinate responses:
Establishing a leadership model in Chinese organizations. Asian
Journal of Social Psychology, 7(1), 89-117.
· Joplin, J. R., & Daus, C. S. (1997). Challenges of leading a
diverse workforce. Academy of Management Executive, 11(3),
32-47. doi:10.5465/AME.1997.9709231662
· Snaebjornsson, I. M., & Vaiciukynaite, E. (2016). Emotion
contagion in leadership: Followercentric approach.Business and
Economic Horizons, 12(2), 53-62.
· Ulrich, D. (2015). Leadership capital index. [n.p.]: Berrett-
Koehler Publishers.
. A Critical Investigation of Leadership
From early childhood we learn about leaders—and that they are
meant to be followed. Simple active games, such as follow the
leader or movie song lyrics from the likes of Peter
Pan (click here and read the first two stanzas) begin to frame
our references and perceptions about meaning, purpose, and
actions of leaders. Children learn that leaders are to be followed
and extolled for their virtues. Becoming a leader, many of us
might deduce, carries a notion of supremacy, and children move
into adulthood with those early assumptions about leadership.
But after more than a century of scientific research on the topic,
we know that the term leadership has different meanings and
evokes emotional responses based on circumstances, situations,
and personal beliefs. Snaebjornsson and Vaiciukynaite (2016),
for example, pointed out that leadership is studied more than
other management fields. So what happens between the time
that children follow the leader and that time when they grow up
and face the complexity of leadership and the question they
once thought they understood?
Likely, some of the confusion about terminology comes from
language used and concept development during youth. With
4. expanding experiences, adult perceptions change and our
childhood beliefs do not match the reality of the way
organizations work and attempt to survive. Click through each
item for examples of how the term leadership might be
considered by different people in varying roles in organizations.
Leadership: Interpretations of Term
· Leadership as group
· Leadership as individual
· Leadership as influence
For leadership scholars, even the reasoning behind the
examination is unsettled. Zehndorfer (2014) offered
explanations for why leadership study is important and
suggested that leadership study reduces organizational risk by
using history to inform decisions and to avoid mistakes. But
Zehndorfer also questioned how leadership success can be
measured.
Northhouse (as cited in Snaebjornsson & Vaiciukynaite, 2016,
p. 54) offered a structure for study by identifying four common
elements found in most leadership studies:
Snaebjornsson and Vaiciukynaite (2016) advised that numerous
definitions and theories present many options for research
approaches—and so many choices, the authors contended,
compound the difficulty of agreeing on common standards,
which makes comparing results and finding commonalities even
tougher.
With no common definition or structure—or even conceptual
agreement on leadership or how leaders lead—scholars and
organizational managers are wise to continue to probe for
answers. To simply accept theories, principles, and concepts
based on the latest leadership studies results in trends, altered
practices, and fads that may or may not be effective. There may
be no guiding star to understanding the definition of leadership,
but there are rational methods to help mitigate the risk to
organizations.
5. For the purposes of ORG561: Examination of Modern
Leadership, in-depth analysis is the core of discovery.
Using critical theory (CT) to ground the investigation, we
explore leadership taking a critical approach in an attempt to
challenge assumptions about the role of the leader and
leadership’s practical application in the modern organization
(Western, 2013). Content in Table 1 below displays two
common approaches to using critical theory in leadership
research.
Table 1
Two approaches for using critical theory in leadership research
Critical Theoretical Approaches to Study Leadership
1. To examine the less obvious and deeper leadership theories
and practices in the name of attaining organizational goals.
Or
2. To rethink and reinvent leadership through new discoveries
in the attempt to build a better society.
Adapted from Western, 2013
Authors such as Western (2013) and Snaebjornsson and
Vaiciukynaite (2016) posited that scholars and managers must
move beyond their biases to improve organizations. Critiquing
common assumptions and beliefs about leadership is at the heart
of critical theory, as noted above. A relatively small but
growing number of scholars have adopted critical management
studies (CMS) as an approach to study leadership and
management in organizations and work (Western, 2013).
To conduct critical analysis, Western purported that frameworks
may be used to provide a structure for research. As we move
forward in this course to examine leadership, recall that
Western (2013) proposed a four-frame structure for critical
inquiry—see Table 2, below. This framework will be revisited
throughout the course in lectures, discussions, and assignments;
study the contents thoroughly.
Table 2
Summary of critical frameworks
6. Western, 2013, pp. 22-23
Any of the four frames described in Table 2, above,may be used
to conduct critical investigation. Of special note is that Western
(2013) indicated a preference for the emancipation
analysis frame illustrated in Table 2. Zehndorfer (2014), in the
book Leadership: A critical introduction, uses a combination of
frames such as depth analysis and network analysis to reveal the
importance of key theory deconstruction and personal self-
discovery as means for advancing knowledge. And, by
introducing a new concept, emotion contagion, to study
leadership, Snaebjornsson and Vaiciukynaite (2016) may have
used the frame of looking awry to identify alternatives.
2. Modern Leadership: From the Historical to the Present
Leadership in History
Much has been written about the origin and evolution of
leadership. Documentation in ancient times suggested that our
childhood notions of follow the leader, as described earlier in
this lecture, were supported by such philosophers
as Aristotle and Plato. Observe also that many historical
examples of leadership pertained to war and battles, suggesting
heroism and grandeur.
In ancient times and especially in some cultures, leaders were
expected to motivate and inspire as depicted in the following
quote:
A leader is best when people barely know he exists, when the
work is done, they will say: we did it ourselves.Lao Tzu,
Chinese philosopher
Thoughts about leadership were widely documented in the form
of drama, letters, pictures, and public oratory. From multiple
forms of communication, scholars were able to classify
discourses and authors in time. A brief overview of early,
predominant leadership discourses are presented in Table 3
below.
Table 3
Leadership discourses: A historical perspective
7. Higgs, 2003, p. 275
In ORG561, modern discourses are studied in depth in later
modules. Here, data displayed in Table 3 established the
progression of leadership thought as influenced by social,
political, and economic conditions.
Historically, the terms leader and leadership are most noticeably
associated with successful outcomes. This hasn’t always been
the case, however. Throughout history, there have been leaders
who were exposed as deceptive, as in the case of the 37th
president of the United States, Richard Nixon. In the United
States, the president is considered the national political leader;
Nixon resigned in the wake of public outcry against illegal and
covert acts associated with political scandal. Other leaders such
as Adolf Hitler managed to lead and inspire even while
conducting mass genocide. The dichotomy between the label or
term of leader and deceptive or destructive practices seems
incongruous to many. The idea that leadership can be associated
with the “dark side” of human behavior has been studied by
researchers such as Kiazad, Restubog, Zagenczyk, Kiewitz, and
Tang (2010).
Leadership History in ORG561
For purposes of ORG561, the historical context of leadership is
limited to the 20th century and the relationship of leadership to
organizations. Articles by Axley (1990); Black (1990);
Mumford (1906); and Hunter and Bedell-Avers; and Mumford
(2007) [required readings] provide a snapshot into traditional
thinking about leadership.
Mumford (1906), for example, explained leadership origins in
the context of sociology. Mumford suggested the research
purpose was not to identify the fundamental principles of
leadership, but rather to provide grounding for further
investigation. Social science focuses on associations among
living organisms, and leadership is explored by searching for
characteristics that are similar or different between one
association and another, according to Mumford. Even at this
8. early stage of leadership research, assumptions were put forth
that served as guideposts for other scholars. Early assumptions
about leadership were described as functions by Mumford. That
is, leadership occurred:
· within every stage of the social process
· within social interests of individuals and groups and the
combinations of both.
Over time, assumptions about leadership changed when more
academic fields became engaged in leadership study.
Disciplines such as behavioral psychology, social psychology,
political science, and, later, neuroscience are examples of
branches of learning that advanced the study of leadership. In
later modules, we’ll take a closer look at research methods
associated with some of these disciplines.
Leadership Approaches
For purposes of ORG561, we will examine leadership from
many different angles, with the major emphasis on leadership in
the context of contemporary organizations loosely defined as
post-World War II. Within that time span, modern and
postmodern organization thought was developing.
In Module 3, leadership theories are discussed against the
backdrop of modern and postmodern organizations. In Module
3, leadership theories are discussed against the backdrop of
modern and postmodern organizations. These variables greatly
influenced the movement of leadership study over time. These
variables greatly influenced the movement of leadership study
over time.
Prior to the turn of the 21st century, leadership was often
explained according to different approaches to
leadership. Approaches are sometimes labeled as styles,
combining traits with approaches. Examining leadership
approaches offers a way to test knowledge and assumptions
against our individual experiences. Following, in Table 4, are
examples of often-cited leadership approaches with which you
may be familiar. Take the time to think about when and where
you might have encountered some of these examples in your
9. reading and real-world experiences.
Table 4
Modern leadership-approach examples with overviews
Individualist
A common reference to focus on the individual in a leader
capacity.
The basis of leadership-development programs.
Much research on traits and behaviors of the individual.
Contingency
In response to the simplistic view of common leadership
characteristics and traits.
Suggests organizational situations require specific types of
leaders.
Addresses social context.
Paternalistic
In response to leadership approaches from Western scholars.
Adopts cultural norms, e.g., from China and East Asia.
Combines authority with discipline, benevolence, and personal
virtues.
Authoritarian
Emphasis is on command and control. Structure, rules, and
policies are valuable contributors.
Often studied in context of organizational performance: tactical
vs contextual.
Note: Approach examples were randomly selected for
illustration purposes only.
Cheng, Chou, Wu, Huang, & Farh, 2004; Eagly, Johannesen-
Schmidt, & Van Engen, 2003; Kiazad, Restubog, Zagenczyk,
Kiewitz, & Tang, 2010; Mumford, 1906; and Western, 2013).
The approaches described in Table 4, above, may be scrutinized
in relationship to the business environment. For example, the
business environment in the 1950s was one of rapid industrial
growth. Management expectations centered on control and
efficiency. Thus, an authoritarian leadership approach was
common and valued by investors. Look for specific instances of
how contextual variables influenced organizational leadership
10. approaches to reinforce comprehension. In that context, Table 4
provides examples of modern and postmodern leadership
approaches that are representative of more recent thinking.
Table 5
Postmodern leadership approach examples with overviews
Authentic
In response to corporate scandals. Emphasis on moral character
and self-awareness.
Authenticity of followers included. Transparency of
information. Some distinctions associated with components of
transformational leadership.
Value-based
In response to perceived ethical and moral deficiencies in
leaders. Values at the center of decision making for individual,
organization, community, and greater social good.
Public organizations emphasized but not limited to those. Have
a strong sense of purpose and make values actionable.
Post-heroic
Built around shared and collaborative leadership. In contrast to
earlier “hero” approach, which is construed as masculine. Seen
as aligned with more feminized approach.
More empowering. Relinquishes control.
Egalitarian
In response to shifts from function- to process-driven
organizations. Intended to promote collaboration and decrease
resistance.
Shared decision making. Empowerment.
Hoch, Bommer, Dulebohn, & Wu, 2016; Iqbal, Nadeem &
Zaheer, 2015; Parush & Koivunen, 2014; van Niekerk & Botha,
2017).
Check your understanding of the concepts before moving on to
the next portion of this lecture.
3. The Leader in You
To grasp the significance of you in the study of modern
leadership, recallthe table Overview of Modern and Post-
modern Time-frame and Characteristics. As organizations were
11. challenged to respond to social, political, economic, and
technological changes leading up to the turn of the 21st century,
transformation required effective leadership to meet new
organizational needs in postmodern times.
As we learned in Module 1, postmodern leadership approaches
have yet to be developed around a single definition or standard.
However, a common element emerges in postmodern leadership
literature: the call for leaders to possess an understanding
of self. Many terms—such as self-assessment, self-reflection,
self-realization, and self-awareness—were used to make the
case that to be effective postmodern leaders, we must embrace a
willingness and ability to reveal ourselves (Gandolfi & Stone,
2016; Higgs, 2003; Rubens, Leah, & Schoenfeld, 2016 ; Shamir
& Eilam, 2005).
Gandolfi and Stone (2016) suggested that emotional
intelligence is associated with understanding personal
behaviors. For purposes of ORG561, we’ll use the term self-
knowledge as an overarching label representing the ideas of
self.
Social psychologists have developed multitudes of tools to
expand self-knowledge. A simple internet keyword search of
“leadership self-assessment” in 2017 produced more than four
million results. And most high schools and colleges administer
self-assessment instruments. The CSU-Global Career
Center provides leadership self-assessment resources.
Tested, alternative techniques to expand leadership self-
knowledge originated from educational research. Five such
techniques are highlighted here and include:
· Personal interpretation of leadership
· Locate yourself
· Life story
· Leadership metaphor
· Leadership biography
Let’s look at each of these in more depth.
· Personal Interpretation of Leadership
· Locate Yourself
12. · Life Story
· Leadership Metaphor
· Leadership Biography
Leadership Approach and Assumption
Biographical Explanation
Feminized leadership approach
Characterized by feminine rather than masculine ways of
leading. Relies on experiences of equal treatment and self-
confidence
I grew up in Iowa, which at the time was one of only three
states in the nation offering interscholastic sports for girls.
Playing high school sports provided rich opportunities to
experience teamwork and the power of competition. In my small
rural town, people of the community valued both girls’ and
boys‘ sports’ teams equally.
As a summary of this lecture, review the following video.
Consider how leadership approaches, critical thinking, and self-
knowledge might be characterized in the leadership lessons
here.
Video: How to Start a Movement
DOI: 10.1126/science.1251688
, 1280 (2014);344 Science
et al.Andrés Moreno-Estrada
and affects biomedical traits
The genetics of Mexico recapitulates Native American
substructure
This copy is for your personal, non-commercial use only.
clicking here.colleagues, clients, or customers by
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13. distribute this article to others
here.following the guidelines
can be obtained byPermission to republish or repurpose articles
or portions of articles
): October 14, 2014 www.sciencemag.org (this information is
current as of
The following resources related to this article are available
online at
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/344/6189/1280.full.html
version of this article at:
including high-resolution figures, can be found in the
onlineUpdated information and services,
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/suppl/2014/06/11/344.6189.
1280.DC2.html
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can be found at: Supporting Online Material
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can berelated to this article A list of selected additional articles
on the Science Web sites
14. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/344/6189/1280.full.html#ref
-list-1
, 13 of which can be accessed free:cites 60 articlesThis article
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/collection/genetics
Genetics
subject collections:This article appears in the following
registered trademark of AAAS.
is aScience2014 by the American Association for the
Advancement of Science; all rights reserved. The title
CopyrightAmerican Association for the Advancement of
Science, 1200 New York Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20005.
(print ISSN 0036-8075; online ISSN 1095-9203) is published
weekly, except the last week in December, by theScience
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26. Alejandra V. Contreras,
3
Victor Acuña-Alonzo,
4,5
Karla Sandoval,
1
Celeste Eng,
6
Sandra Romero-Hidalgo,
3
Patricia Ortiz-Tello,
1
Victoria Robles,
1
Eimear E. Kenny,
1
§ Ismael Nuño-Arana,
7
Rodrigo Barquera-Lozano,
4
Gastón Macín-Pérez,
4
Julio Granados-Arriola,
8
27. Scott Huntsman,
6
Joshua M. Galanter,
6,9
Marc Via,
6
|| Jean G. Ford,
10
Rocío Chapela,
11
William Rodriguez-Cintron,
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Jose R. Rodríguez-Santana,
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Isabelle Romieu,
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Juan José Sienra-Monge,
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Blanca del Rio Navarro,
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Stephanie J. London,
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Andrés Ruiz-Linares,
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29. Mexico harbors great cultural and ethnic diversity, yet fine-
scale patterns of human
genome-wide variation from this region remain largely
uncharacterized. We studied
genomic variation within Mexico from over 1000 individuals
representing 20 indigenous
and 11 mestizo populations. We found striking genetic
stratification among indigenous
populations within Mexico at varying degrees of geographic
isolation. Some groups were as
differentiated as Europeans are from East Asians. Pre-
Columbian genetic substructure is
recapitulated in the indigenous ancestry of admixed mestizo
individuals across the
country. Furthermore, two independently phenotyped cohorts of
Mexicans and Mexican
Americans showed a significant association between
subcontinental ancestry and lung
function. Thus, accounting for fine-scale ancestry patterns is
critical for medical and
population genetic studies within Mexico, in Mexican-descent
populations, and likely in
many other populations worldwide.
U
30. nderstanding patterns of human popula-
tion structure, where regional surveys are
key for delineating geographically restricted
variation, is important for the design and
interpretation of medical genetic studies.
In particular, we expect rare genetic variants,
including functionally relevant sites, to exhibit
little sharing among diverged populations (1).
Native Americans display the lowest genetic
diversity of any continental group, but there is
high divergence among subpopulations (2). As
a result, present-day American indigenous pop-
ulations (and individuals with indigenous an-
cestry) may harbor local private alleles rare or
absent elsewhere, including functional and med-
ically relevant variants (3, 4). Mexico serves as
an important focal point for such analyses, be-
cause it harbors one of the largest sources of
31. pre-Columbian diversity and has a long history
of complex civilizations with varying contribu-
tions to the present-day population.
Previous estimates of Native Mexican genetic
diversity examined single loci or were limited to
a reduced number of populations or small sam-
ple sizes (5–8). We examined local patterns of
variation from nearly 1 million genome-wide
autosomal single-nucleotode polymorphisms
(SNPs) for 511 Native Mexican individuals from
20 indigenous groups, covering most geographic
regions across Mexico (table S1). Standard prin-
cipal components analysis (PCA) summarizes
the major axes of genetic variation in the data
set [see (9)]. Whereas PC1 and PC2 separate
Africans and Europeans from Native Mexicans,
PC3 differentiates indigenous populations with-
in Mexico, following a clear northwest-southeast
32. cline (Fig. 1A). A total of 0.89% of the variation
is explained by PC3, nearly three times as much
as the variation accounted for by the north-south
axis of differentiation within Europe [0.30%, in
(10)]. The northernmost (Seri) and southern-
most (Lacandon) populations define the extremes
of the distribution, with very clear clustering
of individuals by population, indicating high
levels of divergence among groups (fig. S1).
Seri and Lacandon show the highest level of
population differentiation as measured with
Wright’s fixation index FST (0.136, Fig. 1B and
table S4), higher than the FST between Euro-
peans and Chinese populations in HapMap3
(0.11) (11). Other populations within Mexico
also show extreme FST values; for example, the
Huichol and Tojolabal have a pairwise FST of
0.068, similar to that observed between the
33. Gujarati Indians and the Chinese in HapMap3
(0.076).
The high degree of differentiation between
populations measured by FST argues that these
populations have experienced high degrees of
isolation. Indeed, when autozygosity is inferred
using runs of homozygosity (ROH), all popula-
tions on average have long homozygous tracts,
with the Huichol, Lacandon, and Seri all having
on average over 10% of the genome in ROH [figs.
S2 and S3 (9)]. These populations are relatively
small, increasing the effects of genetic drift and
driving some of the high FST values. In contrast,
the Mayan and Nahuan populations have much
smaller proportions of the genome in ROH, con-
sistent with ROH levels found in Near Eastern
populations in HGDP (12). These populations
are the descendants of large Mesoamerican ci-
34. vilizations, and concordant with large historical
populations, have relatively low proportions of
ROH. The high degree of variance in ROH among
populations is an additional indicator of popu-
lation substructure and suggests a large variance
in historical population sizes. Comparing the ob-
served ROH patterns to those derived from coa-
lescent simulations, we find that Native American
groups within Mexico are characterized by small
effective population sizes under a model with a
strong bottleneck, in agreement with otherstudies
of Native American populations (13). The degree
of population size recovery to the current day is
consistent with the degree of isolation of the ex-
tant populations, ranging from 1196 chromosomes
[95% confidence interval (CI) 317 to 1548] for the
Seri in the Sonora desert, to 3669 (95% CI 2588 to
5522) for the Mayans from Quintana Roo (figs. S4
35. to S6; (9)).
1
Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of
Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
2
Department of Bioengineering
and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San
Francisco, CA, USA.
3
Instituto Nacional de Medicina
Genómica (INMEGEN), Mexico City, Mexico.
4
Escuela
Nacional de Antropología e Historia (ENAH), Mexico City,
Mexico.
5
Department of Genetics, Evolution and
Environment, University College London, London, UK.
6
Department of Medicine, University of California, San
Francisco, CA, USA.
7
Instituto de Investigación en Genética
Molecular, Universidad de Guadalajara, Ocotlán, Mexico.
8
Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador
36. Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico.
9
Department of Bioengineering
and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San
Francisco, CA, USA.
10
The Brooklyn Hospital Center,
Brooklyn, NY, USA.
11
Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades
Respiratorias (INER), Mexico City, Mexico.
12
Veterans
Caribbean Health Care System, San Juan, Puerto Rico.
13
Centro de Neumología Pediatrica, San Juan, Puerto Rico.
14
International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France.
15
Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gomez, Mexico City,
Mexico.
16
National Institute of Environmental Health
Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health
and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA.
17
37. Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de
México, Mexico City, Mexico.
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
(C.D.B.); [email protected] (A.M.-E.); [email protected]
ucsf.edu (E.G.B.) †These authors contributed equally to this
work. ‡Present address: Department of Genetics, Stanford
University
School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA. (C.R.G.) §Present
address:
Center for Statistical Genetics, Mount Sinai School of
Medicine, New
York, USA. (E.E.K.) ||Present address: Department of
Psychiatry and
Clinical Psychobiology - IR3C, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain.
(M.V.).
¶Present address: Analytic and Translational Genetics Unit,
Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, USA. (K.E.) #Present
address: Harvard School of Public Health and Global Biotech
Consulting Group. (G.J.-S.) **Present address: Nutrition and
Health Department Nestec Ltd, Nestle Research Center,
Lausanne,
Switzerland. (I.S.-Z.)
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38. SCIENCE
RESEARCH | REPORTS
Isolation also correlates with the degree of
relatedness within and between ethnic groups, ul-
timately shaping the pattern of genetic relation-
ships among populations. We built a relatedness
graph (Fig. 1C) of individuals sharing >13 cM of
the genome identically by descent (IBD) (cor-
responding to third/fourth cousins or closer
relatives). Almost all the connections are within-
versus among-population, consistent with the
populations being discrete rather than exhib-
iting large-scale gene flow [figs. S7 and S8 (9)].
As seen with the ROH calculations, the Mayan
and Nahuan groups have fewer internal connec-
tions. The few between-population connections
appear in populations close to each coastline,
39. such as the connections between the Campeche
Mayans and populations to the west along the
Gulf of Mexico.
The long-tract ROH and IBD analyses are es-
pecially relevant to the recent history of isolation
of Native American populations. We ran TreeMix
(14) to generate a probabilistic model of diver-
gence and migration among the Native Amer-
ican populations (Fig. 1D). The inferred tree with
no migration paths recapitulates the north/south
and east/west gradients of differentiation from
the PCA and IBD analyses, with populations
with high ROH values also exhibiting longer
tip branches. The primary branches divide pop-
ulations by geography. All northern populations
(dark blue) branch from the same initial split
at the root. We also find two additional major
clades: a grouping of populations from the south-
40. ern states of Guerrero and Oaxaca (green labels)
and a “Mayan clade” composed of Mayan-speaking
populations from Chiapas and the Yucatan pe-
ninsula in the southeast (orange labels). Intro-
ducing migratory edges to the model connects
the Maya in Yucatan to a branch leading to the
Totonac, whose ancestors occupied the large pre-
Columbian city of El Tajin in Veracruz (15). This
result points to an Atlantic coastal corridor of
gene flow between the Yucatan peninsula and
central/northern Mexico (fig. S9), consistent with
our IBD analysis. Indeed, the only Mayan lan-
guage outside the Mayan territory is spoken by
the Huastec, nearby in northern Veracruz, sup-
porting a shared history (16).
These signals remain today as a legacy of the
pre-Columbian diversity of Mexican populations.
Over the past 500 years, population dynamics
41. have changed drastically. Today, the majority of
Mexicans are admixed and can trace their an-
cestry back not only to indigenous groups but
also to Europe and Africa. To investigate patterns
of admixture, we combined data from continental
source populations (including the 20 native
Mexican groups, 16 European populations, and
50 West African Yorubas) with 500 admixed
mestizo individuals from 10 Mexican states
recruited by the National Institute of Genomic
Medicine (INMEGEN) for this study, Mexicans
from Guadalajara in the POPRES collection (17),
and individuals of Mexican descent from Los
Angeles in the HapMap Phase 3 project (table
S1). We ran the unsupervised mixture model al-
gorithm ADMIXTURE (18) to estimate ancestry
proportions for individuals in our combined data
set (Fig. 2, fig. S10, and table S5). Allowing for
42. three ancestral clusters (K = 3), we find that most
individuals have a large amount of Native and
European ancestry, with a small (typically <5%)
amount of African ancestry. At the best-fit mod-
el for K = 9, the Native American cluster breaks
down into six separate components (Fig. 2B).
Three of these are mostly restricted to isolated
populations (Seri, navy blue; Lacandon, yellow;
and Tojolabal, brown). The other three show a
wider but geographically well-defined distribu-
tion: A northern component (light blue) repre-
sented by Tarahumara, Tepehuano, and Huichol,
gradually decreases southward. Corresponding-
ly, a southern component (blue), which includes
Triqui, Zapotec, and Mazatec, gradually decreases
northward. In the Yucatan peninsula and the
neighboring state of Chiapas, we found what we
termed the “Mayan component” (orange in Fig.
43. 2B, bottom panel), found primarily in Mayan-
speaking groups. This Mayan component is also
Fig. 1. Genetic differentiation of Native Mexican populations.
(A) PCA of Native Mexicans with
HapMap YRI and CEU samples. Population labels as in table
S1. (B) Pairwise FST values among Native
Mexican populations ordered geographically (see also table S4).
(C) Relatedness graph of individuals
sharing more than 13 cM of the genome as measured by the total
of segments IBD. Each node
represents a haploid genome, and edges within clusters attract
nodes proportionally to shared IBD.
The spread of each cluster is thus indicative of the level of
relatedness in each population, as deter-
mined by a force-directed algorithm. Only the layout of nodes
within each cluster is the result of the
algorithm, as populations are localized to their approximate
sampling locations to ease interpreta-
tion. Parentheses indicate the number of individuals represented
out of the total sample size (2N).
The full range of IBD thresholds are shown in fig. S8. (D)
TreeMix graph representing population
splitting patterns of the 20 Native Mexican groups studied. The
length of the branch is proportional
44. to the drift of each population. African, European, and Asian
samples were used as outgroups to root
the tree (fig. S9).
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RESEARCH | REPORTS
Fig. 2. Mexican population structure. (A) Map of sampled pop-
ulations (detailed in table S1) and admixture average
proportions
(table S5). Dots correspond to Native Mexican populations
color-
coded according to K = 9 clusters identified in (B) (bottom),
and
shaded areas denote states in which cosmopolitan populations
were sampled. Pie charts summarize per-state average propor-
tions of cosmopolitan samples at K = 3 (European in red, West
African in green, and Native American in gray). Bars show the
total Native American ancestry decomposed into average
propor-
tions of the native subcomponents identified at K = 9. (B)
45. Global
ancestry proportions at K = 3 (top) and K = 9 (bottom)
estimated
with ADMIXTURE, including African, European, Native
Mexican, and
cosmopolitan Mexican samples (tables S1 and S2). From left to
right,
Mexican populations are displayed north-to-south. (C)
Interpola-
tion maps showing the spatial distribution of the six native com-
ponents identified at K = 9. Contour intensities are proportional
to
ADMIXTURE values observed in Native Mexican samples, with
crosses indi-
cating sampling locations. Scatter plots with linear fits show
ADMIXTURE
values observed in cosmopolitan samples versus a distance
metric summariz-
ing latitude and longitude (long axis) for the sampled states.
From left to right:
Yucatan, Campeche, Oaxaca, Veracruz, Guerrero, Tamaulipas,
Guanajuato,
Zacatecas, Jalisco, Durango, and Sonora. Values are adjusted
relative to
46. the total Native American ancestry of each individual (9).
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RESEARCH | REPORTS
present at ~10 to 20% in central Mexican na-
tives, consistent with the IBD and migration edges
connecting the regions. This relationship between
the Yucatan peninsula and central Mexico, seen
in both recent shared IBD and genetic drift–
based models of allele frequencies (TreeMix and
ADMIXTURE), suggests that gene flow between
the two regions has been ongoing for a long
time. In contrast, Mayan admixture is not found
at appreciable levels in highlanders of the south-
ern state of Oaxaca (Triqui and Zapotec), where
mountain ranges may have acted as geographic
barriers to gene flow.
47. Patterns of Native American population sub-
structure are recapitulated in the genomes of
Mexican mestizos from cosmopolitan popula-
tions throughout Mexico. Sonora and neighbor-
ing northern states show the highest average
proportions of the northern native component
(15%, light blue in Fig. 2B, bottom), whereas
only traces are detected in Oaxaca and the
Yucatan peninsula. Conversely, the southern
native component is the most prevalent across
states, reaching maximum values in Oaxaca
and decreasing northward. Cosmopolitan sam-
ples from the Yucatan peninsula have Native
American fractions of the genome dominated
by the Mayan component, which diminishes in
northward populations. Likewise, Mayan-related
local components, Tojolabal and Lacandon, are
detected above 1% exclusively among individ-
48. uals from the states neighboring the Yucatan
peninsula. In contrast, Mexican-Americans sam-
pled in Los Angeles (MXL) do not show a homog-
eneous pattern, consistent with their diverse
origins within Mexico. Overall, the continuous
geographic distribution of each Native American
component across Mexico (fig. S12) demonstrates
a high correlation of individual admixture pro-
portions with geography, even in individuals of
mixed ancestry (Fig. 2C, NW-SE axis F-test for
all native clusters, P <10
−16
).
To further test whether ancestral popula-
tion structure is recapitulated in the genomes
of mestizos, we used an ancestry-specific PCA
(ASPCA) approach [fig. S13 (9, 19)]. We estimated
local ancestry using PCAdmix (20) to identify
segments of the genome belonging to Native
49. American, European, or African ancestries. We
focused on the European and Native American
components of ancestry, given the low propor-
tions of African ancestry overall. We would expect
the history of Spanish occupation and coloniza-
tion in Mexico to be reflected in the European
segments of Mexican mestizos, as has been seen
previously (21). ASPCA of the European haplo-
types in present-day Mexicans confirms this,
as individuals cluster tightly with present-day
Iberians even with a dense set of European pop-
ulations (17, 22) (fig. S14).
In contrast, given the complex demographic
history of Native Americans, high isolation, and
limited characterization of regional ancestry
patterns (23, 24), it remains unknown whether
the correlation between genes and geography ob-
served in Europe (10) can be similarly recapitu-
50. lated within Mexico. We used ASPCA to uncover
hidden population structure within Native Am-
erican ancestry beyond that found solely in ex-
tant indigenous groups (Fig. 3A). Consistent
with the previous PCA analyses, we observed the
most diverged indigenous populations defining
the extremes of the top PCs due to high levels of
genetic drift and isolation. However, including
all the indigenous groups in the plot masks the
signal contained in the indigenous segments
of the Mexican mestizos. When plotting the
ASPCA values for the admixed individuals only,
we discovered a strong correlation between Na-
tive American ancestry and geography within
Mexico (Fig. 3B), with ASPC1 representing a west-
to-east dimension and ASPC2 one from north
to south. Both of these correlations are highly
significant and linearly predictive of geographic
51. location (Pearson’s r
2
of 72% and 38% for ASPC1
and 2, respectively, both P values < 10
−5
). The cor-
relation is strong enough that the overall distri-
bution of mestizo-derived indigenous haplotypes
in ASPCA space resembles a geographic map of
Mexico (Fig. 3B and fig. S15). This finding sug-
gests that the genetic composition of present-day
Mexicans recapitulates ancient Native American
substructure, despite the potential homogeniz-
ing effect of postcolonial admixture. Fine-scale
population structure going back centuries is not
merely a property of isolated or rural indigenous
communities. Cosmopolitan populations still re-
flect the underlying genetic ancestry of local na-
tive populations, arguing for a strong relationship
between the indigenous and the Mexican mes-
52. tizo population, albeit without the extreme drift
exhibited in some current indigenous groups.
Having found these hidden patterns of ances-
try in the native component of Mexican mestizos,
we investigated whether this structure could
have potential biomedical applications. Over
the past decade, genetic ancestry has been as-
sociated with numerous clinical endpoints and
disease risks in admixed populations, including
neutrophil counts (25), creatinine levels (26), and
breast cancer susceptibility (27). Similarly, an-
cestral background is especially important in
pulmonary medicine, where different reference
equations are used for different ethnicities, de-
fining normative predicted volumes and identify-
ing thresholds for disease diagnosis in standard
clinical practice (28). That is, depending on one’s
ethnic background, the same value of forced ex-
53. piratory volume in 1 s (FEV1, a standard measure
of lung function) could be either within the nor-
mal range or indicative of pulmonary disease.
Previous work has shown that the proportion of
African and European ancestry was associated
with FEV1 in African Americans (29) and Mexicans
(30), respectively, establishing the importance
of genomic ancestry in lung function prediction
equations.
To investigate possible associations between
ancestral structure in Mexicans and FEV1, we
applied our ASPCA approach to two studies mea-
suring lung function in Mexican or Mexican-
American children: the Mexico City Childhood
Asthma Study (MCCAS) (31) and the Genetics of
Asthma in Latino Americans (GALA I) Study
(32). Due to differences in protocols and geno-
typing platforms, we calculated ASPCA values
54. for the two studies independently (fig. S17) using
the same reference populations described above,
then used fixed-effects meta-analysis to combine
the results (9).
First, in GALA I we looked for significant
ancestry-specific differences between Mexico City
and the San Francisco Bay Area, the two recruit-
ment sites. ASPCA values were associated with
recruitment location, with the receiver-operator
characteristic curve from the Native American
ancestry dimensions resulting in an area under
the curve (AUC) of 80% (fig. S17). After we ad-
justed for overall ancestry proportions (here both
African and Native American), both ASPCs were
significant in a logistic regression: ASPC1 OR per
SD: 0.44 (95% CI 0.22 to 0.68), P = 3.8 × 10
−4
,
ASPC2 OR per SD: 1.68 (95% CI 1.03 to 2.76), P =
55. 0.039. The ASPCs defined similar east-west and
north-south axes as in the previous analysis (fig.
S17) and show that Mexican-Americans in the San
Francisco Bay Area tend to have increased Na-
tive American ancestry from northwest Mexico
as compared to individuals from Mexico City
(joint logistic regression likelihood ratio test
P = 6.4 × 10
−5
).
We then used the ASPCA values for both
studies to test for an association with FEV1 as
transformed to percentile of predicted “normal”
function via the standard set of reference equa-
tions (28) for individuals of Mexican descent.
These equations use population-specific demo-
graphic characteristics to account for age, sex,
and height in estimates of lung function. Ad-
justing for overall ancestry proportions in linear
56. regressions, we observed a significant associa-
tion between FEV1 and the east-west component
(ASPC1) in both studies, with a meta-analysis
P value of 0.0045 (2.2% decrease in FEV1 per
1 SD, 95% CI 0.69 to 3.74). The effect sizes
were homogeneous (Fig. 3C and table S6) de-
spite differences in recruitment strategy, geog-
raphy, and genotyping platform (9). In contrast,
ASPC2 showed no association with FEV1. Where-
as FEV1 has previously been associated with over-
all ancestry in several populations, the effect seen
here is not correlated with overall admixture
proportions, because we adjusted for those in the
regression model. The combined results here in-
dicate that subcontinental ancestry as measured
by ASPCA is important for characterizing clinical
measurements.
To estimate how variation in genetic ancestry
57. within Mexico may affect FEV1, we used the re-
sults from GALA I and MCCAS to predict trait
values by state (Fig. 3D) for the INMEGEN
mestizo samples. We found that difference in
subcontinental Native American ancestry as
measured by ASPC1 results in an expected
7.3% change in FEV1, moving from the state of
Sonora in the west to the state of Yucatan in
the east. These results suggest that fine-scale
patterns of native ancestry alone could have
significant impacts on clinical measurements
of lung function in admixed individuals with-
in Mexico.
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These changes due to ancestry are compar-
58. able to other factors affecting lung function. Com-
paring the expected effect of ancestry across
Mexico with the known effects of age in the
standard Mexican-American reference equa-
tions (28), the inferred 7.3% change in FEV1
associated with subcontinental ancestry is sim-
ilar to the decline in FEV1 that a 30-year-old
Mexican-American individual of average height
would experience by aging 10.3 years if male
and 11.8 years if female. Similarly, comparing
our results from the Mexican data with the
model incorporating ancestry in African Amer-
icans, a difference of 7.3% in FEV1 would corre-
spond to a 33% difference in African ancestry
(29). The association between FEV1 and ASPC1
is not an indicator of impaired lung function
on its own–rather, it contributes to the distribu-
tion of FEV1 values and would modify clinical
thresholds. This finding indicates that diagnoses
59. of diseases such as asthma and chronic obstruc-
tive pulmonary disease (COPD) relying on spe-
cific lung function thresholds may benefit from
taking finer-scale ancestry into consideration.
An important implication of our work is that
multi- and transethnic mapping efforts will
benefit from including individuals of Mexican
ancestry, because the Mexican population har-
bors rich amounts of genetic variation that may
underlie important biomedical phenotypes. A
key question in this regard is whether existing
catalogs of human genome variation capture
the genetic variation present in the samples
analyzed here. We performed targeted SNP tag-
ging and genome-wide haplotype sharing anal-
ysis within 100-kb sliding windows to assess
the degree to which haplotype diversity in the
Mexican mestizo samples could be captured
60. by existing reference panels [figs. S18 to 20 (9)].
Although Mexican-American samples (MXL) were
included in both the HapMap and 1000 Ge-
nomes catalogs, average haplotype sharing for
the INMEGEN mestizo samples is limited to
81.2 and 90.5% when combined with all conti-
nental HapMap populations. It is only after in-
cluding the Native American samples genotyped
here that nearly 100% of haplotypes are shared,
maximizing the chances of capturing most of the
variation in Mexico.
Much effort has been invested in detecting
common genetic variants associated with com-
plex disease and replicating associations across
populations. However, functional and medically
relevant variation may be rare or population-
specific, requiring studies of diverse human
populations to identify new risk factors (4).
61. Without detailed knowledge of the geographic
Fig. 3. Subcontinental ancestry of admixed Mexican genomes
and bio-
medical implications. (A) ASPCA of Native American segments
from Mexican
cosmopolitan samples (colored circles) together with 20
indigenous Mexican
populations (population labels). Samples with >10% of non-
native ad-
mixture were excluded from the reference panel, as well as
population
outliers such as Seri, Lacandon, and Tojolabal. (B) Zoomed
detail of the
distribution of the Native American fraction of cosmopolitan
samples
throughout Mexico. Native ancestral populations were used to
define PCA
space (prefixed by NAT) but removed from the background to
highlight the
subcontinental origin of admixed genomes (prefixed by MEX).
Each circle
represents the combined set of haplotypes called Native
American along
62. the haploid genome of each sample with >25% of Native
American an-
cestry. The inset map shows the geographic origin of
cosmopolitan sam-
ples per state, color-coded by region (9). (C) Coefficients and
95% CIs for
associations between ASPC1 and lung function (FEV1) from
Mexican
participants in the GALA I study, and the MCCAS, as well as
both studies
combined (table S6 and fig. S17) (9). (D) Means and CIs of
predicted
change in FEV1 by state, extrapolated from the model in (C).
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RESEARCH | REPORTS
stratification of genetic variation, negative results
and lack of replication are likely to dominate the
outcome of genetic studies in uncharacterized
populations. Here we have demonstrated a high
degree of fine-scale genomic structure across
63. Mexico, shaped by pre-Columbian population
dynamics and affecting the present-day genomes
of Mexican mestizos, which is of both anthro-
pological and biomedical relevance. Studies such
as this one are crucial for enabling precision med-
icine, providing novel data resources, empowering
the next generation of genetic studies, and dem-
onstrating the importance of understanding and
measuring fine-scale population structure and
its associations with biomedical traits.
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32. D. G. Torgerson et al., J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 130, 76,
e12
(2012).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank all volunteers for generously donating DNA samples
and
participating in the study. This project was possible with the
joint
support from multiple Institutions in Mexico and the United
States.
Stanford University supported C.D.B. with funding from the
Department of Genetics. INMEGEN received support from the
Federal Government of Mexico, particularly the Ministry of
Health,
the Mexican Health Foundation (FUNSALUD), and the Gonzalo
Río
Arronte Foundation. State governments and universities of
Durango, Campeche, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Oaxaca, Sonora,
Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Yucatan, and Zacatecas contributed
significantly to this work. This research was also supported by
67. the
George Rosenkranz Prize for Health Care Research in
Developing
Countries awarded to A.M.-E.; University of California San
Francisco (UCSF) Chancellor’s Research Fellowship,
Dissertation
Year Fellowship, and NIH Training Grants T32GM007175 and
T32HG000044 (to C.R.G.); the Robert Wood Johnson
Foundation
Amos Medical Faculty Development Award; the Sandler
Foundation; the American Asthma Foundation (to E.G.B.);
CONACYT grant 129693 (to H.R.-V.); BBSRC grant
BB/I021213/1
(to A.R.-L.); the National Institutes of Health (NIH) (grants
R01GM090087, R01HG003229, ES015794, GM007546,
GM061390, HL004464, HL078885, HL088133, HL111636,
RR000083, P60MD006902, and ZIA ES49019); and National
Science Foundation award DMS-1201234. This work was
supported
in part by the Intramural Research Program of NIH, National
Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (to S.J.L.). Some
68. computations were performed using the UCSF Biostatistics
High
Performance Computing System. We also thank B. Henn,
S. Gravel, and J. Byrnes for helpful discussions; C. Gunter and
M. Carpenter for editing the manuscript; and M. Morales for
informatics and programming support. C.D.B. is on the advisory
board of a project at 23andMe; and on the scientific advisory
boards of Personalis, Inc.; InVitae; Etalon, Inc.; and
Ancestry.com.
The collections and methods for the Population Reference
Sample
(POPRES) are described by Nelson et al. (2008). The POPRES
data
sets used for the analyses described here were obtained from
dbGaP through accession number phs000145.v1.p1. Access to
the
MCCAS data set may be obtained under the terms of a data
transfer
agreement with the National Institute of Environmental Health
Sciences; the contact is S.J.L.. Individual-level genotypes for
new data
69. presented in this study are available, through a data access
agreement to respect the privacy of the participants for the
transfer
of genetic data, by contacting C.D.B., A.M.-E., and INMEGEN
(http://www.inmegen.gob.mx/).
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
www.sciencemag.org/content/344/6189/1280/suppl/DC1
Materials and Methods
Supplementary Text
Figs. S1 to S20
Tables S1 to S6
References (33–64)
3 February 2014; accepted 21 May 2014
10.1126/science.1251688
TRANSCRIPTION
Interactions between RNA
polymerase and the “core recognition
element” counteract pausing
Irina O. Vvedenskaya,
1
* Hanif Vahedian-Movahed,
70. 2
* Jeremy G. Bird,
1,2
*
Jared G. Knoblauch,
1
Seth R. Goldman,
1
Yu Zhang,
2
Richard H. Ebright,
2
† Bryce E. Nickels
1
†
Transcription elongation is interrupted by sequences that inhibit
nucleotide addition and
cause RNA polymerase (RNAP) to pause. Here, by use of native
elongating transcript
sequencing (NET-seq) and a variant of NET-seq that enables
analysis of mutant RNAP
derivatives in merodiploid cells (mNET-seq), we analyze
transcriptional pausing
genome-wide in vivo in Escherichia coli. We identify a
71. consensus pause-inducing sequence
element, G–10Y–1G+1 (where –1 corresponds to the position of
the RNA 3′ end). We
demonstrate that sequence-specific interactions between RNAP
core enzyme and a core
recognition element (CRE) that stabilize transcription initiation
complexes also occur in
transcription elongation complexes and facilitate pause read-
through by stabilizing
RNAP in a posttranslocated register. Our findings identify key
sequence determinants of
transcriptional pausing and establish that RNAP-CRE
interactions modulate pausing.
R
egulation of gene expression during tran-
scription elongation often involves sequences
in DNA that cause the transcription elon-
gation complex (TEC) to pause. Pausing
can affect gene expression by facilitat-
ing engagement of regulatory factors, influenc-
ing formation of RNA secondary structures, and
enabling synchronization of transcription and
72. translation.
Several lines of evidence suggest that pausing
involves specific sequence signals that inhibit
nucleotide addition (1–11). To define key sequence
determinants for pausing, we used native elongat-
ing transcript sequencing (NET-seq), which permits
occupancies of TECs to be mapped genome-wide
with base-pair resolution (12, 13) (fig. S1). The
occupancy of the TEC at a given position is cor-
related with the tendency of the TEC to pause
at the position. Accordingly, NET-seq analysis
enables identification of pause sites. To per-
form NET-seq in Escherichia coli, cells carrying
a chromosomal rpoC-3xFLAG gene, encoding
RNAP b′ subunit with a C-terminal 3xFLAG tag
were grown to midexponential phase; cells were
flash-frozen and lysed; 3xFLAG-tagged TECs were
immunoprecipitated with an antibody against
73. FLAG; RNAs were extracted from TECs; and RNA
3′ ends were converted to cDNAs and analyzed
using high-throughput sequencing. We defined
pause sites as positions where TEC occupancy
exceeded TEC occupancy at each position 25 base
pairs (bp) upstream and downstream. We iden-
tified 15,553 pause sites, which corresponds to
~19,800 total pause sites, given the estimated
~78% saturation of the analysis (tables S1 to
S7). Alignment of pause-site sequences revealed
a clear consensus pause element (PE): G–10Y–1G+1,
where position –1 corresponds to the position
of the RNA 3′ end (Fig. 1A and fig. S2). Of the
1
Department of Genetics and Waksman Institute, Rutgers
University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA.
2
Department of
Chemistry and Waksman Institute, Rutgers University,
Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA.
74. *These authors contributed equally. †Corresponding author. E-
mail:
[email protected] (B.E.N.); [email protected]
edu (R.H.E.)
SCIENCE sciencemag.org 13 JUNE 2014 • VOL 344 ISSUE
6189 1285
RESEARCH | REPORTS
DOI: 10.1126/science.1211437
, 1699 (2011);334 Science
, et al.John R. Hutchinson
Evolution of Elephant ''Sixth Toes''
From Flat Foot to Fat Foot: Structure, Ontogeny, Function, and
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, 10 of which can be accessed free:cites 32 articlesThis article
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Acknowledgments: We thank S. Xiao, T. Cavalier-Smith, and
B. Landfald for discussion; T. Hode and Z. Yue for field-work
collaboration; A. Groso for assistance with the srXTM work;
and P. Varvarigos and D. Elliott for the use of fig. S7. The work
was supported by the Swedish Research Council, Natural
Environment Research Council, Ministry of Science and
Technology of China, National Natural Science Foundation of
China, EU FP7, and the Paul Scherrer Institute. Figured or
measured specimens are deposited at the Swedish Museum of
Natural History and the Museum of Earth Science, Chinese
Academy of Geological Sciences. The srXTM investigations
were
conducted at the X04SA and X02DA (TOMCAT) beamlines of
the Swiss Light Source. The data were visualized and analyzed
by using Avizo software. Data are available in the SOM. S.B.
and P.C.J.D. designed the research and wrote the paper; T.H.
found the nucleic structures, prepared the corresponding
visualizations, and wrote the specimen descriptions in the
SOM; J.A.C. found the propagule-like structures and performed
taphonomic analyses and volumetric measurements; C.Y.
and S.B. did the field work; C.Y. provided the additional data
from Hubei; and M.S., F.M., S.B. and P.C.J.D. designed the
81. srXTM experiments.
Supporting Online Material
www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/334/6063/1696/DC1
Materials and Methods
SOM Text
Figs. S1 to S7
Table S1
References (36–67)
Movies S1 to S5
8 June 2011; accepted 16 November 2011
10.1126/science.1209537
From Flat Foot to Fat Foot: Structure,
Ontogeny, Function, and Evolution
of Elephant “Sixth Toes”
John R. Hutchinson,1 Cyrille Delmer,2 Charlotte E. Miller,1
Thomas Hildebrandt,3
Andrew A. Pitsillides,1 Alan Boyde4
Several groups of tetrapods have expanded sesamoid (small,
tendon-anchoring) bones into
digit-like structures (“predigits”), such as pandas’ “thumbs.”
Elephants similarly have expanded
structures in the fat pads of their fore- and hindfeet, but for
three centuries these have been
overlooked as mere cartilaginous curiosities. We show that
these are indeed massive sesamoids
that employ a patchy mode of ossification of a massive
cartilaginous precursor and that the
predigits act functionally like digits. Further, we reveal clear
osteological correlates of predigit joint
articulation with the carpals/tarsals that are visible in fossils.
Our survey shows that basal
82. proboscideans were relatively “flat-footed” (plantigrade),
whereas early elephantiforms evolved the
more derived “tip-toed” (subunguligrade) morphology,
including the predigits and fat pad, of
extant elephants. Thus, elephants co-opted sesamoid bones into
a role as false digits and used
them for support as they changed their foot posture.
T
he enlarged radial sesamoid bones of giant
panda forefeet (1, 2) are classic examples
of evolutionary exaptation (3, 4): co-option
of old structures for new functions. It is less
widely recognized that such “sixth toes” or “false
thumbs” have evolved convergently in numerous
tetrapods, such as moles and frogs (5, 6). They
exist in numerous mammals in a less enlarged
state, variably called the prepollex/prehallux (here
called predigits), radial/tibial sesamoids, or other
terms (such as falciform, accessory scaphoid, or
navicular). Whether these sesamoids are ances-
trally or convergently evolved in various tetra-
pod clades remains to be determined. The latter
seems likely, given the absence of similar sesa-
moids in most fossil outgroups, yet a cartilag-
inous nodular precursor cannot be excluded.
Regardless, enlarged sesamoids are quite prom-
inent in both the manus (forefeet) and the pedes
(hindfeet) of elephants, where they have been
mistaken for sixth digits or otherwise presumed
to play a role in foot support (7–9). Indeed, the
recent discovery that moles have developmen-
tally switched their radial sesamoid (prepollex)
83. to a digit-like identity (10) intimates that ele-
phants and other species may have done the same.
Here, we report a multidisciplinary anatomical, his-
tological, functional, and phylogenetic analysis (11)
of the predigits in elephant feet. We hoped this
would illuminate how elephants evolved their char-
acteristic subunguligrade (nearly “tip-toed,” with
only distal toes contacting the ground) foot posture
and function, as compared with the plesiomorphic
plantigrade (“flat-footed,” with wrists/ankles con-
tacting the ground) foot posture in many other
tetrapods.
In 1710, Blair (7) provided the first detailed
osteological description of elephants, conclud-
ing that they have six toes. The “sixth toes”
(medialmost position; corresponding to digit zero)
were later identified as the enigmatic prepollex
1Department of Veterinary Basic Sciences and Structure and
Motion Laboratory, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield
AL9
7TA and London NW1 0TU, UK. 2Department of
Palaeontology,
The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7
5BD, UK. 3Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research,
im Forschungsverbund Berlin e.V., Postfach 601103, Berlin
D-10252, Germany. 4Dental Physical Sciences, Barts and The
London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary Uni-
versity of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK.
www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 334 23 DECEMBER 2011
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and prehallux (8, 9, 12) (figs. S1 to S4). Three
centuries of sporadic discussion about the iden-
tities of predigits in tetrapods have ensued (8, 9),
sometimes returning to the question of whether
they are actually atavistic digits (9, 13). Consid-
ering the characteristic variability (8) and apparent
mineralization late in the ontogeny of sesamoids
(14), as well as their articulations (15) with meta-
carpal I/tarsal I and metatarsal I (Fig. 1 and movie
S1), the prepollex/prehallux of elephants must
correspond to the radial/tibial sesamoids of other
tetrapods. The late mineralization and confounded
scientific history of predigits have tended to pre-
vent their preservation, discovery, scholarly descrip-
86. tion, and even museum exhibition. The vexing
issue of the homology of elephant predigits re-
mains unresolved, complicated by the specializa-
tion of paenungulate outgroups (such as Sirenia
and Hyracoidea).
Despite early studies, it remains unclear
whether elephant predigits are never more than
cartilaginous rods, as current literature assumes
(8, 9, 12), or whether they become true bones at
some point in ontogeny. We used a combination
(11) of dissection, computed x-ray tomography
(CT) scans, histology, and backscattered elec-
tron scanning electron microscopy (BSE SEM)
to address this question (Fig. 2 and figs. S5 to
S13). Using this combination of methods, we
found that elephant predigits initially form as
massive, purely cartilaginous rods and that these
can become further stiffened through a slow con-
version to bone (that is, forming endochondrally)
by an unusual ossification mechanism. Histolog-
ical examination showed that this initial hyaline
cartilage element lacks a preferential orientation
of chondrocytes or growth-plate–like stratification
(fig. S13). Imaging with BSE SEM and CT in
addition to histology revealed that patches of this
cartilage calcify and are resorbed and replaced
by bone that subsequently models to a foam- or
honeycomb-like cancellous (spongy bone) struc-
ture. The advancing mineralizing fronts and the
thickness of the calcified cartilage layers resem-
ble those seen in mature articular cartilage.
Together, our analyses not only show that the
cartilaginous predigits are slowly replaced by
bone during late ontogeny, but that this bone is
87. unusual in its development [Fig. 2, supporting
online material (SOM) text, and figs. S5 to S13].
Ossification typically begins years after other ses-
amoids have become well mineralized (for ex-
ample, the proximal digital sesamoids, at ~3 to
7 years of age), and it occurs in a large cartilage
structure surrounded by a fat pad rather than by
tendon or ligament. Such ossification can remain
incomplete [in 10 out of 37 (10/37) feet exam-
ined] or even uninitiated (11/37 feet) in some adult
(~20+ years old) individuals (figs. S4 to S6). This
singular mode of ossification is endochondral, ex-
tending from several seemingly haphazardly po-
sitioned centers within the massive cartilaginous
precursor. Furthermore, BSE SEM and CT indi-
cate that the resultant cancellous (spongy) bone,
unlike others in the appendicular skeleton, does
not seem oriented to match any predominant load-
ing direction and lacks compact cortices, which
could confergreater longitudinal bending stiffness.
This indicates an unusually flexible ossified struc-
ture that nevertheless is stiffer than the surrounding
fat pad or cartilage, although even cartilaginous
enlarged predigits should provide some support.
We used an indirect approach to solve the
difficult question of how elephant predigits func-
tion. Elephant predigits are deeply embedded in
the digital cushions or fat pads of the feet, thus
their positions and motions are obscured. The
thick keratinized skin of elephant feet prevents
ultrasound or x-ray imaging at safe intensities,
thus preventing in vivo investigation. We pre-
viously speculated that elephant predigits might
function as strut-like weight supports, because
88. they grow with strong positive allometry simi-
lar to that of the metapodials (16). This function
would be expected to involve a static orientation
of the predigits during loading. Alternatively, pre-
digits might function as dynamic levers (more
like mobile digits) if they reoriented when loaded,
rotating about their joint(s). Animals variably em-
ploy similar functions with their true digits (17).
We tested these hypotheses by statically
loading cadaveric elephant feet ex vivo and CT-
scanning them to examine the effects of applied
loads on their orientation (11). Predigits behav-
ing in a weight-supporting role should maintain
a constant orientation, whereas predigits acting
as dynamic levers should display joint mobility
(movie S2) that reorients them with increasing
load. Our reconstructions (Fig. 3) reveal that the
prepollex and prehallux act differently when
loaded: The prepollex does not move apprecia-
bly even though its proximal joint allows some
mobility, whereas the prehallux rotates caudo-
dorsally. Internal motion contributing to this ro-
tation is apparent for the prehallux which, once
ossified at least, is consistently split into prox-
imal (fixed to the first metatarsal and tarsal) and
distal (free to move) segments (evident in 8/8
individuals with well-ossified prehalluces; movie
Fig. 1. Foot anatomy in
humans and elephants,
with sesamoids shown in
white. (Top) Diagram of
human manus and pes
(for comparison). Dotted
89. lines for the prepollex
and prehallux show rough
approximations of where
these structures would lie
in humans, but they are
normally absent. These
predigits are not to be
confused with the paired
digital sesamoids, which
elephants and humans
have more distally in their
digits—the so-called “tib-
ial sesamoid” in humans
is one of these. (Middle
and bottom) Elephant
foot anatomy in medial
view of right feet. The
manus is on the left [pre-
pollex (dark) and meta-
carpal I shown below];
the pes is on the right
[prehallux (dark) and me-
tatarsal I shown below].
Bottom-row images are
from CT scan reconstruc-
tions of specimen no. 4
(table S1). See movie S2
for representative mobil-
ity of a predigit. Osteo-
logical terms are from
(25, 26). Labels are as fol-
lows: ac, accessorium (pi-
siform); ca, calcaneus;
D3, third digit; ds, digi-
tal sesamoid(s); mc1,
metacarpal I; mt, meta-
90. tarsal I; ph, prehallux;
pp, prepollex.
50mm50mm
20mm20mm
50 mm
ca
ca
ac
pp
ph
ph
pp
ph
pp
ds
ds
mc1 mt1
mc1
mt1
ac
mc1
93. S1). The prehallux thus has a proximal portion
that statically transfers load to the tarsus (anal-
ogous to the whole prepollex), and a distal, mo-
bile, lever-like portion. Such segmentation was
not apparent in any of our prepollex specimens,
which behaved as simple struts. This difference
in prepollex and prehallux mobility and function
may relate to the more upright manus and more
horizontal pes bone orientations (Fig. 1). Both
types of predigits, however, are particularly well
suited to stiffen the highly compliant fat pad
against excessive deformation. Furthermore, the
predigits’ tight syndesmotic articulations with
the carpus and tarsus indicate that they also are
able to transfer loading proximally from the sole
of the fat pad to those bones, partly bypassing
the digits. Therefore, the enlarged predigits render
elephant feet functionally plantigrade while the
true digits remain in subunguligrade orientations.
Indeed, the predigits may allow elephants to ef-
fectively reduce the degrees of freedom in their
Fig. 2. Histology of elephant predigit, from speci-
men no. 2 (table S1) prepollex. (A) Toluidine blue
histology of bone:cartilage interface [proximal slab
4 (fig. S6); cartilage, dark blue, bone, pale blue, bone
marrow space, white; width = 1200 mm]; see also fig.
S13. (B) BSE SEM macerated slab 1 (width = 34 mm).
The large space in the right central area (see also fig.
S9) was occupied by cartilage and shows the
endochondral mineralization front [higher magnifi-
cation in (C), width = 1204 mm]. (D) BSE SEM of
94. polymethylmethacrylate-embedded slab 0 (width =
28 mm; see also fig. S7) with a pseudocolor look-
up table. The lowest backscattering coefficient
(top) is level from the monobrominated standard
and highest at 255 from the monoiodinated di-
methacrylate standard (27); the densest phase is
calcified cartilage. (E) Higher-magnification gray
image of the calcified cartilage:bone interface
(width = 900 mm). Enlarged versions of images (B)
to (E) are in figs. S8 and S10 to S12.
A
B C
D E
Fig. 3. Passive motion of elephant predigits under
loading. Right cadaveric manus (top row) and pes
(bottom row) specimens under minimal (left) and
maximal (right) loads are shown. In the manus, the
prepollex does not move noticeably relative to the
vertical, whereas the metacarpal dorsiflexes up to
13° at maximal load. In the pes, the distal segment
of the prehallux rotates around the static proximal
segment, dorsiflexing up to 17° as the metatarsal
dorsiflexes up to 10°. Bones (Fig. 1) are colored to
match movies S1, S3, and S4. Predigits are aqua-
marine color. Specimen numbers from table S1
are no. 3 (manus) and no. 5 (pes). Labels are as fol-
lows: MC3, metacarpal 3; MT3, metatarsal 3; ph,
prehallux; pp, prepollex.
50mm 50mm
50mm50mm
97. feet, by providing a more passive stabilizing sup-
port that reduces need for more active and mas-
sive muscular tissues, analogous to the reduction
of toes in other ungulate groups (18). Yet the
persistence of musculotendinous structures an-
chored to these sesamoids [such as the abductor
pollicis (9)] indicates some retained ability to
control their position or caudolateral motion, so
the predigits are not entirely passive structures.
There is a smooth ridge on the caudomedial
surface of metacarpal I with which the prepollex
articulates, as well as a mobile ball-and-socket–
like joint on the distal end of tarsal I and a ridge
on the caudomedial side of metatarsal I that both
articulate with the prehallux (15). These features,
found even in juvenile elephants that lack ossified
predigits, are thus osteological correlates of the
presence of predigits (Fig. 1) that might be iden-
tifiable in fossils. Their presence in any skeletal
specimen would corroborate the existence of en-
larged predigits (cartilaginous or ossified).
Our survey of the fossil record of the clade
Proboscidea revealed some evidence of predigits
in extinct forms (11), which also clarifies how
elephant foot posture and function evolved. Un-
fortunately the most basal proboscideans (such
as Barytherium and Numidotherium) lack suffi-
ciently well-preserved metapodials (and thus po-
tential evidence of predigit articulations) to more
directly test whether they had large predigits.
However, their preserved proximal carpal and
98. tarsal elements show that the feet were quite
plantigrade, leaving little space for an expanded
digital cushion or predigits (Fig. 4, movies S3
and S4, and SOM text). Furthermore, the artic-
ulations of more distal foot bones indicate the
presence of relatively dorsiflexed and more splayed
(abducted) toes; not as adducted as in later Pro-
boscidea and consistent with a more amphibious
lifestyle. Hence we infer that basal proboscideans,
like many of their amphibious or wholly aquatic
tethytherian outgroups [Sirenia and Embrithopoda
(19)] were more plantigrade than extant elephants,
as is ancestral for tetrapods.
We therefore hypothesize that the evolution of
more subunguligrade toes in elephants is linked
with the expansion of the manual and pedal digital
cushions and their supporting predigits. In this
scenario, the predigits increasingly adopted the
supportive roles that were played by the carpals
(e.g., pisiform) and tarsals (e.g., calcaneus) in more
plantigrade basal Proboscidea. Representative
elephantiform and deinothere taxa along the phy-
logeny (Fig. 4) before Elephantidae support this
hypothesis (SOM text, figs.S14 to S16, and movies
S3 and S4): All well-preserved taxa exhibit smaller
proximal carpal/tarsal bones and foot bone articu-
lations that are more consistent with increased
dorsiflexion of the toes, and thus a more subunguli-
grade toe posture relative to the ancestral condition
for Proboscidea. All of these taxa display osteolog-
ical correlates for the articulation of predigits in the
manus and pes. Thus, we conclude that the pre-
digits have served to stiffen the expanded fat pad
and maintain a plantigrade-like foot function, trans-
99. ferring loads from the substrate to the carpus/tarsus,
since early in elephantiform evolution.
Extant elephants have remarkable feet that
combine advantages of plantigrady [such as the
potential for damping impacts at heelstrike (20),
larger foot surface area and thus moderated
pressures (21), large translations of the center of
pressure during the stance phase involving pro-
nounced heelstrike, dynamic gearing, and toe-
off dynamics (17)] with those of digitigrady or
subunguligrady [such as reasonable mechanical
advantage of the toes to keep supportive tissue
stresses at safe levels (22), or even potential ben-
efits to metabolic economy from elastic energy
storage (23)]. These changes occurred while early
elephantiforms attained gigantism (>2000 kg
of body mass or shoulder height >2 m) in the
Eocene epoch (~40 million years ago, Fig. 4) and
occupied a wider range of terrestrial habitats, be-
coming less amphibious around the node joining
Deinotheriinae and Elephantiformes (Fig. 4).
Hence, there is probably a link between the in-
Fig. 4. Evolution of pro-
boscidean foot posture.
A stratigraphically time-
calibrated axis is shown
at top, using the phyloge-
netic tree from (28–30),
with clades Proboscidea,
Elephantiformes, and El-
ephantoidea labeled at
nodes; the Sirenia (sea-
cows; manatees and du-
gongs) extant outgroup
100. is shown. Manus (on left)
and pes (on right) speci-
mens are shown in ap-
proximate osteologically
neutral poses in lateral
view (more explanation
and images are in the
SOM text and figs. S14 to
S16). Movies S3 and S4
show three-dimensional
foot reconstructions and
predigit articular surfaces
(where present). A shift
from a relatively more
plantigrade manus and
pes in Numidotherium
and Barytherium to more
subunguligrade feet in
later taxa is evident, es-
pecially when articular
surfaces are compared.
Shoulder heights (top of
scapula) for each genus are roughly estimated in parentheses, as
a proxy for body size changes. Representative skeletons of
Barytherium (top) and Deinotherium
(bottom) are shown with approximate relative size differences.
PLIOPaleP
Sirenia
Erytherium
Numidotherium
(1m)
103. g
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http://www.sciencemag.org/
creasing demands of supporting and moving
greater weight on land and the benefits of having
more upright toe bones but directing some loads
away from the toes with the predigits and fat
pad, which resulted in the peculiar compromise
that persists in the feet of extant elephants.
The recognition of elephant predigits as en-
larged sesamoids that perform digit-like functions
fuels inspiration for examining the evolution of
foot function, terrestriality, and gigantism in other
104. lineages. Sauropod dinosaurs had expansive foot
pads, particularly in their pedes (24); however,
no evidence of predigits has been found. Con-
sidering that the predigits form on the medial
border of the feet, they would tend to be lost if
digit I is lost or reduced, as it was in early peris-
sodactyls and artiodactyls. This loss might limit
foot pad expansion and thereby explain why
rhinos and hippos seem to lack predigits [but see
(18) for a possible rudimentary pollex in hippos]
and have less expanded foot pads than elephants
do (8). Regardless, the previously misunderstood
and neglected predigits of elephants now deserve
recognition as a remarkable case of evolutionary
exaptation (4), revealing how elephants evolved
their specialized foot form and function.
References and Notes
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6. M. R. Sánchez-Villagra, P. R. Menke, Zoology 108, 3
(2005).
7. P. Blair, Philos. Trans. 27, 53 (1710).
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111 (1935).
9. K. von Bardeleben, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1894, 354
(1894).
10. C. Mitgutsch et al. Biol. Lett., 10.1098/rsbl.2011.0494
105. (2011).
11. Materials and methods are available as supporting
material on Science Online.
12. G. E. Weissengruber et al., J. Anat. 209, 781 (2006).
13. F. Galis, J. J. M. van Alphen, J. A. J. Metz, Trends Ecol.
Evol. 16, 637 (2001).
14. J. Prochel, P. Vogel, M. R. Sánchez-Villagra, J. Anat. 205,
99 (2004).
15. J. R. Hutchinson, C. E. Miller, G. Fritsch, T. Hildebrandt,
in Anatomical Imaging: Towards a New Morphology,
R. Frey, H. Endo, Eds. (Springer, Berlin, 2009),
pp. 23–38.
16. C. E. Miller, C. Basu, G. Fritsch, T. Hildebrandt,
J. R. Hutchinson, J. R. Soc. Interface 5, 465 (2008).
17. D. R. Carrier, N. C. Heglund, K. D. Earls, Science 265,
651 (1994).
18. A. B. Clifford, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 30, 1827 (2010).
19. N. Court, Palaeontogr. Abt. A 226, 125 (1993).
20. D. E. Lieberman et al., Nature 463, 531 (2010).
21. F. Michilsens, P. Aerts, R. Van Damme, K. D’Août,
J. Zool. (London) 279, 236 (2009).
22. A. A. Biewener, Science 250, 1097 (1990).
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J. van Heerden, J. Exp. Biol. 211, 3266 (2008).
24. M. F. Bonnan, in Thunder-Lizards: the Sauropodomorph
Dinosaurs, K. Carpenter, V. Tidwell, Eds. (Indiana Univ.
106. Press, Bloomington, IN, 2005), pp. 346–380.
25. M. M. Smuts, A. J. Bezuidenhout, Onderstepoort J. Vet.
Res.
60, 1 (1993).
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61, 51 (1994).
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(2009).
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Acknowledgments: We thank the staff of the Structure
and Motion Laboratory of the Royal Veterinary College for
assistance and three anonymous reviewers for constructive
criticism. Many individuals assisted with the collection of
the cadaveric data; we particularly thank the European-based
zoos that provided the specimens and G. Fritsch for CT
scans done in Germany. O. Cosar, R. Weller, A. Wilson, and
K. Jespers assisted with the ex vivo loading experiments.
J. Molnar assisted with Figs. 1 to 4 and the movies. This project
was funded by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences
Research
Council (BBSRC) (grants BB/C516844/1 and BB/H002782/1
to J.R.H.). Additionally, A.A.P. appreciates funding from
Arthritis Research UK and the BBSRC, and A.B. was supported
by the Veterinary Advisory Committee of the UK Horserace
Betting Levy Board. The data reported in this paper are
tabulated in the SOM. The authors declare no conflicts
107. of interest.
Supporting Online Material
www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/334/6063/1699/DC1
Materials and Methods
SOM Text
Figs. S1 to S16
Tables S1 to S3
References (31–41)
Movies S1 to S4
20 July 2011; accepted 8 November 2011
10.1126/science.1211437
Global Seabird Response to Forage
Fish Depletion—One-Third for the Birds
Philippe M. Cury,1* Ian L. Boyd,2* Sylvain Bonhommeau,3
Tycho Anker-Nilssen,4
Robert J. M. Crawford,5 Robert W. Furness,6 James A. Mills,7
Eugene J. Murphy,8
Henrik Österblom,9 Michelle Paleczny,10 John F. Piatt,11 Jean-
Paul Roux,12,13
Lynne Shannon,14 William J. Sydeman15
Determining the form of key predator-prey relationships is
critical for understanding marine
ecosystem dynamics. Using a comprehensive global database,
we quantified the effect of
fluctuations in food abundance on seabird breeding success. We
identified a threshold in prey
(fish and krill, termed “forage fish”) abundance below which
seabirds experience consistently
reduced and more variable productivity. This response was
108. common to all seven ecosystems and
14 bird species examined within the Atlantic, Pacific, and
Southern Oceans. The threshold
approximated one-third of the maximum prey biomass observed
in long-term studies. This
provides an indicator of the minimal forage fish biomass needed
to sustain seabird
productivity over the long term.
P
ublic and scientific appreciation for the
role of top predators in marine ecosystems
has grown considerably, yet many upper
trophic level (UTL) species, including seabirds,
marine mammals, and large predatory fish, re-
main depleted owing to human activities (1–4).
Fisheries impacts include direct mortality of ex-
ploited species and the more subtle effects of
altering trophic pathways and the functioning of
marine ecosystems (5). Specifically, fisheries for
lower trophic level (LTL) species, primarily small
coastal pelagic fish (e.g., anchovies and sar-
dines), euphausiid crustaceans (krill), and squid
(hereafter referred to as “forage fish”), threaten
the future sustainability of UTL predators in
marine ecosystems (6, 7). An increasing global
demand for protein and marine oils contributes
pressure to catch more LTL species (8). Thus,
fisheries for LTL species are likely to increase
even though the consequences of such activity
remain largely unknown at the ecosystem level. It
remains challenging, however, to assess fishing
impacts on food webs because numerical re-
109. lationships between predators and prey are often
unknown, even for commercially valuable fish
(9, 10). Ecosystem models and ecosystem-based
fisheries management, for which maintaining
1Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, UMR EME-212,
Centre de Recherche Halieutique Méditerranéenne et Tropi-
cale, Avenue Jean Monnet, BP 171, 34203 Sète Cedex, France.
2Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St
Andrews
KY16 8LB, UK. 3Ifremer, UMR EME 212, Centre de Recherche
HalieutiqueMéditerranéenneetTropicale,AvenueJeanMonnet,
BP 171, 34203 Sète Cedex, France. 4Norwegian Institute for
Nature Research, Post Office Box 5685 Sluppen, NO-7485
Trondheim, Norway. 5Branch Oceans and Coasts, Department
of
Environmental Affairs, Private Bag X2, Rogge Bay 8012, South
Africa. 6College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, Uni-
versity of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK. 710527 A Skyline
Drive, Corning, NY 14830, USA. 8British Antarctic Survey,
High
Cross, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ET, UK. 9Baltic Nest
Institute, Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University,
SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden. 10Fisheries Centre, Aquatic
Ecosystems Research Laboratory (AERL), 2202 Main Mall, The
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T
1Z4.
11U.S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, 4210 Uni-
versity Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508, USA. 12Ecosystem
Analysis
Section, Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources, Lüderitz
Marine Research, Post Office Box 394, Lüderitz, Namibia.
13Animal Demography Unit, Zoology Department, University
of
Cape Town, Private Bag X3, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7701,
South Africa. 14Marine Research Institute and Zoology Depart-
110. ment, University of Cape Town, Private Bag X3, Rondebosch,
Cape Town 7701, South Africa. 15Farallon Institute for
Advanced
Ecosystem Research, Post Office Box 750756 Petaluma, CA
94952, USA.
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
[email protected] (P.M.C.); [email protected] (I.L.B.)
www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 334 23 DECEMBER 2011
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Examining Modern Leadership Toolkit 1.0
Use this toolkit for quick access to resources that may be used
to support skill and knowledge development related
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way with discussions and assignments in ORG561.
Gather additional resources for your kit and share with others in
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version Leadership Toolkit 2.0.
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