Essentials of SociologyThirteenth EditionChapter 10Gender

Essentials of Sociology
Thirteenth Edition
Chapter 10
Gender and Age
Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All
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Learning Objectives (1 of 4)
10.1 Distinguish between sex and gender; use research on
Vietnam veterans and testosterone to explain why the door to
biology is opening in sociology.
10.2 Discuss the origin of gender discrimination, and review
global aspects of violence against women.
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10.3 Review the rise of feminism, and summarize gender
inequality in health care and education
10.4 Explain reasons for the pay gap; discuss the glass ceiling
and sexual harassment.
10.5 Summarize violence against women: rape, murder, and
violence in the home.
10.6 Discuss changes in gender and politics.
10.7 Explain why the future looks hopeful.

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10.8 Understand how attitudes toward the elderly vary around
the world; explain how industrialization led to a graying globe.
10.9 Discuss changes in perceptions of the elderly.
10.10 Summarize theories of disengageme nt, activity, and
continuity.
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10.11 Explain the conflict perspective on Social Security, and
discuss intergenerational competition and conflict.
10.12 Discuss developing views of aging and the impact of
technology on how long people live.
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Issues of Sex and Gender
10.1 Distinguish between sex and gender; use research on
Vietnam veterans and testosterone to explain why the door to
biology is opening in sociology.
The Sociological Significance of Gender
Gender Differences in Behavior: Biology or Culture?
The Dominant Position in Sociology
Opening the Door to Biology
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The Sociological Significance of Gender
Standards of gender
Each human group determines its ideas of “maleness” and
femaleness”
Standards of gender are arbitrary and vary from one culture to
another, but due to ethnocentrism, each group thinks that its
preferences reflect what gender “really” is
Around the world men and women try to make themselves
appealing by aspiring to their group’s standards of gender
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Gender Differences in Behavior:
Biology or Culture?
Determining sex
Egg (by mother) and sperm (by father)
23 chromosomes by egg (ovum) and 23 chromosome by the
sperm
Egg has the X chromosome but sperm can have X or Y
An XX combination results in a girl
An XY combination results in a boy
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The Dominant Position in Sociology
Does biology determine behavior?
The dominant sociological position is that social factors, not
biology, are the reasons people do what they do
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Opening the Door to Biology (1 of 2)

A medical accident
The Vietnam veterans study
More research on humans
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Opening the Door to Biology (2 of 2)
Hue, South Vietnam, February 6, 1958. A U.S. Marine keeps
firing while others pull a wounded soldier to safety.
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Gender Inequality in Global Perspective
(1 of 4)
10.2 Discuss the origin of gender discrimination, and review
global aspects of violence against women.
How Did Females Become a Minority Group?
Sex typing of work
Global violence against women
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(2 of 4)
It is the job of these women in Burundi to get the water for their
families. They carry not only the water, but also their young

children.
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(3 of 4)
Swara, an ancient custom, includes both adult males marrying
female children and marrying children to one another. To settle
a debt, the father of this Pakistani girl offered her as a bride
when she was just 5 years old. To protect her identity, only part
of her face is shown.
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(4 of 4)
A 6-year-old girl in Kenya screaming in pain as she is being
circumcised. Her 18-year-old sister is holding her so she cannot
move. Later, she will comfort the girl.
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Gender Inequality in the United States
10.3 Review the rise of feminism, and summarize gender
inequality in health care and education.
Fighting Back: The Rise of Feminism
Gender Inequality in Health Care
Gender Inequality in Education

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Fighting Back: The Rise of Feminism
The “first wave” of the U.S. women’s movement met enormous
opposition
The “second wave” continues today
The “third wave” overlaps and incorporates more women of
color and alternative views
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Figure 10.1 Teaching Gender
The “Dick and Jane” readers were the top selling readers
in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s. In addition to
reading, they taught “gender messages.” What gender message
do you see here?
What gender lesson is being taught here?
Besides learning words like “pigs” (relevant at that historical
period), boys and girls also learned that rough outside work
was for men.
What does this page teach children other than how to read the
word “Father”? (Look to the left to see what Jane and Mother
are doing.)
Source: From Dick and Jane: Fun with Our Family, Illustrations
© copyright 1951, 1979, and Dick and Jane: We Play Outside,
copyright © 1965, Pearson Education, Inc., published by Scott,
Foresman and Company. Used with permission.
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Gender Inequality in Health Care
Sexism
Heart surgery
Hysterectomies
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Figure 10.2 Changes in College Enrollment, by Sex
*This sharp drop in women’s enrollment occurred when large
numbers of male soldiers returned from World War II and
attended college under the new GI Bill of Rights.
**Author’s estimate.
Source: By the author. Based on Statistical Abstract of the
United States 1938:Table 114; 1959:Table 158; 1991:Table 261;
2011:Table 273; 2017:Table 290.
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Figure 10.3 College Students, by Sex and Race–Ethnicity

Bar graph showing the male/female proportion of U.S. college
students across various racial-ethnic groups.
United States 2017: Table 291.
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Gender Inequality in Education
With fewer men than women in college, is it time to consider
affirmative action for men?
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Figure 10.4 Gender Changes in Professional Degrees
Bar graph
showing the
distinct changes
in the relative
proportion
of females
in three major
professions

since 1970.
*Latest year available.
Source: By the author. Based on Digest of Education Statistics
2007:Table 269; 2017:Table 319.
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Gender Inequality in the Workplace (1 of 4)
10.4 Explain reasons for the pay gap; discuss the glass ceiling
and sexual harassment.
The Pay Gap
Is the Glass Ceiling Cracking?
Sexual Harassment—And Worse
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Figure 10.5 Proportion of Men and Women in the U.S. Labor
Force
Line graph demonstrating the change in the male/female
proportion of the U.S. workforce over time.
Source: By the author. Based on Women’s Bureau of the United
States 1969:10; Manpower Report to the President, 1971:203,
205; Mills and Palumbo 1980:6, 45; Statistical Abstract of the

United States 2017:Table 611.
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Figure 10.6 Women in the Workforce
U.S. map showing state-by-state percentages of women working
outside the home.
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Figure 10.7 The Gender Pay Gap, by Education1
1Mean earnings of full-time year-around workers. The
percentage at the bottom of each purple bar indicates the
women’s percentage of the men’s income. Categories in the
government table that are not here are those with less than 9th
grade education and those who have professional degrees.
Source: By the author. Based on U.S. Census Bureau 2016c.

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Figure 10.8 The Gender Gap over Time: What Percentage of
Men’s Income Do Women Earn?
Graph demonstrating
the growing difference
in pay between
men and women
over time.
United States 1995:Table 739; 2017:Table 730, and earlier
years; and Figure 10.7 of this chapter. Broken lines indicate the
author’s estimate.
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The Pay Gap
To start at a higher salary, learn to negotiate. And don't accept
the first offer.
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Is the Glass Ceiling Cracking?
As the glass ceiling slowly cracks, women are gaining entry into
the top positions of U.S. corporations. Shown here is Mary
Barra, the CEO of General Motors.
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Sexual Harassment—and Worse
Sexual Harassment
Unwelcome sexual attention at work or at school, which may
affect job or school performance or create a hostile environment
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Gender and Violence (1 of 4)
10.5 Summarize violence against women: rape, murder, and
violence in the home.
Violence against Women
Rape: Various kinds exist, varying from forcible rape by
strangers to acquaintance rape
Murder
Domestic violence

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Gender and Violence (2 of 4)Table 10.1 Rape VictimsAgeRate
per 1,000 Females12–141.415–171.718–202.621–241.825–
341.335–490.950–640.565 and Older0.1
NOTE: In 2012, the age categories were changed, creating some
distortions, especially for ages 18–20.
Source: By the author. A ten-year average based on Statistical
Abstract of the United States 2008:Table 313; 2009:Table 305;
2010: Table 305; 2011: Table 313; 2012: Table 317; 2013:
Table 322; 2014: Table 328; 2015: Table 329; 2016: Table 338;
2017: Table 341.
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Gender and Violence (3 of 4)Table 10.2 Relationship of Victims
and RapistsRelationshipPercentageKnown to the Victim53%
Well Known or Casual Acquaintance33% Intimate Partner
12% Relative 8%Stranger39%Not Reported 8%
Source: By the author. A ten-year average as reported in
Statistical Abstract of the United States 2017:Table 342.
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Figure 10.9 Killers and Their Victims
Bar graphs comparing the proportion of males to females in
those who kill and those who are killed.

Source: FBI 2016:Table 6, Expanded Homicide Data.
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Gender and Violence (4 of 4)
Domestic violence
In the family, too, women are the typical victims
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The Changing Face of Politics (1 of 2)
10.6 Discuss changes in gender and politics.
Underrepresentation
Although women voters greatly outnumber men voters, men
greatly outnumber women in political office
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The Changing Face of Politics (2 of 2) Table 10.3 U.S. Women
in Political OfficeNational OfficeOffices Held by Women
(Percentage)Offices Held by Women (Number) U.S.
Senate21% 21 U.S. Representatives19.8%
84State Office Governors12% 6 Lt.
Governors24% 12 Attorneys General14%
7 Secretaries of State26% 13 Treasurers16%
8 State Auditors20% 10 State Legislators25%

1,840
Source: By the author. Based on Center for American Women
and Politics 2017.
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Glimpsing the Future
10.7 Explain why the future looks hopeful.
The Future Looks Hopeful
Stereotypes are being shattered and structural barriers continue
to fall
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Aging in Global Perspective (1 of 2)
10.8 Understand how attitudes toward the elderly vary around
the world; explain how industrialization led to a graying globe.
Extremes of Attitudes and Practices
Industrialization and the Graying of the Globe
The Graying of America
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Extremes of Attitudes and Practices
Among some groups, the elderly don’t retire. They continue
their traditional tasks, but they do slow down. This man on the
Li River in Yangshuo, Guangxi, China, continues to fish with
his cormorant, just as he has done from his youth.

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Figure 10.10 The Graying of the Globe
World map showing country-by-country percentages of their
over-64 populations.
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Figure 10.11 U.S. Life Expectancy by Year of Birth
Sources: By the author. Based on Historical Statistics of the
United States, Colonial Times to 1970, Bicentennial Edition,
Part I, Series B, 107–115; Statistical Abstract of the United
States 2017:Table 112.
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Figure 10.12 The Graying of America: Americans Age 65 and
Older

Bar graph illustrating the increase in the percentage of the aged
over time in the United States.
United States 2017:Table 8, and earlier years.
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Figure 10.13 The Median Age of the U.S. Population
Bar graph illustrating the increase in the average age over time
in the United States.
United States 2017:Table 8, and earlier years.
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Figure 10.14 Life Expectancy in Global Perspective
Bar graph comparing
the life expectancy
in selected countries.

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Figure 10.15 As Florida Goes, So Goes the Nation
U.S. map showing percentage of elderly by state.
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The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
10.9 Discuss changes in perceptions of the elderly.
Shifting Meanings of Growing Old
The Influence of the Mass Media
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Shifting Meanings of Growing Old
Shifting meaning from asset to liability
Shifting again from a period preceding death to a period of
growth
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The Influence of the Mass Media
When does "old" begin? Until recently, Halle Berry, age 51,
would have been considered elderly. No longer. This change
illustrates the social nature of age and aging.
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The Functionalist Perspective (1 of 2)
10.10 Summarize theories of disengagement, activity, and
continuity.
Disengagement Theory
Activity Theory
Continuity Theory

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Disengagement Theory
The function of pensions
The benefits of retirement through the disengagement theory
Evaluation of the theory
Exchanging one set of roles for another
What is the meaning of retirement
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Activity Theory
This 73-year-old man teaches yoga in Hangzhou, Zhejiang,
China. I wonder how many 20-year-olds, even teenagers, could
keep up with him.
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Continuity Theory
Adjusting to changes in life by continuing ties to the past
The impact of social class
Evaluation of the theory
Is the theory too broad?
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The Conflict Perspective (1 of 2)
10.11 Explain the conflict perspective on Social Security, and
discuss intergenerational competition and conflict.

Fighting for Resources: Social Security Legislation
“Old People Are Sucking Us Dry”: Intergenerational
Competition and Conflict
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Fighting for Resources: Social
Security Legislation
The U.S. elderly are a potent political force today. They were
not considered so until Dr. Francis Everett Townsend (pictured
here) organized them as a political force in the 1930s.
Townsend proposed a radical $200 per month pension plan for
the elderly in the midst of the Great Depression. His plan and
campaign frightened Congress.
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Figure 10.16 Social Security Payments to Beneficiaries
Line graph illustrating the dramatic increase in the amount of
money spent on Social Security.
United States 1997:Table 518;
2017:Table 567. Broken line indicates the author’s projections.
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Figure 10.17 Health Care Costs for the Elderly and Disabled
Line graph illustrating
the dramatic increase
in the amount of money
spent on Medicare and
Medicaid.
NOTE: Medicare is intended for the elderly and disabled,
Medicaid for the poor. About 18 percent of Medicaid payments
($53 billion) go for medical care for the elderly (Statistical
Abstract 2017:Table 161).
United States various years, and 2017:Table 148. Broken lines
indicate the author's projections.
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Figure 10.18 Age and Trends in Poverty
Line graph comparing percentages of children and seniors in the
United States over time.

United States, various years, and 2017:Table 738. Broken lines
indicate the author’s projections.
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Looking Toward the Future
10.12 Discuss developing views of aging and the impact of
technology on how long people live.
New Views: Creative Aging
A new period of life . . . but social class still matters
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Photo Credits
Chapter 10 307: Monika Graff UPI Photo Service/Newscom;
306: Wilson Melo/Reuters; 306: Universal Images
Group/SuperStock; 306: Art Wolfe/Science Source; 306: Bill
Bachmann/The Image Works; 306: Dinodia/The Image Works;
306: Monica Rodriguez/Getty Images; 306: Nevada Wier/Getty
Images; 306: Blaine Harrington III/Alamy Stock Photo; 308:
Thomas Dallal/Sipa Press; 308: TopFoto/The Image Works;
309: Ingram Publishing/Newscom; 312: Jeremy Horner/Alamy
Stock Photo; 313: Sean Sprague/The Image Works; 310: James
M. Henslin; 310: James M. Henslin; 310: James M. Henslin;
310: James M. Henslin; 310: James M. Henslin; 311: James M.
Henslin; 311: James M. Henslin; 311: James M. Henslin; 311:

James M. Henslin; 311: James M. Henslin; 313: AAMIR
QURESHI/Staff/Getty Images; 314: Getty Images; 315:
Francoise Sylvie/SIPA/Newscom; 316: Hulton Deutsch/Getty
Images; 318: Westend61/Getty Images; 320:
anythings/Shutterstock; 320: Steve Debenport/E+/Getty Images;
326: dpa picture alliance/Alamy Stock Photo; 327:
Kes/www.CartoonStock.com; 328: Hero Images Inc./Alamy
Stock Photo; 330: Jason Dorday/Stringer/Getty Images; 303:
Christie’s Images Ltd./SuperStock; 331: Sean Pavone/Alamy
Stock Photo; 331: PETE SOUZA/KRT/Newscom; 335: James M.
Henslin; 336: Dennis Van Tine/Sipa USA/AP Images; 337: The
Brilliant Mind of Edison Lee is used with the permission of
John Hambrock, King Features Syndicate and the Cartoonist
Group. All rights reserved.; 338: Imagine China/Newscom; 339:
Bettmann/Getty Images; 340: Enigma/Alamy Stock Photo; 340:
Dennis Welsh/UpperCut Images/Getty Images; 342: Reed
Saxon/AP Images;
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Copyright
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62
Essentials of Sociology

Thirteenth Edition
Chapter 3
Socialization
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3.1 Explain how feral, isolated, and institutionalized children
help us understand that “society makes us human.”
3.2 Use the ideas and research of Cooley (looking-glass self),
Mead (role taking), and Piaget (reasoning) to explain
socialization into the self and mind.
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3.3 Explain how the development of personality and morality
and socialization into emotions are part of how “society makes
us human.”
3.4 Discuss how gender messages from the family, peers, and
the mass media teach us society’s gender map.
3.5 Explain how the family, the neighborhood, religion, day
care, school, peer groups, and the workplace are agents of
socialization.
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3.6 Explain what total institutions are and how they resocialize
people.

3.7 Identify major divisions of the life course, and discuss the
sociological significance of the life course.
3.8 Understand why we are not prisoners of socialization.
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Society Makes Us Human (1 of 2)
3.1 Explain how feral, isolated, and institutionalized children
help us understand that “society makes us human.”
The relative influence of heredity and the environment in human
behavior has fascinated and plagued researchers. Twins intrigue
researchers, especially twins who were separated at birth.
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Society Makes Us Human (2 of 2)
Feral children
Isolated children
Institutionalized children
Deprived animals
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Isolated Children
Language is the key to culture
Culture makes us human
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Institutionalized Children (1 of 2)
The Skeels/Dye Experiment
“High intelligence” depends on early, close relations
Data confirmed in Romania’s orphanages
Genie
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Institutionalized Children (2 of 2)
Children at an orphanage in Kaliyampoondi, India, sleeping in
their dormitory. The way children are treated affects their
ability to function as adults, even their ability to reason and to
relate to others.
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Deprived Animals
Harlows’ experiments with rhesus monkeys
Confirms data from isolated humans
Socialization
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Socialization into the Self and Mind
3.2 Use the ideas and research of Cooley (looking-glass self),
Mead (role taking), and Piaget (reasoning) to explain
socialization into the self and mind.
Cooley and the Looking-Glass Self
Mead and Role Taking
Piaget and the Development of Reasoning

Global Aspects of the Self and Reasoning
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Cooley and the Looking-Glass Self
We imagine how we appear to those around us
We interpret others’ reactions
We develop a self-concept
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Mead and Role Taking (1 of 2)
Mead analyzed taking the role of the other as an essential part
of learning to be a full-fledged member of society. At first, we
are able to take the role only of significant others, as this child
is doing. Later we develop the capacity to take the role of the
generalized other, which is essential not only for cooperation
but also for the control of antisocial desires.
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Figure 3.1 How We Learn to Take the Role of the Other: Mead’s
Three Stages
Chart showing the transition through Mead’s developmental
stages.
Source: By the author.
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Mead and Role Taking (2 of 2)
To help his students understand the term generalized other,
Mead used baseball as an illustration. Why are team sports and
organized games excellent examples to use in explaining this
concept?
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Piaget and the Development of Reasoning (1 of 2)
Sensorimotor stage
Preoperational stage
Concrete operational stage
Formal operational stage
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Piaget and the Development of Reasoning (2 of 2)
Jean Piaget featured on a Swiss stamp.
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Global Aspects of the Self and Reasoning
Self may develop earlier than Mead suggests

Stages not as distinct as Piaget concluded
Some people seem to get stuck in the concreteness of the third
stage
Never reach fourth stage of abstract thinking
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Learning Personality, Morality, and Emotions
3.3 Explain how the development of personality and morality
and socialization into emotions are part of how “society makes
us human.”
Freud and the Development of Personality
Kohlberg and the Development of Morality
Socialization into Emotions
What We Feel
Society Within Us: The Self and Emotions as Social Control
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Freud and the Development of Personality (1 of 2)
Freud and the development of personality
id, ego, superego
Sociological evaluation
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Freud and the Development of Personality (2 of 2)
Shown here is Sigmund Freud in 1931 as he poses for a sculptor
in Vienna, Austria. Although Freud was one of the most
influential theorists of the twentieth century, most of his ideas
have been discarded.

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Kohlberg and the Development of Morality
Kohlberg’s theory
Criticisms of Kohlberg
Research with babies
Cultural relativity of morality
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Socialization into Emotions (1 of 2)
Global emotions
Anger, distrust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise
Expressing emotions
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Socialization into Emotions (2 of 2)
What emotions are these people expressing? Are these emotions
global? Is their way of expressing them universal?
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What We Feel
Cross-cultural research
More is needed to help us understand how our society affects

what we feel
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Society Within Us: The Self and Emotions as Social Control
Are we free?
Expectations of family and friends
Social mirror
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Socialization into Gender
3.4 Discuss how gender messages from the family, peers, and
the mass media teach us society’s gender map.
Learning the Gender Map
Gender Messages in the Family
Gender Messages from Peers
Gender Messages in the Mass Media
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Learning the Gender Map
Gender: Attitudes and behaviors expected of us because we are
male/female
Gender map/gender socialization
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Gender Messages in the Family (1 of 3)
Parents

Toys and play
Gay and lesbian parents
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It is in the family that we first learn how to do gender, how to
match our ideas, attitudes, and behaviors to those expected of us
because of our sex. This photo is from Borneo, Malaysia.
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Shkurtan Hasanpapaj, on the right, is a sworn virgin, shown
here with her twin sister Sose. The photo was taken in Shkodra,
Albania.
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Gender Messages From Peers
Peer groups
Girls reinforce images of appearance and behavior appropriate
for females
Boys police one another’s interests and ways of discussing sex
and violence
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Gender Messages in the Mass Media (1 of 2)
Television, movies, and cartoons

Video games
Advertising
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Gender Messages in the Mass Media (2 of 2)
Wasting time? Just fun? Improving hand–eye coordination?
Parents’ lament? Now so culturally integrated and gaining
respect that a university (Robert Morris in Chicago) now calls
playing video games a sport and awards a scholarship in video
games. The newest position in coaching is e-sport coach.
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Agents of Socialization
3.5 Explain how the family, the neighborhood, religion, day
care, school, peer groups, and the workplace are agents of
socialization.
The Family
The Neighborhood
Religion
Day Care
The School
Peer Groups
The Workplace
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The Family
Social class and type of work
Social class and play

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The Neighborhood
Poor neighborhoods
Children from these areas fare worse than children from wealthy
neighborhoods
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Religion
Foundation of U.S. morality
Specific doctrines, values, and morality
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Day Care
Participating in day care
Differing personalities for children
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The School (1 of 2)
Manifest functions
Latent functions
Hidden curriculum
Corridor curriculum

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The School (2 of 2)
Schools are a primary agent of socialization. One of their
functions is to teach children the attitudes and skills they are
thought to need as adults.
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Peer Groups (1 of 2)
Peers
Allow children a source of resistance to parental and school
socialization
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Peer Groups (2 of 2)
Status insecurity, already high at this time of life, increases
with gossip and ridicule.
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The Workplace
Anticipatory socialization
A mental rehearsal for the career
Ongoing socialization
The job becomes a greater part of the self-concept

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Resocialization (1 of 2)
3.6 Explain what total institutions are and how they resocialize
people.
Total Institutions
Degradation ceremonies
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Resocialization (2 of 2)
A recruit with a drill instructor.
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Socialization through the Life Course (1 of 6)
3.7 Identify major divisions of the life course, and discuss the
sociological significance of the life course.
The Life Course
Childhood (from birth to about age 12)
Adolescence (ages 13-17)
Transitional adulthood (ages 18-29)
The middle years (ages 30-65)
The older years (about age 63 on)
Applying the Sociological Perspective to the Life Course
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Childhood (from birth to about age 12)

Child labor
Terrorizing children
Industrialization
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Adolescence (ages 13-17)
A social invention
Initiation rites
Transitional adulthood (ages 18-29)
Adultolescence
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Figure 3.2 Adulthood: A New Stage in the Life Course
Bar chart showing changes over time in the percentages of those
who have reached full adulthood by their 20s and 30s.
Source: Furstenberg et al. 2004. Year 2010 is the author's
estimate based on Sironi and
Fursterberg 2014.
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With full adulthood postponed longer and longer, Dad and
Mom's basement will do just fine as a free apartment.
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The Middle Years (ages 30-65)
The Early Middle
The Later Middle
The Older Years (about age 65 on)
The Transitional Older Years
The Later Older Years
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Applying the sociological perspective to the life course
Social location
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Are We Prisoners of Socialization?
3.8 Understand why we are not prisoners of socialization.
We Are NOT Robots

We Are Individuals
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Photo Credits (1 of 2)
Chapter 3 Christopher Corr/Ikon Images/Superstock; 004: Based
on Begley 1979; Chen 1979; Wright 1995; Segal and
Hershberger 2005 Segal and Mulligan 2014; Woo 2015.; 004:
Kingsley Davis, Kingsley Davis: A Biography And Selections
From His Writings, Transaction Publishers, 2004.; 006: Skeels,
H. M. “Adult Status of Children with Contrasting Early Life
Experiences: A Follow-up Study.” Monograph of the Society for
Research in Child Development, 31, 3, 1966.; 007: Pines, Maya.
“The Civilizing of Genie.” Psychology Today, 15, September
1981:28–34.; 009: Cooley, Charles Horton. Human Nature and
the Social Order. New York: Scribner’s, 1902.; 018: Based on
Zumbrun 2007; Bilefsky 2008; Paterniti 2014; Mema and
Gaudichet 2016.; 019: Eder, Donna. “On Becoming Female:
Lessons Learned in School.” In Down to Earth Sociology:
Introductory Readings, 14th ed., James M. Henslin, ed. New
York: Free Press, 2007.; 024: Based on Rodriguez, Richard.
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