Errors in Language Learning and Use

1. ERRORS IN LANGUAGE
LEARNING AND USE
(LEVELS OF ERRORS)
Student Name: Mohammad Faisal
Student No.: 21814715
Course Code: ELT521
Course Name: Applied Linguistics
Year: 2018 - 2019

2. TABLE OF CONTENT
Level of errors
A. Text errors
B. Lexical Errors
1.Lexical Errors Classification
1.1. Formal Misselection
1.2. Formal Misformations
1.3. Distortions
C. Semantic Errors in Lexis
1. Confusion in Sense Relations
2. Collocational Errors
D. Wrong Near Synonyms
E. Grammar Errors

3. Text errors
The term ‘text’ refers to a unit of written language larger than sentence.
Texts can come in all shapes and sizes: they can correspond extent with
any linguistic unit letter, sound, word, sentence, combination of
sentences
‘A text is best regarded as a SEMANTIC unit; a unit not of form but of
meaning.’ (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 1-2)
Cohesion is the set of possibilities that exist for making the text hang
together

4. Lexical Errors
Hemchua & Schmitt (2006) found that lexical errors produced by the
subjects of the study were mostly derived from ‘near synonyms’ (for
instance, you will get up <wake up> in the morning because of the
sound of birds). Besides, most of the subjects have a problem in
semantics rather than the form of words.

5. Lexical Errors Classification
James (1998) classifies formal errors into three classes:
formal misselection, formal misformations and distortions.
he divides each class of formal errors into several sub-
classes

6. 1. Formal Misselection
Formal misselection contains two similar lexical forms which consist of
visual and sound similarity. James (1998) classifies formal misselection
into four sub classes as follow:
1.1. Suffix Type (for instance, it is one of her greatest accomplishes
[accomplishment]).
The incorrect suffixation or suffix error is one of the sub-classes in formal
misselection that consists of synforms (Hemchua & Schmitt, 2006, p. 19).

7. Essentially, synform is categorized into two types:
A) the same word class with similar form (for instance, we can play an educator
<education> game)
B) the inappropriate use of a particular word class (for instance, traditional musical
instruments performed <performance> is being held).
1.2. Prefix Type (for instance, her behavior is really inmature [immature]).
1.3. Vowel-Based Type (for instance, the number of Anna’s sit [seat] is 12A).
1.4. Consonant-Based Type (for instance, Anthony won a price [prize] from raffle).

8. 2. Formal Misformations
According to James (1998) formal misformations are the errors that can be created by the
learner from the resources of the target language or in the mother tongue. There are three
classifications of formal misformations:
2.1. Borrowing (for instance, after the Shubuh [dawn], the farmers are usually go to the
paddy field).
2.2. Coinage (for instance, drugging can be very nocive [dangerous] to our health).
2.3. Calque (for instance, I go to [am going to] school by motorcycle).

9. 3. Distortions
The results of distortions generally are non-existent forms in the target language.
James (1998) classifies distortions into four sub-classes as follow:
3.1. Omission (for instance, this can be happend [happened] because of your mistake).
3.2. Overinclusion (for instance, Jane is the most dilligent [diligent] student in her class).
3.3. Misselection (for instance, Jack’s behavior really made me anger [angry]).
3.4. Misordering (for instance, Sally will continue her study aboard [abroad]).

10. Semantic Errors
James (1998) classifies semantic error into two classes:
confusion of sense relations and collocational errors.
1. Confusion in Sense Relations
Hemchua & Schmitt (2006) stated that the meaning of vocabulary generally
necessitates concepts and their relations in lexical field (for instance, the words
man and boy belong to the lexical field of ‘gender’).

11. Sub-classes of confusion of sense relations and their examples:
1.1. Using a Superonym for a Hyponym (for instance, could you please call
the craftsman [electrician] to fix our electricity?).
1.2. Using a Hyponym for a Superonym (for instance, your will smash [break]
that window if you close it too roughly).
1.3. Using Inappropriate Co-Hyponyms (for instance, Kenneth gives his
girlfriend a beautiful vermilion [scarlet] rose).
1.4. Using Wrong Near Synonym (for instance, my sister is an excellent
[brilliant] scientist).

12. 2. Collocational Errors
According to James (1998) collocation is a pair of words which is
high-frequently used together and it is accepted by the native speakers.
Moreover, James (1998) classifies collocations error into three sub-classes
as follow:
2.1. Semantically Determined Selection (for instance, crooked stick
instead of crooked year).
2.2. Statistically Weighted Preferences (for instance, this movie is totally
cool [totally awesome is more preferable]).
2.3. Arbitrary Combination and Irreversible Binomials (for instance, chips
and fish instead of fish and chips)

13. Wrong Near Synonyms
The following are the examples of this error which can be grouped into two cases as
follows:
1. Using informal words for formal words.
For instance, … and communicate quickly <instantly> with no restriction area, space,
and time. ‘communicate quickly’ is not entirely incorrect, but the use of ‘quickly’ is more
appropriate to be used in informal writing.
2. Two words were close in meaning but were different in usage.
For instance, Internet can also be used to expand <broaden> our knowledge.
The use of ‘expand’ is improper since it has a meaning ‘to become greater in size’ and
the following noun is categorized as an uncountable noun, thus, ‘broaden’ (to increase
our experience, knowledge) is more appropriate to be used in the context of this
sentence.

14. Grammar Errors
Morphological Errors
The morphological errors of English by L2 learners have been studied by
various scholars.
Duskova (1969: 32) gives an account of the morphological errors of 50 post
graduate students of Czech back ground learning English. She has found
166 morphological errors in the performance data of these learners and
noted that the highest difficulty is faced by these learners in English plural
formation.
Bhatia (1974: 346) also finds 18 errors of plural formation by Hindi speakers
learning English. In her other study (1975: 66-83) she finds 130 errors of
morphology out of the total of 1502 grammatical errors. In her study she
finds maximum number of plural formation errors under morphological
errors.

15. Errors of Plural Formation
Some English nouns which are changed into plural by making some
kind of modification before adding-es.
Other categories as baby/babies, thief/thieves.
handful of English nouns which are made plural by internal
modification and replacements, e.g., man/ men, foot/feet.
Some English nouns which have the same shape in the singular and
plural both, e.g., sheep/sheep, furniture/ furniture etc

16. Plural Suffixes -s and -es
Use of -es instead of -s
The Most regular form of English plural formation is adding s to the noun
ending with most of the consonants, vowels and semivowels, such as
book/books, bird/birds, tree/trees etc.

17. Use of ^es with certain Modification in Nouns
English nouns are also made plural by making some kind of modification in singular form
before adding zM for making them plurals, e.g., knife/knives, leaf/leaves.
;S or ^es to these types of nouns

18. Zero Modification
A few nouns which represent the names of fish and animals are made plural with zero
modification. They have the same forms either used as plural or singular. The learner suffix s
or es when they use these nouns as plural.

19. Mutation Plurals
There are few nouns which form their plurals by internal change of vowel, e.g., tooth/teeth.
But the learners sometimes add 's' to the singular nouns for making them plurals whereas,
these categories of nouns only require internal change for plural formation.

20. Errors of-en plurals
Some nouns are made plural by adding r^en to the
singular noun. Learners sometimes add s to this category
of noun. E.g. Childs / children - oxes / oxen

21. Errors in Sentence Structure
Fragment:
A sentence fragment is a sentence that is missing one or more of the
parts
The child who has a rash.
Fix #1: The child has a rash. (remove “who”)
Fix #2: The child who has a rash was just diagnosed with measles. (add
a predicate)
Since the drugs have many side effects.
Fix #1: The drugs have many side effects. (remove “since”)
Fix #2: Since the drugs have many side effects, the patient should be
monitored. (add a predicate)

22. Comma Splice
A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are joined with a comma.
Correct this type of error by using a comma + conjunction, a semicolon, or a period.
The doctor performed the operation, the patient died.
Fix #1: Although the doctor performed the operation, the patient died.(add a conjunction)
Fix #2: The doctor performed the operation; the patient died. (join with a semi colon)
Fix #3: The doctor performed the operation. The patient died. (create two sentences)

23. Run-on
A run-on occurs when one sentence runs into another one.
The doctor performed the operation the patient died.
Fix #1: After the doctor performed the operation, the patient died. (add a conjunction)
Fix #2: The doctor performed the operation; the patient died. (join with a semi colon)
Fix #3: The doctor performed the operation. The patient died. (create two sentences).

24. REFERENCES
Hemchua, S., & Schmitt, N. (2006). An Analysis of Lexical Errors in the
English
Compositions of Thai Learners. Prospect, 21(3), 3-25.
James, C. (1998). Errors in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error
Analysis
(Applied Linguistics & Language Study). London: Longman.
Note: most of the references are from Carl JAMES’s book (Errors in
Language Learning and Use)

25. The End