The document explores emerging adulthood as a distinct stage in Erikson's psychosocial development theory, highlighting the transition from adolescence to adulthood and the associated identity crises of 'incarnation' versus 'impudence'. It presents a study that investigates the differences in emerging adulthood experiences between boomerang children—who return to live with their parents—and those living independently, concluding that boomerang living does not hinder psychosocial development. The findings suggest that emerging adulthood qualifies as a sixth stage in Erikson’s theory and calls for the integration of this concept into social work practices and policies.

1. Emerging Adulthood as a Unique Stage in
Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
Theory: Incarnation v. Impudence
Alicia V. Patterson
University of Texas at Arlington
School of Social Work

2. Introduction
My interest in emerging adulthood…

3. Statement of the Issue
Transitions to adulthood have changed since the 1950s
when Erikson developed his theory of psychosocial
development, but the theory had not been updated to
reflect this transformation.

4. Purpose of the Study
– Test Eriksonian Emerging Adulthood theory
• What is the crisis of emerging adulthood?
• What are the characteristics of emerging adulthood
that lead to crisis resolution?
• Is emerging adulthood experienced differently by
boomerang children compared to emerging adults
living autonomously?

5. Review of Theory
– Erik H. Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory
• In each stage of life, there is a crisis to resolve
• The crisis can have a positive or negative outcome
• The crisis is resolved as a consequence of different
experiences, such as psychosexuality, relationships with
others, basic strengths and weaknesses, and perceptions of
social order
– Jeffrey Jensen Arnett’s Emerging Adulthood Theory
• Emerging adulthood has five features
– Identity exploration
– Instability
– Self-focus
– Feeling in-between
– Feelings of limitless possibilities

6. Gaps in Theory
– Erik H. Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory
• Transition directly from adolescence to young adulthood
• Emerging adulthood does not fit into young adulthood or
extended adolescence
• Emerging adulthood is not just an “in-between” stage
• Does not reflect current phenomena
– Jeffrey Jensen Arnett’s Emerging Adulthood Theory
• Emerging adulthood is not conceptualized as a life stage
that progresses to the next
• “Things happen” to emerging adults, but things are not
“accomplished” by emerging adults

7. Eriksonian Emerging Adulthood Theory
– EEA occurs between adolescence and young
adulthood
– Crisis: Incarnation v. Impudence
• Incarnation – acceptance of adult roles
and responsibilities, with realistic
expectations for the future and
concrete plans to achieve those goals
• Impudence – denial of responsibility,
concurrent with lack of planning,
unrealistic goals, and immodesty

8. Emerging Adulthood in Relation to
Psychosocial Development Theory
Psychosexual Psychosocial Radius of Basic Strengths Basic Related Binding Ritualisms
Stages and Crises Significant Antipathies Principles of Ritualizations
Modes Relations Social Order
I. Infancy Oral- Basic Trust v. Maternal Hope Withdrawal Cosmic Order Numinous Idolism
respiratory, Basic Mistrust Person
Sensory-
kinesthetic
(Incorporative
Modes)
II. Early Childhood Anal-urethral, Autonomy v. Parental Will Compulsion “Law and Judicious Legalism
Muscular Shame, Doubt Persons Order”
(Retentive-
Eliminative)
III. Play Age Infantile- Initiative v. Basic Family Purpose Inhibition Ideal Dramatic Moralism
Genital, Guilt Prototypes
Locomotor
(Intrusive,
Inclusive)
IV. School Age “Latency” Industry v. Neighborhood, Competence Inertia Technological Formal Formalism
Inferiority School Order (Technical)
V. Adolescence Puberty Identity v. Peer Groups Fidelity Repudiation Ideological Ideological Totalism
Identity and Outgroups Worldview
Confusion
VI. Emerging Adulthood Experimental Incarnation v. Temporal and Interdependence Dependence Experimental Relativism Absolutism
Sexuality Impudence Spatial Social and and Ideology
and Intimate Self-sufficiency Helplessness
Relations
VII. Young Adulthood Genitality Intimacy v. Partners in Love Exclusivity Patterns of Affiliative Elitism
Isolation Friendship, Cooperation
Sex, and
Competition, Competition
Cooperation
VIII. Adulthood Procreativity Generativity v. Divided Labor Care Rejectivity Currents of Generational Authoritism
Stagnation and Shared Education and
Household Tradition
IX. Old Age Generalization Integrity v. Mankind Wisdom Disdain Wisdom Philosophical Dogmatism
of Sensual Despair
Modes

9. Themes in Boomerang Living Research
• Boomerang child – an adult child who returns to the
parental home after living away from home for at least 6
months
• In general, researchers have studied
parents instead of the home returners
• Common research aims include impact on
parental marriage satisfaction, parent-
child relationships, and parental
satisfaction with coresidence
• Few studies guided by theory
• Predictors of boomerang living are
inconsistent throughout literature
• In general, boomerang living is considered
a positive experience

10. Gaps in Previous Research
– Few studies examine boomerang living from
the perspective of the home returner
– No quantitative study has looked at the
relationship between boomerang living and
psychosocial development
– Most publications on boomerang living are
anecdotal, not academic

11. Research Hypotheses
• The crisis of emerging adulthood, incarnation versus
impudence, resolves as a consequence of at least some of the
characteristics of Eriksonian emerging adulthood (experimental
sexuality, temporal and spatial social and intimate
relationships, interdependence, and ideological
experimentation).
• Living situation is a significant predictor of incarnation and
impudence.
• The resolution of the crisis of emerging adulthood differs for
boomerang children and emerging adults living autonomously
by postponing the resolution of the crisis of emerging
adulthood in boomerang children.
• As emerging adults successfully resolve the crisis of incarnation
versus impudence, they are more likely to boomerang to their
parental home.

12. Methodology
– Non-experimental, quantitative, self-report survey
– Participants asked to think about the time in their lives
from about 19 to 25 years
– Questionnaire administered online through
SurveyMonkey
– Purposive sample of American men and women ages
18 through 68
– A donation was made to
the National September
11 Memorial and Museum
for each completed survey

13. Instruments Used to Measure
Aspects of Emerging Adulthood
• Inventory of the Dimensions of Emerging Adulthood
(IDEA; Reifman et al., 2007)
• Psychological Separation Inventory (PSI; Hoffman, 1984)
as Psychological Separation Inventory – Short Version
(PSI-SV; Patterson & Arvidson, 2012)
• Sexual Socialization Instrument – Short Form
(SSI; Lottes & Kuriloff, 1998)
• Experiences in Close Relationships – Relationships Structures
(ECR-RS; Fraley et al., 2011)
• Millennial Survey
(Pew Social and Demographic Trends; 2010)
• Patterson’s Eriksonian Emerging Adulthood Survey
(PEEAS; Patterson, 2012)

14. Results

15. Participant Demographics
Variable n %
Sex
Female 370 64.0
Male 211 36.0
Age group
Adolescents 108 17.9
Emerging adults 219 36.4
Young adults + 262 43.5
Race/Ethnicity
White 273 49.4
Black 105 19.0
Latino 123 22.2
Other 52 9.4
Student status
Student 405 74.1
Non-student 108 19.7
Employment status
Employed 354 65.0
Not employed 177 32.5

16. Participant Homeleaving
Variable n %
Left the parental home
Yes 399 75.3
No 131 24.7
Age to leave home
Under 18 85 16.0
18 189 35.7
19 to 22 103 19.5
Over 22 10 4.1
Never moved out 131 24.7
Boomeranged
Yes 197 37.4
No 330 62.6
Perception of boomeranging
Generally positive 202 77.4
Generally negative 59 22.6

17. Hypothesis 1
– Research hypothesis: Emerging adulthood qualifies as the
sixth stage of Erikson’s psychosocial development theory
as evinced by the relationship between aspects of
Eriksonian emerging adulthood theory and established
measures of those same aspects of development.
– Null hypothesis: Emerging adulthood is not a stage of
Erikson’s psychosocial development theory due to the lack
of relationship between aspects of Eriksonian emerging
adulthood theory and established measures of those same
aspects of development.
– Tested by comparing concurrent validity between PEEAS
and valid and reliable instruments which measure the same
aspects.

18. Hypothesis 1 – Results
– The null hypothesis was rejected.
– Significant relationships exist between subscales.
Other
PEEAS
Instrument r r2 α n
Subscale
Subscales
Experimental Sexuality SSI Peer -.198 .039 .041 107
ECR-RS Avoidance -.316 .100 .001 110
PSI-SV Functional -.256 .066 .006 112
IDEA Identity Exploration .214 .046 .022 115
IDEA Experimentation .284 .081 .002 114
IDEA Self-Focus .216 .047 .022 112
Incarnation v. Impudence PSI-SV Functional -.256 .066 .006 112
IDEA Identity Exploration .709 .503 .010 12*
IDEA Negativity/Instability .752 .565 .005 12*
ECR-RS Avoidance -.466 .217 .127 12*
Social and Intimate PSI-SV Conflictual -.234 .055 .016 105
Relationships SSI-SF Peer .213 .045 .033 101
Interdependence & IDEA Identity Exploration .294 .086 .007 83
Dependence IDEA Self-Focus .391 .152 .000 83
PSI-SV Conflictual -.319 .102 .004 80
Experimental Ideology PPA Dualism .029 .001 .754 123
Overall Crisis Resolution PSI-SV Functional -.826 .682 .022 7*

19. Hypothesis 2
– Research hypothesis: The crisis of emerging
adulthood, incarnation versus impudence, successfully
resolves as a consequence of experimental
sexuality, temporal and spatial social and intimate
relationships, interdependence, and experimental
ideology.
– Null hypothesis: The crisis of emerging
adulthood, incarnation versus impudence, is
unresolved.
– Tested through ANOVA comparing crisis resolution
scores for 3 age groups: adolescents, emerging

20. Hypothesis 2 – Results
– Null hypothesis was rejected.
– There were differences in crisis resolution scores.
Obtained F Critical F Significance Total df
4.122 3.21 .023 45
– Post hoc tests revealed young adults are more likely
than emerging adults and adolescents to have higher
crisis resolution scores.
95% confidence interval
Comparison age
Age by category groups Mean difference Standard error Significance
Lower bound Upper bound
Emerging Adults .903 1.458 .536 -1.96 3.77
Adolescents
Young Adults -5.319* 1.441 .000 -8.15 -2.49
Adolescents -.903 1.458 .536 -3.77 1.96
Emerging Adults
Young Adults -6.222* 1.168 .000 -8.52 -3.93
Adolescents 5.319* 1.441 .000 2.49 8.15
Young Adults and
beyond
Emerging Adults 6.222* 1.168 .000 3.93 8.52

21. Hypothesis 3
– Research hypothesis: The resolution of the crisis of
emerging adulthood differs for boomerang children
and emerging adults living autonomously by
postponing the resolution of the crisis of emerging
adulthood in boomerang children.
– Null hypothesis: The resolution of the crisis of
emerging adulthood does not differ for boomerang
children and emerging adults living autonomously.
– Tested using a t-test to determine if there was a
difference between crisis resolution scores of
boomerang children and emerging adults living
autonomously.

22. Hypothesis 3 – Results
– Failed to reject the null hypothesis.
– No significant difference was found in the crisis
resolution scores of boomerang children and
emerging adults living autonomously.
Critical t
Obtained t Significance
df = 43
-1.312 +/-2.017 .197

23. Hypothesis 4
– Research hypothesis: As emerging adults successfully
resolve the crisis of incarnation versus impudence,
they are more likely to boomerang to the parental
home.
– Null hypothesis: Emerging adults are no more likely to
return to their parental home as they resolve the crisis
of incarnation versus impudence.
– Tested by analyzing correlations between independent
variables and boomerang living.

24. Hypothesis 4 – Results
– Null hypothesis was rejected.
– Two instrument scores were found to have significant
positive correlations with boomerang living: PEEAS
Experimental Sexuality and PEEAS Incarnation.
– One instrument score was found to have a significant
negative correlation with boomerang living: ECR-RS
Avoidance.
Instrument Subscale r r2 α n
PEEAS Experimental Sexuality .272 .074 .002 124
PEEAS Incarnation .333 .111 .000 124
ECR-RS Avoidance -.133 .018 .006 434

25. Limitations of the Study
– Sample size
• Too small for structural equation modeling (SEM)
– Missing data
• Response rate as low as 3.2% (for PEEAS Item #16)
– Survey design
• Directions for PEEAS were too complex
• Questionnaire was too long
– Self-report data
• Social desirability bias suspected

26. Implications for Social Work Theory
– Arnett’s theory of emerging adulthood is not regularly
applied in social work.
– Emerging adulthood may be better understood if it is
put in the context of a well-known social work
theory, psychosocial development.
– May start a dialogue for updating theories to reflect
current realities faced by today’s youth.

27. Implications for Social Work Practice
– Work with emerging adults and their families to
navigate this transformative life stage
• Family therapy practices
• College mental health services
• College parent week workshops
– Change perceptions of
boomerang living
• Boomeranging is a healthy
movement toward self-
sufficiency

28. Implications for Social Work Policy
– Social Policy
• The “student loan effect” has a serious impact on society –
boomerang living may mitigate that
– Education Policy
• Schools must normalize all emerging adulthood experiences,
not just the stereotypical college experience
• Colleges should acknowledge that experimental behaviors
are part of emerging adulthood
– Family Policy
• Emerging adults will remain dependent on families of origin
longer than they have in the past – families need to be
prepared

29. Implications for Social Work Research
– More research is needed
• Predictive nature of variables
– Class time for data collection
• Increase response rates
• Ability to clarify directions
• Increase interest in research
• Involvement of students
• Need an app for that?
– Larger sample sizes
• More variables need a larger sample
• Ability to use more sophisticated statistical techniques

30. Directions for Further Research
– Validate PEEAS and PSI-SV
– Determine if social desirability bias is more
apparent after participants answer questions
about their families
– Examine the impact of parental expectations of
their children’s emerging adulthood on the
reality of their children’s emerging adulthood
– Assess the effects of popular culture depictions
of boomerang living on societal perceptions of
boomerang living

31. Conclusion
– Emerging adulthood can be considered a life stage
according to Erikson’s psychosocial development
theory.
– The crisis of emerging adulthood can resolve
successfully as incarnation or unsuccessfully as
impudence.
– Boomerang living does not impede psychosocial
development during emerging adulthood.
– Boomerang living is positively
correlated with increased
sexual awareness and
acceptance of adult roles.

32. Emerging Adulthood as a Unique Stage in
Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
Theory: Incarnation v. Impudence
Alicia V. Patterson
University of Texas at Arlington
School of Social Work