“Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” is the case chosen by Özge Kavas, Management Engineering student, for final project of Engineering Ethics class. This case is studied in terms of ethics theories listed hereinafter:
I) Traditional Ethical Theories
i) Egoism
ii) Utilitarianism
iii) Ethics of duties
iv) Rights and justice
II) Contemporary Ethical Theories
i) Virtue ethics
ii) Feminist ethics
iii) Discourse ethics
iv) Post-modern ethics
Anthroposophic Medicine 2013. An Integrative Medical System Originating in Eu...Marco Ephraïm
Anthroposophic medicine is an integrative medical system developed in the early 1920s based on Rudolf Steiner's spiritual philosophy of anthroposophy. It views humans as having physical, life-giving, soul-related, and spiritual systems that interact. Disease results from imbalances among these levels. Anthroposophic medicine treats the whole person using medications, art/movement therapies, massage, counseling, and specific nursing techniques. It is practiced by doctors, therapists and nurses in integrated hospitals and practices. Studies show predominantly positive outcomes and no major risks, with patients reporting high satisfaction.
The document provides an overview of research methods used in abnormal psychology. It discusses various methods like naturalistic observation, experimental and correlation methods, epidemiological and survey research, and kinship studies including twin and adoptee studies. The goal of research is to describe, explain, predict and control abnormal behavior through ethical application of the scientific method.
Foucault and sociology of medical knowledgeMeesum Kazmi
Michel Foucault analyzed how knowledge and power interact and are used as social control. He viewed medicine not just as healing but as a social institution. For Foucault, the body is a social construct that reflects the priorities of different time periods, and modern medicine aims to manage and control populations through techniques like surveillance. Foucault argued that power operates throughout society, including through institutions like medicine, and shapes our understanding of the body, health, and normality.
The document discusses the historical evolution of ethics guidelines for research involving human subjects. It begins with the Hippocratic Oath from ancient Greece which established early standards of medical ethics. It then discusses the Nuremberg Code created after World War II which focused on informed consent and avoiding harming subjects. Finally, it examines the Declaration of Helsinki which recognized the need for institutional review and emphasized informed consent, assessing risks/benefits, and protecting subject well-being.
Ethics in Clinical Research and Historical Perspective of Nazi Trials, Nuremb...ShantanuThakre3
What is Ethics ?
The word ‘ethics’ is derived from the Greek word,
ethos, which means custom or character. Ethics is
the systematic study of values, so as to decide
what is right and what is wrong. Ethics is concerned
with what is good for individuals and society.
What is Clinical Research ?
Clinical Research is a branch of healthcare science that determines the safety and effectiveness of medications, devices, diagnostic products and treatment regimens intended for human use. These may be used for prevention, treatment, diagnosis or for relieving symptoms of a disease.
Importance of Ethics in Clinical Research :-
1. Ethics is important in clinical research because it keeps the researcher from committing errors while seeking knowledge and truth.
2. Ethical guidelines for clinical research were formulated only after discovery of inhumane behavior with participants during research experiments.
3. In clinical research human beings are involved, as opposed to animals, atoms or asteroids, as the object of study.
4. It focuses on improving human health and well-being, typically by identifying better methods to treat, cure or prevent illnesses.
5. The Ethics Committee stands as the bridge between the researcher and the ethical guidelines of the country
Observation and reason are the natural methods to discover reality, which science uses to analyze data and link causes and effects. A physician must use cognitive and scientific methods to understand human life and promote human development, which must be respected. Advances in human genome research have increased appreciation for the value of human life, but some situations endanger life in social and political terms, contradicting respect for human rights. While promoting rights, some allow legislation against the right to life of the unborn or those facing death. Thinking of oneself as the absolute owner of life can lead to relativism and losing a sense of true freedom, autonomy and justice.
This document discusses euthanasia from several perspectives. It defines euthanasia as terminating a very sick person's life to relieve suffering. There are different types of euthanasia, including active euthanasia by lethal injection and passive euthanasia by withdrawing treatment. Arguments for and against euthanasia's legalization are presented. Religious views and Buddhist perspectives are also covered, with most Buddhists believing voluntary euthanasia should be forbidden due to its impact on one's mental state.
The conception of the body in ayurvedic medicineElsa von Licy
1) The document discusses the conception of the body in Ayurvedic medicine, specifically focusing on its humoral theory and perception of anatomy.
2) It notes that while Ayurvedic texts had an elaborate knowledge of bones and anatomy in early periods, this practical anatomy declined significantly by around the 1st century AD as dissection was seen as unacceptable.
3) As a result, Ayurvedic medicine developed without a strong basis in anatomy, instead focusing on concepts like humors, vital fluids, and channels within the body. Physicians relied more on diagnosis and herbal prescriptions than examination of the physical body.
Anthroposophic Medicine 2013. An Integrative Medical System Originating in Eu...Marco Ephraïm
Anthroposophic medicine is an integrative medical system developed in the early 1920s based on Rudolf Steiner's spiritual philosophy of anthroposophy. It views humans as having physical, life-giving, soul-related, and spiritual systems that interact. Disease results from imbalances among these levels. Anthroposophic medicine treats the whole person using medications, art/movement therapies, massage, counseling, and specific nursing techniques. It is practiced by doctors, therapists and nurses in integrated hospitals and practices. Studies show predominantly positive outcomes and no major risks, with patients reporting high satisfaction.
The document provides an overview of research methods used in abnormal psychology. It discusses various methods like naturalistic observation, experimental and correlation methods, epidemiological and survey research, and kinship studies including twin and adoptee studies. The goal of research is to describe, explain, predict and control abnormal behavior through ethical application of the scientific method.
Foucault and sociology of medical knowledgeMeesum Kazmi
Michel Foucault analyzed how knowledge and power interact and are used as social control. He viewed medicine not just as healing but as a social institution. For Foucault, the body is a social construct that reflects the priorities of different time periods, and modern medicine aims to manage and control populations through techniques like surveillance. Foucault argued that power operates throughout society, including through institutions like medicine, and shapes our understanding of the body, health, and normality.
The document discusses the historical evolution of ethics guidelines for research involving human subjects. It begins with the Hippocratic Oath from ancient Greece which established early standards of medical ethics. It then discusses the Nuremberg Code created after World War II which focused on informed consent and avoiding harming subjects. Finally, it examines the Declaration of Helsinki which recognized the need for institutional review and emphasized informed consent, assessing risks/benefits, and protecting subject well-being.
Ethics in Clinical Research and Historical Perspective of Nazi Trials, Nuremb...ShantanuThakre3
What is Ethics ?
The word ‘ethics’ is derived from the Greek word,
ethos, which means custom or character. Ethics is
the systematic study of values, so as to decide
what is right and what is wrong. Ethics is concerned
with what is good for individuals and society.
What is Clinical Research ?
Clinical Research is a branch of healthcare science that determines the safety and effectiveness of medications, devices, diagnostic products and treatment regimens intended for human use. These may be used for prevention, treatment, diagnosis or for relieving symptoms of a disease.
Importance of Ethics in Clinical Research :-
1. Ethics is important in clinical research because it keeps the researcher from committing errors while seeking knowledge and truth.
2. Ethical guidelines for clinical research were formulated only after discovery of inhumane behavior with participants during research experiments.
3. In clinical research human beings are involved, as opposed to animals, atoms or asteroids, as the object of study.
4. It focuses on improving human health and well-being, typically by identifying better methods to treat, cure or prevent illnesses.
5. The Ethics Committee stands as the bridge between the researcher and the ethical guidelines of the country
Observation and reason are the natural methods to discover reality, which science uses to analyze data and link causes and effects. A physician must use cognitive and scientific methods to understand human life and promote human development, which must be respected. Advances in human genome research have increased appreciation for the value of human life, but some situations endanger life in social and political terms, contradicting respect for human rights. While promoting rights, some allow legislation against the right to life of the unborn or those facing death. Thinking of oneself as the absolute owner of life can lead to relativism and losing a sense of true freedom, autonomy and justice.
This document discusses euthanasia from several perspectives. It defines euthanasia as terminating a very sick person's life to relieve suffering. There are different types of euthanasia, including active euthanasia by lethal injection and passive euthanasia by withdrawing treatment. Arguments for and against euthanasia's legalization are presented. Religious views and Buddhist perspectives are also covered, with most Buddhists believing voluntary euthanasia should be forbidden due to its impact on one's mental state.
The conception of the body in ayurvedic medicineElsa von Licy
1) The document discusses the conception of the body in Ayurvedic medicine, specifically focusing on its humoral theory and perception of anatomy.
2) It notes that while Ayurvedic texts had an elaborate knowledge of bones and anatomy in early periods, this practical anatomy declined significantly by around the 1st century AD as dissection was seen as unacceptable.
3) As a result, Ayurvedic medicine developed without a strong basis in anatomy, instead focusing on concepts like humors, vital fluids, and channels within the body. Physicians relied more on diagnosis and herbal prescriptions than examination of the physical body.
Forensic anthropology is the application of anthropological techniques to legal investigations. It involves the examination of human remains to assist in identification and help determine characteristics like age, sex, and ancestry. The field has grown out of physical anthropology and its use in criminal cases. Forensic anthropologists employ methods like assessing skeletal features to estimate these biological profiles and help identify unknown remains. They also assist in investigations of mass graves and genocides. The subfields of forensic osteology, archaeology, and taphonomy further the study of human remains for legal applications.
This document is Michael Mangino's honors thesis from Northern Illinois University submitted in 2007 titled "The Anatomy of Anatomy Education". It discusses the history of anatomy education from ancient Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle to modern times. Key figures discussed include Hippocrates, Galen, Andreas Vesalius, and William Harvey and their important contributions to the field through observations, dissections, and experiments that advanced the understanding of human anatomy. The thesis also examines how knowledge was considered and taught during this evolution using Aristotelian philosophical techniques of commentary and examining causes.
This document discusses ethical guidelines for conducting research with human subjects. It provides historical context of abuses that led to modern rules. The three principles from the Belmont Report - autonomy, beneficence, and justice - guide ethical research. Key differences between patients receiving treatment and research participants are reviewed, such as differing goals and rights. The roles of institutional review boards and ethics of the informed consent process are explained.
The history of traditional Chinese medicine dates back millions of years and was developed through early peoples' experiences with plants, heat therapy, injury treatment, and oral tradition. Key ancient texts such as the Yellow Emperor's Inner Classic established foundations of traditional Chinese medicine by 400 AD. Traditional Chinese medicine continued to progress and develop over centuries, integrating new techniques while relying on ancient theories such as yin-yang and the use of herbs, acupuncture, and lifestyle therapies. It has seen revival and integration with Western medicine in modern China and gained popularity in other countries from the 1970s onward.
An Interpretative Study Of Physicians’ Perception Of Spirituality With Specia...iosrjce
This document presents the results of a qualitative study exploring physicians' perceptions of spirituality and obstacles to integrating spirituality into Iran's medical care system. In-depth interviews were conducted with 20 physicians from Shiraz University of Medical Sciences. The analysis identified 3 types of spirituality perceptions among physicians: 1) religion-based spirituality, 2) transcendental spirituality, and 3) horizontal spirituality. Five main obstacles to integrating spirituality were also identified: 1) lack of common spirituality discourse, 2) time constraints due to high patient volumes, 3) doubts about political motivations, 4) biomedical education focusing on science, and 5) lack of training in humanities. The study provides insights into how spirit
The Evolution of the Clinical Trials Process – A Brief History LessonPradeep H
The clinical trials process has evolved over centuries as researchers have sought to more rigorously test medical interventions. Some key events include:
1) Early examples from the Bible and 10th century physician Ibn Sina established basic principles like testing on animals first, but trials lacked control groups.
2) In the 18th century, James Lind introduced the use of control groups by comparing scurvy treatments.
3) Randomization was gradually introduced starting in the early 20th century to reduce bias.
4) Post-WWII atrocities led to regulations like the Nuremberg Code to protect human subjects.
5) Government agencies like the FDA were formed to oversee drug development and approval
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to scientific research including:
- Research is defined as intellectual and experimental activities carried out systematically to increase knowledge.
- Research in universities is an essential function aimed at generating knowledge and critical thinking.
- Science can be classified into formal sciences based on deduction, factual sciences based on observation and induction, and social sciences studying human phenomena.
- Ethics and integrity are important in scientific research to avoid fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism and ensure honest publication of results.
This document is the introduction to a special issue of the journal Ethos on rethinking autism. It has two main goals: 1) To encourage moving research on autism away from dominant biomedical models focused on symptoms towards more phenomenological and ethnographic perspectives addressing lived experiences of autism. 2) To rethink possibilities for social interaction and participation for autistic individuals. The introduction argues that interdisciplinary ethnographic studies are timely to challenge narrow biomedical views and understand autism from social and cultural perspectives, in line with psychological anthropology's focus on interconnections between psychological and social experiences.
The term sulfonamides also known as (sulphonamides, sulfa drugs or sulpha drugs) are used for are a group of drugs ranging in clinical use from antibacterial to diuretic activity that share the sulfonamide functional group.
Chemically, the sulfonamide functional group is -S (=O)2-NH2 , i.e. a sulfonyl group connected to an amine group.
The original sulfonamides were synthetic antimicrobial agents but now newer groups have been developed from them .
.The journey of these drugs is a remarkable one and their discovery represents one of the important breakthroughs of medicine of the 20th century
This article from Social Science & Medicine, a peer-reviewed journal, uses the lens of medicine to understand India’s social history. The author examines how different systems of medicine – biomedicine (based on biological or biochemical principles), Ayurveda, Unani, among others – were perceived in mainstream Indian national politics in the first half of the 20th century. Not only did the British colonial state give biomedicine “cultural authority” over indigenous medical systems, but nationalist leaders and later governments did too. This has greatly shaped the contemporary view of medical practices. The article discusses the three main positions (listed in the Factoids) of policy-makers and the influential Indian elite on national healthcare, including the opposing views of former prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi. The author uses as his source material the proceedings of the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh) Legislative Assembly and the published views of national leaders. He concludes that the bias of both the colonial and national governments is the major reason for the “deterioration and decline” of Indian indigenous medical systems.
This document provides a summary of several unethical human and animal experimentation projects throughout history. It describes experiments conducted by the Nazis, Japanese Unit 731, Soviets, Americans and others. Many involved deliberately infecting or injuring prisoners and concentration camp inmates without consent. The goal of many was to study disease progression, test weapons/toxins, or advance racial ideology. Notable projects included Nazi twin and hypothermia experiments, Japanese plague dispersal tests, US syphilis studies and more. Overall, the document outlines some of the worst violations of medical ethics in history.
This document provides a history of forensic medicine around the world and in India. It discusses important figures and developments in different regions including:
- Imhotep in Egypt in 2900 BC who was the first medico-legal expert.
- The Code of Hammurabi in 2200 BC in Babylon which included medical provisions.
- Hippocrates and Aristotle in Greece in the 5th-4th century BC who dealt with medical ethics and causes of death.
- Developments in Rome including the Lex Cornelia law against poisoning in 138 BC.
- Advances in China such as descriptions of injuries found on bamboo in 220 BC.
- The establishment of the first chair of medical jurisprudence in
Mamun Md Abdullah Al (K2)
Dept. of Public Health & Informatics,
Jahanginagar University.
Former Student dept. of Psychology,
University of Dhaka.
Email: mamunphi46@gmail.com
Or, atmalmamun@gmail.com
FB: www.facebook.com/atmabdullahalmamun
Youtube: K2 Production
- Gu syndrome in traditional Chinese medicine referred to a condition involving systemic parasitic or fungal infection that caused extreme stagnation and decay in the body and mind.
- It manifested with a wide range of physical symptoms like digestive issues, muscle pain and weakness, as well as mental symptoms like depression, anger, and hallucinations.
- Treating gu syndrome involved expelling the "demons" or parasites through herbal formulas, acupuncture, moxibustion, and other techniques to restore balance and remove stagnation in the body.
This document provides a summary of an article about the origins and development of homeopathy in England and the United States in the 19th century. It focuses on the influence of Emanuel Swedenborg's spiritual writings on prominent homeopath John James Garth Wilkinson and how Wilkinson helped introduce homeopathy and spread Swedenborg's works in the US through his friend Henry James Sr. The document also discusses how Wilkinson gradually converted to homeopathy and had a successful homeopathic practice in London, emphasizing spiritual approaches.
Human experimentation has a long history dating back to ancient times. Notable events include the unethical human experiments conducted by Nazi Germany during World War II which led to the development of the Nuremberg Code in 1946. The code established standards for human experimentation including requiring voluntary consent. There are ongoing debates around the ethics of experimentation and whether the potential benefits to society through medical advances justify exposing human subjects to risks. Different types of experiments, such as those involving placebos, fetuses, children, prisoners and blind/double-blind designs, each raise additional complex issues around informed consent and protecting vulnerable populations.
Reliability and validity of the Tibetan medicine constitution scale: a cross-...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: The constitutional theory is an important aspect of Tibetan medicine, however a quantitative measurement tool for constitution identification still does not exist. The objective of this study is to evaluate the reliability and validity of a Tibetan medicine constitution scale (TMCS) that consists of three sub-scales and 31 items. Methods: From June to July 2019, 622 people from the general population in Beijing, China, aged 18 to 60 were investigated. We employed Cronbach’s alpha (α), split-half reliability, and test-retest reliability to determine the reliability of the scale. The content validity and contract validity of the TMCS were evaluated using factor analysis and correlation analysis based on Tibetan medicine theory. The items were screened according to the reliability test results. Results: After the items were screened, 22 items remained in the scale. The Cronbach’s alpha value for the internal consistency reliability of the TMCS was 0.754 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.700–0.761). The correlation coefficient for the two-week test-retest of the total score was 0.726 (95% CI: 0.571–0.834). The split-half coefficient was 0.689 (95% CI: 0.640–0.734). The scale can be explained by eight potential factors, including morphological structure, physiological function, personality, adaptability, etc. The body mass index was negatively correlated with the score of the sub-rlung scale (r = − 0.376), slightly positively correlated with the sub-mkhris pa scale (r = 0.099), and positively correlated with the sub-bad kan scale (r = 0.362). Conclusion: The TMCS is a reliable and valid instrument that can be used to assess the body constitution of the general population in Beijing, China. Future studies are needed to explore the differences in biological characteristics among the constitutional types and the association between constitution and disease.
Medical Sciences of Ancient India discusses three ancient texts on Ayurveda: Charak Samhita, Sushrut Samhita, and Vagbhat. Charak Samhita covers various topics including human anatomy, the three doshas (elements) that impact health, eight branches of Ayurveda including general medicine and surgery, and emphasizes preventative healthcare practices. Sushrut Samhita focuses on surgery and describes over 100 surgical instruments as well as plastic surgery. It covers anatomy, diagnosis, treatment and discusses topics like wounds and their dressings. These ancient texts contain extensive scientific and medical knowledge and practices that were advanced for their time.
Talk given at the 3rd International EAP conference given at MISIS in Moscow on 26th November 2016, which uses a medical context to explain how it is now a priority to introduce the Humanities into all technical/scentific education
The document provides a history of mental health nursing in India from ancient times to the present. It discusses psychiatry and approaches to mental illness in ancient India according to texts like the Vedas and Ayurveda. It then covers the development of psychiatry during the colonial period when the British established asylums in major cities. The period after independence saw expansion of outpatient psychiatric units and a focus on community-based care rather than large mental hospitals.
PHI 204 - Ethical Issues in Health Care: Virtue Ethics, Feminist Ethicsdotcom YOGA
Virtue ethics focuses on the character and motivation of the moral agent rather than the specific actions. It believes good actions stem from having a virtuous character. Feminist ethics is concerned with the rights and welfare of all women. It advocates for women's control over their own bodies and lives, and seeks to establish equality between women and men in society and institutions through addressing imbalances of power. For example, women were historically underrepresented in heart disease clinical trials, resulting in ignorance about how common it is in postmenopausal women. Feminist ethics emerged to remedy injustices against women and establish equality for women in medical research and practice.
Charlotte Anna Perkins Gilman View As A Feministangielandon
This document discusses Charlotte Perkins Gilman, a 19th century American feminist writer. It includes quotes from several scholars and authors praising a collection of essays on Gilman's work. The quotes highlight how the essays provide valuable critiques and insights into Gilman's perspectives on topics like ethnicity, class, gender dynamics and her theories as a writer, poet and leader in the women's movement of her time.
Forensic anthropology is the application of anthropological techniques to legal investigations. It involves the examination of human remains to assist in identification and help determine characteristics like age, sex, and ancestry. The field has grown out of physical anthropology and its use in criminal cases. Forensic anthropologists employ methods like assessing skeletal features to estimate these biological profiles and help identify unknown remains. They also assist in investigations of mass graves and genocides. The subfields of forensic osteology, archaeology, and taphonomy further the study of human remains for legal applications.
This document is Michael Mangino's honors thesis from Northern Illinois University submitted in 2007 titled "The Anatomy of Anatomy Education". It discusses the history of anatomy education from ancient Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle to modern times. Key figures discussed include Hippocrates, Galen, Andreas Vesalius, and William Harvey and their important contributions to the field through observations, dissections, and experiments that advanced the understanding of human anatomy. The thesis also examines how knowledge was considered and taught during this evolution using Aristotelian philosophical techniques of commentary and examining causes.
This document discusses ethical guidelines for conducting research with human subjects. It provides historical context of abuses that led to modern rules. The three principles from the Belmont Report - autonomy, beneficence, and justice - guide ethical research. Key differences between patients receiving treatment and research participants are reviewed, such as differing goals and rights. The roles of institutional review boards and ethics of the informed consent process are explained.
The history of traditional Chinese medicine dates back millions of years and was developed through early peoples' experiences with plants, heat therapy, injury treatment, and oral tradition. Key ancient texts such as the Yellow Emperor's Inner Classic established foundations of traditional Chinese medicine by 400 AD. Traditional Chinese medicine continued to progress and develop over centuries, integrating new techniques while relying on ancient theories such as yin-yang and the use of herbs, acupuncture, and lifestyle therapies. It has seen revival and integration with Western medicine in modern China and gained popularity in other countries from the 1970s onward.
An Interpretative Study Of Physicians’ Perception Of Spirituality With Specia...iosrjce
This document presents the results of a qualitative study exploring physicians' perceptions of spirituality and obstacles to integrating spirituality into Iran's medical care system. In-depth interviews were conducted with 20 physicians from Shiraz University of Medical Sciences. The analysis identified 3 types of spirituality perceptions among physicians: 1) religion-based spirituality, 2) transcendental spirituality, and 3) horizontal spirituality. Five main obstacles to integrating spirituality were also identified: 1) lack of common spirituality discourse, 2) time constraints due to high patient volumes, 3) doubts about political motivations, 4) biomedical education focusing on science, and 5) lack of training in humanities. The study provides insights into how spirit
The Evolution of the Clinical Trials Process – A Brief History LessonPradeep H
The clinical trials process has evolved over centuries as researchers have sought to more rigorously test medical interventions. Some key events include:
1) Early examples from the Bible and 10th century physician Ibn Sina established basic principles like testing on animals first, but trials lacked control groups.
2) In the 18th century, James Lind introduced the use of control groups by comparing scurvy treatments.
3) Randomization was gradually introduced starting in the early 20th century to reduce bias.
4) Post-WWII atrocities led to regulations like the Nuremberg Code to protect human subjects.
5) Government agencies like the FDA were formed to oversee drug development and approval
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to scientific research including:
- Research is defined as intellectual and experimental activities carried out systematically to increase knowledge.
- Research in universities is an essential function aimed at generating knowledge and critical thinking.
- Science can be classified into formal sciences based on deduction, factual sciences based on observation and induction, and social sciences studying human phenomena.
- Ethics and integrity are important in scientific research to avoid fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism and ensure honest publication of results.
This document is the introduction to a special issue of the journal Ethos on rethinking autism. It has two main goals: 1) To encourage moving research on autism away from dominant biomedical models focused on symptoms towards more phenomenological and ethnographic perspectives addressing lived experiences of autism. 2) To rethink possibilities for social interaction and participation for autistic individuals. The introduction argues that interdisciplinary ethnographic studies are timely to challenge narrow biomedical views and understand autism from social and cultural perspectives, in line with psychological anthropology's focus on interconnections between psychological and social experiences.
The term sulfonamides also known as (sulphonamides, sulfa drugs or sulpha drugs) are used for are a group of drugs ranging in clinical use from antibacterial to diuretic activity that share the sulfonamide functional group.
Chemically, the sulfonamide functional group is -S (=O)2-NH2 , i.e. a sulfonyl group connected to an amine group.
The original sulfonamides were synthetic antimicrobial agents but now newer groups have been developed from them .
.The journey of these drugs is a remarkable one and their discovery represents one of the important breakthroughs of medicine of the 20th century
This article from Social Science & Medicine, a peer-reviewed journal, uses the lens of medicine to understand India’s social history. The author examines how different systems of medicine – biomedicine (based on biological or biochemical principles), Ayurveda, Unani, among others – were perceived in mainstream Indian national politics in the first half of the 20th century. Not only did the British colonial state give biomedicine “cultural authority” over indigenous medical systems, but nationalist leaders and later governments did too. This has greatly shaped the contemporary view of medical practices. The article discusses the three main positions (listed in the Factoids) of policy-makers and the influential Indian elite on national healthcare, including the opposing views of former prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi. The author uses as his source material the proceedings of the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh) Legislative Assembly and the published views of national leaders. He concludes that the bias of both the colonial and national governments is the major reason for the “deterioration and decline” of Indian indigenous medical systems.
This document provides a summary of several unethical human and animal experimentation projects throughout history. It describes experiments conducted by the Nazis, Japanese Unit 731, Soviets, Americans and others. Many involved deliberately infecting or injuring prisoners and concentration camp inmates without consent. The goal of many was to study disease progression, test weapons/toxins, or advance racial ideology. Notable projects included Nazi twin and hypothermia experiments, Japanese plague dispersal tests, US syphilis studies and more. Overall, the document outlines some of the worst violations of medical ethics in history.
This document provides a history of forensic medicine around the world and in India. It discusses important figures and developments in different regions including:
- Imhotep in Egypt in 2900 BC who was the first medico-legal expert.
- The Code of Hammurabi in 2200 BC in Babylon which included medical provisions.
- Hippocrates and Aristotle in Greece in the 5th-4th century BC who dealt with medical ethics and causes of death.
- Developments in Rome including the Lex Cornelia law against poisoning in 138 BC.
- Advances in China such as descriptions of injuries found on bamboo in 220 BC.
- The establishment of the first chair of medical jurisprudence in
Mamun Md Abdullah Al (K2)
Dept. of Public Health & Informatics,
Jahanginagar University.
Former Student dept. of Psychology,
University of Dhaka.
Email: mamunphi46@gmail.com
Or, atmalmamun@gmail.com
FB: www.facebook.com/atmabdullahalmamun
Youtube: K2 Production
- Gu syndrome in traditional Chinese medicine referred to a condition involving systemic parasitic or fungal infection that caused extreme stagnation and decay in the body and mind.
- It manifested with a wide range of physical symptoms like digestive issues, muscle pain and weakness, as well as mental symptoms like depression, anger, and hallucinations.
- Treating gu syndrome involved expelling the "demons" or parasites through herbal formulas, acupuncture, moxibustion, and other techniques to restore balance and remove stagnation in the body.
This document provides a summary of an article about the origins and development of homeopathy in England and the United States in the 19th century. It focuses on the influence of Emanuel Swedenborg's spiritual writings on prominent homeopath John James Garth Wilkinson and how Wilkinson helped introduce homeopathy and spread Swedenborg's works in the US through his friend Henry James Sr. The document also discusses how Wilkinson gradually converted to homeopathy and had a successful homeopathic practice in London, emphasizing spiritual approaches.
Human experimentation has a long history dating back to ancient times. Notable events include the unethical human experiments conducted by Nazi Germany during World War II which led to the development of the Nuremberg Code in 1946. The code established standards for human experimentation including requiring voluntary consent. There are ongoing debates around the ethics of experimentation and whether the potential benefits to society through medical advances justify exposing human subjects to risks. Different types of experiments, such as those involving placebos, fetuses, children, prisoners and blind/double-blind designs, each raise additional complex issues around informed consent and protecting vulnerable populations.
Reliability and validity of the Tibetan medicine constitution scale: a cross-...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: The constitutional theory is an important aspect of Tibetan medicine, however a quantitative measurement tool for constitution identification still does not exist. The objective of this study is to evaluate the reliability and validity of a Tibetan medicine constitution scale (TMCS) that consists of three sub-scales and 31 items. Methods: From June to July 2019, 622 people from the general population in Beijing, China, aged 18 to 60 were investigated. We employed Cronbach’s alpha (α), split-half reliability, and test-retest reliability to determine the reliability of the scale. The content validity and contract validity of the TMCS were evaluated using factor analysis and correlation analysis based on Tibetan medicine theory. The items were screened according to the reliability test results. Results: After the items were screened, 22 items remained in the scale. The Cronbach’s alpha value for the internal consistency reliability of the TMCS was 0.754 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.700–0.761). The correlation coefficient for the two-week test-retest of the total score was 0.726 (95% CI: 0.571–0.834). The split-half coefficient was 0.689 (95% CI: 0.640–0.734). The scale can be explained by eight potential factors, including morphological structure, physiological function, personality, adaptability, etc. The body mass index was negatively correlated with the score of the sub-rlung scale (r = − 0.376), slightly positively correlated with the sub-mkhris pa scale (r = 0.099), and positively correlated with the sub-bad kan scale (r = 0.362). Conclusion: The TMCS is a reliable and valid instrument that can be used to assess the body constitution of the general population in Beijing, China. Future studies are needed to explore the differences in biological characteristics among the constitutional types and the association between constitution and disease.
Medical Sciences of Ancient India discusses three ancient texts on Ayurveda: Charak Samhita, Sushrut Samhita, and Vagbhat. Charak Samhita covers various topics including human anatomy, the three doshas (elements) that impact health, eight branches of Ayurveda including general medicine and surgery, and emphasizes preventative healthcare practices. Sushrut Samhita focuses on surgery and describes over 100 surgical instruments as well as plastic surgery. It covers anatomy, diagnosis, treatment and discusses topics like wounds and their dressings. These ancient texts contain extensive scientific and medical knowledge and practices that were advanced for their time.
Talk given at the 3rd International EAP conference given at MISIS in Moscow on 26th November 2016, which uses a medical context to explain how it is now a priority to introduce the Humanities into all technical/scentific education
The document provides a history of mental health nursing in India from ancient times to the present. It discusses psychiatry and approaches to mental illness in ancient India according to texts like the Vedas and Ayurveda. It then covers the development of psychiatry during the colonial period when the British established asylums in major cities. The period after independence saw expansion of outpatient psychiatric units and a focus on community-based care rather than large mental hospitals.
PHI 204 - Ethical Issues in Health Care: Virtue Ethics, Feminist Ethicsdotcom YOGA
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2. NAZI MEDICAL EXPERIMENTS
During World War II, a number of German physicians conducted painful and often deadly
experiments on thousands of concentration camp prisoners without their consent.
Unethical medical experimentation carried out during the Third Reich may be divided into three
categories.
The first category consists of experiments aimed at facilitating the survival of Axis military
personnel. InDachau, physicians from the German air force and from the German Experimental
Institution for Aviation conducted high-altitude experiments, using a low-pressure chamber, to
determine the maximum altitude from which crews of damaged aircraft could parachute to
safety. Scientists there carried out so-called freezing experiments using prisoners to find an
effective treatment for hypothermia. They also used prisoners to test various methods of making
seawater potable.
The second category of experimentation aimed at developing and testing pharmaceuticals and
treatment methods for injuries and illnesses which German military and occupation personnel
encountered in the field. At the German concentration camps of Sachsenhausen, Dachau,
Natzweiler, Buchenwald, and Neuengamme, scientists tested immunization compounds and sera
for the prevention and treatment of contagious diseases, including malaria, typhus, tuberculosis,
typhoid fever, yellow fever, and infectious hepatitis. The Ravensbrueck camp was the site of
bone-grafting experiments and experiments to test the efficacy of newly developed sulfa
(sulfanilamide) drugs. At Natzweiler and Sachsenhausen, prisoners were subjected to phosgene
and mustard gas in order to test possible antidotes.
The third category of medical experimentation sought to advance the racial and ideological tenets
of the Nazi worldview. The most infamous were the experiments of Josef Mengele at Auschwitz.
Mengele conducted medical experiments on twins. He also directed serological experiments
on Roma (Gypsies), as did Werner Fischer at Sachsenhausen, in order to determine how different
"races" withstood various contagious diseases. The research of August Hirt at Strasbourg
University also intended to establish "Jewish racial inferiority."
Other gruesome experiments meant to further Nazi racial goals were a series of sterilization
experiments, undertaken primarily at Auschwitz and Ravensbrueck. There, scientists tested a
number of methods in their effort to develop an efficient and inexpensive procedure for the mass
sterilization of Jews, Roma, and other groups Nazi leaders considered to be racially or genetically
undesirable.
3. “Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” is the case chosen by Özge Kavas, Management
Engineering student, for final project of Engineering Ethics class. This case is studied in terms of
ethics theories listed hereinafter:
I) Traditional Ethical Theories
i) Egoism
ii) Utilitarianism
iii) Ethics of duties
iv) Rights and justice
II) Contemporary Ethical Theories
i) Virtue ethics
ii) Feminist ethics
iii) Discourse ethics
iv) Post-modern ethics
4. I) Traditional Ethical Theories
Information about the ‘traditional ethical theories’:
Traditional ethical theories generally offer a certain rule or principle which one can apply to any
given situation; hence, they are absolutist in intention. These theories are normative because they
start with an assumption about the nature of the world, and more specific assumptions about the
nature of the human beings. The main advantage of these theories is the fact that they normally
provide us with a fairly unequivocal solution to ethical problems.
i) Egoism
Information about the ‘egoism’:
Following the theory of egoism an action is morally right if the decision-maker freely decides in
order to pursue either their (short-term) desires or the their (long-term) interests. Egoism focuses
individual desires or interests, and rules maximization of desires/self-interest, based on Adam
Smith, contributor of egoism theory. Concept of human beings in egoism is that man is an actor
with limited knowledge and objectives.
Studying the “Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” case in egoism perspective:
If the Nazi’s human medical experimentations are viewed from egoism perspective, the case
should be studied in terms of Nazi scientists. Nazi scientists did those human experimentations
in order to facilitate the survival of Axis military personnel, to develop and test pharmaceuticals
and treatment methods for injuries and illnesses of German military and personnel, and to
advance the racial and ideological tenets of Nazi worldview. In this case, the decision-makers
-Nazi scientists- freely decides to pursue their desires and interests; therefore, Nazi human
medical experimentations are morally right in terms of Nazi scientists in egoism perspective.
ii) Utilitarianism
Information about the ‘utilitarianism’:
According to utilitarianism, an action is morally right if it results in the greatest amount of good
for the greatest amount of people affected by the action. Utilitarianism focuses collective welfare,
and rules greatest happiness principle, based on Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill,
contributors of utilitarianism theory. Concept of human beings in utilitarianism is that man is
controlled by avoidance of pain and gain of pleasure – hedonist.
5. Studying the “Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” case in utilitarianism perspective:
The scope of utilitarianism theory is greatest amount of people, where the number of camp
prisoners is a lot more than the Nazi scientists. Thus, when the Nazi human medical
experimentations are looked from utilitarianism standpoint, the case should be considered in
terms of humans which are camp prisoners captured by Nazis. Utilitarianism has hedonist view
that aims to avoidance of pain and gain of pleasure. Hence, Nazi human medical
experimentations are morally incorrect because of the fact that camp prisoners had pain
abundantly, and there was no collective welfare during the experimentations.
iii) Ethics of duties
Information about the ‘ethics of duties’:
According to ethics of duties, humans are rational actors who could decide moral principles for
themselves; therefore, humans could also be regarded as independent moral actors who made
their own rational decisions regarding right and wrong. Ethics of duties focuses duties, and rules
categorical imperative, based on Immanuel Kant, contributor of ethics of duties theory. Concept
of human beings in ethics of duties is that man is a rational moral actor.
Studying the “Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” case in ethics of duties perspective:
Ethics of duties theory explains that humans are rational actors and they can decide moral
principles for themselves. As a consequence, when the Nazi human medical experimentations are
looked from ethics of duties angle, the case should be studied with regard to Nazi scientists,
because subjects are captured, meaning that they can know what right and wrong is for
themselves, but they cannot act in accordance with their decisions. In this case, Nazi scientists
behaved toward their mind which was true for them; thus, Nazi human medical
experimentations are morally right in terms of Nazi scientists in ethics of duties perspective.
iv) Rights and justice
Information about the ‘rights and justice’:
According to ethics of rights and justice, natural rights are certain basic, important, inalienable
entitlements that should be respected and protected in every single action. Rights and justice
focuses rights, and rules respect for human beings, based on John Locke and John Rawis,
contributors of ethics of rights and justice. Concept of human beings in rights and justice is that
man is a being that is distinguished by dignity.
6. Studying the “Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” case in rights and justice perspective:
Natural rights are fundamental privilege that should be, even must be, respected and protected
in every single action, according to rights and justice view. Hence, if the Nazi human medical
experimentations are looked from rights and justice standpoint, the case should be studied as to
camp prisoners. In this case, natural rights of subjects were ignored and subjects were under
gross circumstances, which is totally disrespectful; therefore, Nazi human medical
experimentations are morally incorrect in terms of camp prisoners in rights and justice
perspective.
II) Contemporary Ethical Theories
Information about the ‘contemporary ethical theories’:
Contemporary ethical theory is concerned with two areas of inquiry that are largely independent
of one another: meta-ethics and normative ethics. Meta-ethics is concerned with the nature of
morality and moral judgments. In contrast, normative ethics is concerned with right and wrong,
along with other evaluative concepts such as good and bad, and virtuous and vicious.
i) Virtue ethics
Information about the ‘virtue ethics’:
Virtue ethics contends that morally correct actions are those undertaken by actors with virtuous-
characters; thus, the formation of a virtuous character is the first step towards morally correct
behaviour. Virtue ethics focuses character of decision-maker, and rules that good actions come
from good persons. Virtues can be differentiated into intellectual virtues – wisdom being the
most prominent one - and moral virtues which comprise a long list of possible characteristics
such as honesty, courage, friendship, mercy, loyalty, patience, etc.
Studying the “Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” case in virtue ethics perspective:
Virtues, especially moral virtues, focus the character of decision-maker; thus, when the Nazi
human medical experimentations are looked from virtue ethics view, the case should be studied
in terms of Nazi scientist –because the decision-makers are Nazi scientists, based on virtue ethics
theory. ‘Good actions come from good persons – in this sense, Nazis are not good persons’ and
Nazi scientists do not honor moral virtues; therefore, Nazi human medical experimentations are
morally incorrect in terms of Nazi scientists in virtue ethics perspective.
7. ii) Feminist ethics
Information about the ‘feminist ethics’:
Feminist ethics is an approach that prioritizes empathy, harmonious and healthy social
relationships, care for one another, and avoidance of harm above abstract principles. Feminist
ethics focuses on process rather than results, unlike male approach, and rules co-operation and
compromise.
Studying the “Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” case in feminist ethics perspective:
If the Nazi’s human medical experimentations are viewed from feminist ethics perspective, the
case should be studied in terms of camp prisoners or subjects. According to feminist ethics
theory, empathy and healthy social relationships and avoidance of harm are crucial points. In this
case, Nazi scientists did not point out empathy or something like this sense, also injured subjects
terribly; hence, Nazi human medical experimentations are morally incorrect in terms of camp
prisoners in feminist ethics perspective.
iii) Discourse ethics
Information about the ‘discourse ethics’:
Discourse ethics aims to solve ethical conflicts by providing a process of norm generation
through rational reflection on the real-life experience of all relevant participants. Discourse ethics
argues that ethical reflection has to start from real-life experience rather than belief systems
which could be too diverse; moreover, it focuses on the peaceful settlement of conflicts.
Studying the “Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” case in discourse ethics perspective:
According to discourse ethics theory, ethical problems should be solved by using real-life
experiences rather than belief systems, also discourse ethics bases focusing on the peaceful
solution of conflicts. There was no peace during experimentations; therefore, if the Nazi’s human
medical experimentations are studied in terms of both Nazi scientists and camp prisoners, they
are morally incorrect in discourse ethics perspective.
iv) Post-modern ethics
Information about the ‘post-modern ethics’:
Post-modern ethics is an approach that locates morality beyond the sphere of rationality in an
emotional ‘moral impulse’ towards others. It encourages individual actors to question everyday
8. practices and rules, and listen to and follow their emotions, inner convictions, and ‘gut feelings’
about what they think is right and wrong in a particular incident of decision-making.
Post-modern ethics is against the universal ethical code; therefore, it rules that ‘think local, act
local’.
Studying the “Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” case in post-modern ethics perspective:
As stated in post-modern ethics theory, persons should listen and follow their emotions and
instincts about what they think is right or wrong –it is up to decision-maker. If the Nazi’s human
medical experimentations are viewed from post-modern ethics perspective, the case should be
studied in terms of Nazi scientists, which were the decision-makers. In this case, Nazi scientists
had purposes such as facilitating the survival of Axis military personnel, developing and testing
pharmaceuticals and treatment methods for injuries and illnesses of German military and
personnel, and advancing the racial and ideological tenets of Nazi worldview; and they acted
what they think was right. Thus, Nazi human medical experimentations are morally right in
terms of Nazi scientists in post-modern ethics perspective.
9. Resources
i) University of Kansas, Fall 2009, Philosophy 670: Contemporary Ethical Theory, Ben
Eggleston—eggleston@ku.edu, September 25, 2009.
ii) Martin, M. W. and R. Schinzinger, 2000, Introduction to Engineering Ethics, Boston:
McGraw Hill.
iii) Resource of the ‘Nazi Medical Experiments’ article:
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “Nazi Medical Experiments” Holocaust
Encyclopedia, https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005168
Accessed on [04.05.2016].