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on Elementary Applied Mathematics for Engineers (EAME)
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3rd Edition
{ISBN 978-2-8399-0932-7} October 2014
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SCIENTIFIC EVOLUTION SÀRL
EAME
3RD EDITION
The Isoz Compendium on
Elementary Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Redactor:
Vincent ISOZ
isoz@sciences.ch
Supervisor:
Vincent ISOZ
2016–05–15
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ii
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Revision History
Revision Date Author(s) Description
3.1 2014-10-01 VI French 3rd Edition translation into English (only
5,000 first pages freely available!). Translation
progress ∼ 60%
iii
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Contents
1 Warnings 1
2 Acknowledgements 20
3 Introduction 22
4 Arithmetic 42
5 Algebra 675
6 Analysis 1148
7 Geometry 1307
8 Mechanics 1618
9 Electromagnetism 1763
10 Atomistic 1884
11 Cosmology 1957
12 Chemistry 2049
13 Theoretical Computing 2106
14 Social Sciences 2302
15 Engineering 2617
16 Epilogue 2777
17 Biographies 2779
18 Chronology 2872
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19 Humour 2902
20 Links 2980
21 Quotes 2990
22 Change Log 2995
23 Nomenclature 3012
24 About the Redactor 3014
List of Figures 3018
List of Tables 3038
Bibliography 3042
Index 3046
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Table of Contents
1 Warnings 1
1.1 Impressum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Use of content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 How to use this book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2.1 Companion eBooks, Forum and Quiz/Flashcards . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Data Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.4 Use of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.5 Data transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.6 Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 Preamble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 Applicability and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3 Verbatim Copying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.4 Copying in Quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.5 Modifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.6 Combining Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.7 Collections of Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.8 Aggregation with independant Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.9 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.10 Termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.11 Future revisions of this License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 Only in non-free release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 Acknowledgements 20
3 Introduction 22
3.1 Forewords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.1 Descartes’ Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2.2 Archimedean Oath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3 Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3.1 On Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3.2 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.4 Science and Faith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4 Arithmetic 42
4.1 Proof Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.1.0.1 Foundations Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1.1 Paradoxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
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4.1.1.1 Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.1.2 Propositional Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.1.2.1 Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.1.2.2 Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.1.2.3 Decision procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.1.2.3.1 Non-axiomatic procedural decisions . . . . . . . . . 62
4.1.2.3.2 Axiomatic procedural decisions . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.1.2.4 Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.1.3 Predicate Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.1.3.1 Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.1.3.2 Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.1.3.2.1 Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.1.3.2.2 Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.1.3.2.3 Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.2 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.2.1 Digital Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.2 Type of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.2.1 Natural Integer Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.2.1.1 Peano axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.2.2.1.2 Odd, Even and Perfect Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.2.2.1.3 Prime Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.2.2.2 Relative Integer Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.2.2.3 Rational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.2.2.4 Irrational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.2.2.5 Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.2.2.6 Transfinite Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.2.2.7 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.2.2.7.1 Geometric Interpretation of Complex Numbers . . . 105
4.2.2.7.1.1 Fresnel Vectors (phasors) . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.2.2.7.2 Transformation in the plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.2.2.8 Quaternion Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.2.2.8.1 Matrix Interpretation of Quaternions . . . . . . . . 121
4.2.2.8.2 Rotations with Quaternions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.2.2.9 Algebraic and Transcendental Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.2.2.10 Abstract Numbers (variables) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.2.2.10.1 Domain of a Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.3 Arithmetic Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.3.1 Binary Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.3.1.1 Equalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.3.1.2 Comparators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.3.2 Fundamental Arithmetic Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.3.2.1 Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.3.2.2 Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.3.2.3 Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.3.2.4 Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
4.3.2.4.1 n-root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.3.3 Arithmetic Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.3.4 Absolute Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
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4.3.5 Calculation Rules (operators priorities) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.4 Number Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.4.1 Principle of good order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.4.2 Induction Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.4.3 Divisibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.4.3.1 Euclidean Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.4.3.1.1 Greatest common divisor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4.4.3.2 Euclidean Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.4.3.3 Least Common Multiple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.4.3.4 Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
4.5 Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.5.1 Zermelo-Fraenkel Axiomatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
4.5.1.1 Cardinals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
4.5.1.2 Cartesian Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.5.1.3 Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.5.2 Set Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.5.2.1 Inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.5.2.2 Intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4.5.2.3 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.5.2.4 Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4.5.2.5 Symmetric Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4.5.2.6 Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.5.2.7 Complementarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.5.3 Functions and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.5.3.1 Cantor-Bernstein Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
4.6 Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
4.6.1 Event Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
4.6.2 Kolmogorov’s Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.6.3 Conditional Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
4.6.3.1 Conditional Expectation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
4.6.3.2 Bayesian Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
4.6.4 Martingales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
4.6.5 Combinatorial Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
4.6.5.1 Simple Arrangements with Repetition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
4.6.5.2 Simple Permutations without Repetitions . . . . . . . . . . . 264
4.6.5.3 Simple Permutations with Repetitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.6.5.4 Simple Arrangements with Repetitions . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
4.6.5.5 Simple Combinations without Repetitions . . . . . . . . . . . 267
4.6.5.6 Simple Combinations with Repetitions . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
4.6.6 Markov Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
4.7 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
4.7.1 Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
4.7.2 Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
4.7.2.1 Laplace Smoothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
4.7.2.2 Means and Averages properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
4.7.3 Type of variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
4.7.3.1 Discrete Variables and Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
4.7.3.1.1 Mean and Deviation of Discrete Random Variables . 303
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4.7.3.1.2 Discrete Covariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
4.7.3.1.2.1 Anscombe’s famous quartet . . . . . . . . . 319
4.7.3.1.3 Mean and Variance of the Average . . . . . . . . . 321
4.7.3.1.4 Coefficient of Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
4.7.3.2 Continuous Variables and Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
4.7.4 Fundamental postulate of statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
4.7.5 Diversity Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
4.7.6 Distribution Functions (probabilities laws) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
4.7.6.1 Discrete Uniform Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
4.7.6.2 Bernoulli Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
4.7.6.3 Geometric Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
4.7.6.4 Binomial Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
4.7.6.5 Negative Binomial Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
4.7.6.6 Hypergeometric Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
4.7.6.7 Multinomial Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
4.7.6.8 Poisson Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
4.7.6.9 Normal & Gauss-Laplace Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
4.7.6.9.1 Sum of two random Normal variables . . . . . . . . 375
4.7.6.9.2 Product of two random Normal variables . . . . . . 377
4.7.6.9.3 Bivariate Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
4.7.6.9.4 Normal Reduced Centered Distribution . . . . . . . 384
4.7.6.9.5 Henry’s Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
4.7.6.9.6 Q-Q plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
4.7.6.10 Log-Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
4.7.6.11 Continuous Uniform Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
4.7.6.12 Triangular Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
4.7.6.13 Pareto Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
4.7.6.14 Exponential Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
4.7.6.15 Cauchy Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
4.7.6.16 Beta Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
4.7.6.17 Gamma Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
4.7.6.18 Chi-Square (pearson) Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
4.7.6.19 Student Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
4.7.6.20 Fisher Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
4.7.6.21 Benford Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
4.7.7 Likelihood Estimators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
4.7.7.1 Normal Distribution MLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
4.7.7.2 Poisson Distribution MLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
4.7.7.3 Binomial (and Geometric) Distribution MLE . . . . . . . . . 440
4.7.7.4 Weibull Distribution MLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
4.7.7.5 Gamma Distribution MLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
4.7.8 Finite Population Correction Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
4.7.9 Confidence Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
4.7.9.1 C.I. on the Mean with known Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
4.7.9.2 C.I. on the Variance with known Mean . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
4.7.9.3 C.I. on the Variance with empirical Mean . . . . . . . . . . . 458
4.7.9.4 C.I. on the Mean with known unbiased Variance . . . . . . . 459
4.7.9.5 Binomial exact Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
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4.7.9.6 C.I. for a Proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
4.7.9.6.1 Test of equality of two Proportions . . . . . . . . . 471
4.7.9.7 Sign Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
4.7.9.8 Mood’s Median Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
4.7.9.9 Poisson Test (1 sample) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
4.7.9.10 Poisson Test (2 samples) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
4.7.9.11 Confidence/Tolerance/Prediction Interval . . . . . . . . . . . 483
4.7.10 Weak Law of Large Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
4.7.11 Characteristic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
4.7.12 Central Limit Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
4.7.13 Univariate Hypothesis and Adequation tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
4.7.13.1 Direction of hypothesis test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
4.7.13.1.1 Simpson’s Paradox (sophism) . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
4.7.13.2 Power of a test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
4.7.13.3 Power of the one sample Z-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
4.7.13.4 Power of the one and two samples P-test . . . . . . . . . . . 514
4.7.13.5 Analysis of Variance with one fixed factor . . . . . . . . . . . 516
4.7.13.6 Analysis of Variance with two fixed factors without repetitions 529
4.7.13.7 Analysis of Variance with two fixed factors with repetitions . 545
4.7.13.8 Multifactor ANOVA with Repeated measures . . . . . . . . . 551
4.7.13.9 Greaco Latin Square ANOVA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
4.7.13.10 Cochran C test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
4.7.13.11 Adequation Tests (goodness of fit tests) . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
4.7.13.11.1 Pearson’s chi-squared GoF test . . . . . . . . . . . 561
4.7.13.11.2 Kolmogorov-Smirnov GoF test . . . . . . . . . . . 566
4.7.13.11.3 Ryan-Joiner GoF test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
4.7.13.11.4 Anderson-Darling GoF test . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
4.7.14 Robustness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
4.7.14.1 Rank Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
4.7.14.1.1 L-Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
4.7.14.1.2 Ranks Distribution Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
4.7.14.1.3 Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
4.7.14.1.4 Mann-Witheny Rank Sum Test . . . . . . . . . . . 598
4.7.14.1.5 Treatment of equalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
4.7.14.1.6 One sample Wilcoxon rank sum signed test . . . . . 606
4.7.14.1.7 Wilcoxon rank sum signed test for two paired samples610
4.7.14.1.8 Kruskal-Wallis test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
4.7.14.1.9 Friedman Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
4.7.14.1.10 Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient . . . . . . . 619
4.7.14.2 Range Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
4.7.14.2.1 Tukey’s Range Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
4.7.14.3 Extreme Value Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
4.7.15 Multivariate Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
4.7.15.1 Principal Component Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
4.7.15.2 Correspondence Factorial Analysis (AFC) . . . . . . . . . . 647
4.7.15.3 Chi-2 Test of Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
4.7.15.4 Cramér’s V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
4.7.15.5 Exact Fisher Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
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4.7.15.6 Cohen’s kappa agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
4.7.16 Propagation of Errors (experimental uncertainty analysis) . . . . . . . . 667
4.7.16.1 Absolute and Relative Uncertainties (Direct calculation of bias)667
4.7.16.2 Statistical Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
4.7.16.3 Repeatability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
4.7.16.4 Error propagation (linearized approximation) . . . . . . . . . 671
4.7.16.5 Significative Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
5 Algebra 675
5.1 Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
5.1.1 Equations and Inequations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
5.1.1.1 Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
5.1.1.2 Inequations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
5.1.2 Remarkable Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
5.1.3 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
5.1.3.1 Euclidean Divison of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
5.1.3.2 Factorization Theorem of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
5.1.3.3 Diophantine equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
5.1.3.4 First order univariate Polynomial and Equations . . . . . . . 698
5.1.3.5 Second order univariate Polynomial and Equations . . . . . . 699
5.1.3.5.1 Irrational Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
5.1.3.5.2 Gold Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
5.1.3.6 Third order univariate Polynomial and Equations . . . . . . . 705
5.1.3.7 Fourth order univariate Polynomial and Equations . . . . . . 708
5.1.3.8 Trigonometric Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
5.1.3.9 Cyclotomic Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
5.1.3.10 Legendre Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
5.2 Set Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
5.2.1 Groups Algebra and Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
5.2.1.1 Cyclic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
5.2.1.2 Transformations Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
5.2.1.3 Group of Symetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
5.2.1.3.1 Orbits and Stabilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
5.2.1.4 Permutations Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
5.2.2 Galois Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
5.2.2.1 Elementary symmetric and Invariant Polynomials . . . . . . . 746
5.2.2.2 General Vieta’s formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
5.3 Differential and Integral Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
5.3.1 Differential Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
5.3.1.1 Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760
5.3.1.2 Usual Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
5.3.1.3 Smoothness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
5.3.2 Integral Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
5.3.2.1 Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
5.3.2.2 Indefinite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
5.3.2.3 Double Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
5.3.2.3.1 Fubini’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
5.3.2.4 Integration by Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
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5.3.2.4.1 Jacobian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
5.3.2.5 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
5.3.2.6 Usual Primitives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804
5.3.2.7 Dirac Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
5.3.2.8 Gamma Euler Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
5.3.2.8.1 Euler-Mascheroni Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
5.3.2.9 Curvilinear Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
5.3.2.9.1 Curvilinear Integral of a scalar field . . . . . . . . . 831
5.3.2.9.2 Curvilinear Integral of a vector field . . . . . . . . . 832
5.3.3 Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835
5.3.3.1 First order Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836
5.3.3.2 Linear Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836
5.3.3.3 Resolution Methods of Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . 838
5.3.3.3.1 Method of characteristic polynomial . . . . . . . . 839
5.3.3.3.1.1 Resolution of the H.E. of the first order
L.D.E. with constant coefficients . . . . . . 839
5.3.3.3.1.2 Resolution of the H.E. of the first order
L.D.E. with non-constant coefficients . . . . 840
5.3.3.3.1.3 Resolution of the H.E. of the second order
L.D.E. with constant coefficients . . . . . . 841
5.3.3.3.2 Integrating Factor Method (Euler’s Method) . . . . 845
5.3.3.3.3 Method of separation of variables . . . . . . . . . . 848
5.3.3.3.4 Method of constant variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
5.3.4 Systems of Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
5.3.5 Regular Methods of Perturbations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856
5.3.5.1 Perturbation theory for algebraic equations . . . . . . . . . . 856
5.3.5.2 Perturbation theory of differential equations . . . . . . . . . . 858
5.4 Sequences and Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
5.4.1 Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
5.4.1.1 Arithmetic Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
5.4.1.2 Harmonic Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
5.4.1.3 Geometric Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867
5.4.1.4 Cauchy Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
5.4.1.5 Fibonacci Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872
5.4.1.6 Logic Sequences/Psychologist Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . 873
5.4.2 Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874
5.4.2.1 Gauss Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
5.4.2.1.1 Bernoulli’s Numbers and Polynomials . . . . . . . . 878
5.4.2.2 Arithmetic Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883
5.4.2.3 Geometric Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884
5.4.2.3.1 Zeta function and Euler’s identity . . . . . . . . . . 885
5.4.2.4 Taylor and Maclaurin Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890
5.4.2.4.1 Usual Maclaurin developments . . . . . . . . . . . 895
5.4.2.4.2 Taylor series of bivariate functions (multivariate
Taylor series) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
5.4.2.4.3 Quadratic Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
5.4.2.4.4 Lagrange Remainder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905
5.4.2.4.5 Taylor Series with Integral Remainder . . . . . . . . 907
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5.4.2.5 Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
5.4.2.5.1 Power of a signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
5.4.2.5.2 Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930
5.4.2.6 Bessel Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939
5.4.2.6.1 Zero order Bessel’s Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 939
5.4.2.6.2 n order Bessel’s Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939
5.4.2.6.3 Bessel’s Differential Equations of ordern n . . . . . 944
5.4.3 Convergence Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945
5.4.3.1 Integral Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
5.4.3.2 D’Alembert Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947
5.4.3.3 Alternating Series Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948
5.4.3.4 Fixed Point Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949
5.5 Vector Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952
5.5.1 Concept of Arrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 953
5.5.2 Set of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954
5.5.2.1 Pseudo-Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
5.5.2.2 Multiplication by a scalar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958
5.5.2.2.1 Rule of three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958
5.5.3 Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
5.5.3.1 Linear Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961
5.5.3.2 Sub-vector spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961
5.5.3.3 Generating families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962
5.5.3.4 Linear Dependance or Independance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962
5.5.3.5 Base of a vectorial space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963
5.5.3.6 Direction Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965
5.5.3.7 Dimensions of a vector space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966
5.5.3.8 Extension of a free family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966
5.5.3.9 Rank of a finite family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967
5.5.3.10 Direct Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968
5.5.3.11 Affine spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969
5.5.4 Euclidean Vectore Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972
5.5.4.1 Scalar Product (Dot Product) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974
5.5.4.1.1 Cauchy–Schwarz inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978
5.5.4.1.2 Triangular Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979
5.5.4.1.3 General Scalar/Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980
5.5.4.2 Cross Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
5.5.4.3 Mixed Product (triple product9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
5.5.5 Vectorial Functional Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988
5.5.6 Hermitian Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990
5.5.6.1 Hermitian Inner Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 991
5.5.6.2 Types of Vectors Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992
5.5.7 System of Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993
5.5.7.1 Cartesian (rectangular) Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . 993
5.5.7.2 Spherical Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994
5.5.7.3 Cylindrical Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
5.5.7.4 Polar Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1001
5.5.8 Differential Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002
5.5.8.1 Gradients of Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
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5.5.8.2 Gradients of Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010
5.5.8.3 Divergences of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011
5.5.8.4 Rotationals of a Vector Field (Curl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019
5.5.8.5 Laplacians of Scalar Field (Laplace Operator) . . . . . . . . . 1029
5.5.8.6 Laplacians of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033
5.5.8.7 Remarkable Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041
5.5.8.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044
5.6 Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
5.6.0.1 Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
5.6.1 Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056
5.6.2 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058
5.6.2.1 Rank of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059
5.6.2.2 Matrix Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
5.6.2.3 Type of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
5.6.2.4 Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075
5.6.2.4.1 Derivative of a Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
5.6.2.4.2 Determinant Cofactor and Matrix Inverse . . . . . . 1088
5.6.3 Change of Basis (frames) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090
5.6.4 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093
5.6.4.1 Rotation Matrices and Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096
5.6.5 Spectral Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1098
5.7 Tensor Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104
5.7.1 Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1105
5.7.2 Indicial Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1107
5.7.2.1 Summation on multiple index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1108
5.7.2.2 Kronecker Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1108
5.7.2.3 Antisymmetric Symbol (Levi-Civita symbol) . . . . . . . . . 1109
5.7.3 Metric and Signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1115
5.7.4 Gram’s Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1118
5.7.5 Contravariant and Covariant Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1123
5.7.6 Operation in Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1124
5.7.6.1 Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Method . . . . . . . . . . . 1125
5.8 Spinor Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1126
5.8.1 Unit Spinor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1126
5.8.2 Geometric Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1133
5.8.2.1 Plane Symmetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1133
5.8.2.2 Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1136
5.8.2.3 Properties of Pauli Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1141
6 Analysis 1148
6.1 Functional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149
6.1.1 Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1150
6.1.1.1 Tabular Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1150
6.1.1.2 Graphical Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1151
6.1.1.2.1 2D representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1152
6.1.1.2.2 3D representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156
6.1.1.2.3 2D Vector representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1162
6.1.1.2.4 Properties of visual representations . . . . . . . . . 1165
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6.1.1.3 Analytical Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1170
6.1.2 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173
6.1.2.1 Limits and Continuity of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1184
6.1.2.2 Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1190
6.1.3 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1196
6.1.4 Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203
6.1.4.1 Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203
6.1.4.2 Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203
6.1.4.3 Hilbert Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1204
6.1.5 Functional dot product (inner product) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1204
6.2 Complex Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209
6.2.1 Linear Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209
6.2.2 Holomorphic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1219
6.2.2.1 Orthogonality of real and imaginary iso-curves . . . . . . . . 1225
6.2.3 Complex Logarithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1227
6.2.4 Complex Integral Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1230
6.2.4.1 Convergence of a complex series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1237
6.2.5 Path Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1246
6.2.5.1 Inverse Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1247
6.2.6 Laurent Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249
6.2.7 Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1257
6.2.8 Residue Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1260
6.2.8.1 Pole at infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1264
6.3 Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1266
6.3.1 General Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1267
6.3.1.1 Topological Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1268
6.3.2 Metric Space and Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1269
6.3.2.1 Equivalent Distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1274
6.3.2.2 Lipschitz Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1274
6.3.2.3 Continuity and Uniform Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1277
6.3.3 Opened and Closed Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1279
6.3.3.1 Balls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1280
6.3.3.2 Partititions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1284
6.3.3.3 Formal Ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1286
6.3.3.4 Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1287
6.3.4 Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289
6.3.4.1 Surfaces Homeomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1290
6.3.4.2 Differential Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1294
6.4 Measure Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296
6.4.1 Measurable Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296
6.4.1.1 Monotone Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1304
7 Geometry 1307
7.1 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1309
7.1.1 Radian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1309
7.1.2 Circle Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1311
7.1.2.1 Remarkable trigonometric triangle identities . . . . . . . . . 1319
7.1.2.1.1 Laws of Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1323
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7.1.2.1.2 Laws of Sines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1325
7.1.3 Hyperbolic Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1326
7.1.3.1 Remarkable hyperbolic identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1333
7.1.4 Spherical Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1335
7.1.5 Solide Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1340
7.2 Euclidean Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1343
7.2.1 Objects of Euclidean Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1343
7.2.1.1 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1345
7.2.2 Euclid Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1351
7.2.2.1 Segments and Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1353
7.2.2.1.1 Quantities of the same type . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1353
7.2.3 Plane Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1358
7.2.3.1 Displacements and Turnarounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1359
7.2.3.2 Plane angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1360
7.2.3.2.1 Angle Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1366
7.2.3.2.2 Units of Angle Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . 1369
7.2.3.2.3 Bisector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1372
7.2.3.3 Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1373
7.2.3.3.1 Equal Triangles (congruent triangles) . . . . . . . . 1374
7.2.3.3.2 Isosceles Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1377
7.3 Non-Euclidean Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1382
7.3.1 Geodesic and Metric Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1383
7.3.2 Riemann Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1387
7.4 Projective Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1393
7.4.1 Conical Perspective (Central Perspective) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1394
7.4.1.1 Images of Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1397
7.4.1.2 Images of Straight Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1413
7.5 Analytical Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415
7.5.1 Conics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415
7.5.1.1 Algebraic approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1416
7.5.1.2 Geometric Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1424
7.5.1.3 Dudelin Theorem (Dudelin Spheres) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1432
7.5.2 Parametrizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1434
7.5.2.1 Equation of the Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1434
7.5.2.2 Equation of the straight line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1437
7.5.2.2.1 Distance from a line to a point . . . . . . . . . . . . 1439
7.5.2.2.2 Line defined by the intersection of planes . . . . . . 1440
7.5.2.2.3 Parametric equation of a line in R3
. . . . . . . . . 1440
7.5.2.3 Equation of a square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1442
7.5.2.4 Equation of a cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1443
7.5.2.5 Equation of a Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1445
7.5.2.6 Equation of an Ellipsoid (spheroid, geoid) . . . . . . . . . . . 1447
7.5.2.7 Equation of a Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1449
7.5.2.8 Surface of revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1450
7.5.2.8.1 Paraboloid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1451
7.5.2.8.2 Hyperboloid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1453
7.5.2.8.3 Torus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1455
7.6 Differential Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1457
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7.6.1 Parametric Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1457
7.6.2 Isolines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1463
7.6.3 Frenet Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1469
7.6.4 Surface Patchs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1480
7.6.4.1 Metric of a Surface Patch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1481
7.6.4.1.1 Regularity of a Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1483
7.7 Geometric Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1487
7.7.1 Known Surfaces (Areas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1488
7.7.1.1 Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1488
7.7.1.2 Rectangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1493
7.7.1.3 Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1494
7.7.1.4 Unspecified Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1495
7.7.1.5 Isosceles Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1499
7.7.1.6 Equilateral Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1501
7.7.1.7 Right Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1503
7.7.1.8 Trapezoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1504
7.7.1.9 Parallelogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1506
7.7.1.10 Hexagon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1508
7.7.1.11 Rhombus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1512
7.7.1.12 Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1514
7.7.1.13 Ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1516
7.7.2 Known Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1519
7.7.2.1 Polyhedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1520
7.7.2.1.1 Parallelepiped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1520
7.7.2.1.1.1 Moment of Inertia of a rectangular plate . . . 1522
7.7.2.1.1.2 Moment of Inertia of a triangular plate . . . 1524
7.7.2.1.2 Pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1526
7.7.2.1.2.1 Moment of Inertia of a regular square pyramid1527
7.7.2.1.3 Right Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1528
7.7.2.1.4 Regular Polyhedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1529
7.7.2.1.5 Regular Tetrahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1534
7.7.2.1.6 Regular hexahedron (cube) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1537
7.7.2.1.7 Regular octahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1537
7.7.2.1.8 Regular Icosahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1541
7.7.2.1.9 Regular Dodecahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1545
7.7.2.2 Solids of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1550
7.7.2.2.1 Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1552
7.7.2.2.2 Cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1554
7.7.2.2.3 Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1556
7.7.2.2.4 Torus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1560
7.8 Graph Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1562
7.8.1 Type of Graphs and Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1563
7.8.2 Graph Adjacency matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1585
7.8.3 Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1590
7.9 Knot Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1594
7.9.1 Braids Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1594
7.9.1.1 Braids Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1596
7.9.2 Knot Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1599
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7.9.2.1 Knots Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1601
7.9.3 Tait’s Knot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1604
7.9.4 Mathematical Formalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1608
7.9.4.1 Planar Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1616
8 Mechanics 1618
8.1 Principia (Analytical/Lagrangian Mechanics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1620
8.1.1 System of Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1623
8.1.1.1 Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1630
8.1.1.1.1 Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1632
8.1.1.1.2 Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1633
8.1.1.1.3 Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1635
8.1.1.1.4 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1638
8.1.1.1.5 Electric Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1639
8.1.1.2 Scientific Notation and Metric Prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . 1642
8.1.2 Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1645
8.2 Analytical/Lagrangian Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1647
8.2.1 Lagrangian formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1649
8.2.1.1 Generalized coordinates and frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1649
8.2.1.2 Variational Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1653
8.2.1.3 Euler-Lagrange Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1655
8.2.1.3.1 Beltrami Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1661
8.2.1.3.2 Theorem of Variational Calculus . . . . . . . . . . 1662
8.2.2 Canonical Formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1664
8.3 Classical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1665
8.3.1 Newton’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1669
8.3.1.1 Newton First Law (Inertia Law) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1669
8.3.1.2 Newton Second Law (Fundamental Principle of Dynamics) . 1671
8.3.1.3 Newton Third Law (Law of Action and Reatction) . . . . . . 1673
8.3.2 Center of Mass and Reduced Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1674
8.3.2.1 Center of Mass Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1677
8.3.2.2 Guldin’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1679
8.3.3 Kinematics of Rectilinear Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1682
8.3.3.1 Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1682
8.3.3.2 Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1683
8.3.3.3 Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1684
8.3.3.3.1 Osculator Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1687
8.3.3.4 Galilean Relativity Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1689
8.4 Wave Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1692
8.4.0.1 Wave Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1692
8.4.0.2 Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1693
8.4.1 Type of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1695
8.4.1.1 Periodic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1695
8.4.1.2 Harmonic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1696
8.4.1.3 Stationnary Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1697
8.4.1.4 Vibration Modes in a Stretch String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1699
8.4.1.4.1 Dirichlet Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1701
8.4.1.4.2 Neumann Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1707
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8.5 Statistical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1709
8.5.1 Statistical Information Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1709
8.5.2 Boltzmann Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1716
8.5.3 Statistical Physics Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1721
8.5.3.1 Maxwell Distribution (velocity distribution) . . . . . . . . . . 1721
8.5.3.2 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1727
8.6 Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1731
8.6.1 Thermodynamic Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1732
8.6.2 Thermodynamics Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1735
8.6.3 Thermodynamic Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1736
8.6.4 State Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1738
8.6.4.1 Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1740
8.6.5 Equation of State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1742
8.6.5.1 Ideal Gaz Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1742
8.6.5.2 State equation of a Liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1743
8.6.5.3 State equation of a Solide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1745
8.7 Continuum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1748
8.7.1 Rigid Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749
8.7.1.1 Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749
8.7.1.2 Elasticity of Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1750
8.7.1.2.1 Hooke’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1755
8.7.1.2.2 Shear Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1759
8.7.2 Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1760
8.7.3 Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1761
9 Electromagnetism 1763
9.1 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1765
9.1.1 Electric Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1765
9.1.2 Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1769
9.1.2.1 Path Independance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1772
9.1.3 Equipotential and Field lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1772
9.1.3.1 Infinite straight wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1775
9.1.3.2 Electric Rigid Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1777
9.1.4 Electric Field Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1788
9.1.4.1 Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1789
9.2 Magnetostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1792
9.2.1 Ampere’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795
9.2.1.1 Infinitely long solenoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1797
9.2.1.2 Toroidal coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1798
9.2.1.3 Electromagnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1799
9.2.1.3.1 Strength of a magnet or electromagnet . . . . . . . 1800
9.2.2 Maxwell-Ampere Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1802
9.2.3 Biot-Savart law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1803
9.2.3.1 Magnetic field for a current loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1804
9.2.3.2 Magnetic field for an infinite wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1806
9.2.4 Magnetic dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1808
9.3 Electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1814
9.3.1 Maxwell Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1815
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9.3.1.1 First Maxwell Equation (constant electric flow) . . . . . . . . 1815
9.3.1.2 Second Maxwell Equation (non-existence of magnetic
monopomple) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1818
9.3.1.3 Third Maxwell Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1819
9.3.1.3.1 Betatron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1822
9.3.1.4 Fourth Maxwell Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1826
9.3.1.5 Magnetic Monopoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1829
9.3.2 Charge conservation equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1831
9.3.3 Gauge Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1832
9.4 Electrokinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837
9.4.1 Kirchoff’s laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1838
9.4.1.1 Mesh law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1838
9.4.1.2 Nodes law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1839
9.4.2 Drude model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1839
9.4.3 Ohm’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1845
9.4.3.1 Equivalent Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1847
9.4.3.2 Equivalent Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849
9.4.4 Electromotive Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1850
9.5 Geometric Optics (ray optics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1853
9.5.1 Sources and Shadows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1853
9.5.2 Colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1857
9.5.3 Radiometry/Photometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1863
9.5.3.1 Energy flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1863
9.5.3.1.1 Beer–Lambert law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1863
9.5.3.2 Light Intensity (Radiant Intensity) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865
9.5.3.3 Energy Emittance (Radiant Emittance) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1866
9.5.3.4 Radiance and Luminance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1867
9.5.3.4.1 Lambert’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1868
9.5.3.5 Kirchhoff’s law of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1870
9.5.3.6 Spectral Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1870
9.5.4 Law of Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1871
9.6 Wave Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1874
9.6.1 Huygens’ principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1874
9.6.2 Fraunhofer Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1877
9.6.2.1 Case of a rectangular slot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1877
10 Atomistic 1884
10.1 Corpuscular Quantum Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1885
10.1.1 Dalton’s model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1886
10.1.2 Thomson’s model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1887
10.1.3 Rhuterfords’s model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1888
10.1.4 Bohr’s Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1890
10.1.4.1 Bohr’s Postulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1890
10.1.4.2 Quantification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1890
10.1.4.3 Hydrogen Type Atoms Model without dragging . . . . . . . . 1893
10.1.4.4 Hydrogen Type Atoms Model with dragging . . . . . . . . . 1897
10.1.4.5 Neutron Assumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1900
10.1.5 Wilson and Sommerfeld’s Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1902
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10.1.6 Relativistic Sommerfeld Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1906
10.2 Wave Quantum Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1914
10.2.1 Postulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1915
10.2.1.1 1st Postulate: Quantum State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1916
10.2.1.2 2nd postulate: Time evolution of a quantum state . . . . . . . 1918
10.2.1.3 3rd postulate: Observables and operators . . . . . . . . . . . 1919
10.2.1.4 4th postulate: Measure of a property) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1921
10.2.1.5 5th postulate: Average of a property) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1923
10.2.2 Classical principles of uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1924
10.3 Relativistic Quantum Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1925
10.3.1 Relativistic Schrödinger evolution equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1926
10.3.1.1 Antimatter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1927
10.3.2 Generalized Klein-Gordon Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1930
10.4 Nuclear Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1934
10.4.1 Nuclear Weapon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1934
10.4.2 Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1937
10.4.2.1 Disintegration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1940
10.4.2.1.1 Half-life isotope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1941
10.4.2.2 Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1941
10.5 Quantum Field Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1944
10.5.1 Yukawa potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1947
10.5.1.1 Mass fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1949
10.6 Elementary Particle Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1951
10.6.1 Coupling Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1952
11 Cosmology 1957
11.1 Astronomy (Celestial Mechanics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1958
11.1.1 Drake Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1958
11.1.2 Kepler’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1959
11.1.2.1 First Kepler’s Law (conicity law) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1959
11.1.2.2 Second Kepler’s Law (area law) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1960
11.1.2.3 Third Kepler’s Law (periods’ law) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1962
11.1.3 Newton Gravitational Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1965
11.1.3.1 Shell Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1971
11.1.3.2 Asteroids/Meteors impact velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1972
11.1.3.3 Spherisation of Celestial Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1973
11.1.3.3.1 Flattening of Celestial Bodies (rotational flattening) 1974
11.1.3.4 Stability of Atmospheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1976
11.1.4 Roche’s Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1977
11.1.5 Keplerian Orbitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1979
11.1.5.1 First Binet Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1979
11.2 Astrophysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1981
11.2.1 Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1981
11.2.1.1 Star Formation and Genesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1987
11.2.1.1.1 Collapse of an Interstellar Cloud . . . . . . . . . . . 1987
11.2.1.1.2 Nuclear Duration Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1989
11.3 Special Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1994
11.3.1 Assumptions and Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1995
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11.3.1.1 Postulate of Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1995
11.3.1.2 Cosmological principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1995
11.3.1.3 Special Relativity Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1996
11.3.2 Lorentz Transformations/Boost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1998
11.3.2.1 Displacement four-vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2002
11.3.2.1.1 Wave Equation Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2004
11.3.2.1.2 Wave Equation Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2005
11.4 General Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2008
11.4.1 Assumptions and Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2008
11.4.1.1 Equivalence Postulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2008
11.4.1.2 Mach Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2012
11.4.2 Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2013
11.4.2.1 Schild Critera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2018
11.5 Cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2021
11.5.0.1 Newtonian Cosmological Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2021
11.5.0.2 Hubble’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2022
11.5.1 Friedmann Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2025
11.5.1.0.1 Critical Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2029
11.6 String Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2032
11.6.1 Wave equation of a transervsal string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2033
11.6.2 Non-relativistic Wave equation of a transversal string . . . . . . . . . . 2035
11.6.2.1 Nambu-Goto Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2041
11.6.3 Lagrangian of a String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2048
12 Chemistry 2049
12.1 Quantum Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2050
12.1.1 Infinite three-dimensional rectangular potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2050
12.1.2 Molecular Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2053
12.1.3 Hydrogenoid Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2056
12.1.4 Rigid Rotator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2060
12.2 Molecular Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2076
12.2.0.1 Orbital Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2077
12.2.1 LCAO Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2081
12.3 Analytical Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2090
12.3.1 Simple Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2091
12.3.2 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2093
12.4 Thermochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2098
12.4.0.1 Chemical transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2098
12.4.1 Molar Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2100
13 Theoretical Computing 2106
13.1 Numerical Methods/Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2108
13.1.1 Computer Representation of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2110
13.1.1.1 Decimal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2110
13.1.1.2 Binary system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2111
13.1.1.2.1 Binary arithemetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2112
13.1.1.3 Hexadecimal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2112
13.1.1.4 Octal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2113
13.1.1.5 Conversion of decimal system to non-decimal system: . . . . 2113
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13.1.2 Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2115
13.1.2.1 NP-Completude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2120
13.1.3 Integer Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2122
13.1.4 Heron’s Square Root Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2124
13.1.5 Archimedes Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2126
13.1.6 Euler’s Number e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2128
13.1.7 Stirling’s factorial approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2128
13.1.8 Linear System of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2130
13.1.8.1 One equation with on unknown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2130
13.1.8.2 Two equations with two unknowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2130
13.1.8.3 Three equations with three unknowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2132
13.1.8.4 n equations with n unknowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2135
13.1.9 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2136
13.1.10Regression Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2139
13.1.10.1 Univariate linear regression model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2141
13.1.10.1.1 Regression line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2142
13.1.10.1.2 Least Squares Method (LSM) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2143
13.1.10.1.3 Univariate Regression Variance Analysis . . . . . . 2146
13.1.10.2 Univariate linear regression Gaussian Model . . . . . . . . . 2151
13.1.10.2.1 Pearson Correlation Coefficient Test . . . . . . . . . 2160
13.1.10.2.2 Confidence interval of predicted values . . . . . . . 2162
13.1.10.3 Linear univariate regression forced through the origin . . . . 2167
13.1.10.4 Multiple linear regression Gaussian Model . . . . . . . . . . 2168
13.1.10.5 Polynomial regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2176
13.1.10.6 Logistic Regressions (LOGIT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2178
13.1.10.6.1 Binomial Logistic Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . 2178
13.1.10.6.2 ROC and Lift curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2187
13.1.11Interpolation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2202
13.1.11.1 Bezier Curves (B-Splines) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2202
13.1.11.2 Euler Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2209
13.1.11.3 Polynomial of collocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2211
13.1.11.4 Lagrange polynomial interpolation method . . . . . . . . . . 2214
13.1.12Roots search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2216
13.1.12.1 Proportional parts methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2216
13.1.12.2 Bisection method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2218
13.1.12.3 Secant method (Regula Falsi or False Position) . . . . . . . . 2220
13.1.12.4 Newton’s method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2222
13.1.13Numerical Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2227
13.1.14Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2229
13.1.14.1 Rectangles method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2230
13.1.14.2 Trapezoidal method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2231
13.1.15Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2232
13.1.15.1 Linear programming (Linear Optimization) . . . . . . . . . . 2233
13.1.15.1.1 Graphical LP resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2236
13.1.15.1.2 Algebraic LP resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2237
13.1.15.1.3 Simplex algorithm LP resolution . . . . . . . . . . 2238
13.1.16Monte Carlo Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2238
13.1.16.1 Inverse Transform Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2239
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13.2 Fractals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2241
13.2.1 IFS Fractals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2243
13.2.1.1 Fractals Metric Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2258
13.2.2 Fractals Visualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2262
13.3 Logical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2263
13.3.1 Strict Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2263
13.3.1.1 Boolean Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2264
13.3.1.2 Logical Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2271
13.4 Error-Correcting Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2273
13.4.1 CheckSum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2276
13.4.2 Encoders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2277
13.5 Automata Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2282
13.5.1 Von Neumann machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2284
13.6 Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2285
13.6.1 Cryptographic systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2286
13.6.1.1 Kerckhoffs’ principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2290
13.6.2 Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2291
13.6.3 Secret-key encryption system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2292
13.6.3.1 Feistel Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2294
13.7 Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2296
13.7.1 Schrödinger’s Cat superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2298
13.7.2 Photon polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2299
14 Social Sciences 2302
14.1 Population Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2304
14.1.1 Birth rate and mortality tables (biometric features) . . . . . . . . . . . 2304
14.1.1.1 Population Renevewal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2312
14.1.2 Population Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2314
14.1.2.1 Exponential model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2314
14.1.2.2 Deterministic Logistic Model (Verlhust) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2317
14.1.2.3 Chaotic Logistic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2321
14.1.2.3.1 Feigenbaum’s Bifurcation Diagram . . . . . . . . . 2325
14.1.2.4 Malthusian Growth Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2329
14.1.2.5 Leslie model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2330
14.1.2.6 SIR Model for Spread of Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2332
14.1.2.7 Lotka–Volterra predator–prey model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2335
14.1.3 Schaefer’s Optimal capture model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2344
14.1.4 Hardy-Weinberg model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2346
14.1.5 Mendel’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2352
14.1.6 Growth rate with temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2353
14.2 Game and Decision Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2354
14.2.1 Utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2357
14.2.1.1 Pareto Optimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2357
14.2.1.2 Nash Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2358
14.2.2 Games Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2361
14.2.2.1 Extensive representation of a Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2363
14.2.2.2 Extensive representation of a Decision . . . . . . . . . . . . 2364
14.2.2.2.1 Real Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2371
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14.2.2.3 Normal representation of a Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2373
14.2.2.3.1 Repetitive Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2380
14.2.2.4 Set representation of a Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2382
14.2.2.5 Graphical representation of a Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2385
14.2.3 Expected Utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2389
14.2.3.1 Hurwitz Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2389
14.2.3.2 Laplace Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2392
14.2.4 Evolutionary Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2393
14.2.5 Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2393
14.2.5.1 Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2393
14.3 Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2395
14.3.1 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2395
14.3.1.1 Microeconomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2396
14.3.1.1.1 Average & Marginal Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2401
14.3.1.2 Macroeconomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2406
14.3.1.2.1 Cobb-Douglas Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2407
14.3.2 Monetary Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2412
14.3.2.1 Walras’ law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2414
14.3.3 Supply and Demand Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2420
14.3.3.1 Expected utility theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2420
14.3.4 Net gain/loss opposite feedback model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2426
14.3.5 Capitalization and Actuarial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2434
14.3.5.1 Dates Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2436
14.3.5.2 Rates Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2439
14.3.5.3 Simple Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2440
14.3.5.3.1 Discounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2441
14.3.5.4 Compound Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2443
14.3.5.5 Continuous Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2445
14.3.6 Progressive interest (annuities) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2446
14.3.6.1 Postnumerando annuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2447
14.3.6.2 Praenumerando annuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2450
14.3.7 Rounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2452
14.3.8 Loans Amortization/Repayments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2454
14.3.8.1 Fixed-Term Loan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2456
14.3.8.2 Loan with constant amortization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2457
14.3.8.3 Loan with constant annuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2457
14.3.9 Modern Portfolio Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2460
14.3.9.1 No Arbitrage Opportunity (N.A.O.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2463
14.3.9.2 Portfolios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2466
14.3.9.2.1 Stocks (shares of stocks)/Equities . . . . . . . . . . 2471
14.3.9.2.1.1 Dividend Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2473
14.3.9.2.1.2 Shares Benchmark Indices . . . . . . . . . . 2475
14.3.9.2.1.3 Durand Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2476
14.3.9.2.2 Obligations (Bonds) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2479
14.3.9.2.3 Warrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2493
14.3.9.2.4 Futures & Forwards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2497
14.3.9.2.4.1 Futures & Forwards naive pricing . . . . . . 2502
14.3.9.2.4.2 Futures & Forwards commodity hedging . . 2506
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14.3.9.2.4.3 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2512
14.3.10Time Series Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2524
14.4 Quantitative Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2527
14.4.1 Corporate Finance Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2530
14.4.1.1 Basic Accounting Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2531
14.4.1.2 Ratio Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2532
14.4.1.2.1 Short term solvency or liquidity measure . . . . . . 2533
14.4.1.2.2 Long term solvency or Liquidity measure . . . . . . 2534
14.4.1.2.3 Profability Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2535
14.4.1.2.4 Growth Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2536
14.4.1.2.5 Asset management or turnovers measures . . . . . . 2538
14.4.1.2.6 Market Value Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2538
14.4.1.3 Weighted average cost of capital (WACC) . . . . . . . . . . . 2539
14.4.1.4 Break-even Point Analysis (BEPA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2541
14.4.1.5 Investment Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2543
14.4.1.6 Capital Goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2544
14.4.2 Linear Amortization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2544
14.4.2.1 Wages model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2545
14.4.3 Project Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2547
14.4.3.1 Probabilistic PERT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2547
14.4.4 Lean Management (Six Sigma Process) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2555
14.4.4.1 Pareto Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2558
14.4.4.1.1 Gini Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2562
14.4.4.2 Weighted Ishikawa Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2565
14.4.5 Supply Chain Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2569
14.4.5.1 Supply Chain Management in uncertain future . . . . . . . . 2571
14.4.5.2 Optimal initial stock management with zero rotation . . . . . 2573
14.4.5.3 Wilson’s Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2580
14.4.5.3.1 Wilson’s model with resupply . . . . . . . . . . . . 2586
14.4.5.3.2 Wilson’s model without resupply . . . . . . . . . . 2594
14.4.5.3.3 Wilson’s model with resupply and break-up . . . . . 2596
14.4.6 Sensitivity Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2601
14.4.6.1 Direct Bias Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2603
14.4.6.2 Correlation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2607
14.5 Music Maths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2612
14.5.1 Longitudinal Sound Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2612
15 Engineering 2617
15.1 Marine & Weather Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2618
15.1.1 Visual horizon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2618
15.2 Mechanical Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2621
15.2.1 Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2621
15.2.1.1 Transmission ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2624
15.2.1.2 Gears association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2627
15.2.1.2.1 Odd/Even Gear "problem" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2631
15.2.1.3 Type of Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2633
15.2.2 Strength of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2636
15.3 Electrical Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2638
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15.4 Civil Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2640
15.4.1 Static . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2641
15.4.2 Pulleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2642
15.4.2.1 Windlass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2648
15.4.3 Cornu spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2650
15.5 Aerospace Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2652
15.5.1 Cosmological Speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2653
15.6 Software Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2655
15.6.1 Google PageRank algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2655
15.6.1.1 Weighted Count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2657
15.7 Industrial Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2659
15.7.1 Six Sigma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2660
15.7.1.1 Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2662
15.7.1.2 Defaults/Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2663
15.7.1.3 Capability Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2668
15.7.1.4 Quality Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2680
15.7.2 Taguchi Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2693
15.7.3 Preventive Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2699
15.7.3.1 Planned Obsolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2700
15.7.3.2 Reliability Empirical Estimators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2700
15.7.3.3 Weibull Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2715
15.7.3.4 Topology of Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2722
15.7.3.4.1 Fault Tree Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2733
15.7.3.5 Maximum Likelihood for failure rate determination of samples2735
15.7.3.6 Kaplan-Meier Survival Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2737
15.7.3.7 ABC Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2742
15.7.4 Design of Experiments (DoE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2747
15.7.4.1 Full Factorial Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2755
15.7.4.2 Fractional Factorial Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2766
15.7.4.3 Taguchi Designs and Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2774
16 Epilogue 2777
17 Biographies 2779
A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2780
B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2782
C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2789
D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2796
E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2800
F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2803
G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2808
H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2813
I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2821
J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2821
K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2823
L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2826
M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2834
N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2842
O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2846
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P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2847
R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2852
S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2853
T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2861
V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2864
W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2865
Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2868
Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2870
18 Chronology 2872
19 Humour 2902
19.1 Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2903
19.2 Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2915
19.3 Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2933
19.4 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2949
19.5 Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2952
19.6 Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2958
19.7 Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2965
19.8 Social Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2974
20 Links 2980
20.1 Exact Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2981
20.2 Publishing/Magazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2982
20.3 Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2984
20.4 Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2985
20.5 Television/Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2985
20.6 Other sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2986
20.7 Softwares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2986
21 Quotes 2990
22 Change Log 2995
23 Nomenclature 3012
24 About the Redactor 3014
List of Figures 3018
List of Tables 3038
Bibliography 3042
Index 3046
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1Warnings
Contents
1.1 Impressum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Use of content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 How to use this book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Data Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.4 Use of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.5 Data transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.6 Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 Preamble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 Applicability and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3 Verbatim Copying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.4 Copying in Quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.5 Modifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.6 Combining Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.7 Collections of Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.8 Aggregation with independant Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.9 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.10 Termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.11 Future revisions of this License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 Only in non-free release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1
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1. Warnings Vincent ISOZ [EAME v3.0-2013]
1.1 Impressum
1.1.1 Use of content
The contents of this book are elaborated by a development process by which volunteers reach
a consensus. This process that brings together volunteers, research also the point of view of
people interested in the topics of this book. The person in charge of this book administers
the process and establishes rules to promote fairness in the consensus approach. It is also
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We decline no responsibility for any injury, damage or any other kind, special, incidental, con-
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The technical descriptions, procedures, and computer programs in this book have been devel-
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2/3049 Sciences.ch
Draft
Vincent ISOZ [EAME v3.0-2013] 1. Warnings
1.1.2 How to use this book
At the university level, this book can be used for a Ph.D., graduate level or advanced under-
graduate level seminar in many exact and pure sciences fields. The seminars where we use this
material is part of Scientific Evolution Sàrl program, where the trainees typically already have
taken undergraduate or graduate courses in their respective specialization. In reality this books
also aims to cover the full Kindergarten to PhD curriculum.
Because the methods of Applied Mathematics are learned by practice and experience, we view
a seminar on Applied Mathematics as a learning-by-doing (project oriented) seminar. We struc-
ture our mathematical modelling seminars around a set of problems that require the trainee
to construct models that help with planning and decision making. The imperative is that the
models should be consistent with the theory and back-tested. To fulfill this imperative, it is
necessary for the trainee to combine mathematical theory with modeling. The result is that the
trainee learns the theory, and more importantly, learns how that theory is applied and combined
in the real world. The ability to criticize and identify limitations of dangerous mathematical
tools is the most valuable feature of our seminars.
The problems with solutions in this book provide the opportunity to apply the text material to a
comprehensive set of fairly realistic situations. By the end of the seminars the trainees will have
enhanced their skills and knowledge of the most important theoretical and computing tools.
These are valuable skills that are in demand by the businesses at the highest levels.
It is very difficult to cover all the material in this book in a semester. It takes a lot of time to
explain the concepts to the trainees. The reader is encouraged to pick and choose which topics
will be covered during the term. It is not necessary strictly necessary to cover them in sequence
but it can help in a significant way?
In a nutshell, this book offers you a wide variety of topics that are amenable to modeling. All
are practical.
1.1.2.1 Companion eBooks, Forum and Quiz/Flashcards
There are some free companion books and tools in French and English written by Vincent ISOZ
& Daname KOLANI for the people that want to put in practice the theory presented in this book.
Here is the list:
• MATLAB™ in English (free sample of 1,059 pages, complete eBook with data 499$):
http://www.sciences.ch/dwnldbl/divers/Matlab.pdf
• Maple in French (free 99 pages):
http://www.sciences.ch/dwnldbl/divers/Maple.pdf
• R in French (free sample of 1,570 pages, complete eBook with data 499$):
http://www.sciences.ch/dwnldbl/divers/R.pdf
• Minitab in French (free sample of 1,060 pages, complete eBook with data 99$ ):
Sciences.ch 3/3049
Draft
1. Warnings Vincent ISOZ [EAME v3.0-2013]
http://www.sciences.ch/dwnldbl/divers/Minitab.pdf
• Scientific Linux installation & Configuration (199 pages completely free):
http://www.sciences.ch/dwnldbl/divers/ScientificLinux.pdf
and some available Quiz and Flash Cards in French and English to challenge yourself with the
rest of the world:
• MATLAB™ Basics L1 Challenge level in French (100 questions)
httpXGGwwwFs™ientifi™EevolutionF™omGq™mGst—rt•sessionG—UQTRU™fQ˜G
• Astronomy/Astrophysics H1 Challenge level in English (100 questions):
httpXGGwwwFs™ientifi™EevolutionF™omGq™mGst—rt•sessionGffdHVIHf—HG
• Greek Letter Flashcards (48 cards):
httpXGGwwwFs™ientifi™EevolutionF™omGq™mGfrGst—rt•sessionGTdWfIfefWHG
• Common Derivatives Flashcards (29 cards):
httpXGGwwwFs™ientifi™EevolutionF™omGq™mGfrGst—rt•sessionG™IS—RHfP™RG
• Common Primitives Flashcards (60 cards):
httpXGGwwwFs™ientifi™EevolutionF™omGq™mGfrGst—rt•sessionG™™f™PHfdefG
• LATEX L3 Challenge level in French (100 questions):
httpXGGwwwFs™ientifi™EevolutionF™omGq™mGfrGst—rt•sessionGffIeIdI˜WIG
• R Software 3.1.2 L3 Challenge level in French (100 questions):
httpXGGwwwFs™ientifi™EevolutionF™omGq™mGfrGst—rt•sessionGP—Tf™—URUQG
• C++ L3 Challenge level in French (100 questions):
httpXGGwwwFs™ientifi™EevolutionF™omGq™mGfrGst—rt•sessionGeHQI™eR˜RQG
But about the forum (as I don’t like to recreate the wheel), go through this link for any discus-
sions about the content of this book:
httpsXGGwwwFphysi™sforumsF™om
As for this book, the companion books above are only samples of the complete one. The full
version with perpetual free updates are available for the price of $ 299.- each and for $ 499.-
you get the exercise files and LATEX sources (for information on purchase you can simply send
me an email).
4/3049 Sciences.ch
Draft
Vincent ISOZ [EAME v3.0-2013] 1. Warnings
Because this book mainly focus on mathematical aspect of physical phenomena we can only
strongly recommend to the reader an another free book that is in our point of view actually the
best one that focus on the popular science aspect of the subjects that we will cover:
Motion Mountain by Dr. Christoph Schiller: httpXGGwwwFmotionmount—inFnet
Sciences.ch 5/3049
Draft
1. Warnings Vincent ISOZ [EAME v3.0-2013]
1.1.3 Data Protection
When looking at information on the Internet companion site (Sciences.ch), some data are au-
tomatically saved. We try to save as less as possible data and as brief as possible. Wherever
we can, we ave only anonymous data. We undertake to process the data you send us personally
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1.1.4 Use of data
Your data are only used for sending the Sciences.ch newsletter. Communication of personal
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1.1.5 Data transmission
We will never sell or commercialize the data of our customers or interested parties and will
never affects the rights of the person. In addition, we will not rent mailing lists and will not
send you advertising from third parties or on our behalf.
1.1.6 Agreement
When you provide us personal information, you authorize us to save them and use them within
the meaning of the Swiss Federal Law on Data Protection. If you ask us not to send you emails,
we are obliged, in your interest, save your e-mail in an internal negative list.
6/3049 Sciences.ch
Draft
Vincent ISOZ [EAME v3.0-2013] 1. Warnings
1.2 License
The entire contents of this book is subject to the GNU Free Documentation License, which
means:
• that everyone has the right to freely use the texts for non-commercial usage (Google Ads
or any equivalent being considered as a commercial usage!)
• that any person is authorized to broadcast items for non-commercial usage (Google Ads
or any equivalent being considered as a commercial usage!)
• that anyone can freely edit the texts for non-commmercial usage (Google Ads or any
equivalent being considered as a commercial usage!)
and bla bla bla...
in accordance with the license described below:
Version 1.1, March 2000
Copyright (C) 2000 Free Software Foundation, Inc. 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA
02111-1307 USA Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license
document, but changing it is not allowed.
1.2.1 Preamble
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the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with
or without modifying it only a non-commercial purpose. Secondarily, this License preserves
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responsible for modifications made by others.
This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that derivative works of the document must
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Sciences.ch 7/3049
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Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers
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Elements of Applied Mathematics for Engineers

  • 1. Draft The free 5,000 pages super-quick, super-painless undergraduate transportable Book on Elementary Applied Mathematics for Engineers (EAME) Sciences.chISOZ Vincent distribution 3rd Edition {ISBN 978-2-8399-0932-7} October 2014 Compiled with LATEX2εon TEXmaker EAME-3 work is licensed under a Creative Commons "Attribution 3.0 Unported" license. paternity; no commercial usage; sharing of conditions identical https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ 2001-2015: One book to rule them (almost) all!
  • 3. Draft SCIENTIFIC EVOLUTION SÀRL EAME 3RD EDITION The Isoz Compendium on Elementary Applied Mathematics for Engineers Redactor: Vincent ISOZ isoz@sciences.ch Supervisor: Vincent ISOZ 2016–05–15
  • 5. Draft Revision History Revision Date Author(s) Description 3.1 2014-10-01 VI French 3rd Edition translation into English (only 5,000 first pages freely available!). Translation progress ∼ 60% iii
  • 7. Draft Contents 1 Warnings 1 2 Acknowledgements 20 3 Introduction 22 4 Arithmetic 42 5 Algebra 675 6 Analysis 1148 7 Geometry 1307 8 Mechanics 1618 9 Electromagnetism 1763 10 Atomistic 1884 11 Cosmology 1957 12 Chemistry 2049 13 Theoretical Computing 2106 14 Social Sciences 2302 15 Engineering 2617 16 Epilogue 2777 17 Biographies 2779 18 Chronology 2872 v
  • 8. Draft 19 Humour 2902 20 Links 2980 21 Quotes 2990 22 Change Log 2995 23 Nomenclature 3012 24 About the Redactor 3014 List of Figures 3018 List of Tables 3038 Bibliography 3042 Index 3046 vi
  • 9. Draft Table of Contents 1 Warnings 1 1.1 Impressum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.1.1 Use of content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.1.2 How to use this book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.1.2.1 Companion eBooks, Forum and Quiz/Flashcards . . . . . . . 3 1.1.3 Data Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.1.4 Use of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.1.5 Data transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.1.6 Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.2 License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.2.1 Preamble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.2.2 Applicability and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.2.3 Verbatim Copying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.2.4 Copying in Quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.2.5 Modifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.2.6 Combining Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.2.7 Collections of Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.2.8 Aggregation with independant Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.2.9 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.2.10 Termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.2.11 Future revisions of this License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.3 Only in non-free release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2 Acknowledgements 20 3 Introduction 22 3.1 Forewords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 3.2 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 3.2.1 Descartes’ Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.2.2 Archimedean Oath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 3.3 Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.3.1 On Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.3.2 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.4 Science and Faith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 4 Arithmetic 42 4.1 Proof Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 4.1.0.1 Foundations Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 4.1.1 Paradoxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 vii
  • 10. Draft 4.1.1.1 Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 4.1.2 Propositional Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 4.1.2.1 Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 4.1.2.2 Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 4.1.2.3 Decision procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 4.1.2.3.1 Non-axiomatic procedural decisions . . . . . . . . . 62 4.1.2.3.2 Axiomatic procedural decisions . . . . . . . . . . . 62 4.1.2.4 Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 4.1.3 Predicate Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 4.1.3.1 Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 4.1.3.2 Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 4.1.3.2.1 Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 4.1.3.2.2 Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 4.1.3.2.3 Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 4.2 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 4.2.1 Digital Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4.2.2 Type of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 4.2.2.1 Natural Integer Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 4.2.2.1.1 Peano axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 4.2.2.1.2 Odd, Even and Perfect Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . 87 4.2.2.1.3 Prime Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 4.2.2.2 Relative Integer Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 4.2.2.3 Rational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 4.2.2.4 Irrational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4.2.2.5 Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 4.2.2.6 Transfinite Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 4.2.2.7 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 4.2.2.7.1 Geometric Interpretation of Complex Numbers . . . 105 4.2.2.7.1.1 Fresnel Vectors (phasors) . . . . . . . . . . 109 4.2.2.7.2 Transformation in the plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 4.2.2.8 Quaternion Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 4.2.2.8.1 Matrix Interpretation of Quaternions . . . . . . . . 121 4.2.2.8.2 Rotations with Quaternions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 4.2.2.9 Algebraic and Transcendental Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 4.2.2.10 Abstract Numbers (variables) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 4.2.2.10.1 Domain of a Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 4.3 Arithmetic Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 4.3.1 Binary Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 4.3.1.1 Equalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 4.3.1.2 Comparators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 4.3.2 Fundamental Arithmetic Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 4.3.2.1 Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 4.3.2.2 Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 4.3.2.3 Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 4.3.2.4 Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 4.3.2.4.1 n-root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 4.3.3 Arithmetic Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 4.3.4 Absolute Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 viii
  • 11. Draft 4.3.5 Calculation Rules (operators priorities) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 4.4 Number Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 4.4.1 Principle of good order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 4.4.2 Induction Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 4.4.3 Divisibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 4.4.3.1 Euclidean Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 4.4.3.1.1 Greatest common divisor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 4.4.3.2 Euclidean Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 4.4.3.3 Least Common Multiple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 4.4.3.4 Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 4.5 Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 4.5.1 Zermelo-Fraenkel Axiomatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 4.5.1.1 Cardinals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 4.5.1.2 Cartesian Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 4.5.1.3 Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 4.5.2 Set Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 4.5.2.1 Inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 4.5.2.2 Intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 4.5.2.3 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 4.5.2.4 Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 4.5.2.5 Symmetric Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 4.5.2.6 Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 4.5.2.7 Complementarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 4.5.3 Functions and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 4.5.3.1 Cantor-Bernstein Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 4.6 Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 4.6.1 Event Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 4.6.2 Kolmogorov’s Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 4.6.3 Conditional Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 4.6.3.1 Conditional Expectation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 4.6.3.2 Bayesian Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 4.6.4 Martingales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 4.6.5 Combinatorial Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 4.6.5.1 Simple Arrangements with Repetition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 4.6.5.2 Simple Permutations without Repetitions . . . . . . . . . . . 264 4.6.5.3 Simple Permutations with Repetitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 4.6.5.4 Simple Arrangements with Repetitions . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 4.6.5.5 Simple Combinations without Repetitions . . . . . . . . . . . 267 4.6.5.6 Simple Combinations with Repetitions . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 4.6.6 Markov Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 4.7 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 4.7.1 Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 4.7.2 Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 4.7.2.1 Laplace Smoothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 4.7.2.2 Means and Averages properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 4.7.3 Type of variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 4.7.3.1 Discrete Variables and Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 4.7.3.1.1 Mean and Deviation of Discrete Random Variables . 303 ix
  • 12. Draft 4.7.3.1.2 Discrete Covariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 4.7.3.1.2.1 Anscombe’s famous quartet . . . . . . . . . 319 4.7.3.1.3 Mean and Variance of the Average . . . . . . . . . 321 4.7.3.1.4 Coefficient of Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 4.7.3.2 Continuous Variables and Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 4.7.4 Fundamental postulate of statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 4.7.5 Diversity Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 4.7.6 Distribution Functions (probabilities laws) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 4.7.6.1 Discrete Uniform Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 4.7.6.2 Bernoulli Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 4.7.6.3 Geometric Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 4.7.6.4 Binomial Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 4.7.6.5 Negative Binomial Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 4.7.6.6 Hypergeometric Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 4.7.6.7 Multinomial Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 4.7.6.8 Poisson Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 4.7.6.9 Normal & Gauss-Laplace Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 4.7.6.9.1 Sum of two random Normal variables . . . . . . . . 375 4.7.6.9.2 Product of two random Normal variables . . . . . . 377 4.7.6.9.3 Bivariate Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 4.7.6.9.4 Normal Reduced Centered Distribution . . . . . . . 384 4.7.6.9.5 Henry’s Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 4.7.6.9.6 Q-Q plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 4.7.6.10 Log-Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 4.7.6.11 Continuous Uniform Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 4.7.6.12 Triangular Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 4.7.6.13 Pareto Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 4.7.6.14 Exponential Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 4.7.6.15 Cauchy Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 4.7.6.16 Beta Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 4.7.6.17 Gamma Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 4.7.6.18 Chi-Square (pearson) Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 4.7.6.19 Student Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 4.7.6.20 Fisher Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 4.7.6.21 Benford Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 4.7.7 Likelihood Estimators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 4.7.7.1 Normal Distribution MLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 4.7.7.2 Poisson Distribution MLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 4.7.7.3 Binomial (and Geometric) Distribution MLE . . . . . . . . . 440 4.7.7.4 Weibull Distribution MLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 4.7.7.5 Gamma Distribution MLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 4.7.8 Finite Population Correction Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 4.7.9 Confidence Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 4.7.9.1 C.I. on the Mean with known Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 4.7.9.2 C.I. on the Variance with known Mean . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 4.7.9.3 C.I. on the Variance with empirical Mean . . . . . . . . . . . 458 4.7.9.4 C.I. on the Mean with known unbiased Variance . . . . . . . 459 4.7.9.5 Binomial exact Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 x
  • 13. Draft 4.7.9.6 C.I. for a Proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 4.7.9.6.1 Test of equality of two Proportions . . . . . . . . . 471 4.7.9.7 Sign Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 4.7.9.8 Mood’s Median Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 4.7.9.9 Poisson Test (1 sample) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 4.7.9.10 Poisson Test (2 samples) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 4.7.9.11 Confidence/Tolerance/Prediction Interval . . . . . . . . . . . 483 4.7.10 Weak Law of Large Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 4.7.11 Characteristic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 4.7.12 Central Limit Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 4.7.13 Univariate Hypothesis and Adequation tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 4.7.13.1 Direction of hypothesis test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502 4.7.13.1.1 Simpson’s Paradox (sophism) . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 4.7.13.2 Power of a test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 4.7.13.3 Power of the one sample Z-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512 4.7.13.4 Power of the one and two samples P-test . . . . . . . . . . . 514 4.7.13.5 Analysis of Variance with one fixed factor . . . . . . . . . . . 516 4.7.13.6 Analysis of Variance with two fixed factors without repetitions 529 4.7.13.7 Analysis of Variance with two fixed factors with repetitions . 545 4.7.13.8 Multifactor ANOVA with Repeated measures . . . . . . . . . 551 4.7.13.9 Greaco Latin Square ANOVA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 4.7.13.10 Cochran C test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559 4.7.13.11 Adequation Tests (goodness of fit tests) . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 4.7.13.11.1 Pearson’s chi-squared GoF test . . . . . . . . . . . 561 4.7.13.11.2 Kolmogorov-Smirnov GoF test . . . . . . . . . . . 566 4.7.13.11.3 Ryan-Joiner GoF test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572 4.7.13.11.4 Anderson-Darling GoF test . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 4.7.14 Robustness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586 4.7.14.1 Rank Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 4.7.14.1.1 L-Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 4.7.14.1.2 Ranks Distribution Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588 4.7.14.1.3 Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589 4.7.14.1.4 Mann-Witheny Rank Sum Test . . . . . . . . . . . 598 4.7.14.1.5 Treatment of equalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604 4.7.14.1.6 One sample Wilcoxon rank sum signed test . . . . . 606 4.7.14.1.7 Wilcoxon rank sum signed test for two paired samples610 4.7.14.1.8 Kruskal-Wallis test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 4.7.14.1.9 Friedman Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 4.7.14.1.10 Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient . . . . . . . 619 4.7.14.2 Range Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622 4.7.14.2.1 Tukey’s Range Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625 4.7.14.3 Extreme Value Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629 4.7.15 Multivariate Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 4.7.15.1 Principal Component Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631 4.7.15.2 Correspondence Factorial Analysis (AFC) . . . . . . . . . . 647 4.7.15.3 Chi-2 Test of Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652 4.7.15.4 Cramér’s V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656 4.7.15.5 Exact Fisher Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 xi
  • 14. Draft 4.7.15.6 Cohen’s kappa agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665 4.7.16 Propagation of Errors (experimental uncertainty analysis) . . . . . . . . 667 4.7.16.1 Absolute and Relative Uncertainties (Direct calculation of bias)667 4.7.16.2 Statistical Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668 4.7.16.3 Repeatability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670 4.7.16.4 Error propagation (linearized approximation) . . . . . . . . . 671 4.7.16.5 Significative Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673 5 Algebra 675 5.1 Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677 5.1.1 Equations and Inequations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678 5.1.1.1 Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679 5.1.1.2 Inequations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683 5.1.2 Remarkable Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687 5.1.3 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691 5.1.3.1 Euclidean Divison of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694 5.1.3.2 Factorization Theorem of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . 696 5.1.3.3 Diophantine equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697 5.1.3.4 First order univariate Polynomial and Equations . . . . . . . 698 5.1.3.5 Second order univariate Polynomial and Equations . . . . . . 699 5.1.3.5.1 Irrational Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703 5.1.3.5.2 Gold Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705 5.1.3.6 Third order univariate Polynomial and Equations . . . . . . . 705 5.1.3.7 Fourth order univariate Polynomial and Equations . . . . . . 708 5.1.3.8 Trigonometric Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 5.1.3.9 Cyclotomic Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 5.1.3.10 Legendre Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714 5.2 Set Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719 5.2.1 Groups Algebra and Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719 5.2.1.1 Cyclic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 5.2.1.2 Transformations Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723 5.2.1.3 Group of Symetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731 5.2.1.3.1 Orbits and Stabilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735 5.2.1.4 Permutations Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736 5.2.2 Galois Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746 5.2.2.1 Elementary symmetric and Invariant Polynomials . . . . . . . 746 5.2.2.2 General Vieta’s formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 5.3 Differential and Integral Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751 5.3.1 Differential Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751 5.3.1.1 Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760 5.3.1.2 Usual Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767 5.3.1.3 Smoothness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778 5.3.2 Integral Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779 5.3.2.1 Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779 5.3.2.2 Indefinite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785 5.3.2.3 Double Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792 5.3.2.3.1 Fubini’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794 5.3.2.4 Integration by Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795 xii
  • 15. Draft 5.3.2.4.1 Jacobian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796 5.3.2.5 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802 5.3.2.6 Usual Primitives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804 5.3.2.7 Dirac Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823 5.3.2.8 Gamma Euler Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825 5.3.2.8.1 Euler-Mascheroni Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829 5.3.2.9 Curvilinear Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830 5.3.2.9.1 Curvilinear Integral of a scalar field . . . . . . . . . 831 5.3.2.9.2 Curvilinear Integral of a vector field . . . . . . . . . 832 5.3.3 Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835 5.3.3.1 First order Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836 5.3.3.2 Linear Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836 5.3.3.3 Resolution Methods of Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . 838 5.3.3.3.1 Method of characteristic polynomial . . . . . . . . 839 5.3.3.3.1.1 Resolution of the H.E. of the first order L.D.E. with constant coefficients . . . . . . 839 5.3.3.3.1.2 Resolution of the H.E. of the first order L.D.E. with non-constant coefficients . . . . 840 5.3.3.3.1.3 Resolution of the H.E. of the second order L.D.E. with constant coefficients . . . . . . 841 5.3.3.3.2 Integrating Factor Method (Euler’s Method) . . . . 845 5.3.3.3.3 Method of separation of variables . . . . . . . . . . 848 5.3.3.3.4 Method of constant variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849 5.3.4 Systems of Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851 5.3.5 Regular Methods of Perturbations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856 5.3.5.1 Perturbation theory for algebraic equations . . . . . . . . . . 856 5.3.5.2 Perturbation theory of differential equations . . . . . . . . . . 858 5.4 Sequences and Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862 5.4.1 Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862 5.4.1.1 Arithmetic Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863 5.4.1.2 Harmonic Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866 5.4.1.3 Geometric Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867 5.4.1.4 Cauchy Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868 5.4.1.5 Fibonacci Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872 5.4.1.6 Logic Sequences/Psychologist Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . 873 5.4.2 Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874 5.4.2.1 Gauss Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875 5.4.2.1.1 Bernoulli’s Numbers and Polynomials . . . . . . . . 878 5.4.2.2 Arithmetic Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883 5.4.2.3 Geometric Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884 5.4.2.3.1 Zeta function and Euler’s identity . . . . . . . . . . 885 5.4.2.4 Taylor and Maclaurin Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890 5.4.2.4.1 Usual Maclaurin developments . . . . . . . . . . . 895 5.4.2.4.2 Taylor series of bivariate functions (multivariate Taylor series) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901 5.4.2.4.3 Quadratic Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903 5.4.2.4.4 Lagrange Remainder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905 5.4.2.4.5 Taylor Series with Integral Remainder . . . . . . . . 907 xiii
  • 16. Draft 5.4.2.5 Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909 5.4.2.5.1 Power of a signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928 5.4.2.5.2 Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930 5.4.2.6 Bessel Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939 5.4.2.6.1 Zero order Bessel’s Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 939 5.4.2.6.2 n order Bessel’s Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939 5.4.2.6.3 Bessel’s Differential Equations of ordern n . . . . . 944 5.4.3 Convergence Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945 5.4.3.1 Integral Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946 5.4.3.2 D’Alembert Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947 5.4.3.3 Alternating Series Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948 5.4.3.4 Fixed Point Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949 5.5 Vector Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952 5.5.1 Concept of Arrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 953 5.5.2 Set of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954 5.5.2.1 Pseudo-Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956 5.5.2.2 Multiplication by a scalar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958 5.5.2.2.1 Rule of three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958 5.5.3 Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960 5.5.3.1 Linear Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961 5.5.3.2 Sub-vector spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961 5.5.3.3 Generating families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962 5.5.3.4 Linear Dependance or Independance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962 5.5.3.5 Base of a vectorial space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963 5.5.3.6 Direction Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965 5.5.3.7 Dimensions of a vector space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966 5.5.3.8 Extension of a free family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966 5.5.3.9 Rank of a finite family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967 5.5.3.10 Direct Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968 5.5.3.11 Affine spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969 5.5.4 Euclidean Vectore Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972 5.5.4.1 Scalar Product (Dot Product) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974 5.5.4.1.1 Cauchy–Schwarz inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978 5.5.4.1.2 Triangular Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979 5.5.4.1.3 General Scalar/Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980 5.5.4.2 Cross Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981 5.5.4.3 Mixed Product (triple product9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986 5.5.5 Vectorial Functional Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988 5.5.6 Hermitian Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990 5.5.6.1 Hermitian Inner Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 991 5.5.6.2 Types of Vectors Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992 5.5.7 System of Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993 5.5.7.1 Cartesian (rectangular) Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . 993 5.5.7.2 Spherical Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994 5.5.7.3 Cylindrical Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999 5.5.7.4 Polar Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1001 5.5.8 Differential Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002 5.5.8.1 Gradients of Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004 xiv
  • 17. Draft 5.5.8.2 Gradients of Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010 5.5.8.3 Divergences of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011 5.5.8.4 Rotationals of a Vector Field (Curl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019 5.5.8.5 Laplacians of Scalar Field (Laplace Operator) . . . . . . . . . 1029 5.5.8.6 Laplacians of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033 5.5.8.7 Remarkable Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041 5.5.8.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044 5.6 Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048 5.6.0.1 Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052 5.6.1 Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056 5.6.2 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058 5.6.2.1 Rank of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059 5.6.2.2 Matrix Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064 5.6.2.3 Type of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067 5.6.2.4 Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075 5.6.2.4.1 Derivative of a Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087 5.6.2.4.2 Determinant Cofactor and Matrix Inverse . . . . . . 1088 5.6.3 Change of Basis (frames) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090 5.6.4 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093 5.6.4.1 Rotation Matrices and Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096 5.6.5 Spectral Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1098 5.7 Tensor Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104 5.7.1 Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1105 5.7.2 Indicial Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1107 5.7.2.1 Summation on multiple index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1108 5.7.2.2 Kronecker Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1108 5.7.2.3 Antisymmetric Symbol (Levi-Civita symbol) . . . . . . . . . 1109 5.7.3 Metric and Signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1115 5.7.4 Gram’s Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1118 5.7.5 Contravariant and Covariant Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1123 5.7.6 Operation in Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1124 5.7.6.1 Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Method . . . . . . . . . . . 1125 5.8 Spinor Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1126 5.8.1 Unit Spinor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1126 5.8.2 Geometric Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1133 5.8.2.1 Plane Symmetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1133 5.8.2.2 Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1136 5.8.2.3 Properties of Pauli Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1141 6 Analysis 1148 6.1 Functional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149 6.1.1 Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1150 6.1.1.1 Tabular Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1150 6.1.1.2 Graphical Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1151 6.1.1.2.1 2D representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1152 6.1.1.2.2 3D representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156 6.1.1.2.3 2D Vector representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1162 6.1.1.2.4 Properties of visual representations . . . . . . . . . 1165 xv
  • 18. Draft 6.1.1.3 Analytical Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1170 6.1.2 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173 6.1.2.1 Limits and Continuity of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1184 6.1.2.2 Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1190 6.1.3 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1196 6.1.4 Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203 6.1.4.1 Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203 6.1.4.2 Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203 6.1.4.3 Hilbert Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1204 6.1.5 Functional dot product (inner product) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1204 6.2 Complex Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209 6.2.1 Linear Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209 6.2.2 Holomorphic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1219 6.2.2.1 Orthogonality of real and imaginary iso-curves . . . . . . . . 1225 6.2.3 Complex Logarithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1227 6.2.4 Complex Integral Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1230 6.2.4.1 Convergence of a complex series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1237 6.2.5 Path Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1246 6.2.5.1 Inverse Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1247 6.2.6 Laurent Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249 6.2.7 Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1257 6.2.8 Residue Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1260 6.2.8.1 Pole at infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1264 6.3 Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1266 6.3.1 General Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1267 6.3.1.1 Topological Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1268 6.3.2 Metric Space and Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1269 6.3.2.1 Equivalent Distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1274 6.3.2.2 Lipschitz Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1274 6.3.2.3 Continuity and Uniform Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1277 6.3.3 Opened and Closed Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1279 6.3.3.1 Balls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1280 6.3.3.2 Partititions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1284 6.3.3.3 Formal Ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1286 6.3.3.4 Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1287 6.3.4 Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289 6.3.4.1 Surfaces Homeomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1290 6.3.4.2 Differential Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1294 6.4 Measure Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296 6.4.1 Measurable Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296 6.4.1.1 Monotone Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1304 7 Geometry 1307 7.1 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1309 7.1.1 Radian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1309 7.1.2 Circle Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1311 7.1.2.1 Remarkable trigonometric triangle identities . . . . . . . . . 1319 7.1.2.1.1 Laws of Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1323 xvi
  • 19. Draft 7.1.2.1.2 Laws of Sines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1325 7.1.3 Hyperbolic Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1326 7.1.3.1 Remarkable hyperbolic identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1333 7.1.4 Spherical Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1335 7.1.5 Solide Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1340 7.2 Euclidean Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1343 7.2.1 Objects of Euclidean Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1343 7.2.1.1 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1345 7.2.2 Euclid Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1351 7.2.2.1 Segments and Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1353 7.2.2.1.1 Quantities of the same type . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1353 7.2.3 Plane Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1358 7.2.3.1 Displacements and Turnarounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1359 7.2.3.2 Plane angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1360 7.2.3.2.1 Angle Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1366 7.2.3.2.2 Units of Angle Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . 1369 7.2.3.2.3 Bisector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1372 7.2.3.3 Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1373 7.2.3.3.1 Equal Triangles (congruent triangles) . . . . . . . . 1374 7.2.3.3.2 Isosceles Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1377 7.3 Non-Euclidean Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1382 7.3.1 Geodesic and Metric Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1383 7.3.2 Riemann Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1387 7.4 Projective Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1393 7.4.1 Conical Perspective (Central Perspective) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1394 7.4.1.1 Images of Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1397 7.4.1.2 Images of Straight Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1413 7.5 Analytical Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415 7.5.1 Conics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415 7.5.1.1 Algebraic approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1416 7.5.1.2 Geometric Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1424 7.5.1.3 Dudelin Theorem (Dudelin Spheres) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1432 7.5.2 Parametrizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1434 7.5.2.1 Equation of the Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1434 7.5.2.2 Equation of the straight line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1437 7.5.2.2.1 Distance from a line to a point . . . . . . . . . . . . 1439 7.5.2.2.2 Line defined by the intersection of planes . . . . . . 1440 7.5.2.2.3 Parametric equation of a line in R3 . . . . . . . . . 1440 7.5.2.3 Equation of a square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1442 7.5.2.4 Equation of a cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1443 7.5.2.5 Equation of a Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1445 7.5.2.6 Equation of an Ellipsoid (spheroid, geoid) . . . . . . . . . . . 1447 7.5.2.7 Equation of a Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1449 7.5.2.8 Surface of revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1450 7.5.2.8.1 Paraboloid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1451 7.5.2.8.2 Hyperboloid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1453 7.5.2.8.3 Torus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1455 7.6 Differential Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1457 xvii
  • 20. Draft 7.6.1 Parametric Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1457 7.6.2 Isolines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1463 7.6.3 Frenet Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1469 7.6.4 Surface Patchs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1480 7.6.4.1 Metric of a Surface Patch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1481 7.6.4.1.1 Regularity of a Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1483 7.7 Geometric Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1487 7.7.1 Known Surfaces (Areas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1488 7.7.1.1 Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1488 7.7.1.2 Rectangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1493 7.7.1.3 Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1494 7.7.1.4 Unspecified Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1495 7.7.1.5 Isosceles Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1499 7.7.1.6 Equilateral Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1501 7.7.1.7 Right Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1503 7.7.1.8 Trapezoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1504 7.7.1.9 Parallelogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1506 7.7.1.10 Hexagon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1508 7.7.1.11 Rhombus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1512 7.7.1.12 Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1514 7.7.1.13 Ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1516 7.7.2 Known Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1519 7.7.2.1 Polyhedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1520 7.7.2.1.1 Parallelepiped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1520 7.7.2.1.1.1 Moment of Inertia of a rectangular plate . . . 1522 7.7.2.1.1.2 Moment of Inertia of a triangular plate . . . 1524 7.7.2.1.2 Pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1526 7.7.2.1.2.1 Moment of Inertia of a regular square pyramid1527 7.7.2.1.3 Right Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1528 7.7.2.1.4 Regular Polyhedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1529 7.7.2.1.5 Regular Tetrahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1534 7.7.2.1.6 Regular hexahedron (cube) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1537 7.7.2.1.7 Regular octahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1537 7.7.2.1.8 Regular Icosahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1541 7.7.2.1.9 Regular Dodecahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1545 7.7.2.2 Solids of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1550 7.7.2.2.1 Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1552 7.7.2.2.2 Cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1554 7.7.2.2.3 Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1556 7.7.2.2.4 Torus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1560 7.8 Graph Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1562 7.8.1 Type of Graphs and Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1563 7.8.2 Graph Adjacency matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1585 7.8.3 Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1590 7.9 Knot Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1594 7.9.1 Braids Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1594 7.9.1.1 Braids Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1596 7.9.2 Knot Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1599 xviii
  • 21. Draft 7.9.2.1 Knots Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1601 7.9.3 Tait’s Knot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1604 7.9.4 Mathematical Formalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1608 7.9.4.1 Planar Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1616 8 Mechanics 1618 8.1 Principia (Analytical/Lagrangian Mechanics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1620 8.1.1 System of Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1623 8.1.1.1 Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1630 8.1.1.1.1 Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1632 8.1.1.1.2 Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1633 8.1.1.1.3 Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1635 8.1.1.1.4 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1638 8.1.1.1.5 Electric Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1639 8.1.1.2 Scientific Notation and Metric Prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . 1642 8.1.2 Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1645 8.2 Analytical/Lagrangian Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1647 8.2.1 Lagrangian formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1649 8.2.1.1 Generalized coordinates and frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1649 8.2.1.2 Variational Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1653 8.2.1.3 Euler-Lagrange Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1655 8.2.1.3.1 Beltrami Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1661 8.2.1.3.2 Theorem of Variational Calculus . . . . . . . . . . 1662 8.2.2 Canonical Formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1664 8.3 Classical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1665 8.3.1 Newton’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1669 8.3.1.1 Newton First Law (Inertia Law) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1669 8.3.1.2 Newton Second Law (Fundamental Principle of Dynamics) . 1671 8.3.1.3 Newton Third Law (Law of Action and Reatction) . . . . . . 1673 8.3.2 Center of Mass and Reduced Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1674 8.3.2.1 Center of Mass Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1677 8.3.2.2 Guldin’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1679 8.3.3 Kinematics of Rectilinear Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1682 8.3.3.1 Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1682 8.3.3.2 Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1683 8.3.3.3 Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1684 8.3.3.3.1 Osculator Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1687 8.3.3.4 Galilean Relativity Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1689 8.4 Wave Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1692 8.4.0.1 Wave Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1692 8.4.0.2 Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1693 8.4.1 Type of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1695 8.4.1.1 Periodic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1695 8.4.1.2 Harmonic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1696 8.4.1.3 Stationnary Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1697 8.4.1.4 Vibration Modes in a Stretch String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1699 8.4.1.4.1 Dirichlet Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1701 8.4.1.4.2 Neumann Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1707 xix
  • 22. Draft 8.5 Statistical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1709 8.5.1 Statistical Information Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1709 8.5.2 Boltzmann Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1716 8.5.3 Statistical Physics Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1721 8.5.3.1 Maxwell Distribution (velocity distribution) . . . . . . . . . . 1721 8.5.3.2 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1727 8.6 Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1731 8.6.1 Thermodynamic Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1732 8.6.2 Thermodynamics Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1735 8.6.3 Thermodynamic Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1736 8.6.4 State Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1738 8.6.4.1 Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1740 8.6.5 Equation of State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1742 8.6.5.1 Ideal Gaz Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1742 8.6.5.2 State equation of a Liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1743 8.6.5.3 State equation of a Solide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1745 8.7 Continuum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1748 8.7.1 Rigid Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749 8.7.1.1 Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749 8.7.1.2 Elasticity of Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1750 8.7.1.2.1 Hooke’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1755 8.7.1.2.2 Shear Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1759 8.7.2 Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1760 8.7.3 Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1761 9 Electromagnetism 1763 9.1 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1765 9.1.1 Electric Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1765 9.1.2 Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1769 9.1.2.1 Path Independance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1772 9.1.3 Equipotential and Field lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1772 9.1.3.1 Infinite straight wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1775 9.1.3.2 Electric Rigid Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1777 9.1.4 Electric Field Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1788 9.1.4.1 Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1789 9.2 Magnetostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1792 9.2.1 Ampere’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795 9.2.1.1 Infinitely long solenoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1797 9.2.1.2 Toroidal coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1798 9.2.1.3 Electromagnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1799 9.2.1.3.1 Strength of a magnet or electromagnet . . . . . . . 1800 9.2.2 Maxwell-Ampere Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1802 9.2.3 Biot-Savart law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1803 9.2.3.1 Magnetic field for a current loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1804 9.2.3.2 Magnetic field for an infinite wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1806 9.2.4 Magnetic dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1808 9.3 Electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1814 9.3.1 Maxwell Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1815 xx
  • 23. Draft 9.3.1.1 First Maxwell Equation (constant electric flow) . . . . . . . . 1815 9.3.1.2 Second Maxwell Equation (non-existence of magnetic monopomple) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1818 9.3.1.3 Third Maxwell Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1819 9.3.1.3.1 Betatron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1822 9.3.1.4 Fourth Maxwell Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1826 9.3.1.5 Magnetic Monopoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1829 9.3.2 Charge conservation equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1831 9.3.3 Gauge Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1832 9.4 Electrokinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837 9.4.1 Kirchoff’s laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1838 9.4.1.1 Mesh law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1838 9.4.1.2 Nodes law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1839 9.4.2 Drude model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1839 9.4.3 Ohm’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1845 9.4.3.1 Equivalent Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1847 9.4.3.2 Equivalent Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849 9.4.4 Electromotive Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1850 9.5 Geometric Optics (ray optics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1853 9.5.1 Sources and Shadows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1853 9.5.2 Colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1857 9.5.3 Radiometry/Photometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1863 9.5.3.1 Energy flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1863 9.5.3.1.1 Beer–Lambert law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1863 9.5.3.2 Light Intensity (Radiant Intensity) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865 9.5.3.3 Energy Emittance (Radiant Emittance) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1866 9.5.3.4 Radiance and Luminance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1867 9.5.3.4.1 Lambert’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1868 9.5.3.5 Kirchhoff’s law of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1870 9.5.3.6 Spectral Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1870 9.5.4 Law of Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1871 9.6 Wave Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1874 9.6.1 Huygens’ principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1874 9.6.2 Fraunhofer Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1877 9.6.2.1 Case of a rectangular slot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1877 10 Atomistic 1884 10.1 Corpuscular Quantum Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1885 10.1.1 Dalton’s model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1886 10.1.2 Thomson’s model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1887 10.1.3 Rhuterfords’s model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1888 10.1.4 Bohr’s Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1890 10.1.4.1 Bohr’s Postulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1890 10.1.4.2 Quantification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1890 10.1.4.3 Hydrogen Type Atoms Model without dragging . . . . . . . . 1893 10.1.4.4 Hydrogen Type Atoms Model with dragging . . . . . . . . . 1897 10.1.4.5 Neutron Assumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1900 10.1.5 Wilson and Sommerfeld’s Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1902 xxi
  • 24. Draft 10.1.6 Relativistic Sommerfeld Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1906 10.2 Wave Quantum Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1914 10.2.1 Postulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1915 10.2.1.1 1st Postulate: Quantum State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1916 10.2.1.2 2nd postulate: Time evolution of a quantum state . . . . . . . 1918 10.2.1.3 3rd postulate: Observables and operators . . . . . . . . . . . 1919 10.2.1.4 4th postulate: Measure of a property) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1921 10.2.1.5 5th postulate: Average of a property) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1923 10.2.2 Classical principles of uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1924 10.3 Relativistic Quantum Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1925 10.3.1 Relativistic Schrödinger evolution equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1926 10.3.1.1 Antimatter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1927 10.3.2 Generalized Klein-Gordon Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1930 10.4 Nuclear Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1934 10.4.1 Nuclear Weapon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1934 10.4.2 Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1937 10.4.2.1 Disintegration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1940 10.4.2.1.1 Half-life isotope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1941 10.4.2.2 Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1941 10.5 Quantum Field Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1944 10.5.1 Yukawa potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1947 10.5.1.1 Mass fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1949 10.6 Elementary Particle Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1951 10.6.1 Coupling Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1952 11 Cosmology 1957 11.1 Astronomy (Celestial Mechanics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1958 11.1.1 Drake Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1958 11.1.2 Kepler’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1959 11.1.2.1 First Kepler’s Law (conicity law) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1959 11.1.2.2 Second Kepler’s Law (area law) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1960 11.1.2.3 Third Kepler’s Law (periods’ law) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1962 11.1.3 Newton Gravitational Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1965 11.1.3.1 Shell Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1971 11.1.3.2 Asteroids/Meteors impact velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1972 11.1.3.3 Spherisation of Celestial Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1973 11.1.3.3.1 Flattening of Celestial Bodies (rotational flattening) 1974 11.1.3.4 Stability of Atmospheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1976 11.1.4 Roche’s Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1977 11.1.5 Keplerian Orbitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1979 11.1.5.1 First Binet Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1979 11.2 Astrophysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1981 11.2.1 Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1981 11.2.1.1 Star Formation and Genesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1987 11.2.1.1.1 Collapse of an Interstellar Cloud . . . . . . . . . . . 1987 11.2.1.1.2 Nuclear Duration Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1989 11.3 Special Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1994 11.3.1 Assumptions and Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1995 xxii
  • 25. Draft 11.3.1.1 Postulate of Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1995 11.3.1.2 Cosmological principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1995 11.3.1.3 Special Relativity Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1996 11.3.2 Lorentz Transformations/Boost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1998 11.3.2.1 Displacement four-vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2002 11.3.2.1.1 Wave Equation Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2004 11.3.2.1.2 Wave Equation Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2005 11.4 General Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2008 11.4.1 Assumptions and Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2008 11.4.1.1 Equivalence Postulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2008 11.4.1.2 Mach Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2012 11.4.2 Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2013 11.4.2.1 Schild Critera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2018 11.5 Cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2021 11.5.0.1 Newtonian Cosmological Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2021 11.5.0.2 Hubble’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2022 11.5.1 Friedmann Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2025 11.5.1.0.1 Critical Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2029 11.6 String Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2032 11.6.1 Wave equation of a transervsal string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2033 11.6.2 Non-relativistic Wave equation of a transversal string . . . . . . . . . . 2035 11.6.2.1 Nambu-Goto Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2041 11.6.3 Lagrangian of a String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2048 12 Chemistry 2049 12.1 Quantum Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2050 12.1.1 Infinite three-dimensional rectangular potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2050 12.1.2 Molecular Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2053 12.1.3 Hydrogenoid Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2056 12.1.4 Rigid Rotator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2060 12.2 Molecular Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2076 12.2.0.1 Orbital Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2077 12.2.1 LCAO Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2081 12.3 Analytical Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2090 12.3.1 Simple Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2091 12.3.2 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2093 12.4 Thermochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2098 12.4.0.1 Chemical transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2098 12.4.1 Molar Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2100 13 Theoretical Computing 2106 13.1 Numerical Methods/Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2108 13.1.1 Computer Representation of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2110 13.1.1.1 Decimal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2110 13.1.1.2 Binary system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2111 13.1.1.2.1 Binary arithemetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2112 13.1.1.3 Hexadecimal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2112 13.1.1.4 Octal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2113 13.1.1.5 Conversion of decimal system to non-decimal system: . . . . 2113 xxiii
  • 26. Draft 13.1.2 Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2115 13.1.2.1 NP-Completude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2120 13.1.3 Integer Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2122 13.1.4 Heron’s Square Root Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2124 13.1.5 Archimedes Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2126 13.1.6 Euler’s Number e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2128 13.1.7 Stirling’s factorial approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2128 13.1.8 Linear System of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2130 13.1.8.1 One equation with on unknown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2130 13.1.8.2 Two equations with two unknowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2130 13.1.8.3 Three equations with three unknowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2132 13.1.8.4 n equations with n unknowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2135 13.1.9 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2136 13.1.10Regression Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2139 13.1.10.1 Univariate linear regression model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2141 13.1.10.1.1 Regression line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2142 13.1.10.1.2 Least Squares Method (LSM) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2143 13.1.10.1.3 Univariate Regression Variance Analysis . . . . . . 2146 13.1.10.2 Univariate linear regression Gaussian Model . . . . . . . . . 2151 13.1.10.2.1 Pearson Correlation Coefficient Test . . . . . . . . . 2160 13.1.10.2.2 Confidence interval of predicted values . . . . . . . 2162 13.1.10.3 Linear univariate regression forced through the origin . . . . 2167 13.1.10.4 Multiple linear regression Gaussian Model . . . . . . . . . . 2168 13.1.10.5 Polynomial regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2176 13.1.10.6 Logistic Regressions (LOGIT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2178 13.1.10.6.1 Binomial Logistic Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . 2178 13.1.10.6.2 ROC and Lift curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2187 13.1.11Interpolation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2202 13.1.11.1 Bezier Curves (B-Splines) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2202 13.1.11.2 Euler Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2209 13.1.11.3 Polynomial of collocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2211 13.1.11.4 Lagrange polynomial interpolation method . . . . . . . . . . 2214 13.1.12Roots search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2216 13.1.12.1 Proportional parts methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2216 13.1.12.2 Bisection method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2218 13.1.12.3 Secant method (Regula Falsi or False Position) . . . . . . . . 2220 13.1.12.4 Newton’s method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2222 13.1.13Numerical Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2227 13.1.14Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2229 13.1.14.1 Rectangles method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2230 13.1.14.2 Trapezoidal method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2231 13.1.15Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2232 13.1.15.1 Linear programming (Linear Optimization) . . . . . . . . . . 2233 13.1.15.1.1 Graphical LP resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2236 13.1.15.1.2 Algebraic LP resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2237 13.1.15.1.3 Simplex algorithm LP resolution . . . . . . . . . . 2238 13.1.16Monte Carlo Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2238 13.1.16.1 Inverse Transform Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2239 xxiv
  • 27. Draft 13.2 Fractals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2241 13.2.1 IFS Fractals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2243 13.2.1.1 Fractals Metric Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2258 13.2.2 Fractals Visualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2262 13.3 Logical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2263 13.3.1 Strict Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2263 13.3.1.1 Boolean Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2264 13.3.1.2 Logical Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2271 13.4 Error-Correcting Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2273 13.4.1 CheckSum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2276 13.4.2 Encoders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2277 13.5 Automata Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2282 13.5.1 Von Neumann machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2284 13.6 Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2285 13.6.1 Cryptographic systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2286 13.6.1.1 Kerckhoffs’ principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2290 13.6.2 Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2291 13.6.3 Secret-key encryption system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2292 13.6.3.1 Feistel Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2294 13.7 Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2296 13.7.1 Schrödinger’s Cat superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2298 13.7.2 Photon polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2299 14 Social Sciences 2302 14.1 Population Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2304 14.1.1 Birth rate and mortality tables (biometric features) . . . . . . . . . . . 2304 14.1.1.1 Population Renevewal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2312 14.1.2 Population Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2314 14.1.2.1 Exponential model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2314 14.1.2.2 Deterministic Logistic Model (Verlhust) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2317 14.1.2.3 Chaotic Logistic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2321 14.1.2.3.1 Feigenbaum’s Bifurcation Diagram . . . . . . . . . 2325 14.1.2.4 Malthusian Growth Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2329 14.1.2.5 Leslie model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2330 14.1.2.6 SIR Model for Spread of Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2332 14.1.2.7 Lotka–Volterra predator–prey model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2335 14.1.3 Schaefer’s Optimal capture model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2344 14.1.4 Hardy-Weinberg model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2346 14.1.5 Mendel’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2352 14.1.6 Growth rate with temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2353 14.2 Game and Decision Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2354 14.2.1 Utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2357 14.2.1.1 Pareto Optimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2357 14.2.1.2 Nash Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2358 14.2.2 Games Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2361 14.2.2.1 Extensive representation of a Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2363 14.2.2.2 Extensive representation of a Decision . . . . . . . . . . . . 2364 14.2.2.2.1 Real Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2371 xxv
  • 28. Draft 14.2.2.3 Normal representation of a Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2373 14.2.2.3.1 Repetitive Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2380 14.2.2.4 Set representation of a Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2382 14.2.2.5 Graphical representation of a Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2385 14.2.3 Expected Utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2389 14.2.3.1 Hurwitz Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2389 14.2.3.2 Laplace Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2392 14.2.4 Evolutionary Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2393 14.2.5 Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2393 14.2.5.1 Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2393 14.3 Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2395 14.3.1 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2395 14.3.1.1 Microeconomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2396 14.3.1.1.1 Average & Marginal Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2401 14.3.1.2 Macroeconomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2406 14.3.1.2.1 Cobb-Douglas Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2407 14.3.2 Monetary Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2412 14.3.2.1 Walras’ law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2414 14.3.3 Supply and Demand Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2420 14.3.3.1 Expected utility theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2420 14.3.4 Net gain/loss opposite feedback model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2426 14.3.5 Capitalization and Actuarial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2434 14.3.5.1 Dates Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2436 14.3.5.2 Rates Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2439 14.3.5.3 Simple Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2440 14.3.5.3.1 Discounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2441 14.3.5.4 Compound Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2443 14.3.5.5 Continuous Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2445 14.3.6 Progressive interest (annuities) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2446 14.3.6.1 Postnumerando annuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2447 14.3.6.2 Praenumerando annuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2450 14.3.7 Rounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2452 14.3.8 Loans Amortization/Repayments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2454 14.3.8.1 Fixed-Term Loan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2456 14.3.8.2 Loan with constant amortization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2457 14.3.8.3 Loan with constant annuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2457 14.3.9 Modern Portfolio Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2460 14.3.9.1 No Arbitrage Opportunity (N.A.O.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2463 14.3.9.2 Portfolios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2466 14.3.9.2.1 Stocks (shares of stocks)/Equities . . . . . . . . . . 2471 14.3.9.2.1.1 Dividend Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2473 14.3.9.2.1.2 Shares Benchmark Indices . . . . . . . . . . 2475 14.3.9.2.1.3 Durand Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2476 14.3.9.2.2 Obligations (Bonds) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2479 14.3.9.2.3 Warrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2493 14.3.9.2.4 Futures & Forwards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2497 14.3.9.2.4.1 Futures & Forwards naive pricing . . . . . . 2502 14.3.9.2.4.2 Futures & Forwards commodity hedging . . 2506 xxvi
  • 29. Draft 14.3.9.2.4.3 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2512 14.3.10Time Series Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2524 14.4 Quantitative Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2527 14.4.1 Corporate Finance Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2530 14.4.1.1 Basic Accounting Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2531 14.4.1.2 Ratio Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2532 14.4.1.2.1 Short term solvency or liquidity measure . . . . . . 2533 14.4.1.2.2 Long term solvency or Liquidity measure . . . . . . 2534 14.4.1.2.3 Profability Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2535 14.4.1.2.4 Growth Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2536 14.4.1.2.5 Asset management or turnovers measures . . . . . . 2538 14.4.1.2.6 Market Value Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2538 14.4.1.3 Weighted average cost of capital (WACC) . . . . . . . . . . . 2539 14.4.1.4 Break-even Point Analysis (BEPA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2541 14.4.1.5 Investment Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2543 14.4.1.6 Capital Goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2544 14.4.2 Linear Amortization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2544 14.4.2.1 Wages model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2545 14.4.3 Project Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2547 14.4.3.1 Probabilistic PERT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2547 14.4.4 Lean Management (Six Sigma Process) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2555 14.4.4.1 Pareto Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2558 14.4.4.1.1 Gini Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2562 14.4.4.2 Weighted Ishikawa Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2565 14.4.5 Supply Chain Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2569 14.4.5.1 Supply Chain Management in uncertain future . . . . . . . . 2571 14.4.5.2 Optimal initial stock management with zero rotation . . . . . 2573 14.4.5.3 Wilson’s Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2580 14.4.5.3.1 Wilson’s model with resupply . . . . . . . . . . . . 2586 14.4.5.3.2 Wilson’s model without resupply . . . . . . . . . . 2594 14.4.5.3.3 Wilson’s model with resupply and break-up . . . . . 2596 14.4.6 Sensitivity Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2601 14.4.6.1 Direct Bias Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2603 14.4.6.2 Correlation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2607 14.5 Music Maths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2612 14.5.1 Longitudinal Sound Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2612 15 Engineering 2617 15.1 Marine & Weather Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2618 15.1.1 Visual horizon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2618 15.2 Mechanical Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2621 15.2.1 Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2621 15.2.1.1 Transmission ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2624 15.2.1.2 Gears association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2627 15.2.1.2.1 Odd/Even Gear "problem" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2631 15.2.1.3 Type of Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2633 15.2.2 Strength of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2636 15.3 Electrical Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2638 xxvii
  • 30. Draft 15.4 Civil Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2640 15.4.1 Static . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2641 15.4.2 Pulleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2642 15.4.2.1 Windlass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2648 15.4.3 Cornu spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2650 15.5 Aerospace Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2652 15.5.1 Cosmological Speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2653 15.6 Software Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2655 15.6.1 Google PageRank algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2655 15.6.1.1 Weighted Count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2657 15.7 Industrial Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2659 15.7.1 Six Sigma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2660 15.7.1.1 Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2662 15.7.1.2 Defaults/Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2663 15.7.1.3 Capability Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2668 15.7.1.4 Quality Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2680 15.7.2 Taguchi Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2693 15.7.3 Preventive Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2699 15.7.3.1 Planned Obsolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2700 15.7.3.2 Reliability Empirical Estimators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2700 15.7.3.3 Weibull Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2715 15.7.3.4 Topology of Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2722 15.7.3.4.1 Fault Tree Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2733 15.7.3.5 Maximum Likelihood for failure rate determination of samples2735 15.7.3.6 Kaplan-Meier Survival Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2737 15.7.3.7 ABC Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2742 15.7.4 Design of Experiments (DoE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2747 15.7.4.1 Full Factorial Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2755 15.7.4.2 Fractional Factorial Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2766 15.7.4.3 Taguchi Designs and Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2774 16 Epilogue 2777 17 Biographies 2779 A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2780 B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2782 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2789 D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2796 E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2800 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2803 G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2808 H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2813 I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2821 J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2821 K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2823 L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2826 M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2834 N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2842 O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2846 xxviii
  • 31. Draft P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2847 R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2852 S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2853 T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2861 V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2864 W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2865 Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2868 Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2870 18 Chronology 2872 19 Humour 2902 19.1 Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2903 19.2 Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2915 19.3 Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2933 19.4 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2949 19.5 Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2952 19.6 Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2958 19.7 Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2965 19.8 Social Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2974 20 Links 2980 20.1 Exact Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2981 20.2 Publishing/Magazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2982 20.3 Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2984 20.4 Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2985 20.5 Television/Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2985 20.6 Other sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2986 20.7 Softwares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2986 21 Quotes 2990 22 Change Log 2995 23 Nomenclature 3012 24 About the Redactor 3014 List of Figures 3018 List of Tables 3038 Bibliography 3042 Index 3046 xxix
  • 32. Draft
  • 33. Draft 1Warnings Contents 1.1 Impressum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.1.1 Use of content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.1.2 How to use this book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.1.3 Data Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.1.4 Use of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.1.5 Data transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.1.6 Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.2 License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.2.1 Preamble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.2.2 Applicability and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.2.3 Verbatim Copying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.2.4 Copying in Quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.2.5 Modifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.2.6 Combining Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.2.7 Collections of Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.2.8 Aggregation with independant Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.2.9 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.2.10 Termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.2.11 Future revisions of this License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.3 Only in non-free release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1
  • 34. Draft 1. Warnings Vincent ISOZ [EAME v3.0-2013] 1.1 Impressum 1.1.1 Use of content The contents of this book are elaborated by a development process by which volunteers reach a consensus. This process that brings together volunteers, research also the point of view of people interested in the topics of this book. The person in charge of this book administers the process and establishes rules to promote fairness in the consensus approach. It is also responsible for drafting the text, sometime for testing/evaluating or independently verifying the accuracy or completeness of the presented information. We decline no responsibility for any injury, damage or any other kind, special, incidental, con- sequential or compensatory, arising from the publication, application or reliance on the content of this book. We make no express or implied warranty on the accuracy or completeness of any information published in this book, and do not guarantee that the information contained in this book meet any specific need or goal of the reader. We do not guarantee the performance of products or services of one manufacturer or vendor solely by virtue of this book content. The technical descriptions, procedures, and computer programs in this book have been devel- oped without care, therefore they are provide without warranty of any kind. We make also no warranties that the equations, programs, and procedures in this books or its associated software are free of error, or are consistent with any particular standard of merchantability, or will meet your requirements for any particular application. They should not be relied upon for solving a problem whose incorrect solution could result in injury to a person or loss of property. Any use of the content of this book as at the reader’s own risk. The authors, redactors, and publisher dis- claim all liability for direct, incidental, or consequent damages resulting form use of the content of this book or the associated software. By publishing texts, it is not the intention of this book to provide services on behalf of any person or entity or performing any task to be accomplished by any person or entity for the benefit of a third party. Anyone using this book should rely on its own independent judgment or, where that is appropriate, seek the advice of a qualified expert to determine how to exercise reasonable care under all circumstances. The information and standards on the topics covered by this book may be available from other sources that the reader may wish to visit in search of points of view or additional information not covered by the contents of this book. We have no power in order to enforce compliance with the contents of this book, and we do not undertake to monitor or enforce such compliance. We have no certification, testing or inspection activity of products, designs or installations for safety or health of persons and property. Any certification or other statement of compliance regarding information relating to health or safety of persons and property, mentioned in this book, cannot possibly be attributed to the content of this book and remains under the responsibility of the certification center or the concerned reporter. 2/3049 Sciences.ch
  • 35. Draft Vincent ISOZ [EAME v3.0-2013] 1. Warnings 1.1.2 How to use this book At the university level, this book can be used for a Ph.D., graduate level or advanced under- graduate level seminar in many exact and pure sciences fields. The seminars where we use this material is part of Scientific Evolution Sàrl program, where the trainees typically already have taken undergraduate or graduate courses in their respective specialization. In reality this books also aims to cover the full Kindergarten to PhD curriculum. Because the methods of Applied Mathematics are learned by practice and experience, we view a seminar on Applied Mathematics as a learning-by-doing (project oriented) seminar. We struc- ture our mathematical modelling seminars around a set of problems that require the trainee to construct models that help with planning and decision making. The imperative is that the models should be consistent with the theory and back-tested. To fulfill this imperative, it is necessary for the trainee to combine mathematical theory with modeling. The result is that the trainee learns the theory, and more importantly, learns how that theory is applied and combined in the real world. The ability to criticize and identify limitations of dangerous mathematical tools is the most valuable feature of our seminars. The problems with solutions in this book provide the opportunity to apply the text material to a comprehensive set of fairly realistic situations. By the end of the seminars the trainees will have enhanced their skills and knowledge of the most important theoretical and computing tools. These are valuable skills that are in demand by the businesses at the highest levels. It is very difficult to cover all the material in this book in a semester. It takes a lot of time to explain the concepts to the trainees. The reader is encouraged to pick and choose which topics will be covered during the term. It is not necessary strictly necessary to cover them in sequence but it can help in a significant way? In a nutshell, this book offers you a wide variety of topics that are amenable to modeling. All are practical. 1.1.2.1 Companion eBooks, Forum and Quiz/Flashcards There are some free companion books and tools in French and English written by Vincent ISOZ & Daname KOLANI for the people that want to put in practice the theory presented in this book. Here is the list: • MATLAB™ in English (free sample of 1,059 pages, complete eBook with data 499$): http://www.sciences.ch/dwnldbl/divers/Matlab.pdf • Maple in French (free 99 pages): http://www.sciences.ch/dwnldbl/divers/Maple.pdf • R in French (free sample of 1,570 pages, complete eBook with data 499$): http://www.sciences.ch/dwnldbl/divers/R.pdf • Minitab in French (free sample of 1,060 pages, complete eBook with data 99$ ): Sciences.ch 3/3049
  • 36. Draft 1. Warnings Vincent ISOZ [EAME v3.0-2013] http://www.sciences.ch/dwnldbl/divers/Minitab.pdf • Scientific Linux installation & Configuration (199 pages completely free): http://www.sciences.ch/dwnldbl/divers/ScientificLinux.pdf and some available Quiz and Flash Cards in French and English to challenge yourself with the rest of the world: • MATLAB™ Basics L1 Challenge level in French (100 questions) httpXGGwwwFs™ientifi™EevolutionF™omGq™mGst—rt•sessionG—UQTRU™fQ˜G • Astronomy/Astrophysics H1 Challenge level in English (100 questions): httpXGGwwwFs™ientifi™EevolutionF™omGq™mGst—rt•sessionGffdHVIHf—HG • Greek Letter Flashcards (48 cards): httpXGGwwwFs™ientifi™EevolutionF™omGq™mGfrGst—rt•sessionGTdWfIfefWHG • Common Derivatives Flashcards (29 cards): httpXGGwwwFs™ientifi™EevolutionF™omGq™mGfrGst—rt•sessionG™IS—RHfP™RG • Common Primitives Flashcards (60 cards): httpXGGwwwFs™ientifi™EevolutionF™omGq™mGfrGst—rt•sessionG™™f™PHfdefG • LATEX L3 Challenge level in French (100 questions): httpXGGwwwFs™ientifi™EevolutionF™omGq™mGfrGst—rt•sessionGffIeIdI˜WIG • R Software 3.1.2 L3 Challenge level in French (100 questions): httpXGGwwwFs™ientifi™EevolutionF™omGq™mGfrGst—rt•sessionGP—Tf™—URUQG • C++ L3 Challenge level in French (100 questions): httpXGGwwwFs™ientifi™EevolutionF™omGq™mGfrGst—rt•sessionGeHQI™eR˜RQG But about the forum (as I don’t like to recreate the wheel), go through this link for any discus- sions about the content of this book: httpsXGGwwwFphysi™sforumsF™om As for this book, the companion books above are only samples of the complete one. The full version with perpetual free updates are available for the price of $ 299.- each and for $ 499.- you get the exercise files and LATEX sources (for information on purchase you can simply send me an email). 4/3049 Sciences.ch
  • 37. Draft Vincent ISOZ [EAME v3.0-2013] 1. Warnings Because this book mainly focus on mathematical aspect of physical phenomena we can only strongly recommend to the reader an another free book that is in our point of view actually the best one that focus on the popular science aspect of the subjects that we will cover: Motion Mountain by Dr. Christoph Schiller: httpXGGwwwFmotionmount—inFnet Sciences.ch 5/3049
  • 38. Draft 1. Warnings Vincent ISOZ [EAME v3.0-2013] 1.1.3 Data Protection When looking at information on the Internet companion site (Sciences.ch), some data are au- tomatically saved. We try to save as less as possible data and as brief as possible. Wherever we can, we ave only anonymous data. We undertake to process the data you send us personally with the utmost diligence. However, your IP address and the source page that takes you on Sciences.ch and the associated keywords, are freely available to everybody here for the current month. After which detailed data are destroyed. You can object at any time in the publication of your data by contacting us. 1.1.4 Use of data Your data are only used for sending the Sciences.ch newsletter. Communication of personal data (except the e-mail address, title and name) is optional. When registering for the newsletter, you can of course specify an alternate address and/or a fictitious name. 1.1.5 Data transmission We will never sell or commercialize the data of our customers or interested parties and will never affects the rights of the person. In addition, we will not rent mailing lists and will not send you advertising from third parties or on our behalf. 1.1.6 Agreement When you provide us personal information, you authorize us to save them and use them within the meaning of the Swiss Federal Law on Data Protection. If you ask us not to send you emails, we are obliged, in your interest, save your e-mail in an internal negative list. 6/3049 Sciences.ch
  • 39. Draft Vincent ISOZ [EAME v3.0-2013] 1. Warnings 1.2 License The entire contents of this book is subject to the GNU Free Documentation License, which means: • that everyone has the right to freely use the texts for non-commercial usage (Google Ads or any equivalent being considered as a commercial usage!) • that any person is authorized to broadcast items for non-commercial usage (Google Ads or any equivalent being considered as a commercial usage!) • that anyone can freely edit the texts for non-commmercial usage (Google Ads or any equivalent being considered as a commercial usage!) and bla bla bla... in accordance with the license described below: Version 1.1, March 2000 Copyright (C) 2000 Free Software Foundation, Inc. 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307 USA Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. 1.2.1 Preamble The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other written document "free" in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it only a non-commercial purpose. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for modifications made by others. This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that derivative works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software. We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software, because free software needs free documentation: a free program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference. Sciences.ch 7/3049