Electromagnetic Processing of Materials – Europe Industrial Electrification Potential Assessment

Electromagnetic Processing of Materials (EPM) –
Europe Industrial Electrification Potential Assessment
Final Report
March 2018
[This report was prepared for the Europejski Instytut Miedzi Sp. z o.o.
(European Copper Institute) by EPRI under the Billable Services
Agreement No. 20007520-208166 (Project ID No.: 1-109651)]

EPRI Project Manager
B. Vairamohan
ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE
3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1338  PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813  USA
www.epri.com
Electromagnetic Processing of Materials (EPM) –
Europe Industrial Electrification Potential Assessment
Final Report, March 2018
[This report was prepared for the Europejski Instytut Miedzi Sp. z o.o.
(European Copper Institute) by EPRI under the Billable Services
Agreement No. 20007520-208166 (Project ID No.: 1-109651)]

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AGREEMENT NO. 20007520-208166 (PROJECT ID NO.: 1-109651)]
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iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) prepared this report for the Europejski Instytut
Miedzi Sp. z o.o. (European Copper Institute).
Principal Investigator (s)
A. Dennis
B. Johnson
P. Stephens
B. Vairamohan
EPRI would like to acknowledge and thank the following advisors for their support and
contribution to this study:
Roman Targosz, European Copper Institute (Project Manager for this study)
Hans De Keulenaer, European Copper Institute
Tomas Jezdinsky, TJ Market Research Consultant
Professor Dr. Jerzy Barglik, Silesian University of Technology, Poland

v
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................1-1
Background........................................................................................................................1-1
Project Objectives ..............................................................................................................1-1
Project Approach................................................................................................................1-2
Project Deliverables ...........................................................................................................1-3
2 BASELINE DATA.................................................................................................................2-1
NACE codes ......................................................................................................................2-1
EUROSTAT Data...............................................................................................................2-1
NACE Code Mapping.........................................................................................................2-1
3 TECHNICAL, ECONOMIC AND MARKET POTENTIAL RESULTS.....................................3-1
Technical Potential Results ................................................................................................3-1
Economic Potential Results................................................................................................3-2
Achievable Potential Results..............................................................................................3-2
Conservative Scenario: ................................................................................................3-4
Intermediate Scenario ..................................................................................................3-4
Aggressive Scenario.....................................................................................................3-5
Summary of Achievable Potential.................................................................................3-5
Environmental Impacts Analysis.........................................................................................3-6
Top Down Analysis ............................................................................................................3-9
Explanation of Natural Gas Conversion Assumptions.........................................................3-1
Chemical & Petrochemical Industry Top Down Scenario ..............................................3-1
Iron & Steel Industry Top Down Scenario.....................................................................3-2
Food/Drink/Tobacco Top Down Scenario .....................................................................3-2
Glass/Pottery/Building Materials Top Down Scenario...................................................3-3
Machinery Industry Top Down Scenario .......................................................................3-3
Paper/Print Top Down Scenario ...................................................................................3-3
4 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC PROCESSING OF MATERIAL (EPM) TECHNOLOGY PROFILES4-1
Electric Resistance Heating................................................................................................4-1
How it works.................................................................................................................4-1
Applications..................................................................................................................4-1
Did you know?..............................................................................................................4-1
Benefits ........................................................................................................................4-1
Limitations....................................................................................................................4-2
Electric Resistance Melting: Glass Melting Application.......................................................4-3
How it works.................................................................................................................4-3
Applications..................................................................................................................4-3
Did you know?..............................................................................................................4-3
Benefits ........................................................................................................................4-3

vi
Limitations....................................................................................................................4-4
Infrared Curing and Drying .................................................................................................4-5
How It works.................................................................................................................4-5
Applications..................................................................................................................4-5
Benefits ........................................................................................................................4-5
Limitations....................................................................................................................4-6
Did you know?..............................................................................................................4-6
Induction Surface Heat Treating of Metals..........................................................................4-7
How it works.................................................................................................................4-7
Applications..................................................................................................................4-7
Did you know?..............................................................................................................4-7
Benefits ........................................................................................................................4-7
Limitations....................................................................................................................4-8
Induction Melting of Metals.................................................................................................4-9
How it works.................................................................................................................4-9
Applications..................................................................................................................4-9
Did you know?..............................................................................................................4-9
Benefits ........................................................................................................................4-9
Limitations..................................................................................................................4-10
Dielectric Heating (Microwave and RF Heating) ...............................................................4-11
How it works...............................................................................................................4-11
Applications................................................................................................................4-12
Benefits ......................................................................................................................4-12
Limitations..................................................................................................................4-13
Ultraviolet (UV) Curing of Coatings...................................................................................4-15
How it works...............................................................................................................4-15
Applications................................................................................................................4-16
Benefits ......................................................................................................................4-16
Limitations..................................................................................................................4-16
Electric Arc Furnace.........................................................................................................4-18
How it works...............................................................................................................4-18
Applications................................................................................................................4-19
Benefits ......................................................................................................................4-19
Limitations..................................................................................................................4-19
5 CASE STUDIES ...................................................................................................................5-1
Infrared Heating .................................................................................................................5-1
Case Study -1: Electric IR Technology Increases Productivity and Reduces Maintenance
Issues in a Pipe Fitting Plant ........................................................................................5-1
Abstract........................................................................................................................5-1
Conventional Method....................................................................................................5-1
The Challenge..............................................................................................................5-2

vii
The Solution .................................................................................................................5-2
The Results ..................................................................................................................5-3
Electric Resistance Heating................................................................................................5-5
Case Study-2: Electric Resistance, Indirect Radiant-Heated Sand Reclaimer Economic
Answer to Sand Reclamation .......................................................................................5-5
The Challenge: To Reclaim Used Chemically-Bonded Sands Efficiently and
Economically. ...............................................................................................................5-5
Abstract........................................................................................................................5-5
Conventional Methods..................................................................................................5-5
The New Way...............................................................................................................5-5
Design and Operation...................................................................................................5-6
Operating Experience...................................................................................................5-6
Ultraviolet Curing................................................................................................................5-7
Case Study -3: Overcoming operational bottlenecks in a beer manufacturing plant with
UV curing .....................................................................................................................5-7
Abstract........................................................................................................................5-7
The Conventional Method.............................................................................................5-7
The Solution .................................................................................................................5-8
The Results ..................................................................................................................5-8
Microwave and Radio-Frequency (RF) Heating................................................................5-10
Case Study-4: Radio Frequency (RF) Drying of Dyed Yarns ......................................5-10
Abstract......................................................................................................................5-10
The Old Way ..............................................................................................................5-10
The New Way.............................................................................................................5-11
The Results: RF Tunes Out Water and Satisfies Customers ......................................5-11
Case Study-5: Microwave Curing of Rubber...............................................................5-12
Abstract......................................................................................................................5-12
The Conventional Method...........................................................................................5-12
The New Way.............................................................................................................5-13
The Results: Gains in Quality, Productivity and Safety ...............................................5-13
Induction Heating .............................................................................................................5-15
Case Study-6: Induction heating billets for forging......................................................5-15
Abstract......................................................................................................................5-15
The Conventional Method...........................................................................................5-15
The Solution ...............................................................................................................5-16
The Results: A Faster Line Making High-Quality Forgings..........................................5-16
Electric Arc Furnace.........................................................................................................5-18
CONSTEEL®
Installation Improves Electric Arc Furnace Operation............................5-18
Case Study-7: The Challenge: Reduce Emissions, Improve Energy Use and Increase
Productivity, While Reducing Operating Costs of an EAF Steel Plant.........................5-18
Abstract......................................................................................................................5-18
The Old Way ..............................................................................................................5-18

viii
The New Way.............................................................................................................5-19
Operating Experience.................................................................................................5-19
6 CONCLUSION......................................................................................................................6-1
Summary and Conclusion ..................................................................................................6-1
Electrification Potential Summary: ................................................................................6-1
CO2 Reduction Potential Summary:..............................................................................6-1

ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1 Electrification potential assessment approach used for European Industries ..........1-3
Figure 3-1 Technical potential for the EPM technologies in Europe..........................................3-1
Figure 3-2 Economic potential for the EPM technologies in Europe .........................................3-2
Figure 3-3 A family of diffusion curves showing various levels of market capture as a
percentage of total market capture.....................................................................................3-3
Figure 3-4 Achievable potential results for a more conservative electrification scenario for
the EPM technologies ........................................................................................................3-4
Figure 3-5 Achievable potential results for an intermediate electrification scenario for the
EPM technologies ..............................................................................................................3-4
Figure 3-6 Achievable potential results for a more aggressive electrification scenario for the
EPM technologies ..............................................................................................................3-5
Figure 3-7 Summary of achievable (or market) potential for the conservative, intermediate
and aggressive electrification scenarios .............................................................................3-5
Figure 3-8 Historical CO2 emission factor for Europe ...............................................................3-6
Figure 3-9 CO2 emissions impacts assessment for 3 scenarios ...............................................3-7
Figure 3-10 CO2 emissions reduction for various technologies by country................................3-8
Figure 3-11 Share of electric, fossil and renewable in Industrial energy use ..........................3-10
Figure 4-1 Electromagnetic Spectrum Showing Microwave Signals .......................................4-11
Figure 4-2 Microwave heating of materials.............................................................................4-12
Figure 4-3 A cross-sectional view of an Electric Arc Furnace.................................................4-18
Figure 5-1 Conventional Method of Curing Paint in the Oven...................................................5-2
Figure 5-2 New Method of using IR Heaters for Curing Paints .................................................5-3
Figure 5-3 Actual Photo of Oven Showing IR Heaters..............................................................5-3

xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Example of various NACE Rev 2 codes classification ..............................................2-1
Table 2-2 Technology mapping for Level-3 NACE Rev. 2 codes..............................................2-1
Table 2-3 Average electric rates (€/kWh) are provided by Eurostat for various rate bands:......2-2
Table 2-4 Electric rate bands for appropriate industries ...........................................................2-3
Table 2-5 Annual electric energy usage and alternative-fuel energy usage for the EPM
technologies per piece of equipment..................................................................................2-1
Table 3-1 Comparison of electrification potential results from Bottoms-up and Top-down
approach..........................................................................................................................3-10
Table 3-2 Electric, NG and other energy share in the final energy used by various industries
(top down analysis). ...........................................................................................................3-1

1-1
1
INTRODUCTION
Background
Business enterprises are constantly striving to increase productivity and enhance their
competitiveness in the global marketplace. In many cases, electrification—the application of
novel, energy-efficient electric technologies as alternatives to fossil-fueled or non-energized
processes—can boost productivity and improve the product quality of end-use utility customers.
Electricity offers inherent advantages of controllability, precision, versatility, and efficiency
compared to fossil-fueled alternatives in many applications. However, a lack of familiarity and
experience with technologies impedes many enterprises, particularly small- to medium-sized
businesses and civil institutions, from pursuing electrification measures that improve
productivity and operational efficiency.
Project Objectives
In this project, European Copper Institute engaged EPRI to understand the impacts of
electromagnetic processing of materials (EPM) technologies used in the industrial sector to help
in the European decarbonization efforts specifically for the European Union (EU) region. The
technologies considered for this work effort are:
The Industrial EPM technologies included for this project are as follows:
1. Infrared heating
2. Resistance heating
3. Ultraviolet curing
4. Microwave and Radio Frequency heating
5. Induction heating / melting / hardening
6. Electric arc furnace
Advanced efficient electric technologies and environmental controls for industrial applications
bring about a unique opportunity for electric service providers to improve the overall energy
utilization of customer processes, reduce overall production costs as well as aid in the reduction
of greenhouse gases(GHG).
The primary objectives of this work effort are:
1. To develop an overall summary of all the six (6) EPM technologies—accompanied with
the expert assessment of electrification potential of all remaining EPM technologies
which are relevant from this study perspective, a technical document that has the
following information for the European Union:
a. Theoretical, economic and market potential of the technology

1-2
b. Energy, Cost and CO2 impacts assessment
c. Status of the technology including innovation in the technology area
d. Economics (simple payback with electric kWh and capacity rates and natural gas
or other fuel rates from Europe)
e. Non-energy benefits of the technology
2. To verify the information from the “DecarbEurope EPM” and” Hanover Study” and
understand the electrification potential for the six (6) EPM technologies listed above and
a high-level approximation for other EPM technologies within the industrial applications
for Europe.
3. To develop one case study for each of the technologies identified and listed above. The
case studies are technical brief documents that help to create and raise awareness of the
technology, provide a quick insight about the technology and provide a technology
comparison – using electricity and an alternate fuel such as coal, oil or natural gas.
Project Approach
The approach taken for this project is explained in the flowchart shown in Figure 1-1. To
compute the technical potential of the six EPM technologies, EPRI utilized the industrial data
from the Eurostat database, the NACE code and the technology mapping and the saturation data
for each of the technologies along with their energy consumption. Once the technical potential is
computed then the next step was to use the cost data and the electric and natural gas rates from
the Eurostat to do a simple payback analysis. The resulting potential was the economic potential
which considers the economic payback for each of those technologies. The next step involved
was computing the achievable potential for the six EPM technologies, which included adding
non-energy benefits along with the technology cost assumptions. For the industry technologies,
non-energy benefits play a significant role in the adoption of these technologies with the
industrial customers. Along with computing the electric kWh load growth for the achievable
potential for these six technologies, the greenhouse gas emissions were also computed. The CO2
emissions factors from IEA was utilized to compute the total CO2 reduction potential. Three
different scenarios where used to compute the achievable potential, namely, conservative
intermediate and aggressive. Similarly, for CO2 potential three scenarios where considered,
namely business-as-usual, Roadmap 2050 and renewable scenarios. These scenarios are
described in detail in chapter 3.
The Electrification Potential Study follows a standard TEM (Technical-Economic-Market
potential) approach. The Technologies are mapped to business enterprises based on their
relevancy and application:
• Electric technologies are mapped according to the industries in which they are used
(based on NACE Rev. 2 codes)
The cost-effectiveness will be evaluated based on electric rates and fossil fuel prices gathered
from Eurostat, and technology cost and consumption data from the EPRI. Market or achievable
potential will be identified based on cost-effectiveness estimates, along with an assessment of
non-energy benefits and barriers.

1-3
Figure 1-1
Electrification potential assessment approach used for European Industries
Project Deliverables
The following shall be the two (2) Deliverables from EPRI’s performance of this SOW.
1) A technical summary document that has the information on each technology listed for
EU (“Technical Summary”).
2) One (1) case study for each of the six (6) identified EPM technologies – total of six
(6) case studies (“Case Studies”).

2-1
2
BASELINE DATA
A number of inputs are used to perform economic screening of technologies to determine which
electric technologies provide the greatest overall benefit to serve as the focus of deep dive
research and analysis. In addition, the same inputs are used to determine impacts of applying the
technologies in place of an alternative. The primary information gathered for this project
includes the following:
• Customer segmentation by market segment based on NACE codes
• EUROSTAT database for electric rates, customer counts and natural gas rates
• CO2 emissions intensity from International Energy Agency (IEA)
This information is used to perform economic screening to compute the economic and market
potential assessments.
NACE codes
NACE is the statistical classification of economic activities in the European Community. NACE
is the acronym for “Nomenclature statistique des activités économiques dans la Communauté
européenne”. NACE is a derived classification of ISIC: categories at all levels of NACE are
defined either to be identical to, or to form subsets of, single ISIC categories. The first level and
the second level of ISIC Rev. 4 (sections and divisions) are identical to sections and divisions of
NACE Rev. 2.
Table 2-1
Example of various NACE Rev 2 codes classification
EUROSTAT Data
EUROSTAT is the Statistical database for EUROPE. It has most of the data related to the
number of industries (enterprises), based on each EU country. The data is classified by NACE
Rev 2. The Industry information is available for 2nd and 3rd level deep data for each NACE
codes. The primary focus is on manufacturing sector (C10-C33).
• Number of enterprises by country and level 3 NACE Rev. 2 code (2015)
• Focused specifically on small, medium, and large enterprises, while excluding micro
enterprises (those employing less than 10 people)1

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• While micro enterprises make up ~82% of all manufacturing enterprises, they have a
much smaller impact on overall electricity consumption
• Electric and natural gas rates (2016)
• Specific to non-household consumers (i.e. excludes residential segment)
• Split into different rate bands based on annual consumption
• Final electricity/natural gas consumption by industry (2015)
• Used to estimate consumption per enterprise to determine which rate bands are most
appropriate for which industries
Link: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/about/overview

2-1
NACE Code Mapping
EPRI through its research or the past several years have come up with the mapping of various technologies to the different industry
segments. Table 2-2 shows the matrix of various industries and the technologies that are mapped by the NACE codes.
Table 2-2
Technology mapping for Level-3 NACE Rev. 2 codes
Description
Induction
Heating/
Hardening
C10 Manufacture of food products X X
C11 Manufacture of beverages
C12 Manufacture of tobacco products X
C13 Manufacture of textiles X X X X X X
C14 Manufacture of wearing apparel X X X
C15 Manufacture of leather and related products X X X
C16
Manufacture of wood and of products of wood and cork, except
furniture; manufacture of articles of straw and plaiting materials X X X X
C17 Manufacture of paper and paper products X X X X
C18 Printing and reproduction of recorded media X X
C19 Manufacture of coke and refined petroleum products X X
C20 Manufacture of chemicals and chemical products X X X X
C21
Manufacture of basic pharmaceutical products and
pharmaceutical preparations X X X
C22 Manufacture of rubber and plastic products X X X X X X
C23 Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral products X X X X X X X
C24 Manufacture of basic metals X X X X X
C25
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, except machinery and
equipment X X X X X X
C26 Manufacture of computer, electronic and optical products X X X X X
C27 Manufacture of electrical equipment X X X X X X
C28 Manufacture of machinery and equipment n.e.c. X X X X X X X
C29 Manufacture of motor vehicles, trailers and semi-trailers X X X X X X
C30 Manufacture of other transport equipment X X X X X X
C31 Manufacture of furniture X X X X
C32 Other manufacturing X X X X X
C33 Repair and installation of machinery and equipment X X X X
Radio
Frequency
Heating
Induction
Melting
Electric
Arc
Furnace
NACE
Rev. 2
Infrared
Heating
Resistance
Heating
Resistance
Melting
Ultraviolet
Curing
Microwave
Heating

2-2
Table 2-3 provides a list of all the countries and the average electric rates for each of the electric rate bands used in those countries.
Table 2-3
Average electric rates (€/kWh) are provided by Eurostat for various rate bands:

2-3
Table 2-4 provides the electric rate bands for different industrial segments.
Table 2-4
Electric rate bands for appropriate industries

2-1
Table 2-5 shows the annual electricity usage and the fossil-fuel energy usage for each piece of equipment for the EPM technologies.
Table 2-5
Annual electric energy usage and alternative-fuel energy usage for the EPM technologies per piece of equipment
Electric Technology
Annual Electricity
(kWh)
Alternative
Technology
Annual Natural Gas (GJ)
Annual Electricity
(kWh)
Infrared Heating 312,000 Convection Oven 5,992.70
Resistance Heating 100,277 Batch Furnace 365
Resistance Melting 19,040,000 Melting 188,327.50
Ultraviolet Curing (Arc
Lamp)
332,160 Convection Oven 7.4 268,800α
Ultraviolet Curing (LED
Lamp)
125,798 Convection Oven 7.4 268,800 α
Microwave Heating 52,000 Convection Oven 506.4
Radio Frequency Heating 52,000 Convection Oven 506.4
Induction
Heating/Hardening
468,000 Carburizing Furnace 3,988.10
Induction Melting 864,000
Reverberatory
Furnace
8,021.80
Electric Arc Furnace 467,500,000 Blast Furnace 34,294.60
α
Electricity is also used in this case for the NG convection ovens for volatile organic compound (VOC) exhaust.

3-1
3
TECHNICAL, ECONOMIC AND MARKET POTENTIAL
RESULTS
Technical Potential Results
The technical potential results were computed regardless of payback for any of the technologies.
This is the maximum theoretical potential that is possible if all the fossil-fuel fired technologies
were converted to electric. However, EPRI has lowered this potential to accommodate the
industries and technologies that don’t have an electric option, for example, the cement industry
which currently relies on fossil-fuel based heating and chemical reactions.
Figure 3-1
Technical potential for the EPM technologies in Europe
Figure 3-1 shows the technical potential for the EPM technologies in Europe.
The overall technical potential results are as follows:
• Electrification potential for EPM technologies in Europe: 252,215 GWh or 21.69 Mtoe
• Natural Gas Reduction: 50.93 Mtoe or 2132.35 Peta Joules
• CO2 Reduction: 107.26 Mtoe

3-2
Economic Potential Results
The economic potential estimates evaluate the cost-effectiveness of technologies based on simple
payback against electric and natural gas rates. These estimates assume average per unit
installations (with regards to cost and consumption). It is to be noted that the non-energy benefits
are not quantified or considered within these simple payback calculations. In this case, the simple
payback for a technology is derived by the following equation:
Simple Payback = First Year Costs ÷ Annual Savings
The economic potential is lower than that of the technical potential because, economic potential:
considers only the potential that is cost-effective (payback ≤3 years). Figure 3-2 shows the
economic potential results of the EPM technologies in Europe.
Figure 3-2
Economic potential for the EPM technologies in Europe
Achievable Potential Results
Market potential estimates apply diffusion curves to technical potential estimates to project how
much of the market can realistically be converted to electric over the next ~30 years.
Diffusion curves are estimated based on cost-effectiveness estimates, an assessment of non-
energy benefits and barriers, and market trend research (i.e. technologies which are more cost-
effective and provide more benefits for the customer will have a higher maximum market capture
percentage).

3-3
Three scenarios were considered for understanding the effects of market adoption on the
achievable electrification potential:
• Conservative Scenario: 97.5% of the maximum market capture is converted to electric by
2045
• Intermediate Scenario: 97.5% of the maximum market capture is converted to electric by
2035
• Aggressive Scenario: 97.5% of the maximum market capture is converted to electric by 2025
Figure 3-3 shows the pictorial representation of the 3 scenarios.
Figure 3-3
A family of diffusion curves showing various levels of market capture as a percentage of total
market capture

3-4
Conservative Scenario:
Figure 3-4 shows the market potential results for the conservative scenario.
Figure 3-4
Achievable potential results for a more conservative electrification scenario for the EPM
technologies
Intermediate Scenario
Figure 3-5 shows the market potential results for the intermediate scenario.
Figure 3-5
Achievable potential results for an intermediate electrification scenario for the EPM technologies

3-5
Aggressive Scenario
Figure 3-6 shows the market potential results for the aggressive scenario.
Figure 3-6
Achievable potential results for a more aggressive electrification scenario for the EPM
technologies
Summary of Achievable Potential
The overall summary of the market potential is presented in Figure 3-7.
Figure 3-7
Summary of achievable (or market) potential for the conservative, intermediate and aggressive
electrification scenarios

3-6
The overall achievable potential results are as follows:
• Electrification potential for EPM technologies in Europe: 178,546 GWh
• CO2 Reduction: 91 Mtoe
Environmental Impacts Analysis
CO2 emissions impacts are estimated using emissions factors by country from the IEA (2015).
The emissions factors represent the current emissions intensities of the grid, and do not account
for increased renewable usage or the grid getting “greener” over time. For natural gas
technologies, an emissions intensity of 50.3 kg/GJ is assumed. Based on IEA data, CO2
emissions factors within the EU have decreased by ~1.9% per year since 1990 (refer to Figure
3-8). Figure 3-10 shows the CO2 emissions reduction potential for the EPM technologies for
various countries.
Figure 3-8
Historical CO2 emission factor for Europe
Assuming CO2 emissions factors continue to decrease through 2050, environmental impacts
improve significantly. EPRI looked into 3 different scenarios for CO2 impacts assessment.
Three scenarios that are considered are as follows:
• Business-as-Usual Scenario: Assumes a ~1.9% CAGR decrease in CO2 emissions factors
(based on trends in IEA data).
• Roadmap2050 Scenario: Assumes an ~8.5% CAGR decrease in CO2 emissions factors
(based on ECF’s study stating that power sector emissions must be 95% below 1990 levels to
reach emissions targets). Roadmap2050 targets an 80% reduction in EU emissions compared
to 1990 levels by 2050.
• Renewable Scenario: Assumes all new load will be served by renewables (i.e. no additional
CO2 emissions from electric).

3-7
Figure 3-9
CO2 emissions impacts assessment for 3 scenarios
Figure 3-9 shows the three scenarios for the market potential assessment combined with the three
scenarios for the CO2 impacts assessment. The difference between the aggressive (renewable)
and the conservative (BAU) is approximately 33 million tonnes.

3-8
Figure 3-10
CO2 emissions reduction for various technologies by country

3-9
Top Down Analysis
EPRI conducted the Technical, Economic and Achievable potential using a bottoms-up approach
where the number of business are identified along with the number of furnaces installed. By
multiplying the number of equipment (installs) with their estimated annual energy usage and
aggregating the values across all the industrial customers in all of the European countries the
total electrification potential was determined. The results from the Technical potential is given
below:
The overall technical potential results are as follows:
• Electrification potential for EPM technologies in Europe: 252,215 GWh (21.69 Mtoe)
• CO2 Reduction: 107.26 Mtoe
Top-down approach: To cross check and validate these energy use numbers a secondary
approach was used. This is the top-down analysis. This approach utilized the natural gas
consumption data from Eurostat and estimates the portion of this NG that can be converted to
electric (with an assumed efficiency gain).
Limitations: Load growth results may be somewhat inaccurate at the industry-level (due to
assuming an average efficiency gain), while technology-level estimates would require
significantly more detailed assumptions. Also, the EUROSTAT combines multiple NACE codes
to form conglomerate industries, for example, even though Paper Industry (C17) and Printing
Industry (C18) have separate NACE codes, they are merged together in the EUROSTAT. Figure
3-11 from the EU-MERCI project provides an estimate of industrial electric and natural gas heat
share.
Bottom-up approach: Determined using enterprise counts by NACE code from Eurostat and
EPRI NACE mapping, consumption, and saturation assumptions at the individual technology-
level
Limitations: Accurate industry-level estimates would require significantly more detailed
technology assumptions (due to assuming an average consumption for each individual
technology regardless of industry)

3-10
Figure 3-11
Share of electric, fossil and renewable in Industrial energy use
Based on the analysis, the following results can be inferred.
Comparison of top-down and bottom-up (technical potential) results are shown in Table 3-1. It
can be seen from the table that both the results converge within a 5% error margin.
Table 3-1
Comparison of electrification potential results from Bottoms-up and Top-down approach
Top-Down Bottom-Up (Technical Potential)
Electrification potential 258,199 GWh (22.20Mtoe) 252,215 GWh (21.69 Mtoe)
Natural Gas Reduction 52.17 Mtoe (2184.25 PJ) 50.9 Mtoe (2132.35 PJ)

3-1
Table 3-2 shows the share of electric, coal and natural gas share for various industry types. EPRI made assumptions are highlighted in
orange color.
Table 3-2
Electric, NG and other energy share in the final energy used by various industries (top down analysis).
Industries Total GWh
Total
Mtoe
Electric
Share
Coal/Coke NG share NG Usage
NG
Conversion
Potential
(EPRI)
Amount of
NG Displaced
(GWh)
Amount of NG
Displaced (Mtoe)
Chemical & Petrochemical 597,270 51.36 30% 34% 17.46 15% 89,591 7.70
Iron & Steel 569,335 48.95 20% 47% 30% 14.69 20% 113,867 9.79
Ore Extraction 39,786 3.42 47% 17% 0.58 16% 6,366 0.55
Glass, Pottery & Building Materials 386,104 33.20 18% 13% 38% 12.62 18% 69,499 5.98
Food, Drink and Tobacco 343,736 29.56 34% 47% 13.89 30% 103,121 8.87
Textile, Leather & Clothing 50,637 4.35 41% 48% 2.09 35% 17,723 1.52
Machinery 218,865 18.82 54% 36% 6.77 35% 76,603 6.59
Wood and Wood Products 100,018 8.60 25% 7% 0.60 5% 5,001 0.43
Construction 81,887 7.04 24% 25% 1.76 3% 2,457 0.21
Transport Equipment 101,111 8.69 54% 32% 2.78 30% 30,333 2.61
Paper & Printing 393,652 33.85 29% 20% 6.77 12% 47,238 4.06
Non-Ferrous Metals 118,917 10.23 54% 33% 3.37 25% 29,729 2.56
Non-specified 217,737 18.72 44% 14% 2.62 7% 15,242 1.31
Total GWh --> 3,219,056 276.79 914,697 317,781 969,810 606,769 52.17
Total Mtoe--> 276.79 78.65 27.32 83.39 86.01 63% 52.17 Mtoe
NG Conversion Potential in Industries: 606,769 GWh
NG to Electric Efficiency: 2.35 EPRI
Europe Electrification Potential - Top Down Analysis: 258,199 GWh
22.20 Mtoe

3-1
Explanation of Natural Gas Conversion Assumptions
From the electric, natural gas and coal share shown in Table 3-2, it can be seen that 6 industries
capture the top 80% of natural gas share in the industry final energy use. These 6 industries are:
1. Chemical & petrochemical
2. Iron and Steel
3. Food, drink and tobacco
4. Glass, pottery and building materials
5. Machinery
6. Paper and Printing
The following section captures the EPRI’s reasoning behind the NG use assumptions shown in
Table 3-2.
Chemical & Petrochemical Industry Top Down Scenario
A primary concern expressed throughout the European Chemistry for Growth roadmap (CEFIC –
April 2013) is the potential that fragmented global or unilateral EU policy action on GHG
reduction without “level playing field” agreements with the global trading community would
ultimately reduce market share for EU produced chemical products. This could actually
negatively impact EU contribution to GHG reduction inasmuch as the CO2 content of imported
products could actually increase.1
We judge that geopolitical and macro-economic constraints
will limit potential conversion of natural gas fuels in this intensely competitive global
commodity industry. A globally level playing field will be extremely difficult political objective
to achieve while the outcomes of unilateral EU action would impose unsustainable economic
penalties and continued fractured policy is viewed as unsustainable environmental policy by a
majority of global players. For this reason, we focus on the “Differentiated Goal Action”
scenario as the most plausible. Under this scenario we assume that Decarbonization of the
electric power sector holds greater promise for GHG reduction and therefore favors
electrification of certain processes in the 2020 - 2050 time-horizon vs. a suggested shift to NG or
biomass for thermal injections. Annex 3 of the roadmap, which estimates fuel mix for heat
generation across all chemical industry sub-sectors, projects fossil fuel’s share of heat generation
to fall from 93% in 2020 to 70% in 2050, yielding primarily to increases in biomass and
geothermal. We think grid decarbonization and utility scale and utility owned biomass and
geothermal or purchase power agreements along with other renewable sources will be lower cost
due to economies of scale and therefore electrification of a substantial portion of this process
heating will be economically competitive in the market. As technology advances interplay with
market forces and NG usage for electricity generation as well as end use undergo arbitrage
throughout the market we reason that roughly half of the NG Mtoes of current thermal inputs
1
European chemistry for growth: Unlocking competitive, low-carbon and energy efficient future, Ecofys for CEFIC,
April 2013.

3-2
may be economically converted to electric end processes. We have used a slightly more
conservative 15 % of the 34 % currently available for conversion in this analysis.
Iron & Steel Industry Top Down Scenario
The 2013 report “A Steel Roadmap for a Low Carbon Europe 2050” argues that “Emission
reduction pathways for the steel industry have to be built ‘bottom-up’, based on the technical and
economic abatement potentials of the sectors (sectoral approaches). The most straightforward
strategy relies on a market based approach through maximization of the effectiveness of the
scrap steel markets to ensure growing availability of scrap steel to feed increased EAF capacity
coming from both efficiency gains and CAPEX. This should happen for the most part naturally
due to expected growth in end-of-life scrap steel and process scrap availability at nearly 1%
CAGR meeting or exceeding the expected annual demand growth of 0.8% CAGR. 2
We assume
the additional steel demand in 2050 of 30% greater than today’s level will be most competitively
served by expanding EAF capacity. This would yield an EAF market share increase of roughly
18% (from 20% to 38%).
A second tier of reasonably viable actions would involve significant investment in development
of Natural Gas Direct-Reduced Iron (DRI), Blast Furnace – Top Gas Recycling (BF-TGR) along
with Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) technologies. These are seen by the industry as
necessary developments to achieve more aggressive 50% + targets established by the
Commission. Excluding stack CSS deployment, ongoing energy efficiency/productivity
improvement is believed to hold a 15% emissions improvement potential by 2050. This could
come in part from electric technology deployment in downstream processing (e.g. Electric ladle
pre-heating, Induction melting and primary induction melting replacing cupola furnaces in
ductile iron production, etc.). Beyond these incremental opportunities, deployment of DRI and
BF-TGR have the potential to drive CO2 step reductions further to the 40% level. CSS may
allow for additional improvement. While these iron reduction technologies deploy primarily
natural gas it is a feature of DRI that the resultant hot briquetted iron (HBI) or hot direct reduced
iron (HDRI) is most appropriate for charging into an EAF process along with steel scrap.
Development of this process would foster further replacement of natural gas fired Blast Furnace
– Basic Oxygen Furnace (BF-BOF) capacity. Conservatively we estimate that scrap availability
will drive a 15% offset of the NG steelmaking capacity and a combination of downstream
electric technology deployment and DRI adoption will replace an additional 5%. We set the
proportion of reasonably convertible NG processes at 20% of the total Mtoe thermal injections.
Food/Drink/Tobacco Top Down Scenario
In the case of food, drink and tobacco, the NG share is currently 47% and EPRI estimates are
slightly aggressive. EPRI estimates the NG capture as 30% of the 47% total NG share. The
reasons for the high conversion are considering 10% electric conversions in food, 10% electric
conversions in beverage and finally 10% electric conversion in tobacco. EPRI is seeing huge
uptick in the food manufacturing where electric technologies provide a clean and efficient
cooking environment. Sanitization and disinfectant using ozone and UV have proven to be very
effective for the food industry. Similarly, ohmic heating for milk, orange juice and semi-liquids
2
EUROFER, The European Steel Association, Dr.-Ing. Jean Theo Ghenda, Steel Institute VDEh, IEA Global
Industry Dialogue and Expert Review Workshop; Paris, 7 October 2013

3-3
pasteurization has been tried and proven to be very effective. Tobacco is an area where NG is
having an upper hand currently, however, modernization and automation in the tobacco based
industry will help in the electric conversion process.
Glass/Pottery/Building Materials Top Down Scenario
For the case of glass, pottery and building materials, the current NG share is 38%. Although
glass melting and making can utilize electric resistance heating, pottery and building materials
such as cement are still NG intensive applications. The kiln used in the pottery and cement
making process involves no-metallic minerals which are not easy to be heated by current electric
technologies without losing efficiency. EPRI estimates 18% of the 38% could be potentially
converted to electric primarily in the glass manufacturing processes. The need for glass in
buildings are on the rise and still many of the glass manufacturers are using non-electric
methods. This is the area that electric could come and displace NG.
Machinery Industry Top Down Scenario
While the machinery industry is perhaps the most complex in terms of the variety of end
products, raw materials used and material conversion processes employed, this diversity
simplifies the task of considering the extent to which overall machinery supply chains might be
rationally converted to electric technologies. We use as the basis for this conversion potential
estimate EPRI studies and experience in process electrification and our database of industrial
electric technologies and competing alternate fuels. Whether the work piece is a ferrous or non-
ferrous metal, fiber/textile, polymer, wood/paper, glass/ceramic or crystalline for the vast
majority of production processes involving a fossil fuel based thermal input, there is a viable and
potentially competitive commercially available electric process alternative. The primary
roadblocks to conversion to the electric alternative are either economic (CapEx associated with
replacing existing plant and equipment and/or perceived OpEx advantages based on long run
energy cost expectations) or market awareness. Our analysis has shown that electric
technologies like, induction and infrared and resistance heating, microwave, radio frequency can
produce equivalent or superior performing machine assembly components, finishing processes
and coatings which, when considering non-energy benefits associated with factor productivity,
LEAN objectives, quality, uptime, throughput, and EH&S benefits, are often more cost effective
in the long run. Given the emphasis on grid decarbonization these electric technologies offer a
low-carbon path forward that is impossible to achieve with continued fossil fuel bases (including
steam) thermal injections. Given that the planning horizon through 2050 provides an
opportunity for of the complete production equipment stock turnover (multiple turns in some
sub-segments) we project a technical potential of near full conversion of the 35% of the 42%
Mtoes fossil energy available for conversion.
Paper/Print Top Down Scenario
In paper and printing, the current share of NG is 20%, while EPRI estimates to capture 12% of
this share and convert it to electric. The reason for this aggressive market capture is that UV
based printing industry is seeing a tremendous growth potential. Especially with LED based
lamps for UV curing and the electron beam curing, the printing industry is switching over to
photo-initiator based paint formulations. The UV based printing offers realistic print look and
feel. Another area for growth in printing using UV is the 3D printing. The 3D printing industry

3-4
will capture the electric load since that is all electric by nature. It is however difficult to convert
the paper industry to adopt more electric because of the renewable source of energy available to
them in the form wood barks, wood chips and wood waste.

4-1
4
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC PROCESSING OF MATERIAL
(EPM) TECHNOLOGY PROFILES
Electric Resistance Heating
Electric resistance heating of industrial materials is cleaner and quieter than competing
combustion methods. The process can produce heat directly in conductive materials by passing
current through them, or indirectly through a heating element. It produces no on-site emissions,
requires lower set-up cost, and can be applied to conductive and nonconductive materials.
How it works
When electric current is applied directly to a work piece, it produces heat through ohmic
resistance. In metalworking applications, direct resistance heating can melt the material or
produce welds. To heat-treat only the surface of a metal part, the direct method can use high-
frequency alternating current. To uniformly heat a work piece, a direct resistance-heated liquid
salt bath can be used.
Indirect resistance heating is especially useful for materials that are nonconductive. In indirect
heating, current flows through an encased resistive element that in turn transfers heat to the work
piece.
Applications
Resistance heating is suitable for a wide range of industrial processes, especially in smaller
production runs, including:
• Heat treating of difficult shapes such as wire, strips, and bars
• Seam welding of tubing
• Surface hardening and carburizing of metals
• Preheating metal parts before forging, stamping, or bending
• Glass manufacturing
• Sintering
Did you know?
Tool steels and aerospace alloys must be heat treated in a tightly controlled atmosphere. Electric
resistance furnaces have a strong advantage over gas-fired furnaces for these applications.
Benefits
• Superior product quality. The melted metal does not become agitated and remains still
during heating, thus eliminating surface turbulence that leads to oxidation and dross
formation.
• Rapid heating and fast startup speed production. Fast startup can be especially important
for short production runs.

4-2
• High thermal efficiency. With efficiency of up to 90%, the process minimizes energy use
and results in less heat loss into the workplace.
• More comfortable, safe working environment. Since gas and excess heat are not passing
from a furnace, the working environment is quieter and more comfortable.
• Minimal material waste. Metal losses are extremely low, consistently running under 1%.
• Minimal floor space requirements. Electric resistance heating requires 15% to 20% less
floor space than a competing gas furnace.
• Significantly lower maintenance costs. Daily cleaning needs can be substantially
minimized, resulting in lower labor costs and reduced downtime.
• Zero on-site emissions. Gas combustion furnaces require burners, blowers, fans, exhaust
stacks, and, potentially, expensive emissions controls, especially in nonattainment areas.
Limitations
• Payback depends on multiple factors. It is difficult to make a purely economic case for
adopting electric resistance heating. Although initial installed cost is typically lower than
gas-fired furnaces, high operating costs may diminish payback. However, the many benefits
of resistance heating make it a realistic option in many cases.
• Integrity of clamped connections. Occasionally, there can be difficulty in making sound
electrical connections to metal parts.
• Environmental impacts. In the case of molten salt bath technology, some issues may occur.
• Electric heating element failure. Elements may fail in the presence of moisture or through
mishandling.

4-3
Electric Resistance Melting: Glass Melting Application
Although electricity is already used as the primary energy source for much of the glassmaking
process, particularly raw materials processing and batch preparation, forming and many post-
forming operations, it is particularly efficient and beneficial in the melting operation, where up to
80% of the energy required for glass production is consumed.
How it works
Electric resistance melting can occur through direct and indirect resistance methods. For glass
melting, the direct resistance method is used. Low-frequency electric current is passed through
the raw materials via electrodes. The frequency of the AC current determines the heating pattern.
Low frequencies, used for melting glass, are used to heat a product throughout its mass. Heat
penetrates to the center, enabling even dark-colored glass to melt.
Some operations combine electric “boosting” technologies with traditional gas-fired furnaces in
a hybrid application, gaining increased flexibility for their production rates and choice of energy
source.
Applications
Electric direct resistance melting can be used in the following glass production applications:
• Wool-type fiberglass
• Textile fiberglass
• Container glass
Did you know?
Today, approximately half of all fossil-fuel-fired furnaces in the container segment are equipped
with electric boost, contributing between 500 kVA and 5,000 kVA of installed power.
Benefits
• No combustion gases. Because volatile constituents stay in the glass, and there are no flu-
gas emissions, electric resistance melting eliminates the need for pollution control
equipment.
• Higher efficiency. Some electric furnaces are up to 90% efficient; modern gas furnaces are
about 50% to 60% efficient. With electric boosting, a gas operation producing 100 tons per
day (tpd) can increase output to 160 tpd and improve efficiency because nearly all of the
added electrical energy goes into the melting of additional glass.
• Production flexibility. The technology enables faster heat-up and allows selective heating
by electrode placement.
• Easier and less expensive to maintain. Without the need for emissions control equipment,
both installation and operating savings can amount to several hundred thousand dollars.
Electric furnaces maintain their full-rated output throughout their life.
• Superior product quality. In addition to ensuring minimal product contamination, electric
boosting increases the overall temperature and chemical homogeneity of the molten glass.
• Silent operation. This creates a more pleasant, cleaner, plant working environment.

4-4
• Minimal floor space requirements. Electric resistance heating requires 15% to 20% less
floor space than a competing gas furnace. Electric boost can be added incrementally without
interfering with production or the need for totally new facilities.
Limitations
• Higher cost. Although gas-fired furnaces tend to cost less up front and over their lifetime,
the other benefits of electric resistance furnaces must be considered.
• Payback depends on multiple factors. It is difficult to make a purely economic case for
adopting electric resistance melting of glass. Factors such as power supply for electric
furnaces and emissions control equipment for gas furnaces can significantly alter the
installation and maintenance costs, and energy and demand charges affect the payback
picture.
• Room for energy efficiency improvement. A report sponsored by the U.S. EPA in 2008,
“Energy Efficiency Improvement and Cost Saving Opportunities for the Glass Industry,”
indicates industrial glass melting furnaces consumed 30% to 40% more power than state-of-
the-art electric melting designs.

4-5
Infrared Curing and Drying
Many industrial processes require controlled heat for drying products and curing coatings. This
drying or curing process is accomplished in large industrial ovens that traditionally have used
convection heat fueled by natural gas. Electric infrared radiation (IR) ovens offer an efficient and
cost-effective alternative to convection ovens.
How It works
Whereas convection ovens first heat the air in order to transmit heat to a product, IR transmits
heat through electromagnetic waves. Electric IR emitters can provide fine control of IR
wavelength in order to match specific requirements of an application. For example, IR frequency
can be tuned to heat only the substrate while passing unabsorbed through a coating.
Applications
One of the best-fit applications for IR is to supplement or “boost” heating in a natural gas
convection oven. IR can be used in a wide range of processes to dry or cure products, including:
• Paint on car bodies and home appliances
• Paint and powder coatings on light fixtures
• Paints and varnishes on hardboard, particleboard, and chipboard
• Coatings on steel and aluminum coils and sheets
• Epoxy powder coatings on oil filters and irrigation pipes
• Polyvinyl chloride waterproofing on automobile rocker panels
• Ink and pre-drying of powder coating on paper
• Dyes and coatings on textiles, apparel, and fabric
• Glass and glass products manufacturing
• Machinery and computer products manufacturing
Benefits
• Faster curing and drying. IR systems achieve full output in seconds and provide higher
heat transfer rates and faster response times ranging from less than a second to five minutes,
depending on wavelength.
• Energy efficient. With IR, there’s no waiting for the oven to “warm up” and no need to keep
it running, so less energy is consumed. IR is 90% more efficient in some applications. IR’s
energy usage profile results in a low load factor for some facilities.
• Improved productivity. Faster production results in more products in less time. Some ovens
can be zoned, providing maximum flexibility and better process control.
• Less floor usage. IR ovens are compact and save space, with an up to 92% smaller footprint
than convection ovens.
• Low maintenance. Little is required beyond periodic cleaning of the reflectors and
replacement of emitters.
• Cleaner production. Reduced airflow during process minimizes dust and dirt contamination.

4-6
• Cleaner environment. Electric IR produces zero on-site emissions; localized emissions from
process chemicals may still occur.
• Enhanced worker safety. Reduced heat, emissions, and dust contribute to a safer work
environment.
• Higher-quality products. IR improves product appearance by ensuring more even coloring
and coating, and high-gloss coating may appear even glossier.
Limitations
• Customer awareness. Despite the availability of information about IR, customers don’t
know about its benefits and features.
• Resistance to change. Many are hesitant to adopt new technology, especially when the
incumbent technology is so pervasive and entrenched.
• Product guarantee barriers. Some manufacturers will not change their coating process
unless the change is approved by their coating vendor, and some vendors warrantee their
product only if it cures for an established period of time and temperature through a recipe
that essentially requires curing with natural gas convection.
• Cost. Capital cost is higher for IR ovens than for convection ovens, and installation costs
vary depending on infrastructure needs, material handling requirements, and safety
equipment. A general rule of thumb is that electric IR emitters cost $100 per kilowatt.
Did you know?
Since IR technology saves floor space, reduces energy consumption, increases productivity, and
requires little maintenance, for most applications, payback can be achieved in less than a year.

4-7
Induction Surface Heat Treating of Metals
Surface heat treating of metals is a common manufacturing process that produces a hard, durable
surface on a softer, ductile metal part. In use since ancient times, hardening allows lower grade
materials to meet more stringent hardness and durability standards. Induction surface heat
treating can provide a cost-effective alternative to other hardening methods.
How it works
During heat treatment, the surface of a part must be heated quickly to avoid affecting the
underlying metal. Exposing the part directly to the high temperature of an oxy-gas flame can heat
it quickly, but a different method is often better: Exposing conductive metal to high-powered
alternating electromagnetic fields heats it by induction. With inductive heating, the power and
frequency of the fields can be adjusted to regulate the depth and temperature of surface heating,
giving more precise control of the process. Moreover, induction heats the surface more quickly
than does direct heat transfer.
Applications
In addition to surface hardening, induction is used in tempering, brazing, bonding, welding,
curing, annealing, forging, straightening, coating, and engraving. Applications include:
• Steel product and fabricated metal manufacturing
• Foundries
• Machinery manufacturing
• Appliance, electrical equipment, and component manufacturing
• Transportation equipment manufacturing
• Furniture manufacturing
Did you know?
Induction heat treating is a proven technology that is especially suited to large production runs
where high precision, high energy efficiency, low emissions, and high throughput are important.
Benefits
• Increased energy efficiency. Dwell periods are practically eliminated because energy is
directed only where needed, whereas a furnace heats the entire piece.
• Improved precision and process control. Very precise control is maintained over energy
level and where it is focused on the part.
• Higher production rates. Rapid heating speeds product throughput and results in higher
productivity. Typically, induction heating is 10 times faster than conventional direct-heat
methods.
• Lower labor cost. Higher productivity means lower labor costs.
• Single-piece-workflow and just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing. Induction heating lends
itself to just-in-time and single-piece-workflow processing. Induction heating is fast, and
there is no furnace or refractory heat-up and cool-down time, so single parts can be processed
as needed. In addition, many automotive suppliers must now provide documentation and

4-8
processing history for every single part. Meeting these requirements with batch processes is
more difficult than with single piece workflow.
• Zero site emissions. Atmospheric processes and vacuum processes require large amounts of
gasses for carburizing and purging in addition to heating. Induction produces no emissions at
the point of use.
Limitations
• Short production runs. Induction heat treating is usually the most cost-effective method for
high-volume production of identical parts; induction coils are designed specifically for a
single part shape and powered to achieve the desired hardened depth. For short production
runs on differing parts, the cost of induction heating may prove prohibitive because each part
may require a different coil design, with attendant computer modeling and trial run expenses.
• Diffusion processes. Induction heating usually occurs in an ambient atmosphere and
temperature. Under these conditions, diffusion processes for altering surface metallurgy
cannot be used. However, new methods that combine induction with direct heat such as
vacuum furnaces promise to overcome this limitation.
• Complex part geometry. Because induction coils must be near the metal to be effective,
some complex parts are not suited to induction heating.
• Up-front cost. Expensive material handling systems may be required before the advantages
of higher throughput promised by inductive heating can be realized. Acquiring an inventory
of induction coils may also be expensive.
• Electricity demand. Power requirements for induction heating may require utility upgrades.
• Trained operators. While fewer person-hours may be required per part when compared to
direct-heat methods, induction heating operators need knowledge that requires specific
training.

4-9
Induction Melting of Metals
Induction melting of conductive material is more flexible, safer, faster, and cleaner than
competing natural gas cupola or reverberatory furnace technologies. Markets for its use are
growing. The majority of iron and steel melters already use induction at some point in their
processes, while aluminum and alloy melters also recognize its advantages.
How it works
When alternating electric current flows through an inductor, it creates an alternating
electromagnetic field. This field induces current flow in a nearby conductive material, producing
heat in the material. Raising the field strength high enough to heat the material above its melting
point causes it to change phase from solid to liquid.
Two types of induction furnaces are used for melting: coreless and channel. In a coreless
furnace, the inductor surrounds a crucible that contains the charge material. In a channel furnace,
the inductor surrounds a channel that passes through the refractory. Coreless furnaces are mostly
used for melting, and channel furnaces are used for holding molten metal until it’s ready to be
cast. Induction works well with all electrically conductive materials, including almost all metals;
the material need not have magnetic properties.
Applications
Induction melting appears to favor lower production runs and agile manufacturers. The main
applications are:
• Aerospace alloys
• Aluminum for automobile manufacturing
• Structural steel
• Ductile iron
Did you know?
The electromagnetic forces used in induction melting create a stirring action in the molten
material. This agitation can be controlled by adjusting the inductor’s frequency and power.
Benefits
• Lower overall operating costs. Induction melting lowers the cost of energy, maintenance,
and environmental compliance. In particular, energy savings for channel furnaces can be
significant compared to reverberatory furnaces.
• Higher efficiency. Coreless furnaces are 55%-88% efficient and channel furnaces are 70%-
80% efficient. As a comparison, fossil-fueled furnaces are 7%-50% efficient.
• Higher finished product value. In general, induction melting enables a higher quality and
diversity of products. Many casters realize a higher price per cast-ton after converting to
induction.
• Significant savings from less metal loss. Metal loss, or dross, is much lower in induction
furnaces than in cupolas and reverberatory furnaces.

4-10
• Reduced on-site emissions. Older cupola technologies produce a tremendous amount of
particulate and NOx emissions. Odor may also be an issue. With induction melting, lower
emissions contribute to a safer and more comfortable workplace and improved local air
quality.
• Reduced dependence on coke. As a raw material, coke is becoming less available.
• Production flexibility. Induction melting enables the ability to quickly switch from one
molten material to another.
Limitations
• Relatively high capital cost per casting rate. Whereas a traditional cupola may pour more
than 100 tons of metal per hour, the largest induction furnaces produce less than 40 tons per
hour. Therefore, to replace the full capacity of a cupola requires several induction furnaces.
• Capacity limitations. Furnaces used to melt aluminum are very large. Customers may
require multiple induction units to match production levels.
• Additional floor space. If multiple induction furnaces are required, a producer may need to
dedicate more floor space to the process.
• Long run-times. Channel furnaces have to be left on all of the time; they cannot be shut
down with molten metal.
• Electrical power needs. The resulting electrical power needs can be significant, resulting in
demand charges. In addition, the customer may perceive the cost of natural gas as more
stable than electric rates over the life of the furnace—a consideration that mainly applies to
aluminum processing.
• Maintenance. Some alloys can cause refractory cracks resulting in lower reliability and
higher maintenance costs
• Requires smaller clippings and pre-heated charge without moisture.

4-11
Dielectric Heating (Microwave and RF Heating)
Microwave heating uses specific parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, as shown in Figure 4-1,
to internally heat non-conductive materials. The major advantages of using a microwave system
for industrial processing are rapid heat transfer, volumetric and selective heating, compactness of
equipment, speed of switching on and off and a pollution-free environment, as there are no
products of combustion.
Figure 4-1
Electromagnetic Spectrum Showing Microwave Signals
How it works
Dielectric heating is accomplished with the application of electromagnetic fields. The material to
be heated is placed between two electrodes that are connected to a high-frequency generator. The
electromagnetic fields excite the molecular makeup of the material, thereby generating heat
within the material. Dielectric systems can be divided into two types: radio frequency (RF) and
microwave. RF systems operate in the 1 to 100 MHz range, and microwave systems operate in
the 100 to 10,000 MHz range. RF systems are less expensive, and are capable of larger
penetration depths because of their lower frequencies and longer wavelengths than microwave
systems, but they are not as well suited for materials or products with irregular shapes. Both
types of dielectric processes are efficient alternatives to fossil-fueled processes for applications
in which the surface to volume ratio is small. This is because of the ability of dielectric heating
to generate heat within and throughout the material, while fossil-fueled process heating
technologies rely on conductive, radiative, and convective heat transfer to bring heat from the
outside in.
Microwave processing is the generation of heat in materials of low electrical conductivity by an
applied high-frequency electric field. For a substance to be microwaveable it must possess an
asymmetric molecular structure. The molecules of such substances (e.g., water molecules) form
electric dipoles. The electric dipoles try to align with the orientation of the electric field, as

4-12
illustrated in Figure 4-2. This orientation polarization mechanism generates movement of
molecules, thereby generating heat in the substance.
Figure 4-2
Microwave heating of materials
Microwave frequencies designated for industrial applications are 915 MHz, 2,450 MHz, 5,800
MHz and 24,125MHz. Most applications use 2,450 MHz because the microwave units are
smaller and easier to work with and generator development is more advanced. However, 915
MHz is more economical for applications requiring more than 60 kW of power. 915 MHz
generators can provide up to 100 kW from a single magnetron. Although the cost is similar, the
largest commercial 2,450 MHz units available use 30 KW magnetrons.
The radio frequencies reserved for industrial use by the Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) are 13.56 MHz, 27.12 MHz, and 40.68 MHz; the lower two frequencies are more
commonly used for industrial applications. Industrial RF units are typically rated at 10-300 kW
output power.
Applications
Applications of microwave/ RF are in following areas:
• Chemicals: Applications ranging from curing adhesives to preheating resins before extrusion
• Food Processing: Applications for food processes that require a heat cycle including drying,
pasteurization and sterilization.
• Textiles and nonwovens: Fabrics that require drying benefit from pre-drying, post drying or
total drying
• Other applications: ceramics, pharmaceuticals, electronics, and waste treatment
Benefits
Microwave heating is a quick and efficient method of heating materials that are difficult to heat
by convection or infrared methods. Microwave systems offer volumetric heating, which is not
dependent on heat transfer by conduction or convection. This means that microwave heating is

4-13
especially advantageous for materials that conduct heat poorly. Efficient microwave heating
results in increased production rates and improved product quality.
Applications of microwave heating are most widespread in the food industry, but it is also being
used for many different applications due to its unique benefits. The benefits are described below:
• Quick heat penetration: Microwave energy heats more uniformly than conduction methods.
Also, heat does not “soak” through the material thickness, so interiors heat rapidly.
Production rates increase more than 100% for thick, heat-sensitive, or highly insulating
materials. Similarly, microwaves generate higher power densities, which also increases
production speeds and decreases production costs.
• Selective heating: Since different materials absorb microwave energy at different rates, due
to the loss factor, a product with many components can be heated selectively. This is
advantageous, for example, because a prepackaged medicine or food product can be
sterilized without heating the package. Selective heating also results in more uniform
temperature and moisture profiles, improved yields and enhanced product performance.
• Amenable to automation: Because microwave heating is electronic, it is easily integrated
by manufacturers that want to automate their operation.
• Improvement of product quality: Unlike conventional heating methods, microwave
technology avoids degradation of product strength and surface properties. It is a non-contact
method of heating. This is beneficial in the textile industry because use of microwave dryers
decreases drying stresses, reduce material finish marring, and improve overall product
quality.
• Increased flexibility: Complex shapes heat more uniformly with microwave energy because
heat is not generated directly on the surface. Also, microwave heating units can be turned on
and off instantly, so there is no warm-up or cool-down time. This greatly increases
production rates and makes the technology more efficient, as the unit can be turned on only
when necessary.
• Combination with conventional methods: Because microwave units are more compact,
they may be added before, after or inside conventional heating or drying units. This can
decrease processing times by as much as 75%.
• High energy efficiency: Overall microwave energy efficiency is approximately 50%,
measured as heat energy input to the material versus AC line power supplied to the unit.
Conventional fuel-fired heating processes are generally 10% to 30% efficient.
• Space savings: Microwave systems are more compact; they occupy 20 to 35% of the floor
space of conventional heating units. This may increase production rates, as more microwave
units can be fitted into a room.
• Environmental impact: Industrial microwave systems avoid combustible gaseous by-
products that are produced by conventional heating methods. This improves working
conditions and eliminates the need for environmental permits.
Limitations
Materials should have dielectric or dipoles to be able to be heated with RF or Microwave.
Other limitations include:

4-14
• Higher capital cost
• Need for protection against electromagnetic radiation
• Difficult to treat complex geometry objects

4-15
Ultraviolet (UV) Curing of Coatings
Ultraviolet radiation, or UV light, is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that lies between
10 and 400 nanometers in wavelength. It is light that one cannot see and has higher energy,
shorter wavelengths, and a higher frequency than visible light. Ultraviolet radiation is emitted by,
and absorbed by, the valence electrons of atoms. When an electron in an outer atomic orbital
encounters a photon with the right level of energy, the electron will absorb the photon and move
from its normal “relaxed” state to an “excited” state. If the photon has enough energy, the
electron will leave the atom entirely and become a free electron, or free radical. When UV light
strikes an object, the electron may be reflected, transmitted, or absorbed. As with visible light,
reflectors can be used to direct and focus UV light.
How it works
UV curable coatings contain a catalyst called a photo-initiator. The photo-initiators generally
react to wavelengths of between 200 and 400 nanometers. It absorbs UV light and starts a
photochemical reaction that employs the use of free electrons, or free radicals, and causes an
almost instantaneous cross-linking of the resins. UV curable coatings are formulated with
unsaturated resins that are capable of free radical reaction. Unsaturated resins have fewer
hydrogen atoms or equivalent groups than saturated resins and will combine directly with
hydrogen, chlorine, oxygen, or various other substances to form long chain polymers. Only the
photo-initiator and exposure to ultraviolet light are required to start and complete the reaction.
Thermal processing is not necessary to cross-link the resins used in liquid UV-curable coatings.
However, some heat is necessary with UV-curable powder coatings in order to melt, flow, and
level the particles of powder before curing. The reduction or elimination of heat, which reduces
energy consumption, makes UV curing very attractive for many applications. However, because
UV light travels in straight paths, a line-of-sight is needed to all parts of the substrate being
coated. This is difficult to achieve in complex shapes, so UV curing is not a panacea for all
coatings applications.
UV curing is a photochemical process that uses high-intensity UV light to polymerize and
instantly harden specially compounded coatings, inks, and adhesives.
A UV lamp provides radiant energy to drive the polymerization reactions. The most widely used
design is a medium- pressure mercury arc lamp, which operates at 600˚C to 800˚C and is
constructed of tungsten, molybdenum foil, and vitreous-silica quartz. Other designs are high-
pressure mercury arc and microwave-powered electrodeless mercury arc lamps. In contrast, new
UV LED lamps, which contain a chip of semiconducting material, have an array of LEDs that
can be selectively turned on to target a desired area. UV LED lamps offer increased light output,
higher efficiency, and reduced energy and operating costs. UV curing can be accomplished as a
stand-alone station within a manufacturing line or as a unit attached to an integrated printing
press.

4-16
Applications
Examples of UV curing applications include:
• Coatings in automotive, optical fiber, consumer and food packaging, furniture, photovoltaics,
telecommunications and electronics, metal pipes and tubing
• Inks in lithography, letterpress, screen printing, Ink Jet printing
• Adhesives in automotive headlamps, laminating, pressure-sensitive labels
• Metal, glass and plastic decorating
• Dental fillings
• Rapid advances in 3D printing and field applications such as concrete, wood, and vinyl floor
coatings are expected to drive growth.
Benefits
The advantages of UV curable coatings are:
• Much faster than thermal processes - UV coatings cure in a matter of seconds, rather than
minutes or hours. Faster start-ups and shut-downs and lower energy consumption - UV lamps
turn on and off almost instantaneously. There is virtually no energy or time lost waiting for
the oven to come up to temperature in order to start or resume production, and stand-by
modes are not necessary.
• Improved productivity - Because UV coatings cure in a matter of seconds, higher line
speeds are possible.
• Less contamination – lower reject rates - No air movement to exhaust byproducts of
combustion is necessary in UV curing systems. This reduces the chance of air-borne
contamination of the coating.
• Less thermal, noise, and air pollution - Since only minimal heat is necessary to cure the
coating, there is less thermal pollution of the workplace and less noise pollution from fans,
burner regulators, and valves. Reduces or eliminates VOC emissions and solid waste disposal
- Many UV coatings are 100% solids and contain no solvents; thus, VOC emissions can be
eliminated. Also, in many cases, over-sprayed coating can be recovered for use, thus
reducing solid waste disposal.
• Less space required - Due to the speed of cure, UV systems require less floor space.
Typically, UV systems take only 5% or less of the space needed for convection ovens.
• Superior finishes - UV curable coatings can offer improved performance and better visual
properties than their thermally cured counterparts. Can be used on temperature-sensitive
substrates - Substrates such as wood and plastic, and fully assembled products that may
contain gaskets and/or fluids, can be safely coated with UV curable coatings. Also, large
parts, such as castings, that require enormous amounts of energy just to get the substrate to
the curing temperature of the coating material, are ideal
Limitations
Some of the limitations of UV curing are:

4-17
• Material Cost – The cost of UV powders, though declining, is still at a significant premium
compared to conventional coatings.
• Requires line-of-sight - Because ultraviolet rays travel in a straight line, some geometrically
complex parts may be difficult to cure with UV. Recessed areas and areas of the part that lie
at 90° angles to the emitters will pose difficulties. However, the use of reflector cases to
redirect the radiation to hidden areas of the part may overcome some of these problems.
Some complex parts may simply be impossible to cure with UV light.
• Part placement may cause “shadowing” - Parts typically placed close together may result
in blockage of the UV light from adjacent surfaces. Even when reflectors are used, it may be
necessary to increase the spacing of parts in order to allow the UV light to be directed to all
coated surfaces.
• Set- ups can be complex and time consuming - If parts of various sizes and geometrical
configurations are being processed, it may be necessary to re-configure the UV lamps when
the product-mix changes.
• Some colors are difficult to cure with UV - Not all colors react the same way to ultraviolet
light. Some colors readily absorb UV light, while others, such as opaque colors, may reflect
more of the light than they absorb.
• Repair of coating defects is difficult - Spot repair is almost impossible with UV coatings
and it may be necessary to re-coat the entire part if there are defects in the coatings.
However, with most thermoset coatings, this is almost always the case regardless of the
curing method used. The exception is lacquers, which can readily be spot-repaired and
rubbed-out, if necessary.
• Safety - UV light can be dangerous and can pose a health risk to humans when proper
precautions are not heeded. Of particular concern is possible damage to eyes or skin from
high-energy UV sources and prolonged exposure to UV radiation (the same phenomena as
overexposure to the sun).

4-18
Electric Arc Furnace
The majority of global steel production is produced either by integrated steel plants through conventional
basic oxygen furnace (BOF) or using an electric-arc furnace (EAF). Globally, 29 % of steel is produced
using EAFs. EAFs are the more electric intensive technology, using direct arc melting. Both BOF and
EAF technologies are used to produce common carbon and low-allow steel. Specialty steel alloys are
increasing in demand, and can be produced using direct arc melting but also by using ladle refining or
induction melting.
Electric arc furnaces are also employed in steel foundries, to melt steel for castings. These furnaces tend
to be smaller than those used at steel mills.
How it works
Electric arc furnace applies direct contact with an electric arc to a charge of either steel scrap or direct-
reduced iron. The arc is produced by charging an electrode at high voltage until current flows from the
electrode to the charge. In an electric arc furnace, the electrodes and roof are raised and swung to one
side, the charge is dropped into the furnace, and the roof is moved back into position and sealed. Once the
electrodes are dropped into place and charged, the arc is struck and the melting process commences. Oxy-
fuel burners may also be used to enhance melting. Once the charge is melted, it can be refined in the
furnace itself, or tapped into a ladle for refining and casting.
Electric arc furnaces melting cycle is referred to as tap-to-tap time, and each batch of steel produced is
known as a heat. Tap-to-tap times range from 35 to over 200 minutes with generally higher tap-to-tap
times for stainless and specialty steel. Newer EAFs are designed to achieve a tap-to-tap time of less than
60 minutes.
Figure 4-3
A cross-sectional view of an Electric Arc Furnace
Electric arc furnaces can vary in size, with smaller units 5-35 metric tons (power 2.4 MVA to 24 MVA)
using a non-platform design, and larger units 35-70 metric tons (power 32 MVA to 60 MVA) using a
platform design.
Additional state-of-the-art developments currently being introduced to improve furnace
performance as well as steel quality include:
• Eccentric bottom tapping to reduce tap times, reduce temperature losses, and avoid slag
contamination in the ladle.

4-19
• Oxygen and carbon injection to provide additional heat from oxidation of carbon.
• Coated/water-cooled electrodes to reduce electrode consumption.
• Scrap preheating to recover energy from furnace waste gases.
• Single electrode dc furnaces to reduce electrode consumption and flicker.
Applications
The primary application of Electric Arc Furnace is in steel melting in the mini-mills or steel
foundries.
Benefits
Modern furnaces are equipped with a variety of features to increase production rates, reduce heat
times, and lower operating costs. They include:
• Ultra-High Power (UHP) transformers. Power levels of 600 to1000 kVA/ton are being
installed.
• Water-cooled sidewalls and roofs to reduce refractory costs.
• Oxy-fuel burners to supplement heat input and improve melting efficiency. Oxygen injection
for cutting scrap and decarburization to reduce refining time.
• Lime injection to reduce processing time and heat loss.
• Foamy slags to shield sidewalls and roof from heat radiation from the arcs. This practice
permits the use of maximum available secondary voltage through the use of long arcs with
high power factors.
• Computer control to optimize electric power programming and automatic tap changing based
on furnace condition and power demand. More complex systems provide control of
metallurgical parameters (tap temperature and timing of process events), data logging, and
least-cost charge calculations, etc.
Limitations
The barriers for electric arc furnace in the steel industry is the higher cost of imported scrap for
mini-mills, which can be alleviated by the construction of more DRI facilities.
Arc stability is an important factor in the operation of an electric arc furnace. At the beginning of
the melting period, power input is limited by unstable arcs which can also cause flicker in the
primary voltage line. Flicker is of concern with increasing transformer power. However, most
new UHP melt shops are equipped with static VAR generators for this reason. Also, flicker is
reduced significantly when a dc EAF is used to melt steel.

5-1
5
CASE STUDIES
The case studies are presented for the following six EPM technologies:
1. Infrared heating
2. Resistance heating
3. Ultraviolet curing
4. Microwave and Radio Frequency heating
5. Induction heating / melting / hardening
6. Electric arc furnace
Infrared Heating
Case Study -1: Electric IR Technology Increases Productivity and Reduces
Maintenance Issues in a Pipe Fitting Plant
Abstract
An iron pipe and tube fitting plant located in Alabama, USA recently introduced electric infrared
heating at their facility and saw significant productivity increase as well as reduction in
maintenance. One of their production lines involves dipping pipe fittings in paint and then drying
them through a convection oven. The production line had some problems with maintenance
issues and emissions in an existing gas-fired convection oven, resulting in a decrease in the
production capacity.
Some of the key performance metrics are listed below:
• Investment cost: ~€8,150
• System load: 102 kW connected load
• Annual energy usage: 204,000 kWh per year based on 2000 hours of equipment operation
per year (Plant operation hours = 4000 hours based on 2 shifts/day (16 hours/day), 5
days/week, 50 weeks/year operation)
• Annual other costs saved: Maintenance costs savings of approximately €750/ month
• Simple payback: approximately 1 year
• Productivity improvements: Elimination of process shut down by up to 4 times/ month
Conventional Method
In the conventional method used in industry, the parts to be painted are loaded at the loading
dock on to an overhead conveyor line. The parts then move along the line until they reach the dip
tank which is filled with paint. The parts are dipped in the paint and then moved through an “S”-

5-2
shaped natural gas fired tunnel oven. The paint coating cures as the parts move from one end of
the oven to the other end. The blower fans in the oven help in maintaining uniform temperature
inside the oven. The finished parts are then unloaded outside the oven.
Figure 5-1
Conventional Method of Curing Paint in the Oven
The Challenge
The conventional method of using natural gas burners/ blowers had few problems affecting
process speed. The main problem was burner maintenance—the gas filters and the gas burners
required cleaning every 7 to 10 days. The production line had to be stopped while the
maintenance crew fixed this problem. The ventilation system was not sufficient to remove the
smoke and other gases from emissions. The gas burner failure resulted in the shutdown of the
production line.
The Solution
The maintenance manager approached their electric power service provider for a potential
solution to keep their plant’s production up and running. The electric power company personnel
suggested a solution that involved adding eight electric infrared heaters on both sides of the walls
of the “S” tunnel (as shown in the figure). Each infrared heater had a medium-wave IR emitter3
and rated at 12.75 kW which brought the total IR capacity to 102 kW.
3
Medium-wave IR comes from emitters operating at temperatures in the range of 1290ºF to 1830ºF (700-1000ºC)
and generally peaks in the range of 2.3μm to 3μm. Medium wavelength IR is readily absorbed by many plastics and
glass and is less intense than short wavelength. It is used for water-based inks, paint coatings, and adhesives.
Source: Industrial Process Heating: Current and Emerging Applications of Electrotechnologies. EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 2010. 1020133

5-3
Figure 5-2
New Method of using IR Heaters for Curing Paints
Figure 5-3
Actual Photo of Oven Showing IR Heaters
The Results
The modification of this oven resulted in the quick restart of the production line. The cost of the
IR heaters was approximately $1000 (€815) per heater. The total cost of installation was
approximately $10,000 (€8150) for 8 heaters including controls for the IR heaters. The
maintenance crew soon noticed that they did not have to clean or replace gas filters or burners
every week. Not having to stop regularly to clean or replace burners resulted in increased uptime
of the production line. Also, the maintenance manager noticed the absence of emissions or fumes
at the oven because the oven used electric heating. With fewer components in the IR heater
compared to the natural gas burners, less maintenance was required. The time taken to bring the
oven to operating temperature was in the order of few minutes for infrared as compared to

5-4
natural gas which took nearly 30 minutes. OSHA4
regulations required constant monitoring of
carbon monoxide (CO) levels when the natural gas burner/blower system was used because of
safety concerns. The absence of combustible gases and carbon monoxide improved the safety
conditions for operating personnel and reduced the environmental impact of the plant’s
operation. Overall, the plant was able to consistently meet the production requirements without
the downtime caused by the natural gas burner/ blower system and the simple payback was close
to a year for the overall solution.
4
Occupational Safety and Health Regulations (OSHA)

Electromagnetic Processing of Materials – Europe Industrial Electrification Potential Assessment

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Electromagnetic Processing of Materials – Europe Industrial Electrification Potential Assessment