This document summarizes a study examining Albert Einstein's preserved brain. It begins by providing background on past studies examining the brains of intellectual giants and limitations of those studies. It then describes how Einstein's brain was preserved after his death and the hypotheses guiding the current study. Namely, the researchers hypothesized differences in Einstein's parietal lobes given their role in spatial reasoning and mathematical thought. Upon examination, the study found a unique feature in Einstein's brain - the absence of a parietal operculum in each hemisphere, a feature not present in any of the control brains examined.
This document discusses a proposed theory using Turing machines to develop a new therapeutic strategy for treating some spinal cord and brain conditions using a depurative-toxicological-pharmacological approach. It reviews literature on neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and ALS to understand common pathological mechanisms involving accumulation of toxic metabolic byproducts that the central nervous system lacks efficient means of removing. The theory aims to translate these insights into a practical hypothesis for reducing or delaying disease progression. The document also summarizes findings from studies showing cerebrospinal fluid from progressive multiple sclerosis patients causes mitochondrial dysfunction in neurons, identifying a potential biological mechanism and therapeutic target for progressive forms of the disease.
This is the presentation of the seventh neuroscience event hosted by Ahmed Eljack in September 2018 at Alneelain University.
the event discussed the definition and importance of sleep, the circadian rhythm, sleep stages, dreaming, neural processes of sleep and some sleep disorders.
*Eljack's Neuroscience Events are events hosted by Ahmed Eljack in various Sudanese universities to discussed different topics in the ever-growing field of neuroscience.
The document provides a historical overview of the scientific foundation and validation of chiropractic spinal manipulation therapy from the 16th century to present day. It discusses early scientific works linking somatic dysfunction to visceral disease by authors such as Avicenna, Ambroise Paré, and Galen. It then outlines key studies, literature reviews, and findings over the centuries that further validated the link between the spine and internal organ function, and the effectiveness of chiropractic adjustment in detecting, preventing, and reversing chronic conditions.
Eljack's Lecture Notes in NeuroscienceAhmed Eljack
This document provides information about a neuroanatomy review book written by Ahmed A. E. Eljack. It lists the contributors to the book and acknowledges their assistance. It also provides contact information for the graphic designer who designed the book cover and information on how to obtain physical copies of the book. The purpose of the book is to combine neuroanatomy and CNS physiology topics in a concise, bullet-pointed format with illustrations to make these subjects easier for medical students to understand and master.
Atlas of Regional ANATOMY of the Brain Using MRI nataliej4
This document provides an introduction and overview of the book "Atlas of Regional Anatomy of the Brain Using MRI" by authors J.C. Tamraz and Y.G. Comair. The foreword discusses how MRI has allowed for non-invasive study of brain anatomy and its correlation with function. The preface outlines how MRI revived interest in studying brain morphology and function together by making detailed images of brain structures available. The book aims to facilitate studying brain anatomy through a methodological analysis of functionally oriented morphology using MRI. It focuses on surface anatomy of the brain and examines primary motor cortex, speech, limbic system, and vision through sectioning, 3D rendering, and innovative oblique sections.
This lecture in neuroanatomy was presented and taught by Ahmed Eljack to second level medical students at Alneelain University. It's the first lecture of the spinal cord neuroanatomy (containing introduction and ascending tracts).
The lecture discussed the following topics regarding the spinal cord:
1. Location and function
2. surface features
3. internal structure
4. Ascending tracts
This is the presentation of the fifth neuroscience event hosted by Ahmed Eljack in February 2018 at Ahfad University for Women.
The event discussed the basic neuroscience of memories in term of categories and processes along with some clinical application. There was a game in the middle of the event about priming which was a nice activity that caught the attention of the audience and made the environment more cheerful
*Eljack's Neuroscience Events are events hosted by Ahmed Eljack in various Sudanese universities to discussed different topics in the ever-growing field of neuroscience.
Deep Brain Stimulation surgery experience at Apollo Hospital, New DelhiApollo Hospitals
Functional neurosurgery is concerned with the treatment of conditions where central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) function is abnormal although the structure or anatomy is normal. Eighty-seven Deep Brain Stimulation surgeries were done at Indraprastha Apollo Hospital, New Delhi since year 2000. This included 81 cases of Parkinson’s disease (STN stimulation), 4 cases of Essential Tremors (VIM thalamic nucleus stimulation) and three cases of Dystonia (Globus Pallidus stimulation). All the patients showed good response and one patient developed small thalamic hemorrhage which improved over a period of six weeks.
This document discusses a proposed theory using Turing machines to develop a new therapeutic strategy for treating some spinal cord and brain conditions using a depurative-toxicological-pharmacological approach. It reviews literature on neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and ALS to understand common pathological mechanisms involving accumulation of toxic metabolic byproducts that the central nervous system lacks efficient means of removing. The theory aims to translate these insights into a practical hypothesis for reducing or delaying disease progression. The document also summarizes findings from studies showing cerebrospinal fluid from progressive multiple sclerosis patients causes mitochondrial dysfunction in neurons, identifying a potential biological mechanism and therapeutic target for progressive forms of the disease.
This is the presentation of the seventh neuroscience event hosted by Ahmed Eljack in September 2018 at Alneelain University.
the event discussed the definition and importance of sleep, the circadian rhythm, sleep stages, dreaming, neural processes of sleep and some sleep disorders.
*Eljack's Neuroscience Events are events hosted by Ahmed Eljack in various Sudanese universities to discussed different topics in the ever-growing field of neuroscience.
The document provides a historical overview of the scientific foundation and validation of chiropractic spinal manipulation therapy from the 16th century to present day. It discusses early scientific works linking somatic dysfunction to visceral disease by authors such as Avicenna, Ambroise Paré, and Galen. It then outlines key studies, literature reviews, and findings over the centuries that further validated the link between the spine and internal organ function, and the effectiveness of chiropractic adjustment in detecting, preventing, and reversing chronic conditions.
Eljack's Lecture Notes in NeuroscienceAhmed Eljack
This document provides information about a neuroanatomy review book written by Ahmed A. E. Eljack. It lists the contributors to the book and acknowledges their assistance. It also provides contact information for the graphic designer who designed the book cover and information on how to obtain physical copies of the book. The purpose of the book is to combine neuroanatomy and CNS physiology topics in a concise, bullet-pointed format with illustrations to make these subjects easier for medical students to understand and master.
Atlas of Regional ANATOMY of the Brain Using MRI nataliej4
This document provides an introduction and overview of the book "Atlas of Regional Anatomy of the Brain Using MRI" by authors J.C. Tamraz and Y.G. Comair. The foreword discusses how MRI has allowed for non-invasive study of brain anatomy and its correlation with function. The preface outlines how MRI revived interest in studying brain morphology and function together by making detailed images of brain structures available. The book aims to facilitate studying brain anatomy through a methodological analysis of functionally oriented morphology using MRI. It focuses on surface anatomy of the brain and examines primary motor cortex, speech, limbic system, and vision through sectioning, 3D rendering, and innovative oblique sections.
This lecture in neuroanatomy was presented and taught by Ahmed Eljack to second level medical students at Alneelain University. It's the first lecture of the spinal cord neuroanatomy (containing introduction and ascending tracts).
The lecture discussed the following topics regarding the spinal cord:
1. Location and function
2. surface features
3. internal structure
4. Ascending tracts
This is the presentation of the fifth neuroscience event hosted by Ahmed Eljack in February 2018 at Ahfad University for Women.
The event discussed the basic neuroscience of memories in term of categories and processes along with some clinical application. There was a game in the middle of the event about priming which was a nice activity that caught the attention of the audience and made the environment more cheerful
*Eljack's Neuroscience Events are events hosted by Ahmed Eljack in various Sudanese universities to discussed different topics in the ever-growing field of neuroscience.
Deep Brain Stimulation surgery experience at Apollo Hospital, New DelhiApollo Hospitals
Functional neurosurgery is concerned with the treatment of conditions where central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) function is abnormal although the structure or anatomy is normal. Eighty-seven Deep Brain Stimulation surgeries were done at Indraprastha Apollo Hospital, New Delhi since year 2000. This included 81 cases of Parkinson’s disease (STN stimulation), 4 cases of Essential Tremors (VIM thalamic nucleus stimulation) and three cases of Dystonia (Globus Pallidus stimulation). All the patients showed good response and one patient developed small thalamic hemorrhage which improved over a period of six weeks.
The pineal gland, located near the center of the brain, was long thought to be a vestigial organ of unknown function. Recent studies have found that it acts as a biological clock, regulating circadian rhythms and converting signals from the environment into hormonal signals. Specifically, the pineal gland synthesizes and secretes melatonin, a hormone that regulates the activity of the sex glands. It is now understood as the fourth neuroendocrine transducer in the body, translating nervous system signals into hormonal responses.
Neuroscience is an interdisciplinary field that studies the nervous system. The ancient Greeks were early contributors, attempting to understand the brain and explain neural disorders. In the 19th century, scientists like Broca, von Hemholtz, and Golgi made important discoveries about the structure and function of neurons. Their work led to the understanding that neurons are independent nerve cell units and laid the foundation for modern neuroscience. Today, neuroscience has many branches that study topics like emotions, behavior, language, and disorders from molecular to cognitive levels in order to better understand the brain and nervous system and develop new treatments.
Biopsychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on the relationship between the brain and behavior. The document traces the history of biopsychology from ancient Greek theories of Plato and Aristotle to modern imaging technologies like EEG, CAT scans, and MRIs. Key developments included Galen's ventricle theory, Descartes' dualism and pineal gland theory, Golgi's staining technique that allowed visualization of neurons, and Berger's invention of the EEG. Modern biopsychology uses structural imaging to study the brain's structure and function and further the understanding of behavioral disorders.
This document provides a history of neuroscience and the development of the neurological examination from ancient times through the modern period. It describes early views of the brain in ancient Egypt and Greece. Key developments included identifying the brain as the organ of thought in the 17th-18th centuries, distinguishing motor and sensory functions of the spinal cord in the early 19th century, and establishing electricity's role in nerves in the late 18th century. The neurological examination was developed in the late 19th century by scientists like Erb, Babinski, and Gowers. Several textbooks from the early 20th century helped standardize the clinical neurologic exam approach.
The aim of Psychology Page is to provide a concise, high-quality introduction to a wide variety of psychology topics. From Alzheimer’s disease to Z-scores, from cognitive dissonance to mirror neurons. It is a resource for students, teachers, and people who are interested in psychology or science in general.
The biological perspective studies the relationship between brain activity and consciousness. Methods include correlational studies comparing behavior to brain damage from strokes or injuries, as well as stimulation studies where parts of the brain are deliberately stimulated. Famous cases like Phineas Gage and Clive Wearing provided insights after they suffered brain injuries, with Gage's personality changing after frontal lobe damage and Wearing developing severe anterograde amnesia.
Traditionally, the birth of neuropsychology, i.e.the investi.docxturveycharlyn
Traditionally, the birth of neuropsychology, i.e.
the investigation of disorders of cognitive processes
following acquired cerebral lesions, is associated
with the clinical descriptions by Paul Broca in the
period 1861-1865 and the discovery of the left
hemisphere dominance for language (Broca, 1865).
The importance of Broca’s studies is mainly
methodological. He showed that a specific
cognitive disorder can be systematically associated
with focal brain damage, thus leading to the claim,
following Bouillaud (1825), that the site of the
lesion corresponds to the centre of the function.
Theoretically more relevant was the contribution of
Carl Wernicke (1874) who proposed the first
neuropsychological model in so far it depicted the
different levels of processing underlying the simple
task of oral repetition (psychological description),
the cerebral areas and the subcortical and
transcortical connecting pathways that are
associated to each processing stage (neurological
description), and the specific symptoms that follow
circumscribed brain lesions (clinical description).
After Wernicke, any neuropsychological model
should comprise these three planes of description.
Therefore the actual birth of neuropsychology
should be dated to 1874, i.e. when the monograph
of Wernicke was published. It is worth noting that
in the same year Wilhem Wundt (1874) published
the book that set the foundation of the scientific
psychology, conceived as the discipline
investigating the mind in physiological condition.
A widely-accepted version of the history of
neuropsychology (see for instance Luria, 1967;
Lecours and Lhermitte, 1979; Finger, 1994; Basso,
2003) assumed that different eras can be identified
according to the emphasis that has been given to
the cerebral basis of mind and behaviour, or,
alternatively, to an explicit, psychological theory of
human cognition. Depending on the prevalence of
the neurological or psychological side of the coin,
the development of neuropsychology can be
subdivided by five different periods.
1. Associationism. Following Wernicke (1874),
in the last quarter of the XIX century several
authors, later called “diagram makers”, proposed
different schematic models depicting how language
is represented in the brain (see Jacyna, 2004a;
2004b). They suggested the existence of networks
associating simple components, either sensory-
motor or conceptual (Charcot, 1883; Lichtheim,
1885; Dejerine, 1892; Bastian, 1898). Language
disturbances were studied mainly from an
anatomical point of view and different taxonomies
of aphasia based on the localisation of the cerebral
lesions were proposed.
2. Holistic approach. Influenced by Jackson
(1866) and Freud (1891), a different approach
prevailed in the first half of twentieth century,
stating that language disorders have to be studied
from a psychological perspective. Aphasia was
conceived as a unitary disorder that varies only in
severity, and reflects an impairment of the
symbolic processes unde ...
The document discusses the history of understanding of physiological influences on the brain and nervous system from ancient times through the 19th century. It covers early ideas about the brain and localization of functions from Greek doctors through Renaissance thinkers like Descartes. Key figures like Bell, Magendie, Muller, Helmholtz contributed to understanding of nerve function and visual perception. Phrenology led to the idea of localization of mental functions in the brain, while Flourens and others showed specific brain areas are involved in different functions. Broca and Wernicke identified language centers, and Weber and Fechner founded the field of psychophysics through quantitative studies of sensation and perception.
Neurotheology is the study of the neurological basis of religious experiences. Early research focused on temporal lobe epilepsy patients who reported intense religious sensations during seizures. Neuroimaging studies now show multiple brain regions activate during religious practices like meditation. While some studies proposed the temporal lobes as the "God spot", controversially attempting to induce religious experiences with magnetic stimulation, most research finds religion engages a network of brain areas. Neurotheology continues to provide insights into the physiological roots of spirituality.
This document provides a history of the field of neuroscience from ancient times to present day. It discusses early studies of the brain dating back to ancient Egyptians and Greeks like Hippocrates and Aristotle. Key developments included the formalization of brain anatomy in the 1500s and discoveries in the 1700-1800s linking electricity and nerves. The 19th century saw localization of brain functions and emergence of cellular neuroscience. Today, neuroscience encompasses diverse levels of analysis and fields like molecular, cognitive and behavioral neuroscience. The document outlines the roles of modern neuroscientists in medical specialties and experimental research related to the nervous system.
History of neurotransmission and introduction to ansdrdeepika87
This document provides a history of the discovery of neurons, neurotransmission, and the autonomic nervous system (ANS) through the work of various scientists. It describes 26 scientists and their key experiments from the 17th century to mid 20th century that were instrumental in advancing the understanding of:
1) The existence and structure of neurons through microscopy observations
2) The "neuron doctrine" established by Cajal that neurons are individual cells that are not continuous
3) The existence of synapses and evidence for chemical neurotransmission provided by Loewi and others
4) Components and functions of the ANS described by Langley and others.
Re-thinking about the brain [based on the case of Nico-with half a brain]Sumitava Mukherjee
Nico underwent a right hemispherectomy at age 3 years and 7 months to treat intractable epilepsy. [1] Despite losing half of his brain, Nico was able to attend school, with normal cognitive, social, and emotional development. [2] Nico's case raises questions about how the brain supports the mind and challenges assumptions about hemisphere specialization and localization of function. [3] Further study of hemispherectomy cases and imaging could provide insights into post-operation changes and modify views of the relationship between brain structure and cognition.
Human Brain Atlas' Maps The Intricate Organ In Stunning Detail | The Lifescie...The Lifesciences Magazine
In a stunning collection of more than 3,000 different types of brain cells that together give rise to emotion, thought, memory, and illness, scientists on Thursday released the most intricate and detailed depiction of the human brain to date.
A study found neurochemical and histopathological changes in the cerebellum of a rat model of Parkinson's disease induced by injecting rotenone into the rats' striatum. Specifically, the study found evidence of hyperexcitability in the cerebellum, as indicated by increased levels of excitatory neurotransmitters glutamate and aspartate and decreased levels of inhibitory neurotransmitters GABA, glycine, and taurine. This suggests that Parkinson's disease may affect the cerebellum in addition to the basal ganglia, changing the focus of treatment strategies beyond just restoring dopamine levels.
The document proposes a design for an Alzheimer's research and treatment center based on synaptic connections in the brain. It describes how the building layout would guide patients along a trajectory through interconnected program spaces, similar to how synapses connect neurons. This "synaptic overlay" is intended to help patients better retain spatial memory as their disease reduces synaptic activity in the brain. The design also aims to promote interaction between patients, researchers, and doctors to provide mental stimulation for patients and more direct understanding of patients for researchers.
Discussion Conjoined Twins and Split Brain Patients.docxstirlingvwriters
Split brain patients have had surgery to cut the corpus callosum, revealing two separate minds mediated by different brain hemispheres. One hemisphere can speak while the other can only communicate through gestures. Conjoined twins can have either separate or shared brains/brain regions. Studies of split brain patients and conjoined twins provide insights into brain organization and the concept of personhood.
Dr. P.S. Deb's document provides a history of neuroscience from ancient times to modern day. Some key points covered include:
- Ancient Greeks like Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Herophilus debated whether the brain or heart was the seat of cognition and intelligence.
- In the 17th-18th centuries, scientists like Descartes, Willis, and Mesmer advanced understanding of brain function, electricity, and magnetism.
- In the 19th century, phrenology emerged while scientists like Broca, Ferrier, Jackson, Darwin, and Sherrington discovered brain localization of function and the neuron.
- The 20th century saw advances in imaging like EEG, CT, PET
Principles of Neuropsychology 2nd Edition Zillmer Test BankKuameOdonnells
Full download : https://alibabadownload.com/product/principles-of-neuropsychology-2nd-edition-zillmer-test-bank/ Principles of Neuropsychology 2nd Edition Zillmer Test Bank , Principles of Neuropsychology,Zillmer,2nd Edition,Test Bank
This document provides an autobiographical introduction to the author's lifelong interest in memory from his childhood experiences in Vienna in 1938 up until receiving the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2000 for his contributions to the study of memory storage in the brain. It describes the author's vivid childhood memories of his 9th birthday and the events of Kristallnacht a few days later when his family was forced to leave their home. This traumatic experience sparked his early interest in understanding human behavior and memory, which first manifested as a focus on history and psychoanalysis in college, before turning to the biological study of the brain and memory in a scientific career spanning over 50 years.
In the realm of cybersecurity, offensive security practices act as a critical shield. By simulating real-world attacks in a controlled environment, these techniques expose vulnerabilities before malicious actors can exploit them. This proactive approach allows manufacturers to identify and fix weaknesses, significantly enhancing system security.
This presentation delves into the development of a system designed to mimic Galileo's Open Service signal using software-defined radio (SDR) technology. We'll begin with a foundational overview of both Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) and the intricacies of digital signal processing.
The presentation culminates in a live demonstration. We'll showcase the manipulation of Galileo's Open Service pilot signal, simulating an attack on various software and hardware systems. This practical demonstration serves to highlight the potential consequences of unaddressed vulnerabilities, emphasizing the importance of offensive security practices in safeguarding critical infrastructure.
"Choosing proper type of scaling", Olena SyrotaFwdays
Imagine an IoT processing system that is already quite mature and production-ready and for which client coverage is growing and scaling and performance aspects are life and death questions. The system has Redis, MongoDB, and stream processing based on ksqldb. In this talk, firstly, we will analyze scaling approaches and then select the proper ones for our system.
The pineal gland, located near the center of the brain, was long thought to be a vestigial organ of unknown function. Recent studies have found that it acts as a biological clock, regulating circadian rhythms and converting signals from the environment into hormonal signals. Specifically, the pineal gland synthesizes and secretes melatonin, a hormone that regulates the activity of the sex glands. It is now understood as the fourth neuroendocrine transducer in the body, translating nervous system signals into hormonal responses.
Neuroscience is an interdisciplinary field that studies the nervous system. The ancient Greeks were early contributors, attempting to understand the brain and explain neural disorders. In the 19th century, scientists like Broca, von Hemholtz, and Golgi made important discoveries about the structure and function of neurons. Their work led to the understanding that neurons are independent nerve cell units and laid the foundation for modern neuroscience. Today, neuroscience has many branches that study topics like emotions, behavior, language, and disorders from molecular to cognitive levels in order to better understand the brain and nervous system and develop new treatments.
Biopsychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on the relationship between the brain and behavior. The document traces the history of biopsychology from ancient Greek theories of Plato and Aristotle to modern imaging technologies like EEG, CAT scans, and MRIs. Key developments included Galen's ventricle theory, Descartes' dualism and pineal gland theory, Golgi's staining technique that allowed visualization of neurons, and Berger's invention of the EEG. Modern biopsychology uses structural imaging to study the brain's structure and function and further the understanding of behavioral disorders.
This document provides a history of neuroscience and the development of the neurological examination from ancient times through the modern period. It describes early views of the brain in ancient Egypt and Greece. Key developments included identifying the brain as the organ of thought in the 17th-18th centuries, distinguishing motor and sensory functions of the spinal cord in the early 19th century, and establishing electricity's role in nerves in the late 18th century. The neurological examination was developed in the late 19th century by scientists like Erb, Babinski, and Gowers. Several textbooks from the early 20th century helped standardize the clinical neurologic exam approach.
The aim of Psychology Page is to provide a concise, high-quality introduction to a wide variety of psychology topics. From Alzheimer’s disease to Z-scores, from cognitive dissonance to mirror neurons. It is a resource for students, teachers, and people who are interested in psychology or science in general.
The biological perspective studies the relationship between brain activity and consciousness. Methods include correlational studies comparing behavior to brain damage from strokes or injuries, as well as stimulation studies where parts of the brain are deliberately stimulated. Famous cases like Phineas Gage and Clive Wearing provided insights after they suffered brain injuries, with Gage's personality changing after frontal lobe damage and Wearing developing severe anterograde amnesia.
Traditionally, the birth of neuropsychology, i.e.the investi.docxturveycharlyn
Traditionally, the birth of neuropsychology, i.e.
the investigation of disorders of cognitive processes
following acquired cerebral lesions, is associated
with the clinical descriptions by Paul Broca in the
period 1861-1865 and the discovery of the left
hemisphere dominance for language (Broca, 1865).
The importance of Broca’s studies is mainly
methodological. He showed that a specific
cognitive disorder can be systematically associated
with focal brain damage, thus leading to the claim,
following Bouillaud (1825), that the site of the
lesion corresponds to the centre of the function.
Theoretically more relevant was the contribution of
Carl Wernicke (1874) who proposed the first
neuropsychological model in so far it depicted the
different levels of processing underlying the simple
task of oral repetition (psychological description),
the cerebral areas and the subcortical and
transcortical connecting pathways that are
associated to each processing stage (neurological
description), and the specific symptoms that follow
circumscribed brain lesions (clinical description).
After Wernicke, any neuropsychological model
should comprise these three planes of description.
Therefore the actual birth of neuropsychology
should be dated to 1874, i.e. when the monograph
of Wernicke was published. It is worth noting that
in the same year Wilhem Wundt (1874) published
the book that set the foundation of the scientific
psychology, conceived as the discipline
investigating the mind in physiological condition.
A widely-accepted version of the history of
neuropsychology (see for instance Luria, 1967;
Lecours and Lhermitte, 1979; Finger, 1994; Basso,
2003) assumed that different eras can be identified
according to the emphasis that has been given to
the cerebral basis of mind and behaviour, or,
alternatively, to an explicit, psychological theory of
human cognition. Depending on the prevalence of
the neurological or psychological side of the coin,
the development of neuropsychology can be
subdivided by five different periods.
1. Associationism. Following Wernicke (1874),
in the last quarter of the XIX century several
authors, later called “diagram makers”, proposed
different schematic models depicting how language
is represented in the brain (see Jacyna, 2004a;
2004b). They suggested the existence of networks
associating simple components, either sensory-
motor or conceptual (Charcot, 1883; Lichtheim,
1885; Dejerine, 1892; Bastian, 1898). Language
disturbances were studied mainly from an
anatomical point of view and different taxonomies
of aphasia based on the localisation of the cerebral
lesions were proposed.
2. Holistic approach. Influenced by Jackson
(1866) and Freud (1891), a different approach
prevailed in the first half of twentieth century,
stating that language disorders have to be studied
from a psychological perspective. Aphasia was
conceived as a unitary disorder that varies only in
severity, and reflects an impairment of the
symbolic processes unde ...
The document discusses the history of understanding of physiological influences on the brain and nervous system from ancient times through the 19th century. It covers early ideas about the brain and localization of functions from Greek doctors through Renaissance thinkers like Descartes. Key figures like Bell, Magendie, Muller, Helmholtz contributed to understanding of nerve function and visual perception. Phrenology led to the idea of localization of mental functions in the brain, while Flourens and others showed specific brain areas are involved in different functions. Broca and Wernicke identified language centers, and Weber and Fechner founded the field of psychophysics through quantitative studies of sensation and perception.
Neurotheology is the study of the neurological basis of religious experiences. Early research focused on temporal lobe epilepsy patients who reported intense religious sensations during seizures. Neuroimaging studies now show multiple brain regions activate during religious practices like meditation. While some studies proposed the temporal lobes as the "God spot", controversially attempting to induce religious experiences with magnetic stimulation, most research finds religion engages a network of brain areas. Neurotheology continues to provide insights into the physiological roots of spirituality.
This document provides a history of the field of neuroscience from ancient times to present day. It discusses early studies of the brain dating back to ancient Egyptians and Greeks like Hippocrates and Aristotle. Key developments included the formalization of brain anatomy in the 1500s and discoveries in the 1700-1800s linking electricity and nerves. The 19th century saw localization of brain functions and emergence of cellular neuroscience. Today, neuroscience encompasses diverse levels of analysis and fields like molecular, cognitive and behavioral neuroscience. The document outlines the roles of modern neuroscientists in medical specialties and experimental research related to the nervous system.
History of neurotransmission and introduction to ansdrdeepika87
This document provides a history of the discovery of neurons, neurotransmission, and the autonomic nervous system (ANS) through the work of various scientists. It describes 26 scientists and their key experiments from the 17th century to mid 20th century that were instrumental in advancing the understanding of:
1) The existence and structure of neurons through microscopy observations
2) The "neuron doctrine" established by Cajal that neurons are individual cells that are not continuous
3) The existence of synapses and evidence for chemical neurotransmission provided by Loewi and others
4) Components and functions of the ANS described by Langley and others.
Re-thinking about the brain [based on the case of Nico-with half a brain]Sumitava Mukherjee
Nico underwent a right hemispherectomy at age 3 years and 7 months to treat intractable epilepsy. [1] Despite losing half of his brain, Nico was able to attend school, with normal cognitive, social, and emotional development. [2] Nico's case raises questions about how the brain supports the mind and challenges assumptions about hemisphere specialization and localization of function. [3] Further study of hemispherectomy cases and imaging could provide insights into post-operation changes and modify views of the relationship between brain structure and cognition.
Human Brain Atlas' Maps The Intricate Organ In Stunning Detail | The Lifescie...The Lifesciences Magazine
In a stunning collection of more than 3,000 different types of brain cells that together give rise to emotion, thought, memory, and illness, scientists on Thursday released the most intricate and detailed depiction of the human brain to date.
A study found neurochemical and histopathological changes in the cerebellum of a rat model of Parkinson's disease induced by injecting rotenone into the rats' striatum. Specifically, the study found evidence of hyperexcitability in the cerebellum, as indicated by increased levels of excitatory neurotransmitters glutamate and aspartate and decreased levels of inhibitory neurotransmitters GABA, glycine, and taurine. This suggests that Parkinson's disease may affect the cerebellum in addition to the basal ganglia, changing the focus of treatment strategies beyond just restoring dopamine levels.
The document proposes a design for an Alzheimer's research and treatment center based on synaptic connections in the brain. It describes how the building layout would guide patients along a trajectory through interconnected program spaces, similar to how synapses connect neurons. This "synaptic overlay" is intended to help patients better retain spatial memory as their disease reduces synaptic activity in the brain. The design also aims to promote interaction between patients, researchers, and doctors to provide mental stimulation for patients and more direct understanding of patients for researchers.
Discussion Conjoined Twins and Split Brain Patients.docxstirlingvwriters
Split brain patients have had surgery to cut the corpus callosum, revealing two separate minds mediated by different brain hemispheres. One hemisphere can speak while the other can only communicate through gestures. Conjoined twins can have either separate or shared brains/brain regions. Studies of split brain patients and conjoined twins provide insights into brain organization and the concept of personhood.
Dr. P.S. Deb's document provides a history of neuroscience from ancient times to modern day. Some key points covered include:
- Ancient Greeks like Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Herophilus debated whether the brain or heart was the seat of cognition and intelligence.
- In the 17th-18th centuries, scientists like Descartes, Willis, and Mesmer advanced understanding of brain function, electricity, and magnetism.
- In the 19th century, phrenology emerged while scientists like Broca, Ferrier, Jackson, Darwin, and Sherrington discovered brain localization of function and the neuron.
- The 20th century saw advances in imaging like EEG, CT, PET
Principles of Neuropsychology 2nd Edition Zillmer Test BankKuameOdonnells
Full download : https://alibabadownload.com/product/principles-of-neuropsychology-2nd-edition-zillmer-test-bank/ Principles of Neuropsychology 2nd Edition Zillmer Test Bank , Principles of Neuropsychology,Zillmer,2nd Edition,Test Bank
This document provides an autobiographical introduction to the author's lifelong interest in memory from his childhood experiences in Vienna in 1938 up until receiving the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2000 for his contributions to the study of memory storage in the brain. It describes the author's vivid childhood memories of his 9th birthday and the events of Kristallnacht a few days later when his family was forced to leave their home. This traumatic experience sparked his early interest in understanding human behavior and memory, which first manifested as a focus on history and psychoanalysis in college, before turning to the biological study of the brain and memory in a scientific career spanning over 50 years.
In the realm of cybersecurity, offensive security practices act as a critical shield. By simulating real-world attacks in a controlled environment, these techniques expose vulnerabilities before malicious actors can exploit them. This proactive approach allows manufacturers to identify and fix weaknesses, significantly enhancing system security.
This presentation delves into the development of a system designed to mimic Galileo's Open Service signal using software-defined radio (SDR) technology. We'll begin with a foundational overview of both Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) and the intricacies of digital signal processing.
The presentation culminates in a live demonstration. We'll showcase the manipulation of Galileo's Open Service pilot signal, simulating an attack on various software and hardware systems. This practical demonstration serves to highlight the potential consequences of unaddressed vulnerabilities, emphasizing the importance of offensive security practices in safeguarding critical infrastructure.
"Choosing proper type of scaling", Olena SyrotaFwdays
Imagine an IoT processing system that is already quite mature and production-ready and for which client coverage is growing and scaling and performance aspects are life and death questions. The system has Redis, MongoDB, and stream processing based on ksqldb. In this talk, firstly, we will analyze scaling approaches and then select the proper ones for our system.
Discover top-tier mobile app development services, offering innovative solutions for iOS and Android. Enhance your business with custom, user-friendly mobile applications.
HCL Notes und Domino Lizenzkostenreduzierung in der Welt von DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-und-domino-lizenzkostenreduzierung-in-der-welt-von-dlau/
DLAU und die Lizenzen nach dem CCB- und CCX-Modell sind für viele in der HCL-Community seit letztem Jahr ein heißes Thema. Als Notes- oder Domino-Kunde haben Sie vielleicht mit unerwartet hohen Benutzerzahlen und Lizenzgebühren zu kämpfen. Sie fragen sich vielleicht, wie diese neue Art der Lizenzierung funktioniert und welchen Nutzen sie Ihnen bringt. Vor allem wollen Sie sicherlich Ihr Budget einhalten und Kosten sparen, wo immer möglich. Das verstehen wir und wir möchten Ihnen dabei helfen!
Wir erklären Ihnen, wie Sie häufige Konfigurationsprobleme lösen können, die dazu führen können, dass mehr Benutzer gezählt werden als nötig, und wie Sie überflüssige oder ungenutzte Konten identifizieren und entfernen können, um Geld zu sparen. Es gibt auch einige Ansätze, die zu unnötigen Ausgaben führen können, z. B. wenn ein Personendokument anstelle eines Mail-Ins für geteilte Mailboxen verwendet wird. Wir zeigen Ihnen solche Fälle und deren Lösungen. Und natürlich erklären wir Ihnen das neue Lizenzmodell.
Nehmen Sie an diesem Webinar teil, bei dem HCL-Ambassador Marc Thomas und Gastredner Franz Walder Ihnen diese neue Welt näherbringen. Es vermittelt Ihnen die Tools und das Know-how, um den Überblick zu bewahren. Sie werden in der Lage sein, Ihre Kosten durch eine optimierte Domino-Konfiguration zu reduzieren und auch in Zukunft gering zu halten.
Diese Themen werden behandelt
- Reduzierung der Lizenzkosten durch Auffinden und Beheben von Fehlkonfigurationen und überflüssigen Konten
- Wie funktionieren CCB- und CCX-Lizenzen wirklich?
- Verstehen des DLAU-Tools und wie man es am besten nutzt
- Tipps für häufige Problembereiche, wie z. B. Team-Postfächer, Funktions-/Testbenutzer usw.
- Praxisbeispiele und Best Practices zum sofortigen Umsetzen
Connector Corner: Seamlessly power UiPath Apps, GenAI with prebuilt connectorsDianaGray10
Join us to learn how UiPath Apps can directly and easily interact with prebuilt connectors via Integration Service--including Salesforce, ServiceNow, Open GenAI, and more.
The best part is you can achieve this without building a custom workflow! Say goodbye to the hassle of using separate automations to call APIs. By seamlessly integrating within App Studio, you can now easily streamline your workflow, while gaining direct access to our Connector Catalog of popular applications.
We’ll discuss and demo the benefits of UiPath Apps and connectors including:
Creating a compelling user experience for any software, without the limitations of APIs.
Accelerating the app creation process, saving time and effort
Enjoying high-performance CRUD (create, read, update, delete) operations, for
seamless data management.
Speakers:
Russell Alfeche, Technology Leader, RPA at qBotic and UiPath MVP
Charlie Greenberg, host
For the full video of this presentation, please visit: https://www.edge-ai-vision.com/2024/06/temporal-event-neural-networks-a-more-efficient-alternative-to-the-transformer-a-presentation-from-brainchip/
Chris Jones, Director of Product Management at BrainChip , presents the “Temporal Event Neural Networks: A More Efficient Alternative to the Transformer” tutorial at the May 2024 Embedded Vision Summit.
The expansion of AI services necessitates enhanced computational capabilities on edge devices. Temporal Event Neural Networks (TENNs), developed by BrainChip, represent a novel and highly efficient state-space network. TENNs demonstrate exceptional proficiency in handling multi-dimensional streaming data, facilitating advancements in object detection, action recognition, speech enhancement and language model/sequence generation. Through the utilization of polynomial-based continuous convolutions, TENNs streamline models, expedite training processes and significantly diminish memory requirements, achieving notable reductions of up to 50x in parameters and 5,000x in energy consumption compared to prevailing methodologies like transformers.
Integration with BrainChip’s Akida neuromorphic hardware IP further enhances TENNs’ capabilities, enabling the realization of highly capable, portable and passively cooled edge devices. This presentation delves into the technical innovations underlying TENNs, presents real-world benchmarks, and elucidates how this cutting-edge approach is positioned to revolutionize edge AI across diverse applications.
AppSec PNW: Android and iOS Application Security with MobSFAjin Abraham
Mobile Security Framework - MobSF is a free and open source automated mobile application security testing environment designed to help security engineers, researchers, developers, and penetration testers to identify security vulnerabilities, malicious behaviours and privacy concerns in mobile applications using static and dynamic analysis. It supports all the popular mobile application binaries and source code formats built for Android and iOS devices. In addition to automated security assessment, it also offers an interactive testing environment to build and execute scenario based test/fuzz cases against the application.
This talk covers:
Using MobSF for static analysis of mobile applications.
Interactive dynamic security assessment of Android and iOS applications.
Solving Mobile app CTF challenges.
Reverse engineering and runtime analysis of Mobile malware.
How to shift left and integrate MobSF/mobsfscan SAST and DAST in your build pipeline.
Have you ever been confused by the myriad of choices offered by AWS for hosting a website or an API?
Lambda, Elastic Beanstalk, Lightsail, Amplify, S3 (and more!) can each host websites + APIs. But which one should we choose?
Which one is cheapest? Which one is fastest? Which one will scale to meet our needs?
Join me in this session as we dive into each AWS hosting service to determine which one is best for your scenario and explain why!
"Frontline Battles with DDoS: Best practices and Lessons Learned", Igor IvaniukFwdays
At this talk we will discuss DDoS protection tools and best practices, discuss network architectures and what AWS has to offer. Also, we will look into one of the largest DDoS attacks on Ukrainian infrastructure that happened in February 2022. We'll see, what techniques helped to keep the web resources available for Ukrainians and how AWS improved DDoS protection for all customers based on Ukraine experience
Your One-Stop Shop for Python Success: Top 10 US Python Development Providersakankshawande
Simplify your search for a reliable Python development partner! This list presents the top 10 trusted US providers offering comprehensive Python development services, ensuring your project's success from conception to completion.
For the full video of this presentation, please visit: https://www.edge-ai-vision.com/2024/06/how-axelera-ai-uses-digital-compute-in-memory-to-deliver-fast-and-energy-efficient-computer-vision-a-presentation-from-axelera-ai/
Bram Verhoef, Head of Machine Learning at Axelera AI, presents the “How Axelera AI Uses Digital Compute-in-memory to Deliver Fast and Energy-efficient Computer Vision” tutorial at the May 2024 Embedded Vision Summit.
As artificial intelligence inference transitions from cloud environments to edge locations, computer vision applications achieve heightened responsiveness, reliability and privacy. This migration, however, introduces the challenge of operating within the stringent confines of resource constraints typical at the edge, including small form factors, low energy budgets and diminished memory and computational capacities. Axelera AI addresses these challenges through an innovative approach of performing digital computations within memory itself. This technique facilitates the realization of high-performance, energy-efficient and cost-effective computer vision capabilities at the thin and thick edge, extending the frontier of what is achievable with current technologies.
In this presentation, Verhoef unveils his company’s pioneering chip technology and demonstrates its capacity to deliver exceptional frames-per-second performance across a range of standard computer vision networks typical of applications in security, surveillance and the industrial sector. This shows that advanced computer vision can be accessible and efficient, even at the very edge of our technological ecosystem.
Introduction of Cybersecurity with OSS at Code Europe 2024Hiroshi SHIBATA
I develop the Ruby programming language, RubyGems, and Bundler, which are package managers for Ruby. Today, I will introduce how to enhance the security of your application using open-source software (OSS) examples from Ruby and RubyGems.
The first topic is CVE (Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures). I have published CVEs many times. But what exactly is a CVE? I'll provide a basic understanding of CVEs and explain how to detect and handle vulnerabilities in OSS.
Next, let's discuss package managers. Package managers play a critical role in the OSS ecosystem. I'll explain how to manage library dependencies in your application.
I'll share insights into how the Ruby and RubyGems core team works to keep our ecosystem safe. By the end of this talk, you'll have a better understanding of how to safeguard your code.
Essentials of Automations: Exploring Attributes & Automation ParametersSafe Software
Building automations in FME Flow can save time, money, and help businesses scale by eliminating data silos and providing data to stakeholders in real-time. One essential component to orchestrating complex automations is the use of attributes & automation parameters (both formerly known as “keys”). In fact, it’s unlikely you’ll ever build an Automation without using these components, but what exactly are they?
Attributes & automation parameters enable the automation author to pass data values from one automation component to the next. During this webinar, our FME Flow Specialists will cover leveraging the three types of these output attributes & parameters in FME Flow: Event, Custom, and Automation. As a bonus, they’ll also be making use of the Split-Merge Block functionality.
You’ll leave this webinar with a better understanding of how to maximize the potential of automations by making use of attributes & automation parameters, with the ultimate goal of setting your enterprise integration workflows up on autopilot.
Taking AI to the Next Level in Manufacturing.pdfssuserfac0301
Read Taking AI to the Next Level in Manufacturing to gain insights on AI adoption in the manufacturing industry, such as:
1. How quickly AI is being implemented in manufacturing.
2. Which barriers stand in the way of AI adoption.
3. How data quality and governance form the backbone of AI.
4. Organizational processes and structures that may inhibit effective AI adoption.
6. Ideas and approaches to help build your organization's AI strategy.
1. volume and IQ scores.8
Further work is needed to
reconcile these results with the inconsistent findings on
brain weight in the earlier case reports. Brain volume
and weight are not perfectly correlated, and imaging
does not provide measures of brain weight.
The case of Albert Einstein
Resolving the neurobiological substrate of intelligence
may be facilitated by the comparison of extreme cases
with control groups within the framework of specific
hypotheses. Albert Einstein is one of the intellectual
giants of recorded history, and the preservation of his
brain provides the possibility of an important case study.
Since Einstein’s death, there has been no report of the
gross anatomy of his brain. Here we present the first
such study.
Our investigation of Einstein’s brain was guided
theoretically on the basis of current information of
cortical localisation of cognitive functions. The
generation and manipulation of three-dimensional
spatial images and the mathematical representation of
concepts would appear to be essential cognitive
processes in the development of Einstein’s theory of
relativity.9
Einstein’s own description of his scientific
thinking was that “. . . words do not seem to play any
role”, but there is “associative play” of “more or less
clear images” of a “visual and muscular type”.10
Visuospatial cognition,11,12
mathematical ideation,11
and
imagery of movement13
are mediated predominantly by
right and left posterior parietal regions. We hypothesised
that the parietal lobes in particular might show
anatomical differences between Einstein’s brain and the
brains of controls.
Preservation of Einstein’s brain
Einstein died from a ruptured aneurysm of the
abdominal aorta in 1955 at the age of 76 years. His
medical history has been well documented, and his
biographies show that he was mentally adept to the end
of his life.9
Within 7 hours of death, his brain was
removed at necropsy, fresh weight was measured,
perfusion of 10% formalin by injection into the internal
carotid arteries was carried out, and the whole brain was
then freely suspended in 10% formalin for fixation and
subsequent study. No significant neuropathology was
seen on examination (gross or microscopic). After
fixation, caliper measurements were made directly from
the brain; calibrated photographs were taken of all views
of the whole brain and of the dissected hemispheres; the
cerebral hemispheres were cut into approximately 240
blocks, each about 10 cm3
; and the location of the
blocks was recorded on photographs. The blocks were
embedded in celloidin, and histological sections were
made.
THE LANCET • Vol 353 • June 19, 1999 2149
In recent decades, there have been major advances in
neuroscience at the behavioural and neural levels, but
the long-standing issue of the neurobiological basis of
variation in intelligence remains unresolved.1
Around the
turn of the 20th century, much attention was focused on
anatomical correlates of intelligence through detailed
necropsy case studies of the brains of outstanding
people, such as mathematician Karl F Gauss or
physician William Osler.2,3
By 1907, Spitzka4
had
published an extensive monograph that summarised 137
case reports of notable men and women such as Bach
and Descartes, and also presented one of the first group
studies of nine scholars. Weight of the brain and patterns
of gyral convolutions were usually examined.
This early work had several limitations. First, medical
and cognitive status at the time of death were often not
known. Second, normal comparison groups were not
available, so that the results were mainly idiosyncratic
observations. Quantitative measurement was usually
limited to the weight of the whole brain, and even its
relation to intelligence remained unresolved. For
example, novelist Ivan Turgenev’s brain weighed
2012 g,4
whereas the brain of author Anatole France was
half the value (1017 g).5
Third, work was based on the
assumption that intelligence was a unitary homogeneous
ability—even though different people varied greatly in
their area of cognitive excellence. (According to current
theories of intelligence, there are independent spheres or
modules of cognitive ability.6
) Last, the studies had no
a priori hypotheses as to the relation between structure
and psychological function, since there was little
knowledge about the cortical localisation of cognitive
function.7
After the horrific events of World War II, issues
related to the neurobiological substrate of intelligence
were considered with great caution, and research in this
area dwindled. The development of computerised
imaging technologies has made it possible to obtain
quantitative measurements of brain anatomy in vivo with
magnetic resonance scanning, and renewed attention has
been directed to the investigation of structure-function
relations in the general population. The studies have
varied greatly in their methodology, and, although the
results are inconsistent, they do point to a low, but
statistically significant, positive correlation between brain
Lancet 1999; 353: 2149–53
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences,
McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada (S F Witelson PhD,
D L Kigar, T Harvey MD)
Correspondence to: Dr Sandra F Witelson, Department of Psychiatry
and Behavioural Neurosciences, Faculty of Health Sciences,
McMaster University, HSC 3G53, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton,
Ontario L8N 3Z5, Canada
(e-mail: witelson@mcmaster.ca)
The exceptional brain of Albert Einstein
Sandra F Witelson, Debra L Kigar, Thomas Harvey
Department of medical history
DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL HISTORY
2. 2150 THE LANCET • Vol 353 • June 19, 1999
Although there is no record of his having made specific
arrangements for post-mortem study of his brain,
Einstein was sympathetic to the idea of his brain being
studied. As reported in The New York Times in 1951, he,
along with other physicists, underwent electroencephalo-
graphic recordings for research purposes.14
He also
“insisted that his brain should be used for research”.15
At
the time of his death, the family requested a necropsy,
which was done by pathologist Thomas Harvey, who
took the initiative to remove the brain for scientific
study. Consent was given by Einstein’s elder son, Hans
Albert Einstein,16
and by the executor of Einstein’s
estate, Prof Otto Nathan (ref 17, p 264).
Control brain specimens
The control group consisted of all the male specimens
available at the time (n=35) in the Witelson Normal
Brain Collection based at McMaster University. The key
features of this collection are that the brains are from
research volunteers with normal neurological and
psychiatric status (as judged by
clinical history and medical
assessments) and normal
cognitive ability (as
documented by research
neuropsychological testing that
included IQ assessment).18
In
each case, informed consent
with respect to testing and
necropsy had been obtained.
Mean Full Scale IQ score
on the Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale19
was
116 (SD 9). Quantitative
measures of Einstein’s brain
and this control group were
compared; Einstein’s brain was
also compared with a smaller
age-matched subgroup (in the
collection) of the 8 men aged
65 years or more (mean 68) for
brain measures known to
change with advancing age.
Although women have smaller
brains than men,20
for purposes
of descriptive analysis of gyral
morphology, Einstein’s brain
was also compared with 56
female brains (the total
number of female brains in the
same collection).
Measurements
Direct caliper measurements
were made both from
Einstein’s brain and from the
control brains. Other
measurements were made from
calibrated photographs. We
measured baseline values for
overall dimensions of the
brain, including variables for
which there are published data
(eg, weight, corpus callosum
size21
); measures involving
parietal regions important for
visuospatial cognition and mathematical thinking; and,
for comparison, measures of frontal and temporal
regions. Statistically significant differences between
Einstein and the control group were defined as those
measures at least 2 SDs from the control mean.
Einstein’s parietal lobes
Figure 1 shows the set of photographs taken in 1955 of
the lateral, superior, inferior, and midsagittal views of
Einstein’s brain. The superior view (figure 1A) shows a
relatively spherical brain which is corroborated
quantitatively (see below). Moderate atrophy is present
around the main fissures in the central regions in both
hemispheres, to an extent common for a person in their
eighth decade.22
A unique morphological feature is
visible in the lateral surface of each hemisphere which
otherwise shows usual anatomy (figure 1B, 1C)—
namely, the posterior ascending branch of the Sylvian
fissure is confluent with the postcentral sulcus.
Consequently, there is no parietal operculum (the
DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL HISTORY
Figure 1: Photographs taken in 1995 of five views of Einstein’s whole brain (meninges removed)
A, superior; B, left lateral; C, right lateral; D, inferior; E, midsagittal view of the left hemisphere. The arrow in
each hemisphere indicates the posterior ascending branch of the Sylvian fissure as it runs into (is confluent
with) the postcentral sulcus (compare with figure 2). Consequently, there is no parietal operculum in either
hemisphere. Scale bar, 1 cm.
3. THE LANCET • Vol 353 • June 19, 1999 2151
anterior part of the supramarginal
gyrus), which normally develops
between these two sulci during fetal
life.23,24
This morphology found in each
of Einstein’s hemispheres was not seen
in any hemisphere of the 35 control
male brains or of the 56 female brains,
nor in any specimen documented in the
published collections of post-mortem
brains.25,26
Figure 2 highlights this unique
feature of Einstein’s brain in
comparison with a typical control
brain. Three main types of morphology
of the Sylvian fissure and surrounding
gyri have been described previously;27
in each type, the Sylvian fissure
terminates or bifurcates behind the
postcentral sulcus, and the parietal
operculum is present. The tracing of
the superimposed hemispheres of the
control brain (figure 2, no 3) shows the
typical right-left asymmetry in size and
position of the Sylvian fissure and the
parietal opercula.28
By contrast, the
tracing of Einstein’s hemispheres
(figure 2, no 6) shows the confluence
of the posterior ascending branch of
the Sylvian fissure and the postcentral
sulcus in each hemisphere, the absence
of the parietal opercula, and unusual
symmetry between hemispheres of
sulcal morphology in this region.
Quantitative measurements of
Einstein’s brain compared with the
male control group are shown in the
table, with relevant landmarks shown
in figure 3. Einstein’s brain was not
statistically different from the control
group on most measures. His brain
weight did not differ from the control
group, from the age-matched
subgroup, or from published large age-
matched groups (table, measure 1).
Unfortunately, the volume of Einstein’s
brain had not been obtained. Brain length, height, size of
the corpus callosum, and measures of the frontal and
temporal lobes did not differ between Einstein and
controls. However, size of a specific gyral region in the
frontal operculum was different in Einstein’s brain from
that of the control group. The possible association of this
feature in relation to biographical accounts of Einstein’s
atypical speech development17
will be reported elsewhere.
By contrast, in the parietal lobes, there were striking
quantitative differences. Each hemisphere of Einstein’s
brain was 1 cm wider (15%) than that of the control
group (measure 5). Maximum width usually occurs
across the end of the Sylvian fissure—the region of
unique morphology in Einstein’s brain. The ratios of
hemisphere width to height and of brain width to length
(measures 6 and 7) showed that in Einstein’s brain the
parietal lobes were relatively wider and the brain more
spherical (see figure 1A) than those in the control group.
In Einstein’s brain, the parietal operculum was missing
in each hemisphere in contrast to control values of
6·1 cm2
and 3·6 cm2
in the left and right hemispheres,
respectively (measure 24). Parietal regions typically
show anatomical asymmetry (table, control group,
measures 19–2428
). Einstein’s parietal lobes were
symmetrical (compare with figure 2, no 6). This was due
mainly to his left parietal lobe being larger than
usual, resembling a right hemisphere in size and
morphology.
Discussion
The gross anatomy of Einstein’s brain was within normal
limits with the exception of his parietal lobes. In each
hemisphere, morphology of the Sylvian fissure was
unique compared with 182 hemispheres from the 35
control male and 56 female brains: the posterior end of
the Sylvian fissure had a relatively anterior position,
associated with no parietal operculum. In this same
region, Einstein’s brain was 15% wider than controls.
These two features suggest that, in Einstein’s brain,
extensive development of the posterior parietal lobes
occurred early,24
in both longitudinal and breadth
dimensions, thereby constraining the posterior expansion
DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL HISTORY
Figure 2: Lateral photographs and tracings of left (solid line) and right (dashed line)
superimposed hemispheres of a typical control male brain (1, 2, 3) and the brain of
Einstein (4, 5, 6)
The photographs of the control brain show the parietal operculum in the left (stippled) and right
(hatched) hemisphere, situated between the postcentral (PC) sulcus and the posterior ascending
branch of the Sylvian fissure (SF), which originates at the point of bifurcation (q) and terminates at
S. PC1 is the inferior end of PC at SF. The tracing of the superimposed hemispheres (3) shows the
asymmetry in position and size between the parietal opercula. The tracing of Einstein’s
hemispheres (6) highlights the confluence of PC and the posterior ascending branch of SF in each
hemisphere, the absence of the parietal opercula, and the symmetry of the sulcal morphology
between hemispheres. Comparison of the tracings shows the relatively anterior position of the SF
bifurcation in Einstein, and the associated greater posterior parietal expanse, particularly in his left
hemisphere compared with the control brain.
4. 2152 THE LANCET • Vol 353 • June 19, 1999
of the Sylvian fissure and the development of the parietal
operculum, but resulting in a larger expanse of the
inferior parietal lobule. A further consequence of this
morphology is that the full supramarginal gyrus lies
behind the Sylvian fissure, undivided by a major sulcus
as is usually the case. Van Essen29
hypothesised that a
gyrus develops within a region of functionally related
cortex to allow for efficient axonal connectivity between
opposite cortical walls of the gyrus; by contrast, sulci
separate cortical regions having less functional
relatedness. In this context, the compactness of
Einstein’s supramarginal gyrus within the inferior
parietal lobule may reflect an extraordinarily large
expanse of highly integrated cortex within a functional
network. And in fact there is evidence that cortical
representation of different functions is often separated by
sulci.30
This notion could be consistent with Cajal’s31
speculation that variation in axonal connectivity may be
a neuronal correlate of intelligence. A larger expanse of a
functional cortical network may reflect more modules32
which could provide a functional advantage.
The inferior parietal lobule is well developed in the
human brain; it is a secondary association area that
provides for cross-modal associations among visual,
somesthetic, and auditory stimuli.7
Visuospatial
cognition, mathematical thought,11
and imagery of
movement13
are strongly dependent on this region.
Einstein’s exceptional intellect in these cognitive
domains and his self-described mode of scientific
thinking10
may be related to the atypical anatomy in his
inferior parietal lobules. Increased expansion of the
inferior parietal region was also noted in other physicists
and mathematicians. For example, for both the
mathematician, Gauss, and the physicist, Siljeström,
extensive development of the inferior parietal regions,
including the supramarginal gyri, was noted (ref 4, pp
180, 200).
Einstein’s brain weight was not different from that of
controls, clearly indicating that a large (heavy) brain is
not a necessary condition for exceptional intellect.
Microscopic differences may underlie gross anatomical
differences. The limited data on Einstein’s brain do not
point to a difference in the number of neurons
throughout the depth of the cortex in the frontal or
temporal lobes,33,34
but possibly a difference in the ratio
of the number of glial cells relative to neurons in the left
parietal cortex35
(compare ref 36).
This report clearly does not resolve the long-standing
issue of the neuroanatomical substrate of intelligence.
However, the findings do suggest that variation in
specific cognitive functions may be associated with the
structure of the brain regions mediating those functions.
The results have heuristic value for developing
hypotheses of the gross and microscopic anatomical
substrate of different aspects of intelligence that can be
tested in future neuroimaging and post-mortem studies.
In particular, the results predict that anatomical features
of parietal cortex may be related to visuospatial
intelligence. We also hope that this case study may be an
impetus for donation of brain specimens from other
gifted and normal individuals to support investigation of
structure-function relations in health and disease.
This work was supported in part by US NIH contract NS62344, grant
NS18954, and grant MA-10610 from MRC (Canada) to SFW.
Materials were provided by the Albert Einstein Archives, The Hebrew
University of Jerusalem. The contribution of the late Henry C Witelson is
appreciated.
DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL HISTORY
Figure 3: Sketch of a typical brain showing the landmarks for
defining the measurements shown in table
F, O, and T: frontal, occipital and temporal poles, respectively; PreC, C,
PC: superior ends of the precentral, central and postcentral sulci,
respectively; PreC1, C1, PC1: inferior ends of these sulci, respectively; A,
point of origin of the anterior ascending branch of the Sylvian fissure (SF);
B, point of bifurcation of the posterior SF; S, end of SF; S1, and C2, points
of the shortest distance from S and C1, respectively, to the bottom of the
temporal lobe; parietal operculum (stippled region), the anterior segment
of the supramarginal gyrus which surrounds BS.
Einstein Control group (mean, SD)
Left Right Left Right
Age (yr) 76 57 (11)
Height (cm) 176 178 (8)
Overall brain measures
1 Brain weight, fresh (g) 1230 1400 (118)*
2 Hemisphere weight, fixed (g) 550·0 545·0 591·0 (46·0) 591·0 (48·0)
3 Maximum height of hemisphere 8·9 8·7 9·3 (0·6) 9·4 (0·6)
(cm)†
4 Length of hemisphere (OF) (cm) 17·2 16·4 16·9 (0·6) 16·8 (0·6)
5 Maximum width of hemisphere 7·5§ 7·5§ 6·5 (0·5) 6·5 (0·5)
(cm)‡
6 Ratio of width of hemisphere to 0·84§ 0·86§ 0·70 (0·07) 0·69 (0·07)
height
7 Ratio of width of brain to length 0·89§ 0·77 (0·06)
(mean OF)
8 Corpus callosum area (cm2
) 6·8 7·0 (0·90)¶
Frontal lobe (cm)
9 F-PreC 9·2 9·5 9·4 (0·7) 9·2 (0·8)
10 FC 11·3 11·6 10·6 (0·6) 10·5 (0·6)
11 FA 5·1 5·1 4·8 (0·4) 4·7 (0·4)
12 A-PreC1 0·8 0·9 0·9 (0·4) 1·0 (0·4)
13 PreC1-C1 1·2 1·2 1·4 (0·5) 1·2 (0·4)
Temporal lobe (cm)
14 TO 13·2 12·8 13·2 (0·5) 13·2 (0·5)
15 C1-C2 3·9 3·9 4·0 (0·3) 4·0 (0·3)
16 SS1 6·1 6·6 5·1 (1·1) 6·0 (0·9)**
Parietal/occipital lobe (cm)
17 O-PC 8·4 7·9 8·3 (0·8) 8·4 (0·8)
18 OC 8·9 8·3 9·5 (0·6) 9·3 (0·8)
19 OB 7·1 7·9 5·8 (0·9) 7·2 (0·9)**
20 OS 8·0 7·9 6·1 (1·1) 7·4 (1·0)**
21 BS 2·5 2·9 0·9 (1·1) 2·4 (1·3)**
22 C1-PC1 3·5§ 2·0 2·3 (0·6) 2·0 (0·6)**
23 PC1-B 0§ 0§ 1·9 (1·0) 1·1 (1·2)**
24 Parietal operculum (cm2
) 0§ 0§ 6·1 (3·4) 3·6 (2·1)**
Control group consists of 35 men and an age-matched male subgroup (see text).
*Our control mean of 1400 g is similar to values of other studies of large groups of
white men of similar age range (30–70 years)—eg, mean fresh brain weight=1399 g,
n=1433, mean age=53 years.20
For the age-matched subgroup, mean (SD) fresh brain
weight was 1386 g (149). In a large study, mean fresh brain weight for a 70–80 year age
group was 1342 g, n=253.20
†Maximum height usually occurs near the plane of point C (figure 3).
‡Maximum width of each hemisphere occurs over the end of SF (figure 3).
§Statistically different (2 SDs from the control group) or reflect unique morphology.
¶Callosal area is larger in non-right-handers and decreases with advancing age.21
There
is evidence to suggest that Einstein was not consistently right-handed.37
Einstein’s
callosal area of 6·8 cm2
tended to be larger than his predicted value (5·9 cm2
) when
hand preference and age were taken into account.21
**Statistically significant right-left anatomical asymmetry within the control group
(compare ref 28) (p<0·01, two-tailed paired t-tests).
Measurements (see figure 3) of Einstein’s brain compared with
a control group
5. THE LANCET • Vol 353 • June 19, 1999 2153
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DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL HISTORY