We study how unionization affects the enforcement of workplace safety laws. To generate credible causal estimates, we use a regression discontinuity design comparing
outcomes in establishments where unions just won representation elections to outcomes in establishments where union just lost such elections.
DISCOVERING THE MIRACLE OF LARGE NUMBERS OF ANTITRUST INVESTIGATIONS IN RUSSI...Reforma FAS
This document summarizes a research paper analyzing antitrust enforcement in Russia. It finds that while Russia conducts a large number of antitrust investigations, the quality of decisions is low. Many cases investigated would not be considered antitrust issues in other jurisdictions. The incentives of competition authorities in Russia favor quick, easy cases over complex cases that truly impact competition. Procedural rules that emphasize responding to complaints contribute to this issue. The research aims to understand how legal framework and authority incentives shape enforcement outcomes using a dataset of appealed antitrust decisions from 2008-2012.
Impacts of Perceived Risks on Internet Purchasing Intention: In case of Mongo...IJRTEMJOURNAL
Perceived risks are a vital role in the success of e-commerce websites. In Mongolia, few kinds of
online trading websites are working successfully and continuously developing until Today. Although, Online
purchasing amount of consumers is worst compared to retail shopping market. The research study focused to
investigate influences of perceived risks ( Product Risk, Time Risk, Financial Risk, Delivery Risk, Social Risk ) on
online purchasing intention of Mongolian Young Generate action. The 412 respondents were 18-34 years of age
and data collection procedure the was carried out on the social network. Data analyzing method used SPSS 21
software and Reliability, Correlation, Regression analysis were used to study according to the topic. The research
found that Product risk, Time risk, Financial risk most negative influence on internet purchase intentions
Rick kelo professionalism through experience and knowledgeTaxScout Inc.
We’ve all heard the famous quote “knowledge is power” – but what exactly does this mean in today’s society? The ability to think critically and analytically is what separates us from other living organisms.
The document discusses developing a "teachable point of view" as a leader. It emphasizes that leaders must organize their knowledge and experiences to clearly articulate lessons learned. Effective teachable points of view are communicated through stories that demonstrate lessons from triumphs and failures. Examples are provided of leaders who use specific stories from their careers to teach perspectives like being willing to take risks, listening to employees, and focusing on clear priorities. The document encourages readers to reflect on their own highs and lows to identify a teachable point of view to share.
2 yellow road marking acrylic paint lead freeturoturi
This document summarizes a yellow road marking acrylic paint that is lead-free and complies with ISO 9001 standards. The paint is fast drying, highly visible, and formulated for marking asphalt and concrete roads. It has a matt finish, contains 52% solids by volume, and can be applied using a brush, roller, or airless sprayer.
DISCOVERING THE MIRACLE OF LARGE NUMBERS OF ANTITRUST INVESTIGATIONS IN RUSSI...Reforma FAS
This document summarizes a research paper analyzing antitrust enforcement in Russia. It finds that while Russia conducts a large number of antitrust investigations, the quality of decisions is low. Many cases investigated would not be considered antitrust issues in other jurisdictions. The incentives of competition authorities in Russia favor quick, easy cases over complex cases that truly impact competition. Procedural rules that emphasize responding to complaints contribute to this issue. The research aims to understand how legal framework and authority incentives shape enforcement outcomes using a dataset of appealed antitrust decisions from 2008-2012.
Impacts of Perceived Risks on Internet Purchasing Intention: In case of Mongo...IJRTEMJOURNAL
Perceived risks are a vital role in the success of e-commerce websites. In Mongolia, few kinds of
online trading websites are working successfully and continuously developing until Today. Although, Online
purchasing amount of consumers is worst compared to retail shopping market. The research study focused to
investigate influences of perceived risks ( Product Risk, Time Risk, Financial Risk, Delivery Risk, Social Risk ) on
online purchasing intention of Mongolian Young Generate action. The 412 respondents were 18-34 years of age
and data collection procedure the was carried out on the social network. Data analyzing method used SPSS 21
software and Reliability, Correlation, Regression analysis were used to study according to the topic. The research
found that Product risk, Time risk, Financial risk most negative influence on internet purchase intentions
Rick kelo professionalism through experience and knowledgeTaxScout Inc.
We’ve all heard the famous quote “knowledge is power” – but what exactly does this mean in today’s society? The ability to think critically and analytically is what separates us from other living organisms.
The document discusses developing a "teachable point of view" as a leader. It emphasizes that leaders must organize their knowledge and experiences to clearly articulate lessons learned. Effective teachable points of view are communicated through stories that demonstrate lessons from triumphs and failures. Examples are provided of leaders who use specific stories from their careers to teach perspectives like being willing to take risks, listening to employees, and focusing on clear priorities. The document encourages readers to reflect on their own highs and lows to identify a teachable point of view to share.
2 yellow road marking acrylic paint lead freeturoturi
This document summarizes a yellow road marking acrylic paint that is lead-free and complies with ISO 9001 standards. The paint is fast drying, highly visible, and formulated for marking asphalt and concrete roads. It has a matt finish, contains 52% solids by volume, and can be applied using a brush, roller, or airless sprayer.
La fecundación involucra la fusión del espermatozoide y el ovocito, restaurando el número cromosómico diploide de 46 y determinando el sexo del embrión. Inicia con la penetración del espermatozoide en el ovocito y termina con la fusión de sus pronúcleos, formando el cigoto.
Researchers at Georgia Tech conducted an experiment where a robot deceived an enemy soldier by creating a false trail and hiding, demonstrating the first detailed examination of robot deception. Robots with deceptive capabilities could be valuable for military and search and rescue operations by misleading enemies or calming panicking victims. Currently, deceptive robots do not directly impact everyday life, but that may change as robotics technology advances.
El documento describe las principales enzimas del jugo pancreático, incluida su enzima cimógena, la enzima que activa el cimógeno y su acción principal. Las enzimas descritas incluyen tripsina, quimiotripsina, elastasa, carboxipeptidasa, fosfolipasa, lipasa, amilasa, colesterolesterasa, ribonucleasa y desoxirribonucleasa.
La presión oncótica y la presión hidrostática actúan sobre el glomérulo renal. La presión oncótica se debe a la atracción de sangre hacia el glomérulo debido a la alta concentración de proteínas y equivale a 15mmHg, mientras que la presión hidrostática se debe a la presión ejercida por la sangre en reposo hacia el glomérulo y equivale a 30mmHg.
Los riñones regulan las concentraciones de electrolitos en la sangre para mantener la homeostasis. Varias hormonas, como la aldosterona, la vasopresina y la angiotensina II, juegan un papel importante en la reabsorción renal mediante la regulación del sodio, potasio y agua. El sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona mantiene la presión sanguínea y el volumen sanguíneo al estimular la liberación de aldosterona en respuesta a cambios en la presión o volumen sanguíneo.
El páncreas tiene dos funciones principales: endocrina, secreta insulina y glucagón; y exocrina, secreta el jugo pancreático. El jugo pancreático está compuesto de agua y un conjunto de enzimas secretadas por los acinos pancreáticos. La enzima enteroquinasa en las microvellosidades intestinales activa al tripsinógeno convirtiéndolo en tripsina, la cual activa al resto de enzimas pancreáticas como la quimiotripsina, elastasa y carboxipeptidasa para digerir proteínas
Parte 6 del Módulo VI del Diplomado en Hematología y Banco de Sangre. Ponente: Mblgo. José Chafloque Chafloque Fecha: 25 de Octubre de 2015. Trujillo - Perú.
El documento describe tres tipos principales de tejido cartilaginoso: cartílago hialino, cartílago elástico y fibrocartílago. El cartílago hialino se compone principalmente de condrocitos embebidos en una matriz rica en colágeno tipo II y proteoglicanos. El cartílago elástico contiene abundantes fibras elásticas además de colágeno y proteoglicanos. El fibrocartílago tiene una gran cantidad de fibras de colágeno gruesas que lo hacen más rí
The document provides statistics on hiring at Symco Industries for engineering jobs in 2016. It asks questions about potential adverse impact in the hiring process based on these statistics. Specifically, it asks (a) if there is overall indication of discrimination based on the numbers, (b) if discrimination could be occurring at any stage of the process based on who, and (c) what argument the company could make in response to charges of discrimination. It then provides background on adverse impact analysis and different statistical tests that can be used to identify potential discrimination.
The document provides statistics on applications, interviews, tests, and job offers for men, women, minorities, and non-minorities for an engineering job at Symco Industries. It asks three questions: 1) Is there overall discrimination indicated by the statistics? 2) Is there potential discrimination at any stage of the process, and if so for whom? 3) What argument could the company make in response to charges of discrimination based on the analysis? It also provides background on how adverse impact analyses are used in evaluating equal employment opportunity considerations.
This document summarizes a study of workplace injury data from seven large multinational corporations. The study found:
1) While minor workplace injuries have decreased significantly in recent decades, serious injuries and fatalities have decreased at a slower rate.
2) An analysis of over 1,000 injury cases revealed that a subset of reported non-serious injuries actually had potential to result in serious injury or fatality if circumstances were different.
3) Current safety management systems may not be adequately addressing the precursors and risk factors for serious injuries and fatalities. New approaches are needed to drive further reductions in serious and fatal workplace events.
The Impact of Corruption on Firm Performance: Evidence from PakistanMuhammad Arslan
The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of bribery on firm performance and provides quantitative
estimates of the impact of corruption on the performance of the firm. Impact of bribery is checked through the
questionnaire which is distributed among 100 respondents. In theoretical framework, firm performance is
dependent variable and bribery is independent variable. The correlation between firm performance and bribery
which is measure in obtaining more government contracts in questioner and bribery which is measure as cost of
obtaining the contracts is (r = -0.8012) having negative association between them. The size value of correlation
is (r = -0.0074 & -0.0056) showing that the size is not important in bribery and have subsequently have no affect
on firm performance. The value of R-Square in table 2 is close to 0.649 which indicate very well fit to data. It
means that almost 65 % change is due to the response variable (bribery). F-test value is very significant in both
table showing that the model is best fitted with the data. Sample size is one of the study limitation which could
be removed in future research by enlarging sample size.
The document discusses the results of a survey of HR professionals about conducting criminal background checks on job candidates. Some key findings include:
- 60% of organizations conduct background checks on all job candidates
- A history of violence or weapons charges is very influential in deciding not to extend a job offer
- The primary reasons for background checks are legal compliance and assessing safety risks
- Most organizations allow candidates to explain adverse background check results
A Reexamination Of The Relationship Between Organizational Forms And Distribu...Scott Bou
This study reexamines the relationship between organizational forms and distribution channels in the US property liability insurance industry. Prior studies have found inconsistent results on whether these two factors are related. The authors conduct a conditional dependence test using cross-sectional data from 2004, which can control for the effects of explanatory variables. Their results show that after controlling for other factors, the organizational forms and distribution channels are conditionally uncorrelated. This finding contradicts some prior studies but is consistent with one previous study that also found no direct relationship between the two factors.
THE IMPACT OF YOUTH CRIMINAL BEHAVIORON ADULT EARNINGS.docxoreo10
THE IMPACT OF YOUTH CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR
ON ADULT EARNINGS
Sam Allgood
University of Nebraska
[email protected]
David B. Mustard
University of Georgia
[email protected]
Ronald S. Warren, Jr.
University of Georgia
[email protected]
September 1999
Abstract
Individuals charged with or convicted of a criminal offense when young complete
fewer years of schooling and accumulate less work experience as young adults than those
with no contact as a youth with the criminal-justice system. Because both schooling and
experience are positively correlated with earnings, having a criminal background when
young indirectly lowers earnings as an adult. We show, however, that – holding these
human-capital variables constant – youth criminal behavior directly reduces subsequent
earnings as an adult.
We combine data from the 1980 wave of the National Longitudinal Survey of
Youth, which provides detailed, self-reported information on criminal background, with
socioeconomic and demographic variables to specify and estimate a model of the
determinants of earnings in 1983 and 1989. The results imply that having been convicted
prior to 1980 of a crime when young reduces 1983 earnings by at least 12%. However,
having been charged - but not convicted - of an offense as a youth has no statistically
significant effect on such earnings. A criminal case adjudicated in juvenile court reduces
1983 earnings by at least 9%, while having a charge decided in adult court lowers those
earnings by about 14%. The magnitudes of these earnings effects persist over the
subsequent six years.
2
I. Introduction
It is well known that young people are more likely to engage in illegal activity
than are older individuals. However, the extent to which illegal behavior engaged in as a
youth influences adult socioeconomic outcomes is less clearly understood. For example,
does such activity as a youth persistently affect subsequent labor-market opportunities, or
are its effects relatively short-lived? Our paper analyzes this relationship by estimating
the impact of youth criminal activity on adult labor-market earnings.
Few studies have examined how youth criminal activity affects adult labor-market
outcomes. Instead, the literature has focused on how adult criminal activity affects adult
outcomes. Previous studies have reached conflicting conclusions about the effect of an
adult conviction on subsequent income. Lott (1989, 1992a, 1992b) examined the earnings
of adult federal offenders, and concluded that their post-conviction reduction in income is
statistically significant and is largest for high-income offenders. He argued that the most
important aspect of society’s sanction against criminals is the reduced legitimate earnings
of offenders upon their return to the labor force. Waldfogel (1994b) also studied adult
federal offenders, and found that a first-time conviction reduced employment
probabilities and significantly depressed legitimate income. These effects were lar ...
Workers' Compensation: Analysis for Its Second CenturyAkib Zaved Babu
A company’s workers comp audit can be a very trying time. You have to get your records together which sometimes can involve much more than an income tax audit.
The Workers Comp Auditor has sent you a letter and has likely called you to set up an appointment for your final premium audit for the preceding policy year. The workers comp audit usually needs to be completed within 60 – 90 days after your policy expiry.
Identification of road traffic fatal crashes leading factors using principal ...eSAT Journals
Abstract
Traffic crash fatalities create primary safety concern beyond the traffic congestion and delay. Therefore, the purpose of this study
is to identify the principal components/factors associated with road traffic crash in the U.S. through retrospective reviewing based
on more than two million records of fatal crashes and 38 years (1975-2012) of National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
official’s Fatal Accident Reporting System (FARS) database. This study portrays an integrated geographic information system
and SAS application in order to find the major factors forcing traffic crashes. The resulting geospatial analysis and principal
components analysis yielded critical significant factors causing fatal traffic crashes. The outcomes of this research could be used
in transportation safety policy making and planning significantly.
Key Words: Accident Analysis Prevention, Clustering, Crash Hot Spot, Geographic Information Systems, Principal
Components Analysis, and Traffic Crash
The document discusses the results of a survey of HR professionals on conducting criminal background checks of job candidates. Some key findings include:
- 60% of organizations conduct background checks on at least some candidates
- The most influential criminal activities that would result in not extending a job offer are violent crimes and drug/alcohol offenses
- The primary reasons for background checks are reducing liability and evaluating character/trustworthiness of candidates
- Most organizations allow candidates to explain adverse background check results that could affect a hiring decision
Human Resources and Personnel In the 1970s and 1980s, loya.docxadampcarr67227
Human Resources and Personnel
In the 1970s and 1980s, loyalty to the company was an important aspect in careers.
Sometimes referred to as the “psychological contract,” it meant “if I do my job the
company will take care of me.” After the downsizings of the early 1990s, loyalty to
companies disappeared. Now companies are beginning to understand the importance of
loyalty. In The Loyalty Effect: The Hidden Force Behind Growth, Profits, & Lasting
Value by Reichheld and Teal, published by the Harvard Business School in 2001,
Reichheld contends that employees who understand their contribution and value to the
whole of the organization's processes are far happier and more productive than the
disenfranchised employee. The role of human resources managers in recruiting,
screening, interviewing, hiring and retaining employees is a critical success factor
today. The cost of hiring and training can easily be in excess of $25,000 per person, an
expense that impacts bottom-line profits. Creative approaches to finding, selecting, and
keeping the right employees are part of being a successful human resources manager.
Personnel recruiting has changed dramatically within the last 10 years. Today, the
Internet plays a much larger role in finding qualified applicants. The Internet speeds
the process, provides more detailed job descriptions and requirements, and interfaces
with databases easily. Personnel agencies who once only provided clerical support,
now offer doctors, lawyers, and CEOs on an interim basis. Some companies have
decided on the strategy of only hiring nonprofessional staff on a temporary basis. This
gives the company 6 months of experience with a potential employee before needing to
decide whether to offer them a position as an employee. This has two advantages: it is
quicker and less expensive.
The much publicized “downsizing” of the 1980s and early 1990s has obscured the fact
that the challenge facing American companies in the late 1990s and beyond will be to
cope with an increasingly short supply of skilled workers. Successful companies have
embraced valuing diversity, and recruit accordingly. The term diversity includes race,
gender, culture, age, religion, education, physical condition, sexual orientation, and
other distinguishing characteristics. Changes in the United States workforce are largest
in the age and race of workers. Workers are working longer hours, and that will
continue as social security has begun raising the benefit qualification age. The white,
non-Hispanic, segment of the population has been declining, and by 2020 will
comprise only 64% of the total United States population (Shaping Texas, 1995).
As part of employee testing and selection, drug testing is a much larger issue than most
realize. The importance of drug testing cannot be overlooked. A recent government
report indicates that 70% of drug users hold full-time jobs (as cited in American
Psych.
56 ProfessionalSafety MAY 2016 www.asse.orgT.docxalinainglis
56 ProfessionalSafety MAY 2016 www.asse.org
T
he construction industry continues to ex-
perience a high number of workplace inju-
ries and fatalities as compared to other U.S.
industrial sectors. Although this number has been
declining over the past 20 years, the rate of decrease
has been slowing, and is nearly stagnant in recent
years (ILO, 2003). As an industry, construction has
averaged 1,010 fatalities per year, indicating that
much improvement is still needed to achieve zero
injuries, illnesses and fatalities (BLS, 2013a). One
such improvement can be found in the collection
and measurement of safety data.
Historically, the construction industry has
defined safety performance through the mea-
surement and assessment of lagging indicators
including injuries, illnesses and fatalities. These
lagging indicators are required by OSHA to assess
the state of construction safety (BLS, 2013a). One
major limitation of assessing safety performance
using lagging indicators is that incidents must oc-
cur before hazards or unsafe behavior can be iden-
tified and mitigated.
Leading indicators are an alternative form of
safety metrics that proactively assess safety per-
formance by gauging processes, activities and con-
ditions that define performance and can predict
future results (Hinze, Thurman & Wehle, 2013).
One such leading indicator is a near-hit, defined as
an incident in which no property damage or per-
sonal injury occur, but could have occurred given
a slight shift in time or position (BLS, 2013a). The
major advantage of measuring leading indicators
such as near-hits is that data can be collected and
analyzed without requiring an injury to occur.
This article presents research products in the
development, deployment and effectiveness of
using a near-hit management program on con-
struction sites. The authors gathered the informa-
tion through personal experience, formal research
in the Construction Industry Institutes Research
Team 301: Using Near Misses to Enhance Safety
Performance, and through secondary research
and literature review. The goals of this article are
to present the near-hit management program and
Eric Marks, Ph.D., P.E., is an assistant professor in the Department of
Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering at the University of
Alabama. His research focuses on innovation and automation in construc-
tion safety, including hazard mitigation strategies and real-time data
collection. Marks is a professional member of ASSE’s Alabama Chapter.
Ibukun G. Awolusi is a Ph.D. student in the Department of Civil, Con-
struction and Environmental Engineering at The University of Alabama. He
holds an M.Sc. in Construction Management from the University of Lagos.
He has both industrial and teaching experience in construction and occupa-
tional safety, and he is actively involved in several research projects related to
construction safety and technology/innovation in constructi.
The document discusses four academic research studies on business-related topics:
1) Aging workforce management and knowledge transfer.
2) Managing virtual project teams and communication/collaboration challenges.
3) Factors leading to small business failure in South Africa.
4) The impact of talent management practices on business performance.
Each study is summarized in terms of its problem statement, purpose, population/sample, research questions, variables, methodology, design, data collection and analysis methods. The document also provides references used across the four studies.
Samuel GarasAugust 31, 2016Current Event #1Critics Say North C.docxanhlodge
Samuel Garas
August 31, 2016
Current Event #1Critics Say North Carolina Is Curbing Black Vote. Again. “Critics Say North Carolina Is Curbing Black Vote. Again.” New York Times, August 30th, 2016 Link to Article
In the article “Critics say North Carolina Is Curbing Black Vote. Again”, author Michael Wines explains the current situation with regards to the upcoming presidential election and voting in the state of North Carolina. The article references the 2013 election law that was recently overturned by the Supreme court and explains how the law had negatively affected African American voters. The 2013 voting law was said to have created an advantage for the Republican party as the law “cut the state’s early voting period to 10 days from 17 and eliminated a Sunday balloting day”. According to the appeals court this change profoundly affected the African American vote as a “disproportionate number of African-Americans voted early — especially during the first week of balloting that the law abolished — and that voting after Sunday church services had become an African-American tradition”.
The question at hand today was raised by the proposal made by two republicans in which they requested dramatic changes to be made to the early voting period. The proposal called for only “106.5 hours of early voting before the Nov. 8 election — less than a quarter of the time allowed in the 2012 presidential election — and to limit early balloting to a single polling place in the county seat of a largely rural eastern North Carolina county that sprawls over 403 square miles”. This would mean that again like the 2013 voting law, African American voters would have less time to participate in early voting in addition to having to travel long distances.
I found the article to be quite fascinating. I was not aware that there could be different laws for voting. I am curios to learn more about the process that lies behind making these changes and having the changes become a law. After reading this article I was shocked to see that the 2013 voting law was passed and disregarded the evidence on the effects that it would potentially have for the African American voter. I can certainly understand why the law was overturned by the Supreme Court. It just seems silly to see that the republican party would try to propose a very similar change this year specially after the reactions that the 2013 voting law received. North Carolina has been known to be a swing state and as the article confirms it is primarily democratic state with this in mind it seems like a cheap shot to try manipulate the voting laws to discourage the African American voter by making it harder for them to come out and vote, it almost seems like the republicans are sort of cheating.
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La fecundación involucra la fusión del espermatozoide y el ovocito, restaurando el número cromosómico diploide de 46 y determinando el sexo del embrión. Inicia con la penetración del espermatozoide en el ovocito y termina con la fusión de sus pronúcleos, formando el cigoto.
Researchers at Georgia Tech conducted an experiment where a robot deceived an enemy soldier by creating a false trail and hiding, demonstrating the first detailed examination of robot deception. Robots with deceptive capabilities could be valuable for military and search and rescue operations by misleading enemies or calming panicking victims. Currently, deceptive robots do not directly impact everyday life, but that may change as robotics technology advances.
El documento describe las principales enzimas del jugo pancreático, incluida su enzima cimógena, la enzima que activa el cimógeno y su acción principal. Las enzimas descritas incluyen tripsina, quimiotripsina, elastasa, carboxipeptidasa, fosfolipasa, lipasa, amilasa, colesterolesterasa, ribonucleasa y desoxirribonucleasa.
La presión oncótica y la presión hidrostática actúan sobre el glomérulo renal. La presión oncótica se debe a la atracción de sangre hacia el glomérulo debido a la alta concentración de proteínas y equivale a 15mmHg, mientras que la presión hidrostática se debe a la presión ejercida por la sangre en reposo hacia el glomérulo y equivale a 30mmHg.
Los riñones regulan las concentraciones de electrolitos en la sangre para mantener la homeostasis. Varias hormonas, como la aldosterona, la vasopresina y la angiotensina II, juegan un papel importante en la reabsorción renal mediante la regulación del sodio, potasio y agua. El sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona mantiene la presión sanguínea y el volumen sanguíneo al estimular la liberación de aldosterona en respuesta a cambios en la presión o volumen sanguíneo.
El páncreas tiene dos funciones principales: endocrina, secreta insulina y glucagón; y exocrina, secreta el jugo pancreático. El jugo pancreático está compuesto de agua y un conjunto de enzimas secretadas por los acinos pancreáticos. La enzima enteroquinasa en las microvellosidades intestinales activa al tripsinógeno convirtiéndolo en tripsina, la cual activa al resto de enzimas pancreáticas como la quimiotripsina, elastasa y carboxipeptidasa para digerir proteínas
Parte 6 del Módulo VI del Diplomado en Hematología y Banco de Sangre. Ponente: Mblgo. José Chafloque Chafloque Fecha: 25 de Octubre de 2015. Trujillo - Perú.
El documento describe tres tipos principales de tejido cartilaginoso: cartílago hialino, cartílago elástico y fibrocartílago. El cartílago hialino se compone principalmente de condrocitos embebidos en una matriz rica en colágeno tipo II y proteoglicanos. El cartílago elástico contiene abundantes fibras elásticas además de colágeno y proteoglicanos. El fibrocartílago tiene una gran cantidad de fibras de colágeno gruesas que lo hacen más rí
The document provides statistics on hiring at Symco Industries for engineering jobs in 2016. It asks questions about potential adverse impact in the hiring process based on these statistics. Specifically, it asks (a) if there is overall indication of discrimination based on the numbers, (b) if discrimination could be occurring at any stage of the process based on who, and (c) what argument the company could make in response to charges of discrimination. It then provides background on adverse impact analysis and different statistical tests that can be used to identify potential discrimination.
The document provides statistics on applications, interviews, tests, and job offers for men, women, minorities, and non-minorities for an engineering job at Symco Industries. It asks three questions: 1) Is there overall discrimination indicated by the statistics? 2) Is there potential discrimination at any stage of the process, and if so for whom? 3) What argument could the company make in response to charges of discrimination based on the analysis? It also provides background on how adverse impact analyses are used in evaluating equal employment opportunity considerations.
This document summarizes a study of workplace injury data from seven large multinational corporations. The study found:
1) While minor workplace injuries have decreased significantly in recent decades, serious injuries and fatalities have decreased at a slower rate.
2) An analysis of over 1,000 injury cases revealed that a subset of reported non-serious injuries actually had potential to result in serious injury or fatality if circumstances were different.
3) Current safety management systems may not be adequately addressing the precursors and risk factors for serious injuries and fatalities. New approaches are needed to drive further reductions in serious and fatal workplace events.
The Impact of Corruption on Firm Performance: Evidence from PakistanMuhammad Arslan
The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of bribery on firm performance and provides quantitative
estimates of the impact of corruption on the performance of the firm. Impact of bribery is checked through the
questionnaire which is distributed among 100 respondents. In theoretical framework, firm performance is
dependent variable and bribery is independent variable. The correlation between firm performance and bribery
which is measure in obtaining more government contracts in questioner and bribery which is measure as cost of
obtaining the contracts is (r = -0.8012) having negative association between them. The size value of correlation
is (r = -0.0074 & -0.0056) showing that the size is not important in bribery and have subsequently have no affect
on firm performance. The value of R-Square in table 2 is close to 0.649 which indicate very well fit to data. It
means that almost 65 % change is due to the response variable (bribery). F-test value is very significant in both
table showing that the model is best fitted with the data. Sample size is one of the study limitation which could
be removed in future research by enlarging sample size.
The document discusses the results of a survey of HR professionals about conducting criminal background checks on job candidates. Some key findings include:
- 60% of organizations conduct background checks on all job candidates
- A history of violence or weapons charges is very influential in deciding not to extend a job offer
- The primary reasons for background checks are legal compliance and assessing safety risks
- Most organizations allow candidates to explain adverse background check results
A Reexamination Of The Relationship Between Organizational Forms And Distribu...Scott Bou
This study reexamines the relationship between organizational forms and distribution channels in the US property liability insurance industry. Prior studies have found inconsistent results on whether these two factors are related. The authors conduct a conditional dependence test using cross-sectional data from 2004, which can control for the effects of explanatory variables. Their results show that after controlling for other factors, the organizational forms and distribution channels are conditionally uncorrelated. This finding contradicts some prior studies but is consistent with one previous study that also found no direct relationship between the two factors.
THE IMPACT OF YOUTH CRIMINAL BEHAVIORON ADULT EARNINGS.docxoreo10
THE IMPACT OF YOUTH CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR
ON ADULT EARNINGS
Sam Allgood
University of Nebraska
[email protected]
David B. Mustard
University of Georgia
[email protected]
Ronald S. Warren, Jr.
University of Georgia
[email protected]
September 1999
Abstract
Individuals charged with or convicted of a criminal offense when young complete
fewer years of schooling and accumulate less work experience as young adults than those
with no contact as a youth with the criminal-justice system. Because both schooling and
experience are positively correlated with earnings, having a criminal background when
young indirectly lowers earnings as an adult. We show, however, that – holding these
human-capital variables constant – youth criminal behavior directly reduces subsequent
earnings as an adult.
We combine data from the 1980 wave of the National Longitudinal Survey of
Youth, which provides detailed, self-reported information on criminal background, with
socioeconomic and demographic variables to specify and estimate a model of the
determinants of earnings in 1983 and 1989. The results imply that having been convicted
prior to 1980 of a crime when young reduces 1983 earnings by at least 12%. However,
having been charged - but not convicted - of an offense as a youth has no statistically
significant effect on such earnings. A criminal case adjudicated in juvenile court reduces
1983 earnings by at least 9%, while having a charge decided in adult court lowers those
earnings by about 14%. The magnitudes of these earnings effects persist over the
subsequent six years.
2
I. Introduction
It is well known that young people are more likely to engage in illegal activity
than are older individuals. However, the extent to which illegal behavior engaged in as a
youth influences adult socioeconomic outcomes is less clearly understood. For example,
does such activity as a youth persistently affect subsequent labor-market opportunities, or
are its effects relatively short-lived? Our paper analyzes this relationship by estimating
the impact of youth criminal activity on adult labor-market earnings.
Few studies have examined how youth criminal activity affects adult labor-market
outcomes. Instead, the literature has focused on how adult criminal activity affects adult
outcomes. Previous studies have reached conflicting conclusions about the effect of an
adult conviction on subsequent income. Lott (1989, 1992a, 1992b) examined the earnings
of adult federal offenders, and concluded that their post-conviction reduction in income is
statistically significant and is largest for high-income offenders. He argued that the most
important aspect of society’s sanction against criminals is the reduced legitimate earnings
of offenders upon their return to the labor force. Waldfogel (1994b) also studied adult
federal offenders, and found that a first-time conviction reduced employment
probabilities and significantly depressed legitimate income. These effects were lar ...
Workers' Compensation: Analysis for Its Second CenturyAkib Zaved Babu
A company’s workers comp audit can be a very trying time. You have to get your records together which sometimes can involve much more than an income tax audit.
The Workers Comp Auditor has sent you a letter and has likely called you to set up an appointment for your final premium audit for the preceding policy year. The workers comp audit usually needs to be completed within 60 – 90 days after your policy expiry.
Identification of road traffic fatal crashes leading factors using principal ...eSAT Journals
Abstract
Traffic crash fatalities create primary safety concern beyond the traffic congestion and delay. Therefore, the purpose of this study
is to identify the principal components/factors associated with road traffic crash in the U.S. through retrospective reviewing based
on more than two million records of fatal crashes and 38 years (1975-2012) of National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
official’s Fatal Accident Reporting System (FARS) database. This study portrays an integrated geographic information system
and SAS application in order to find the major factors forcing traffic crashes. The resulting geospatial analysis and principal
components analysis yielded critical significant factors causing fatal traffic crashes. The outcomes of this research could be used
in transportation safety policy making and planning significantly.
Key Words: Accident Analysis Prevention, Clustering, Crash Hot Spot, Geographic Information Systems, Principal
Components Analysis, and Traffic Crash
The document discusses the results of a survey of HR professionals on conducting criminal background checks of job candidates. Some key findings include:
- 60% of organizations conduct background checks on at least some candidates
- The most influential criminal activities that would result in not extending a job offer are violent crimes and drug/alcohol offenses
- The primary reasons for background checks are reducing liability and evaluating character/trustworthiness of candidates
- Most organizations allow candidates to explain adverse background check results that could affect a hiring decision
Human Resources and Personnel In the 1970s and 1980s, loya.docxadampcarr67227
Human Resources and Personnel
In the 1970s and 1980s, loyalty to the company was an important aspect in careers.
Sometimes referred to as the “psychological contract,” it meant “if I do my job the
company will take care of me.” After the downsizings of the early 1990s, loyalty to
companies disappeared. Now companies are beginning to understand the importance of
loyalty. In The Loyalty Effect: The Hidden Force Behind Growth, Profits, & Lasting
Value by Reichheld and Teal, published by the Harvard Business School in 2001,
Reichheld contends that employees who understand their contribution and value to the
whole of the organization's processes are far happier and more productive than the
disenfranchised employee. The role of human resources managers in recruiting,
screening, interviewing, hiring and retaining employees is a critical success factor
today. The cost of hiring and training can easily be in excess of $25,000 per person, an
expense that impacts bottom-line profits. Creative approaches to finding, selecting, and
keeping the right employees are part of being a successful human resources manager.
Personnel recruiting has changed dramatically within the last 10 years. Today, the
Internet plays a much larger role in finding qualified applicants. The Internet speeds
the process, provides more detailed job descriptions and requirements, and interfaces
with databases easily. Personnel agencies who once only provided clerical support,
now offer doctors, lawyers, and CEOs on an interim basis. Some companies have
decided on the strategy of only hiring nonprofessional staff on a temporary basis. This
gives the company 6 months of experience with a potential employee before needing to
decide whether to offer them a position as an employee. This has two advantages: it is
quicker and less expensive.
The much publicized “downsizing” of the 1980s and early 1990s has obscured the fact
that the challenge facing American companies in the late 1990s and beyond will be to
cope with an increasingly short supply of skilled workers. Successful companies have
embraced valuing diversity, and recruit accordingly. The term diversity includes race,
gender, culture, age, religion, education, physical condition, sexual orientation, and
other distinguishing characteristics. Changes in the United States workforce are largest
in the age and race of workers. Workers are working longer hours, and that will
continue as social security has begun raising the benefit qualification age. The white,
non-Hispanic, segment of the population has been declining, and by 2020 will
comprise only 64% of the total United States population (Shaping Texas, 1995).
As part of employee testing and selection, drug testing is a much larger issue than most
realize. The importance of drug testing cannot be overlooked. A recent government
report indicates that 70% of drug users hold full-time jobs (as cited in American
Psych.
56 ProfessionalSafety MAY 2016 www.asse.orgT.docxalinainglis
56 ProfessionalSafety MAY 2016 www.asse.org
T
he construction industry continues to ex-
perience a high number of workplace inju-
ries and fatalities as compared to other U.S.
industrial sectors. Although this number has been
declining over the past 20 years, the rate of decrease
has been slowing, and is nearly stagnant in recent
years (ILO, 2003). As an industry, construction has
averaged 1,010 fatalities per year, indicating that
much improvement is still needed to achieve zero
injuries, illnesses and fatalities (BLS, 2013a). One
such improvement can be found in the collection
and measurement of safety data.
Historically, the construction industry has
defined safety performance through the mea-
surement and assessment of lagging indicators
including injuries, illnesses and fatalities. These
lagging indicators are required by OSHA to assess
the state of construction safety (BLS, 2013a). One
major limitation of assessing safety performance
using lagging indicators is that incidents must oc-
cur before hazards or unsafe behavior can be iden-
tified and mitigated.
Leading indicators are an alternative form of
safety metrics that proactively assess safety per-
formance by gauging processes, activities and con-
ditions that define performance and can predict
future results (Hinze, Thurman & Wehle, 2013).
One such leading indicator is a near-hit, defined as
an incident in which no property damage or per-
sonal injury occur, but could have occurred given
a slight shift in time or position (BLS, 2013a). The
major advantage of measuring leading indicators
such as near-hits is that data can be collected and
analyzed without requiring an injury to occur.
This article presents research products in the
development, deployment and effectiveness of
using a near-hit management program on con-
struction sites. The authors gathered the informa-
tion through personal experience, formal research
in the Construction Industry Institutes Research
Team 301: Using Near Misses to Enhance Safety
Performance, and through secondary research
and literature review. The goals of this article are
to present the near-hit management program and
Eric Marks, Ph.D., P.E., is an assistant professor in the Department of
Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering at the University of
Alabama. His research focuses on innovation and automation in construc-
tion safety, including hazard mitigation strategies and real-time data
collection. Marks is a professional member of ASSE’s Alabama Chapter.
Ibukun G. Awolusi is a Ph.D. student in the Department of Civil, Con-
struction and Environmental Engineering at The University of Alabama. He
holds an M.Sc. in Construction Management from the University of Lagos.
He has both industrial and teaching experience in construction and occupa-
tional safety, and he is actively involved in several research projects related to
construction safety and technology/innovation in constructi.
The document discusses four academic research studies on business-related topics:
1) Aging workforce management and knowledge transfer.
2) Managing virtual project teams and communication/collaboration challenges.
3) Factors leading to small business failure in South Africa.
4) The impact of talent management practices on business performance.
Each study is summarized in terms of its problem statement, purpose, population/sample, research questions, variables, methodology, design, data collection and analysis methods. The document also provides references used across the four studies.
Samuel GarasAugust 31, 2016Current Event #1Critics Say North C.docxanhlodge
Samuel Garas
August 31, 2016
Current Event #1Critics Say North Carolina Is Curbing Black Vote. Again. “Critics Say North Carolina Is Curbing Black Vote. Again.” New York Times, August 30th, 2016 Link to Article
In the article “Critics say North Carolina Is Curbing Black Vote. Again”, author Michael Wines explains the current situation with regards to the upcoming presidential election and voting in the state of North Carolina. The article references the 2013 election law that was recently overturned by the Supreme court and explains how the law had negatively affected African American voters. The 2013 voting law was said to have created an advantage for the Republican party as the law “cut the state’s early voting period to 10 days from 17 and eliminated a Sunday balloting day”. According to the appeals court this change profoundly affected the African American vote as a “disproportionate number of African-Americans voted early — especially during the first week of balloting that the law abolished — and that voting after Sunday church services had become an African-American tradition”.
The question at hand today was raised by the proposal made by two republicans in which they requested dramatic changes to be made to the early voting period. The proposal called for only “106.5 hours of early voting before the Nov. 8 election — less than a quarter of the time allowed in the 2012 presidential election — and to limit early balloting to a single polling place in the county seat of a largely rural eastern North Carolina county that sprawls over 403 square miles”. This would mean that again like the 2013 voting law, African American voters would have less time to participate in early voting in addition to having to travel long distances.
I found the article to be quite fascinating. I was not aware that there could be different laws for voting. I am curios to learn more about the process that lies behind making these changes and having the changes become a law. After reading this article I was shocked to see that the 2013 voting law was passed and disregarded the evidence on the effects that it would potentially have for the African American voter. I can certainly understand why the law was overturned by the Supreme Court. It just seems silly to see that the republican party would try to propose a very similar change this year specially after the reactions that the 2013 voting law received. North Carolina has been known to be a swing state and as the article confirms it is primarily democratic state with this in mind it seems like a cheap shot to try manipulate the voting laws to discourage the African American voter by making it harder for them to come out and vote, it almost seems like the republicans are sort of cheating.
Word Count: 434
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This document discusses the need to change paradigms and practices around preventing major losses in the workplace. It makes three key points:
1) Current safety systems are often designed to reduce minor incidents but do not adequately address preventing major losses like fatalities or serious injuries. New tools and approaches are needed that focus on low probability, high severity events.
2) Common safety metrics like injury rates are lagging indicators and may give a false sense of security. Leading indicators and proactive identification of hazards are needed to truly understand risks.
3) A process for preventing major losses should identify catastrophic hazards, examine human factors more deeply, understand why losses actually occur, and apply a hierarchy of controls with engineering solutions
The document summarizes research on high performance work organizations (HPWOs) that seek to elicit discretionary effort from workers through participation, autonomy, training, and incentives. National surveys of organizations and employees in various industries find that HPWOs are associated with higher organizational performance, worker satisfaction and commitment, and higher wages. However, HPWOs are not universally adopted due to costs, power sharing requirements, and uncertainty around their benefits.
Algorithmic Transparency via Quantitative Input InfluenceFrenchWeb.fr
The document proposes a framework called Quantitative Input Influence (QII) to measure the influence of inputs on the outputs of algorithmic decision-making systems. QII defines causal measures that account for correlations between inputs to identify the true influence of each input. It supports answering transparency queries about individual and group-level decisions. The paper empirically tests QII on real-world machine learning models and datasets, finding that QII provides useful explanations and can be computed efficiently while preserving privacy.
Workplace Violence Prevention: A Practical Guide to Security on the Job provides thorough examinations of the many levels and types of workplace violence prevention, and how to deal with the issue systematically.
This document discusses a study examining the relationship between non-fatal motor vehicle collision (MVC) injuries, economic growth, and political governance. The study uses panel data from 64 countries between 1970 and 2009. Results show there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between income per capita and injury rate, consistent with the Kuznets curve. Additionally, factors like more vehicles per capita, urban population growth, and improvements in medical care were associated with lower injury rates. The study aims to better understand how economic and political factors impact road safety outcomes.
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The document summarizes a journal article that examines Albert Hirschman's conjecture about how increasing competition affects consumers' complaints versus switching behavior. It provides context on Hirschman's "exit, voice, and loyalty" framework and discusses how previous studies have focused on consumer characteristics rather than the relationship between market structure and complaints. The authors develop a simple model of complaining as an intermediate response between loyalty and exit. They then empirically analyze complaint data from the US telecommunications industry during a period of increased competition to test whether greater competition leads to reduced complaints, as Hirschman conjectured.
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Effects of unionization on workplace safety enforcement
1. Effects of Unionization on Workplace Safety Enforcement:
Regression Discontinuity Evidence from OSHA’s Enforcement Data
Aaron Sojourner1
& Jooyoung Yang
University of Minnesota
December 2014
Abstract:
We study how unionization affects the enforcement of workplace safety laws. To
generate credible causal estimates, we use a regression discontinuity design comparing
outcomes in establishments where unions just won representation elections to outcomes in
establishments where union just lost such elections. Our panel data spanning pre- and post-
election periods allows for falsification testing, reduced bias, and increased precision. We
bring together two main datasets. First, we have a census of National Labor Relations Board
(NLRB) representation elections from the early 1960s through 2009. Second, we have the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration’s (OSHA) enforcement database that has
good coverage from 1985 forward. This contains a census of establishment inspections,
violations, and penalties. It also contains data on fatal and nonfatal injuries by establishment.
A comparison to the Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries reveals that the OSHA database’s
injury coverage appears good in manufacturing and construction, but much less complete in
other industries. In preliminary results, we find positive effects of unionization on the
likelihood of inspection, the share of inspections carried out in the presence of a union
representative, and the level of penalties assessed. We find relatively-precise null effects on
the number of violations and injury rates.
1
asojourn@umn.edu. We would like to thank Suyoun Han for excellent research assistance on this project and
to the U.S. Department of Labor Emerging Scholars Program for financial support.
2. Page 2 of 33
“The empirical literature on the relationship between unionization and workplace safety
presents a curious puzzle. On the one hand, scholars have documented numerous ways
unions help to promote safe work practices…. Yet most empirical studies of the relationship
between unionization and important safety outcomes, such as injuries and fatalities, have
failed to find statistically significant evidence of a `union safety effect.’” (Morantz, 2012)
The empirical literature on union effects on OSH within firms struggles with two
primary obstacles to credibly estimating the effect of unionization on workplace safety. First,
unionized employees may be more likely to report occupational risks to OSHA, inducing
greater rates of inspection and citation of unionized firms for violations than occurs in
otherwise similar nonunion firms. This is a kind of measurement error in commonly-used
workplace safety outcomes that is positively correlated with unionization. It would lead to a
spurious negative association between unionization and safety. Second, less safe industries
and less safe firms within industry may be more likely to unionize than more safe ones. This
selection bias also would generate a negative association between unionization and safety.
This study will address both of these obstacles and deliver evidence about the effect
of unionization on workplace safety. To overcome the first obstacle, the primary outcome
will be a measure of workplace fatalities, which are subject to less measurement error and
differential reporting than are less severe occupational injuries and illnesses. To overcome
the second obstacle, I will use a regression discontinuity design (RDD) comparing
establishments where unions just won National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) union-
certification elections to establishments where unions just lost such elections (DiNardo &
Lee, 2004; Frandsen, 2012; Sojourner, Town, Grabowski, Chen, & Frandsen, 2013). Rather
than comparing union to nonunion establishments generally and relying on statistical controls
and untestable identifying assumptions vulnerable to selection bias, I will restrict attention
only to establishments where employees indicated an interest in unionizing such that the
NLRB held a union-certification election. At the time of the election, establishments where
the union just won are very similar to establishments where the union just lost. After the
election, unions are certified as collective bargaining agents in the former set of
establishments but not in the latter set. Around the 50% vote-share threshold, this generates
quasi-random assignment of unionization to establishments and overcomes the selection
problem.
3. Page 3 of 33
Frandsen (2013) raises concerns about the validity of RDD designs using NLRB
elections due to potential post-election, legal manipulation in very close elections. He
suggests two basic ways to address this and concludes that these methods provide the best
available design to estimate certification effects. The current study uses his suggestions. First,
rather than using post-election levels as the outcome, we use changes in levels (post-election
level minus pre-election level) as the outcome. This adjusts for any pre-election differences
across the threshold and combines both difference-in-difference and RDD logic. Second, he
suggests assessing results’ sensitivity to deletion of cases where a very small number of votes
could change the election outcome because these type of elections are most vulnerable to
post-election manipulation.
I will study whether the two sets of establishments experienced different changes in
their measure of occupational fatality rates post-election. Any difference can be interpreted as
the effect of union certification. I will also study whether the establishments experienced
different numbers of occupational fatalities and other observable characteristics prior to the
election. This falsification exercise allows testing of a key identifying assumption of RDD.
Design and Data
Sample
The population is all U.S. private-sector establishments on the margin of unionization
between 1962 and 2009 as measured by experiencing at least one NLRB certification election
during this period. For each of the 253,449 elections with valid election month and year, the
establishment name, city, state, 2-digit standard industrial classification (SIC) code, date of
election, and the numbers of employees voting in favor of unionization and against
unionization are observed. In some cases, establishment street address is available.2
Because any establishment may have multiple NLRB elections, I construct
longitudinal unique establishment identifiers using a fuzzy-matching algorithm. Across the
set of establishments in the same state, city, and industry, the algorithm links establishments
2
I integrate two databases that compile and standardize NLRB election records: one from Holmes (2006) that
includes elections during 1977 to 1999 and which includes many establishments’ street address and a second
provided by Hank Farber covering 1962 to 2009 but lacking any street addresses.
4. Page 4 of 33
with similar names and addresses. This identifies 212,101unique establishments represented
in the 253,677 elections with valid election month and year.3
To measure workplace safety, I use occupational fatalities because these are relatively
well-measured. I draw on the OSHA enforcement database, which records occupational
fatalities in U.S. private sector establishments back to 1970 (U.S. Department of Labor,
2014). This period included 103,768 accidents, of which 48,275 involved 55,058 fatalities.
For each accident, the establishment’s name, address, city, state, and SIC code are observed,
as well as the accident date, number of workers killed, and other details. The database also
includes records from all OSHA inspections, not just those triggered by accidents. It includes
the same kind of establishment information. We will focus only on OSHA records from
establishments that experienced NLRB elections.
NLRB and OSHA records are linked at the establishment level using fuzzy-matching
based on establishment name, address, city, state, and industry. For each OSHA record, we
look for a match among all the NLRB election records. Using the NLRB-based establishment
identifiers, this yields a longitudinal database of all NLRB elections and all of their OSHA
enforcement data, including reported occupational fatalities. This produces links to 135,366
OSHA records at 38,047 unique establishments that underwent NLRB certification elections.
This implies that 18.0% of such establishments are linked to any OSHA record. Of these,
1,450 records in 1,154 unique establishments involve fatal accidents.
Design
For a given outcome (𝑌!), the main treatment of interest is whether the union won the
election or not, indicated by Di. The forcing variable is the election’s pro-union vote-share,
which is centered at zero and adjusted to provide a support invariant to the number of voters
(DiNardo & Lee, 2004). The basic model is:
𝑌! = 𝐷! 𝜏 + 𝑓 𝑋! + 𝑊! 𝛿 + 𝑈!
3
The algorithm requires the researcher to choose weights to value matching characters and penalize mismatches
across records. Parameters were chosen by choosing different values and inspecting samples of the results by
hand to assess which delivered the best quality matches. To assess sensitivity of final estimates to these nuisance
parameters, I use two alternative algorithm parameterizations to generate two alternative sets of establishment
identifiers. Results will be re-estimated using these alternative identifier sets.
5. Page 5 of 33
Unionization depends deterministically on vote share, 𝐷! = 1 𝑋! > 0 and f is assumed to be
continuous at 0. The causal effect of unionization near the certification threshold is identified
by τ under the following continuity assumption on unobservable influences (Ui):
𝑙𝑖𝑚!↑! 𝐸 𝑈! 𝑊!, 𝑋! = 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚!↓! 𝐸 𝑈! 𝑊!, 𝑋! = 𝑥
This condition means that no unobserved factor influences the outcome in a discontinuous
manner across the election victory threshold. The only factor that shifts discontinuously at the
threshold is unionization (D) so any observed differences in outcomes across the threshold
after the election can be attributed to the causal effect of unionization.
The main regression discontinuity analysis will focus on NLRB elections that meet
the following criteria:
1) At least 20 individuals voted: a vote-total-floor minimizes the risk that the exact
outcome could be manipulated by the company, the union, or workers, which
would somewhat undermine the quasi-randomization across the vote-share
threshold (Frandsen, 2012).
2) Election occurs after 1970: ensures post-election fatalities may be observed in
OSHA data.
3) First election observed in an establishment: Considering multiple elections for the
same establishment raises a number of conceptual questions about whether an
establishment should be considered as treated (union wins) or control (union
loses). Focusing on only the first election in each establishment sidesteps these
thorny issues. This election is termed the establishment’s focal election
(Sojourner, Town, Grabowski, Chen, & Frandsen, 2013).
Another issue raised by multiple elections is the possibility that unions or
management learn enough through recently-past elections to manipulate the
outcome of the election in such a way as to introduce systematic differences
across the threshold in unobservables and, thereby, to invalidate the identifying
assumption. This concern diminishes as the time between elections extends.
Therefore, using the NLRB data between 1966 and 1970, we will also exclude any
6. Page 6 of 33
establishments that experienced an NLRB election regardless of outcome in the 5
years immediately prior to the focal election.
4) No evidence of prior unionization: Using the NLRB data back to 1962, we
exclude all establishments where a union was certified prior to the focal election.
This clarifies the interpretation of the treatment as a contrast between
establishments with no unions certified as bargaining agents and any union so
certified (Sojourner, Town, Grabowski, Chen, & Frandsen, 2013).
Filtering on criteria 1 and 2 reduces the number of unique establishments and focal
elections to 103,918. These account for 77,979 OSHA records in 20,872 unique
establishments including 938 fatal accidents in 739 unique establishments. After
implementing criteria 3 and 4, the number of unique firms shrinks to 94,430. Among these,
93,309 have a recorded number of eligible voters (bargaining-unit size) no greater than the
recorded number of total votes. This is our analytic sample.
Measures
The effect of establishment unionization on fatality rates will be analyzed in the cross-
section. Assume that each establishment-i had exactly one NLRB election. To measure post-
election fatality rate at each establishment, we construct the following variable:
𝑌!
!"#$
≡
# 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡 ̵ 𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 ! ∗ 100,000
2013 − 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 ! ∗ [2.43 ∗ # 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 !]
The key information is the number of post-election occupational fatalities observed at each
establishment across all post-election years, which is measured directly from the matched
NLRB-OSHA panel constructed above. Because there should be no systematic differences in
the size of the establishments or the timing of elections across the 50% vote-share threshold,
we could analyze this outcome directly. However, occupational fatality rates are
conventionally measured per 100,000 employees per year and measuring union effects in
similar units will facilitate quality checking and interpretation. Dividing by the number of
years of OSHA data available post-NLRB-election, (2013 – year of establishment’s NLRB
election), yields each establishment’s occupational fatalities per year. Dividing through by
the number of employees in the NLRB bargaining unit, that is the number eligible to vote in
7. Page 7 of 33
the election, adjusts for differences in establishment size.4
To convert from the
establishment’s number of employees in the bargaining unit to the establishment’s number of
employees, we use a scaling factor of 2.43 based on auxiliary data.5
Then, we multiply times
100,000. This is our measure of each establishment’s post-election fatality rate per 100,000
employees per year.6
Analogously, we construct an establishment-level pre-election fatality
rate (𝑌!
!"#
) using years between the election date and the first year of the OSHA data (1970)
to count the number of years of pre-election observation and the number of pre-election,
rather than post-election, fatal injuries observed in the numerator. Finally, we compute an
establishment level change in fatality rate for use as our primary outcome (∆𝑌! = 𝑌!
!"#$
-
𝑌!
!"#
).7
Error! Reference source not found. provides summary statistics on change in fatality
rate. Across the 93,309 establishments with focal NLRB elections, changes in fatal injury rate
between post- and pre-election is average 0.12 per 100,000 employees per year with standard
deviation 3.01. Pre-election fatal injury rate will be used as a conditioning variable and for
falsification testing. Its mean is 0.04 per 100,000 employees per year with standard deviation
1.42.
In all these models, covariates fixed at the time of the election (Wi) which may also
influence the likelihood of post-election fatalities can be included in order to increase
4
We cannot use OSHA variables to measure the number of workers per establishment because many
establishments with NLRB elections never show up in the OSHA data. If unionization causes firms to shrink
headcount or to go out of business, this study’s estimates will be biased towards a negative effect of
unionization on occupational fatality risk. Unionized firms will have less occupational fatalities partly because
they have less employees and we lack a good measure of the number of post-election employees to adjust for
this directly. However, Frandsen (2013) uses a very similar sample and design as the current study to study the
question of union impacts on head count directly. He estimates a positive, though imprecise, effect of
unionization on head count. Available evidence also suggests that unionization does not drive establishments out
of business (Freeman & Kleiner, 1999; Sojourner, Town, Grabowski, Chen, & Frandsen, 2013).
5
Frandsen (2013) linked NLRB election data to the Census Longitudinal Business Database over a similar
period, which gave him a measure of each establishment’s number of employees. He reports that the average
number of voters is 93 and the average number of employees is 254. He does not report turn-out rates. In our,
very-similar sample, among focal elections with more than 20 voters, the average turnout rate ≡
#voters/#eligible = 0.89. So, putting these facts together, we compute the scaling factor as #employees/#eligible
= #employees*(turnout rate/#voters) = 254 *(.89/93) = 2.43.
6
This is certainly not a perfect measure of occupational fatalities at each establishment. For years that they both
exist, the OSHA enforcement data contain many fewer reported fatal injuries than the Census of Fatal
Occupational Injuries (CFOI), which was developed to do a better job than OSHA enforcement data was doing.
However, it is impossible to link CFOI data to establishment or firm identities so impossible to use in a RDD.
The general implications of using a noisy outcome measure has been extensively studied. This issue will be
discussed further in the context of the results.
7
In robustness analysis, we use the same approach to measure pre-, post-, and change in establishment non-fatal
injury rates requiring hospitalization and those not requiring hospitalization. Total injury rates are the computed
using the sum of all three injury types: 1) fatal, 2) non-fatal requiring hospitalization, and 3) non-fatal and not
requiring hospitalization.
8. Page 8 of 33
precision. Under RDD assumptions, they are not necessary to eliminate bias although they
can help do so if these assumptions do not hold. I assembled a rich set of conditioning
variables that help explain variation in establishment occupational safety. The most basic is a
set of indicators of the establishment’s broad industry, 1-digit SIC (Error! Reference source
not found.). We also construct a measure of each establishment’s narrow industry (2-digit)
occupational fatality risk.8
Across establishments in our sample, the average narrow-industry
risk level is 0.06 fatalities per thousand FTE with standard deviation of 0.08 (Error!
Reference source not found.), equivalent to 6.0 fatalities per 100,000 FTE per year. The
average annual occupational fatality rate in the U.S. economy broadly fell from 5.0 per
100,000 FTE in 1992 to 4.2 in 2002. So, the establishments that have union elections tend to
be from slightly riskier-than-average industries. Including both of these types of industrial
variables compares outcomes in establishments in the same broad industry while controlling
for differences in narrow-industry risk.
The fatal injury risk measure that I construct from the OSHA data has a far lower
average than expected based on the sources above: 0.04 per 100,000 employees per year in
the pre-election period and 0.15 in the post-election period. Further, this upward trend goes
against what we know we know occurred in the overall economy, where fatality rates have
fallen across these decades. This evidence is consistent with under-reporting of fatalities to
OSHA, which improved somewhat over time. My measure of post-election rates is only
about 2.5% of what is expected given average narrow-industry rates. This suggests real
caution is warranted when interpreting effects on fatal rates, especially the magnitude of
effects.
Within narrow industry, each establishment’s own pre-election history of OSHA
enforcement records (or absence thereof) should contain information about its idiosyncratic
occupational injury risk. Pre-election OSHA enforcement actions are likely to be predictive
of post-election injury risk so including measures of these experiences may also reduce bias
and improve precision. For each establishment and pre-election inspection, OSHA assigns a
number of current violations, initial penalty, current penalty, and failure-to-abate (FTA)
penalty amount for each of 5 types of violations: Serious, Willful, Repeated, Other, and
8
The occupational fatality rate for each SIC2 industry each year is measured by the ratio of a) fatal occupational
injuries from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries per b) thousands of
employees in the industry from the BLS Current Employment Statistics. To reduce measurement error, eleven
annual rates, from 1992 to 2002, are averaged within SIC2 industry. This is based on all establishments in the
U.S. economy, not just those in our sample and derived from sources completely outside the OSHA data.
9. Page 9 of 33
Unclassified. Appendix Error! Reference source not found. contains an example of the
kind of data used. Because Other and Unclassified violations are very rare, I focus only on
Serious, Willful, and Repeated violations. By dividing through by the appropriate number of
pre-election years, I derive establishment-level measures of violation rates per pre-election
year. Similarly, I construct measures of average annual penalties of 9 types, {serious, willful,
repeated}x{initial, current, FTA}. A similar process gives to post-election and overall
measures for each establishment. Appendix Error! Reference source not found. provides
summary statistics for the level of annualized violations and penalties across establishments
in the sample.9
This is rich measurement but these variables are highly collinear. Entering
them all together as predictors in a regression might reduce precision.
To aggregate the information in the complete OSHA-inspection histories of each
establishment and reduce multi-collinearity, I use factor analysis on pre-election measures to
extract the single latent factor that explains the most variance in each set of measures. I use
this approach to construct an index of each establishment’s pre-election history of OSHA
violations and an index of its history of OSHA penalties.10
The pre-election index variables
that are used as control variables are summarized in the bottom panel of Error! Reference
source not found.. Establishment-level changes in these indices will be used as alternative
outcomes and are summarized in the middle panel.
Finally, each OSHA inspection record contains a measure of whether a union
representative was present during the inspection. From this, I construct a measure of the share
of pre-election and post-election inspections that were attended by a union representative as
well as a measure of the change in this share. In the pre-election period, an average of 1
percent of inspections were attended by union representatives. Because the sample is
constructed to try to focus on establishments without union representation in the pre-election
period, it is no surprise the share is so low.11
This variable is useful for two purposes. First,
the pre-election level can be used as a control variable that might pick up differences in
unionization across establishments that are missed via the NLRB data. Second, by analyzing
9
Column 1 presents overall establishment averages (SD) without respect to election date. Column 2 presents
pre-election statistics and Column 3 presents post-election statistics.
10
Column 4 of Error! Reference source not found. reports the scoring coefficients used to aggregate the
measures into each index. For instance, each establishment’s pre-election violation index is measured as
0.52*(number of serious violations per pre-election year)+0.227*(number of willful violations per pre-election
year)+0.258*(number of repeated violations per pre-election year). These same coefficients are used to score the
post-election index. The penalty index is based on the first latent factor from analysis of the 9 pre-election
penalty measures.
11
A union representative might be present if the employees organized outside the NLRB process.
10. Page 10 of 33
the effect of certification on the change in share of inspections attended by union
representatives, we can get empirical verification of whether certification drives unionization,
whether the RD design appears valid, and a measure of the effect of unionization on
employee exercise of a federal right to representation during OSHA inspections.
Analysis
Assessing validity
We present evidence from two falsification tests of the validity of the RD identifying
assumption, no pre-election discontinuity across the 50% vote-share threshold. First, Error!
Reference source not found. presents a histogram of binned vote-shares across the sample
of establishment NLRB elections. Most elections are close, giving a large share of the sample
close to the threshold. However, we reject the null of no discontinuity in the density of vote
shares across the threshold (t=4.137) (McCrary, 2008), consistent with concern about
possible post-election manipulation (Frandsen, 2013). Second, we test for discontinuity
across the threshold in the distribution of pre-election observables. I implement the test with a
seemingly-unrelated regression model (Lee & Lemieux (2010): Section 4.4.2). Outcomes are
pre-election fatality rate, violations index, penalty index, union-representative share, total
number of focal NLRB-election votes, and narrow industry fatality rate. A piecewise linear
function of vote-share that allows for different intercepts and slopes on either side of the
certification threshold predicts. The set of establishments with vote-shares within a given
bandwidth of the threshold (h) is the sample. Table 2 presents the results. The first column of
results uses only establishments with vote shares within 0.10 of the threshold, those with 40-
60% vote share, and presents the estimated discontinuity coefficients for each outcome with
standard errors. Vote-share coefficients are not displayed. After estimation, a test is
performed of the joint null hypothesis that, for all outcomes, there is no discontinuity across
the threshold. Results are presented in the bottom row at p-values. For bandwidths 0.10, 0.20,
and 0.30, the joint null is not rejected at the conventional 5% significance level. At data from
establishments with less-close elections are included, the null is rejected due to a
discontinuity in the total number of votes. For the analysis, I will focus attention on elections
within the 0.2 bandwidth where the assumptions appear valid and analyze results’ sensitivity
to alternative bandwidths.
Results
11. Page 11 of 33
To start the analysis of effects, consider Error! Reference source not found.(a). It
plots the average change in establishment fatality rates among establishments in each of 20
vote-share bins of width 5%. There is not evidence of a discontinuity across the threshold in
the average change in fatality rates. This change depends on pre-election levels (Error!
Reference source not found.(a)) and any post-election levels (Error! Reference source not
found.(a)). In inspecting these figures, no discontinuity is apparent in levels or changes.
To obtain an estimate and enable a statistical test, I estimate the effect of union
certification on change in fatality rate among establishments with NLRB election vote shares
within 0.2 of the certification threshold (pro-union vote share between 30% and 70%)
controlling for a piece-wise linear function of vote share. The coefficient on the “Union
certified” indicator measures the effect of union certification on the outcome. As displayed in
specification (1) of Table 3, the estimated effect is 0.012 per 100,000 employees per year
with a standard error of (0.031). This implies that a 95% confidence interval on the effect of
union certification on post-election fatalities of [-0.060, 0.072]. The average post-election
fatality rate across establishments in our sample is 0.15. The interval rules out effects with
magnitude larger than half the base rate.
In specification (2) of Table 3, the establishment’s pre-election violation index,
penalty index, and union-representative share are added as controls. Each of these predictors
has a strong relationship with changes in fatality rates but, most importantly, the estimated
union certification effect is stable. Finally, the broad industry indicators and narrow industry
fatal risk measure are added in specification (3). Again, the estimate remains very stable
despite the fact that average narrow-industry fatality rate is a strong predictor. This stability
suggests that the union certification “treatment” is uncorrelated with all observable measures
of risk, as predicted by a valid RD design and similar to a randomly-assigned treatment. It is
also consistent with an outcome that is just noise.12
Heterogeneity of effects?
Effects of unionization may differ between industries with different levels on inherent
risk. In riskier industries, occupational safety may be more of an issue in labor-management
relations and this may change the effect of union certification. To explore this possibility, we
12
The OSHA-based fatality rate outcome measure’s strong relationship with predictors, particularly with
narrow-industry fatality rate which is derived from independent sources (COFI and CES) suggests that the
outcome measure constructed here is not just noise, that it contains information about establishment fatality
rates. However, the fact that narrow-industry levels predicts changes in OSHA-based rates bears further inquiry.
12. Page 12 of 33
divide the sample into quartiles based on the occupational fatality risk experience of all
establishments nationally in the same 2-digit SIC code. The risk level topping the first
(second) (third) quartile is 0.025 (0.035) (0.078) fatal occupational injuries per 100,000
employees. Table 4 presents estimates analogous to those in Table 3, column (3) but within
each narrow-industry risk quartile. For each risk quartile, the effect of union certification is
not significant and the point estimates are small and not significant.
Robustness
I assess the robustness of the main result. In all the results presented here, I use the
richest specification, (3). However, for compactness, only the estimated coefficient (SE) on
the union certification effect is presented in each case.
First, I vary the bandwidth from the baseline case of 0.2. Column (1) of Table 5
presents the estimate based on a bandwidth of 0.1, looking only at establishments with
elections with pro-union vote shares between 40% and 60%. The estimate is -0.0261 (0.043).
Column (2) reproduces the baseline result from Table 3 for comparison. Column 3 (4) (5)
uses bandwidth 0.3 (0.4) (0.5). In every case, the effect of union certification is not
significant.
Second, I look at effects on occupational injury outcomes other than fatal injury
rate.13
Column (2), (3), and (4) of Table 6 present the estimated effect of union certification
on the risk of injuries requiring hospitalization, injuries not requiring hospitalization, and
total injuries, respectively. In every case, the effect of union certification is not significant.
Third, as mentioned earlier, a recent working paper reports evidence that, in very
close elections, post-election legal maneuvering may undermine the key identifying
assumption of the RDD (Frandsen, 2013). In the elections with the narrowest margins of
victory (the smallest difference between the number of pro-union votes cast and the number
of pro-union votes necessary for the union to win certification), incentives for manipulation
are strongest and there is compelling evidence that management and unions are able to
manipulate final vote counts in the elections with the narrowest margins of victory. In fact,
evidence from the McCrary test is consistent with this kind of violation in our data.
Analyzing changes is one way of dealing with this issue. Here, I present evidence using a
second way. I use a donut regression discontinuity design, which involves excluding cases
very close to the threshold (Barreca, Guldi, Lindo, & Waddell, 2011), which are most likely
13
In all these and subsequent analyses, the baseline bandwidth of 0.2 is used.
13. Page 13 of 33
to reflect manipulation. In this case, the exclusion is made on the basis of margin of victory
(MOV) rather than vote share because the ease of manipulation depends on the former rather
than the latter. Column (1) of Table 7 excludes establishments where the election outcome
would be changed if 1 vote switched sides. Moving right-ward across the table’s columns,
progressively more establishments are excluded with progressively larger margins of victory.
The estimated effects of union certification are never significant.14
Our analysis is dependent on the algorithm that we used to measure records that
belong to the same establishment within and across the NLRB and OSHA datasets. Within
state and SIC2 code, the matching algorithm penalizes mismatched string values in
establishment name, address, and city and matches with quality above a given threshold are
retained. We constructed two alternative measures of records belonging to the same
establishment by varying the threshold up and down. Each defines a somewhat different set
of establishments with associated NLRB and OSHA records. Consequently, all variables
defined at the establishment level vary somewhat. Table 8 presents estimates based on these
two alternative penalization weights, along with our baseline estimate (NLRB_id2). Results
are quite stable.
In conclusion, our evidence on the effect of union certification on occupational
fatality rates is consistent with two interpretations. First, there is little effect. Second, our
measure of the outcome is very noisy and the estimated effect suffers from attenuation bias.
Future work will develop evidence to try to disentangle these stories.
Alternative outcomes
We also analyze the effect of union certification on establishment’s interactions with
OSHA enforcement. These outcomes are more reliable because the data are very complete
and accurate with respect to OSHA enforcement actions. Consider the results reported in
Table 9. Column (1) reports that union certification is not significantly associated with
increased violations rates, although the point estimate is positive. However, it does cause a
positive change in penalties (Column (2)), the magnitude of which – 0.238 – is about a sixth
of a standard deviation of the sample’s distribution of changes in the penalty index. Finally,
union certification causes a significant increase in the establishment’s share of OSHA
inspections performed in the presence of a union representative. This discontinuity shows up
14
Sample size drops rapidly because we are losing most of the small elections; if they have a large MOV, they
must not be close. If they are close, they must have a small MOV.
14. Page 14 of 33
very clearly in Error! Reference source not found.(d). The magnitude of the change, a 5.5
percent increase, may seem small. However, recall that only 18 percent of establishments
with NLRB elections had any linked OSHA inspections. So 82 percent of the sample has a 0
share pre-election, post-election, and for its change. Scaling the 5.5 percent effect estimate up
by a factor of 5.6 (=1/(1-.82)) yields an estimated effect of 30.5 percent effect among those
with any inspections.
Limitations
First, because occupational fatalities are extreme events and thankfully rare, the
outcome has less variance across establishments than nonfatal occupational accidents does.
An outcome with little variance makes it difficult to generate power to detect effects and
helps explain why an exclusive focus on occupational fatalities has been rare in the research
literature. For this reason, it is essential to have a large sample. The ability to analyze all
establishments with NLRB elections nationally over many decades is particularly useful here.
However, the OSHA enforcement data may provide only a weak proxy true fatality rates and
the linking process may weaken this further. Further work is needed to assess the value of
this proxy.
Second, this design is most informative about the effects of the weakest unions, those
that barely win elections. Further, NLRB certification of a union is not the same as persistent
unionization, as only about of NLRB-certified bargaining units ever negotiate and sign first
contracts. The largest studies that relied on NLRB regression discontinuity designs have
found null effects on the outcomes they measured, including firm average wage,
employment, survival, revenue, and profits (DiNardo & Lee, 2004; Lee & Mas, 2012).
Conclusion
Union certification increases the participation of worker representatives during OSHA
inspections and to higher penalties being assessed for OSHA violations. We do not detect a
significant effect on the number of OSHA violations or on our noisy measures of
occupational injury risk.
15. Page 15 of 33
Bibliography
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of Very Low Birth Weight Classification. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 126(4),
2117-2123.
DiNardo, J., & Lee, D. (2004). Economic impacts of new unionization on private sector
employers: 1984-2001. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 119(4), 1382-1441.
Frandsen, B. (2012). Why Unions Still Matter: The Effects of Unionization on the
Distribution of Employee Earnings. Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of
Technology manuscript.
Frandsen, B. (2013). The Surprising Impacts of Unionization on Establishments: Accounting
for Selection in Close Union Representation Elections. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young
University manuscript.
Holmes, T. (2006). Geographic Spillover of Unionism. Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau
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Lee, D., & Lemieux, T. (2010). Regression Discontinuity Designs in Economics. Journal of
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Lee, D., & Mas, A. (2012). Long-run impacts of unions on firms: New evidence from
financial markets, 1961-1999. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 127(1), 333-378.
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Sojourner, A., Town, R., Grabowski, D., Chen, M., & Frandsen, B. (2013). Impacts of
Unionization on Employment, Product Quality, and Productivity: Regression
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Minnesota manuscript.
U.S. Department of Labor. (2014, January). Dataset Summary. Retrieved January 2014, from
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16. Page 16 of 33
Tables
Table 1: Summary statistics
Variable Mean Std. Dev. Min Max
Vote share 0.49 0.22 0 1
Eligible voters 105.08 216.32 20 19000
Changes in
Fatal injury rate 0.12 3.01 -143.9 182.6
Violation index 0.06 0.97 -159.0 42.8
Penalty index 0.12 1.72 -195.1 151.4
Union-rep share 0.05 0.23 -1 1
Pre-election
Fatal injury rate 0.04 1.42 0 143.9
Violation index 0.00 0.80 0 161.1
Penalty index 0.00 0.99 0 199.5
Union-rep share 0.01 0.10 0 1
Average fatality rate in 2-digit SIC 0.06 0.08 0 0.4
Notes: Pre- and post-election injury rates – including fatality, hospitalized, non-hospitalized and
total – were calculated by dividing each count by (100,000 /(2.43*eligible voters*number of
years)). For violations and penalties, annual rates were calculated by dividing each count by
number of years. Indexes of violation and penalty are predicted value of factor analysis of
variables including serious willful and repeated violations. The number of observation of each
variable is 93,309.
17. Page 17 of 33
Table 2: Coefficients on union certified in Seemingly Unrelated Regression at varied bandwidth
Bandwidths:
Outcome
variables:
(1)
0.1
(2)
0.2
(3)
0.3
(4)
0.4
(5)
0.5
Pre-election
fatality rate
0.00240
(0.0263)
-0.0237
(0.0209)
-0.00724
(0.0183)
-0.00361
(0.0175)
-0.0147
(0.0165)
Pre-election
violations
index
0.00899
(0.0151)
-0.00246
(0.00991)
0.00196
(0.00792)
0.0116
(0.0106)
0.00687
(0.00930)
Pre-election
penalty index
0.00820
(0.0304)
-0.00767
(0.0172)
-0.00211
(0.0127)
0.00667
(0.0127)
-0.00112
(0.0115)
Pre-election
union-rep share
-0.000565
(0.00244)
0.00123
(0.00162)
0.00235
(0.00132)
0.00189
(0.00118)
-0.00170
(0.00114)
Total number
of votes
11.34*
(5.365)
4.380
(3.526)
-5.634*
(2.762)
-14.77***
(2.432)
-25.14***
(2.160)
Average
fatality rate in
2-digit SIC
0.00111
(0.00194)
0.000662
(0.00136)
0.000766
(0.00113)
0.00194
(0.00102)
0.00118
(0.000940)
Observations 29,100 55,984 74,923 85,822 93,309
chi! 5.49 4.02 8.23 43.6 139.99
p-value 0.4831 0.6738 0.2216 0.0000 0.0000
Note: Estimate (SE). ***Significant at the 1% level, **Significant at the 5% level, *Significant at the 10% level.
All estimates shows coefficients for the union certified in seemingly unrelated regressions. chi!
and p-value are from
the joint hypothesis test of null discontinuity effects across pre-election variables.
18. Page 18 of 33
Table 3: Effect of union certification on change in fatality rate at bandwidth 0.2 with varying
sets of conditioning variables
(1) (2) (3)
VARIABLES Change in
fatality rate
Change in
fatality rate
Change in
fatality rate
Union certified 0.012 0.008 0.010
(0.031) (0.031) (0.031)
Vote share -0.168 -0.163 -0.155
(0.176) (0.176) (0.176)
Vote share*certified 0.263 0.279 0.294
(0.290) (0.290) (0.290)
Pre-election violation index -0.120*** -0.123***
(0.0133) (0.0134)
Pre-election penalty index 0.0174*** 0.0181***
(0.00508) (0.00508)
Pre-election union-representative share 0.216*** 0.222***
(0.0696) (0.0698)
1-digit SIC code 2 indicator 0.0986
(0.0651)
1-digit SIC code 3 indicator 0.0806
(0.0653)
1-digit SIC code 4 indicator -0.0114
(0.0634)
1-digit SIC code 5 indicator 0.0211
(0.0690)
1-digit SIC code 6 indicator 0.00761
(0.0772)
1-digit SIC code 7 indicator 0.0655
(0.0731)
1-digit SIC code 8 indicator 0.0257
(0.0706)
Average fatality rate in 2-digit SIC code 0.555***
(0.148)
Constant 0.0527*** 0.0533*** -0.0372
(0.0204) (0.0204) (0.0696)
Observations 55,984 55,984 55,984
R! 0.000 0.002 0.003
Adjusted R! -3.37e-05 0.00204 0.00250
Notes: Estimate (SE). ***Significant at 1% level, **Significant at 5% level, *Significant at 10% level.
19. Page 19 of 33
Table 4: Effect of union certification on changes in fatality rate by establishments'
occupational risk quartile at bandwidth 0.2
Industrial Risk
Quartile
(1)
Q1
(2)
Q2
(3)
Q3
(4)
Q4
Union certified -0.0121 -0.000465 0.0509 0.0620
(0.0191) (0.0495) (0.0997) (0.104)
Observations 17,662 15,568 10,256 12,498
R! 0.001 0.001 0.004 0.018
Adjusted R! 0.000544 0.000692 0.00286 0.0170
Notes: Estimate (SE). ***Significant at the 1% level, **Significant at the 5% level, *Significant at the 10%
level. All estimates based on specification (3) in Table 3 that also includes piecewise linear function vote share,
establishment’s pre-election occupational fatality, hospitalization, and other injury records, OSHA enforcement
action histories, broad industry (SIC1) indicators, and narrow industry (SIC2) occupational fatality rate. Data is
divided into four by average fatality rate by 2-digit SIC code. Q1 includes the establishments with the lowest
risk while Q4 with the highest risk.
20. Page 20 of 33
Table 5: Effect of union certification on occupational fatality rate at varying bandwidths
Bandwidth:
(1)
0.1
(2)
0.2
(3)
0.3
(4)
0.4
(5)
0.5
Union
certified
-0.0261 0.00957 0.00481 0.00527 0.0227
(0.0433) (0.0312) (0.0260) (0.0237) (0.0223)
Observations 29,100 55,984 74,923 85,822 93,309
R! 0.009 0.003 0.002 0.004 0.004
Adjusted R! 0.00823 0.00250 0.00135 0.00373 0.00360
Notes: Estimate (SE). ***Significant at the 1% level, **Significant at the 5% level, *Significant at the 10%
level. All estimates based on specification (3) in Table 3 that also includes piecewise linear function vote share,
establishment’s pre-election occupational fatality, hospitalization, and other injury records, OSHA enforcement
action histories, broad industry (SIC1) indicators, and narrow industry (SIC2) occupational fatality rate.
Table 6: Effect of union certification on various changes in occupational injury rates at
bandwidth 0.2
Outcome:
(1)
Change in
Fatality
(2)
Change in
Hospitalized
(3)
Change in
Non-hospitalized
(4)
Change in
Total Injuries
Union certified 0.010 0.118 0.015 0.012
(0.031) (0.076) (0.043) (0.092)
Observations 55,984 55,984 55,984 55,984
R! 0.003 0.003 0.001 0.003
Adjusted R! 0.00250 0.00230 0.000397 0.00227
Notes: Estimate (SE). ***Significant at the 1% level, **Significant at the 5% level, *Significant at the 10%
level. All estimates based on specification (3) in Table 3 that also includes piecewise linear function vote share,
establishment’s pre-election occupational fatality, hospitalization, and other injury records, OSHA enforcement
action histories, broad industry (SIC1) indicators, and narrow industry (SIC2) occupational fatality rate.
21. Page 21 of 33
Table 7: Effect of union certification on change in occupational fatality rate at bandwidth 0.2,
varying exclusion of elections with narrow margins of victory (MOV) to account for possible
post-election manipulation
Exclude
elections that
would change
outcome if
MOV votes
switched sides
(1)
MOV = 1
(2)
MOV = 2
(3)
MOV = 4
(4)
MOV = 6
Union certified 0.00595 0.0256 0.0212 0.0116
(0.0335) (0.0359) (0.0415) (0.0458)
Observations 53,280 47,291 34,780 24,552
R! 0.003 0.003 0.005 0.007
Adjusted R! 0.00254 0.00309 0.00471 0.00652
Notes: Estimate (SE). ***Significant at the 1% level, **Significant at the 5% level, *Significant at the 10%
level. All estimates based on specification (3) in Table 3 that also includes piecewise linear function vote share,
establishment’s pre-election occupational fatality, hospitalization, and other injury records, OSHA enforcement
action histories, broad industry (SIC1) indicators, and narrow industry (SIC2) occupational fatality rate.
22. Page 22 of 33
Table 8: Effect of union certification by strictness of matching-algorithm
(1) NLRB id1 (2) NLRB id2 (3) NLRB id3
VARIABLES Post-election fatality Post-election fatality Post-election fatality
Union certified 0.0111 0.00957 0.00343
(0.0313) (0.0312) (0.0317)
Observations
56,584 55,984 55,523
R! 0.002 0.003 0.002
Adjusted R! 0.00173 0.00250 0.00163
Note: Establishments were matched using three different matching algorithms by strictness. (NLRB id1: strgroup
threshold 0.2, NLRB id2: strgroup threshold 0.25, NLRB id3: strgroup threshold 0.3). All estimates based on
specification (3) in Table 3.
23. Page 23 of 33
Table 9: Effect of union certification on OSHA-enforcement outcomes at bandwidth 0.2
Outcome:
(1)
Change in violation
index
(2)
Change in penalty
index
(3)
Change in union-
representative share
Union certified 0.031 0.238*** 0.055***
(0.021) (0.053) (0.004)
Observations 55,984 55,984 55,984
R! 0.000 0.000 0.017
Adjusted R! 4.75e-06 0.000386 0.0169
Notes: Estimate (SE). ***Significant at the 1% level, **Significant at the 5% level, *Significant at the 10%
level. All estimates based on specification (3) in Table 3 that also includes piecewise linear function vote share,
establishment’s pre-election occupational fatality, hospitalization, and other injury records, OSHA enforcement
action histories, broad industry (SIC1) indicators, and narrow industry (SIC2) occupational fatality rate.
24. Page 24 of 33
Figures
Figure 1: Histogram of vote-shares across NLRB elections with at least 20 votes cast
0.511.52
Density
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
union vote share
At least 20 votes subtitle
Density discontinuity t-statistic=4.137
Union Vote share density
25. Page 25 of 33
Figure 2: Average establishment (a) change in fatality rate (b) change in violation index, (c)
change in penalty index, and (d) change in union-rep share by vote-share bin
(a)
(b)
0.2.4.6
Changesinfatalityrate
(0,5](5,10](10,15](15,20](20,25](25,30](30,35](35,40](40,45](45,50](50,55](55,60](60,65](65,70](70,75](75,80](80,85](85,90](90,95]
(95,100]
Pro-union vote share
Note: averages with 95% confidence intervals. N=93,309
-.1-.050.05.1.15
Changesinviolationindex
(0,5](5,10](10,15](15,20](20,25](25,30](30,35](35,40](40,45](45,50](50,55](55,60](60,65](65,70](70,75](75,80](80,85](85,90](90,95]
(95,100]
Pro-union vote share
Note: averages with 95% confidence intervals. N=93,309