Transfer Project research analyst, Luisa Natali, uses evidence from Northern Uganda to test whether cash transfers affect how members within a household, including children, spend their time.
Presented as part of EPRC's What Works for Africa’s Poorest Children conference in Kampala, Uganda in September 2018.
Ability of Household Food Insecurity Measures to Capture Vulnerability & Resi...TransferProjct
This document discusses a study that examines the ability of different household food insecurity measures to capture vulnerability and resilience. It presents results from a cash transfer program in Zimbabwe. The study finds that while food insecurity scores improved from 2013 to 2014 for both treatment and comparison groups, the improvement was greater for the treatment group that received cash transfers. This suggests cash transfers helped increase food security and resilience. The study also finds that different food insecurity measures like expenditures, diet diversity scores, and experience-based scales provide varying but complementary perspectives on household food security.
The document summarizes research on the impacts of cash transfer programs on gender dynamics. It finds that:
1) Cash transfer programs in sub-Saharan Africa often target women to achieve outcomes like improved child well-being, though evidence supporting this approach is mixed.
2) Evaluations of cash transfers' impacts on women's empowerment also show mixed results, depending on the indicators and contexts studied.
3) A study in Zambia found its Child Grant Program increased women's decision-making power modestly and their ability to save and engage in small businesses significantly, suggesting it had a subtle empowering effect.
Poverty and perceived stress: evidence from two unconditional cash transfer p...Michelle Mills
Highlights work of the Transfer Project and how government cash transfer programs in Zambia aimed at poverty reduction lowered the levels of perceived stress and poverty among poor households
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This document summarizes the results of randomized controlled trials evaluating the impact of two social cash transfer programs in Zambia: the Child Grant Program (CGP) and the Multiple Category Targeted Program (MCTG). The studies found that the cash transfers significantly increased food consumption and security, total consumption, livestock ownership, and economic activity without increasing fertility. However, impacts on child health and nutrition were limited by lack of access to quality health and social services. While the cash did not create dependency, the transfer amount of K70 may not be enough to permanently lift households out of poverty on its own. Overall, the cash transfers had multiplier effects and improved living standards without changing behaviors but could be enhanced by improving access to other services
Can unconditional cash transfers lead to sustainable poverty reduction?Michelle Mills
This document summarizes evidence from evaluations of two unconditional cash transfer programs in Zambia called the Child Grant Program (CGP) and the Multiple Category Targeting Program (MCP). The evaluations found:
1) Both programs led to increases in consumption, food security, asset ownership, income, and reductions in poverty and debt.
2) Impacts were found across various domains of well-being and were sustained over time, suggesting cash transfers can reduce poverty in a sustainable way.
3) The effects were similar for different types of households, showing the programs' benefits extended broadly.
Ability of Household Food Insecurity Measures to Capture Vulnerability & Resi...TransferProjct
This document discusses a study that examines the ability of different household food insecurity measures to capture vulnerability and resilience. It presents results from a cash transfer program in Zimbabwe. The study finds that while food insecurity scores improved from 2013 to 2014 for both treatment and comparison groups, the improvement was greater for the treatment group that received cash transfers. This suggests cash transfers helped increase food security and resilience. The study also finds that different food insecurity measures like expenditures, diet diversity scores, and experience-based scales provide varying but complementary perspectives on household food security.
The document summarizes research on the impacts of cash transfer programs on gender dynamics. It finds that:
1) Cash transfer programs in sub-Saharan Africa often target women to achieve outcomes like improved child well-being, though evidence supporting this approach is mixed.
2) Evaluations of cash transfers' impacts on women's empowerment also show mixed results, depending on the indicators and contexts studied.
3) A study in Zambia found its Child Grant Program increased women's decision-making power modestly and their ability to save and engage in small businesses significantly, suggesting it had a subtle empowering effect.
Poverty and perceived stress: evidence from two unconditional cash transfer p...Michelle Mills
Highlights work of the Transfer Project and how government cash transfer programs in Zambia aimed at poverty reduction lowered the levels of perceived stress and poverty among poor households
The Impact Social Cash Transfers in ZambiaMichelle Mills
This document summarizes the results of randomized controlled trials evaluating the impact of two social cash transfer programs in Zambia: the Child Grant Program (CGP) and the Multiple Category Targeted Program (MCTG). The studies found that the cash transfers significantly increased food consumption and security, total consumption, livestock ownership, and economic activity without increasing fertility. However, impacts on child health and nutrition were limited by lack of access to quality health and social services. While the cash did not create dependency, the transfer amount of K70 may not be enough to permanently lift households out of poverty on its own. Overall, the cash transfers had multiplier effects and improved living standards without changing behaviors but could be enhanced by improving access to other services
Can unconditional cash transfers lead to sustainable poverty reduction?Michelle Mills
This document summarizes evidence from evaluations of two unconditional cash transfer programs in Zambia called the Child Grant Program (CGP) and the Multiple Category Targeting Program (MCP). The evaluations found:
1) Both programs led to increases in consumption, food security, asset ownership, income, and reductions in poverty and debt.
2) Impacts were found across various domains of well-being and were sustained over time, suggesting cash transfers can reduce poverty in a sustainable way.
3) The effects were similar for different types of households, showing the programs' benefits extended broadly.
Evaluation of the Rwanda Community Performance-Based Financing ProgramRBFHealth
This study evaluates the impact of two interventions introduced as part of the Rwanda Community Performance-Based Financing Program to increase coverage of targeted maternal and child health services: rewards to cooperatives of community health workers and demand-side conditional in-kind transfers. The evaluation exploits experimental design with intervention randomly assigned at the sub-district level for a duration of two and a half years. The analysis finds no impact of the incentives to cooperatives of community health workers. However, conditional in-kind demand-side incentives are shown to significantly increase take up of timely antenatal and postnatal consultations.
1) An experiment in Zambia found that a government cash transfer program that provided $12 per month to households with children under 5 years old did not increase fertility over 4 years.
2) The study used a randomized controlled trial to compare fertility outcomes of over 2,500 households that received the cash transfer to those that did not. It found no significant impacts on several measures of fertility.
3) This adds to evidence from other developing countries that unconditional cash transfers generally do not increase fertility, as they empower people to make their own decisions rather than feeling obligated to have more children due to the transfer.
Claire Keane and Caitriona Logue, The impact of free childcare policy on chil...NUI Galway
The document summarizes a study that uses a regression discontinuity design to analyze the impact of Ireland's Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) program on childcare usage and maternal labor supply. The study finds that ECCE eligibility increases the number of hours children spend in center-based childcare but has no effect on the proportion attending preschool or on maternal labor supply. The authors suggest future work should analyze the impacts of Ireland's Affordable Childcare Scheme and consider looking back at the previous Early Childcare Supplement policy.
Elsa Valli from UNICEF Innocenti presented her work on anti-poverty programming and IPV in Ghana at the Centre for the study of African Economies conference (Oxford), March 2019.
Lincoln Lau, PhD, Director of Research for International Care Ministries discusses the results of a study regarding the relationship between the level of trust in faith leaders and the efficacy of health interventions.
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An examination of the effect of Zambias Child Grant Program on child height. The CGP is an unconditional cash transfer targeted at rural households with children under age 5.
Amber Peterman, Elsa Valli and Tia Palermo
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On Behalf of the LEAP 1000 Evaluation Team
CSAE Conference 2019, Oxford
March 17, 2019
Pace, N. “Cash Transfers and Women’s Economic Inclusion Experimental evidence from Zambia.” CSAE Conference 2022, Economic Development in Africa. March 17, 2022.
Using evidence from Ghana's LEAP 1000 program, Transfer Project's Richard de Groot explores whether cash transfers targeted to children in the first 1,000 days of life can improve their nutritional status.
Presented as part of EPRC's What Works for Africa’s Poorest Children conference in Kampala, Uganda in September 2018.
Impact of Zambia's Child Grant Program on Women's SavingsMichelle Mills
The Child Grant Program (CGP) in rural Zambia led to increases in women's savings.
The CGP provided unconditional cash transfers to households with children under 3 years old. A study found the CGP significantly increased the likelihood that women saved cash by 23 percentage points after 24 months and nearly 10 percentage points after 36 months. It also increased the amount women saved each month.
The CGP likely facilitated increased savings through boosting women's control over resources and decision-making power within their households. It also increased women's participation in income-generating activities, providing more opportunities for savings. The results provide evidence that cash transfer programs can effectively promote savings among poor populations.
The study evaluated the impact of an alternative cash transfer program for education in Morocco that provided small, unlabeled cash transfers to fathers in poor communities. Over two years:
1. The unconditional cash transfers reduced the school dropout rate by 67-75% among children enrolled at baseline and increased school reentry by 85% among previous dropouts.
2. Adding attendance conditions did not provide additional educational gains compared to the unconditional transfers.
3. There was also little difference in impacts between transfers made to mothers versus fathers.
4. The program appeared to work in part by changing parents' perceptions of the returns to education and quality of local schools, without directly imposing conditions.
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- 7.2% of women surveyed had low body mass index (BMI), with the highest rates in Kalabo district. Factors associated with higher rates of stunting included being male, younger or older mother's age, severity of household hunger, and residing in Luapula Province.
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1) While the program indirectly reaches vulnerable groups like the elderly, disabled, and female-headed households, children under 5 are not directly supported.
2) Two recent impact studies suggest the program could be more effective in addressing school retention and lifecycle vulnerabilities.
3) Policy options presented include directly targeting vulnerable categories through a categorical approach or providing additional support for children under 5 and young mothers within beneficiary households.
The document discusses policy options for strengthening the Malawi Social Cash Transfer Program's approach to addressing lifecycle vulnerabilities. It summarizes that:
1) While the program indirectly reaches vulnerable groups like the elderly, disabled, and female-headed households, children under 5 are not directly supported.
2) Two recent impact studies suggest the program could be more effective in addressing school retention and lifecycle vulnerabilities.
3) Policy options presented include directly targeting vulnerable categories through a categorical approach or providing additional support for children under 5 and young mothers within beneficiary households.
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Effects of Transfers on Intra-Household Time Allocation
1. unite for
children
The Effects of Transfers on
Intra-household Time Allocation:
Evidence from Northern Uganda
Luisa Natali
UNICEF Office of Research—Innocenti
What Works for Africa’s Poorest Children? International Conference
Kampala, 11th of September 2018
2. 2
Motivation & Background
• What Works for Africa’s Poorest Children?...
• Dammert et al. (2018), review of public policy on child labor, programs:
• household vulnerability & exposure to risk child work
• adult labour & entrepreneurial activities might child labour
• De Hoop et al (2017): Two UCTs in Malawi and Zambia, expansion in
household productive investments increased reliance on children work
• Existing literature on impacts of cash transfers:
•Baird et al. (2014) systematic review: Cash transfers typically increase child
schooling
•De Hoop & Rosati (2014) review: No detrimental effects on child work,
rather reductions
3. 3
Study objectives
• Test whether a food and cash transfer intervention in Karamoja
– targeted to households with young children and aimed at
increasing food security and early child development – affect
the intra-household allocation of time
• Focus on:
•Non-primary objectives
•Household members not explicitly targeted
•Intra-household dynamics
• ‘Functional targeting’
• Targeted to specific group/individuals within the household
• Certain activities are encouraged
4. 4
WFP food or cash transfers
• Overall Aim: Food security and early childhood development
• Target Group: households with children aged 3-5 years old enrolled
in UNICEF-supported community-run ECD centres (since 2007)
• Location: 3 districts of the Karamoja sub-region
• Transfers: Unconditional (with messaging/ ‘soft conditions’),
paid/provided every 6 weeks:
• Nutrition-dense take-home food ration, distributed by truck or
• Cash transfers, paid electronically to cards
• Transfer modalities were equivalent in value (roughly USD 12 per
eligible child over 6 weeks) = ~10% of pre-program average
consumption per month
• Recipient: Transfers provided preferentially to a woman in the
household
7. 7
Key features & timeline of the evaluation
• Stratified cluster randomized control trial run by IFPRI
• Longitudinal from 2010 to 2012
• Randomization at the ECD centre level
• 98 clusters randomly allocated to one of three arms:
1. Food arm (35 clusters)
2. Cash arm (31 clusters)
3. Control group (32 clusters)
Baseline data
collection
First food transfer First cash transfer Endline data
collection
Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June
2010 2011 2012
Main harvest Lean season Main harvest Lean season
8. 8
Existing evidence on program impacts
• Significant impacts of the cash transfer on primary objectives:
•Consumption and food security (Gilligan et al 2013, 2014)
•ECD and young children outcomes (Gilligan and Roy 2015)
• Overall lack of – or limited – impacts of food intervention
•Due to ineffectiveness or lack of enforcement/implementation
issues?
• In this presentation, focus on:
•Cash impacts
•Primary school-age children and prime-age adults
9. 9
Main outcome indicators by age group
Primary school-age children
(7-12 at baseline)
School outcomes
(currently enrolled, number of days
attended, school expenditure)
Activities & chores outcomes
Participation (1/0);
Average hours per day (logged)
Productive work, last 7 days
(looking after livestock, help with
agricultural work, wage work)
Reproductive work, last 7 days
(looking after younger children,
caring for sick household members,
doing other chores outside, or near
the home)
Prime-age adults
(18-59 at baseline)
Time use outcomes
In the last six months (participation)
worked in agriculture, looking after
livestock, wage work, non-agricultural
self-employment
In the last two weeks (average hours per
day, logged)
domestic work, income-earning
activities#, leisure activities#Any
work
10. 10
Main characteristics of sample at baseline
Mean
Household head
Age (years) 39.54
Female 0.11
Education: None 0.68
Marital status:
Never married 0.00
Polygamous 0.54
Monogamous 0.38
Divorced/separated 0.01
Widowed 0.07
Household level
Household size 6.32
Monthly consumption per capita,
('000 UGX)
31.14
Dwelling characteristics
Roof: Thatched/vegetable
matter/sticks
0.90
Floor: Cow dung/soil mix 0.77
Main source of lighting: Fire 0.83
Drinking water source:
Borehole, well, spring
0.87
Sanitation: No toilet 0.46
N 2,357
Presence of several
programmes in the study area:
• 83% of households received
assistance from at least one
programme
• No household was beneficiary of
any other cash transfer
intervention
Prime-age adults (past 6 months)
• 93% had worked in agriculture;
• 39% in wage work
• 27.5% in non-agricultural self-
employment
• 14% had spent some time looking
after livestock.
11. 11
Primary school-age children:
51 % currently enrolled and attend half of the days in which school is
open (48 per cent)
school expenditures per enrolled child in a year around UGX 5,744, or
roughly USD 2.5
Children’s outcomes at baseline
In the last 7 days:
88 per cent engaged in
domestic work; 5 hours
57 per cent engaged in
economic work; 1.5
hour
0
.1.2.3.4.5.6.7
7 8 9 10 11 12
Age (years)
School only School and work
Work only Idle
12. 12
Empirical strategy
• Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) model
𝑦𝑖𝑡 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1 𝐹𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑖 + 𝛽2 𝐶𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑖 + 𝛽3 𝑦𝑖𝑡−1 + 𝛽4 𝑋𝑖𝑡−1 + 𝜃 + 𝜀𝑖
• Strata fixed effects; gender and age controls
• OLS with robust standard errors clustered at the level of
randomization (ECD centre)
• Results robust to different specifications, models and samples
• Account for multiple testing approach
•Adjust p-values using the Sidak-Bonferroni adjustment
13. 13
Validity of experimental setting
• Successful randomization:
•Baseline balance carried out on over 50 household key
characteristics and outcome variables
• Household attrition: 7.9%
• No significant differences between arms;
• No significant differential attrition
• Results robust to Lee bounds
15. 15
Primary school-age children (1/3)
No impact on schooling
Currently
enrolled
Number days
attended school
Education
expenditure,
logged
(1) (2) (3)
Food impact -0.02 -0.03 -0.49
(0.04) (0.04) (0.32)
Cash impact -0.02 -0.01 -0.08
(0.03) (0.03) (0.32)
R2 0.22 0.20 0.22
N 2,478 2,432 2,448
Baseline Control
mean
0.538 0.495 4.510
16. 16
Primary school-age children (2/3)
Positive impact on child productive work
Any work Productive work Reproductive work
Part.
(1/0)
Hours
(logged)
Part.
(1/0)
Hours
(logged)
Part.
(1/0)
Hours
(logged)
Food impact -0.02 -0.03 -0.03 -0.07 -0.02 -0.01
(0.02) (0.06) (0.05) (0.07) (0.02) (0.05)
Cash impact 0.03* 0.17*** 0.27*** 0.31*** 0.02 0.07
(0.02) (0.05) (0.05) (0.06) (0.02) (0.05)
R2 0.04 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.05 0.12
N 2,273 2,207 2,244 2,213 2,273 2,258
Baseline
control mean
0.929 1.858 0.613 0.712 0.896 1.635
17. 17
Primary school-age children (3/3)
…driven by positive impact on child agricultural work
Productive work
Last seven days
Looking after livestock
Helping with other
agricultural work on
own land
Doing wage work
Part.
(1/0)
Hours
(logged)
Part.
(1/0)
Hours
(logged)
Part.
(1/0)
Hours
(logged)
Food impact -0.02 -0.03 -0.02 -0.04 -0.00 -0.01
(0.02) (0.03) (0.05) (0.06) (0.02) (0.02)
Cash impact 0.02 0.02 0.29*** 0.31*** 0.01 -0.01
(0.02) (0.03) (0.05) (0.06) (0.02) (0.02)
N 2,256 2,256 2,267 2,267 2,224 2,224
Baseline control
mean
0.104 0.137 0.575 0.607 0.044 0.045
18. 18
Prime-age adults: positive impact on (agricultural)
work and time spent on income earning activities
In last six months… In last two weeks…
Worked in
agriculture
Spent time
looking after
livestock
Did work that
paid a salary
or wages
Non-agric. self-
employed
work
Domestic
work
Income-
earning
activities †
Leisure
activities†
Part.
(1/0)
Part.
(1/0)
Part.
(1/0)
Part.
(1/0)
Hours per
day
(logged)
Hours per
day
(logged)
Hours per
day
(logged)
Food impact 0.01 0.02 0.00 -0.00 -0.00 -0.02 -0.04
(0.03) (0.02) (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) (0.05) (0.03)
Cash impact 0.09*** -0.01 0.00 -0.00 0.03 0.25*** -0.02
(0.03) (0.02) (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) (0.04) (0.03)
R2 0.06 0.08 0.03 0.07 0.38 0.11 0.15
N 4,401 4,387 4,391 4,395 4,402 4,399 4,371
Baseline (•)
control mean
0.929 0.161 0.380 0.278 1.363 1.266• 1.165•
19. 19
Mechanisms: Impact on land investments
Any investment on land
(1/0)
Food impact 0.006
(0.044)
Cash impact 0.117***
(0.044)
R2 0.06
N 2,357
Baseline control mean 0.548
• No impact on irrigation, crop patterns, livestock or productive
assets.
• No data on agricultural input use, etc.
20. 20
Summary
• Positive impact of the cash transfer on
•Investments in land
•Adults’ participation in agriculture
•Children’s involvement in productive activities – mainly agricultural
• No significant impact on schooling outcomes
No ‘laziness’ or
welfare dependency
• How to reconcile results with cash transfer literature?
•Transfers not high enough to offset opportunity cost (de Hoop and Rosati, 2014;
Dammert et al., 2018)
•Sufficient excess capacity to accommodate additional students
•Perceived returns to education -> under-investment in schooling?
•Parents value on-the-job-learning
•Importance of context
No impact on
long-working
hours
21. 21
Research & Policy Implications
• For a comprehensive child impact assessment: broader
indicators of child well-being & further info on type of work;
long-term
• More research to understand the level of cash transfer needed
to improve schooling and work outcomes
• How to better design programmes – apart from conditionalities
or larger transfers – to encourage human capital investment
overall for the household, without children engaging in
hazardous labour?
• Cash plus?
• Invest in sensitization/communication
• Closely monitor possible unintended impacts on child labour
22. 22
• Transfer Project website: www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/transfer
• Briefs: http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/transfer/publications/briefs
• Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/TransferProject
• Twitter: @TransferProjct email: lnatali@unicef.org
For more information
Ghana, credit: Ivan Griffi
Thank you!
23. 23
References
Dammert, A.C., J. de Hoop, E. Mvukiyehe, and F.C. Rosati (2018). Effects of Public Policy
on Child Labor: Current Knowledge, Gaps, and Implications for Program Design. World
Development, 110: 104-123.
• Gilligan, D., A. Margolies, E. Quiñones, and S. Roy (2013). WFP/UNICEF/IFPRI Impact
Evaluation of Cash and Food Transfers at Early Childhood Development Centers in
Karamoja, Uganda: Final Impact Report. Submitted to: World Food Programme, Rome;
World Food Programme, Kampala; and UNICEF, Kampala, May 2013.
• Gilligan, D.O., M. Hidrobo, J. Hoddinott, S. Roy, and B. Schwab (2014). Much Ado about
Modalities: Multicountry Experiments on the Effects of Cash and Food Transfers on
Consumption Patterns. IFPRI Conference Paper, International Food Policy Research
Institute.
• Gilligan, D. O. and S. Roy (2015). Resources, Stimulation, and Cognition: How Transfer
Programs and Preschool Shape Cognitive Development in Uganda, IFPRI Conference
Paper, International Food Policy Research Institute.
De Hoop, J., Groppo, V., and S. Handa on behalf of the Malawi SCTP and Zambia MCTG
study teams (2017) Household Micro-entrepreneurial Activity and Child Work: Evidence
from Two African Unconditional Cash Transfer Programs, Presented at NEUDC 2017.
• De Hoop, J., and F.C. Rosati (2014). Cash Transfers and Child Labor. The World Bank
Research Observer, 29: 202–34.