DirectionsLocate the annotated bibliography and outline you.docx

Directions:
Locate the annotated bibliography and outline you created in the
Module 2 assignment. Using the outline you developed, the
information from the annotated bibliography, and the feedback
provided by your instructor, write a paper (2,000-2,250 words)
that synthesizes all of the articles assigned in the first four
modules of this course. Do that by including the following:
1. A statement of common themes addressed in each of the
articles.
2. A statement of the conclusions that can be drawn when the
articles are taken together as a single entity. What is the overall
message of the group of articles? Focus specifically on the key
developmental terms, processes and challenges that individuals
may face up through adulthood. Why are the unconscious mind,
dreams, and ego defense mechanisms important to understand
from the Psychoanalytic perspective? Be sure to address the
notion that Freud and the Psychodynamic and Psychoanalytic
theory suggest that early stages of human development have a
significant impact on our relationships and our Ego throughout
the life span.
FORMAL ASSIGNMENT: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY &
OUTLINE
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
You will complete an annotated bibliography of the following
articles (links to the articles are found in topics 1 & 2 of the
syllabus). Annotations are descriptive and critical assessments
of literature that help researchers to evaluate texts and
determine relevancy in relation to a particular research project.
Ultimately, they are a note-taking tool that fosters critical

thinking, demonstrates understanding, and evaluates the source
material for possible later use. In this assignment, you will read
and annotate the following three articles
Johansson, M. (2007). Historiography and Psychoanalysis.
International Forum of Psychoanalysis, 16(2), 103–112.
Perera, S. B. (2013). Circling, Dreaming, Aging. Psychological
Perspectives, 56(2), 137–148.
Hebbrecht, M. (2013). The dream as a picture of the
psychoanalytic process. Romanian Journal of Psychoanalysis,
6(2), 123–142.
1. Please annotate the journal articles assigned in the first 2
Modules of this course ( the 3 articles are listed above).
Annotations for each article should consist of a MINIMUM of
250 original words (i.e., no quoted material).
2. Alphabetize the three journal articles by the last name of the
first author for each article.
3. Please make sure to discuss both the strengths and limitations
of each article as part of your evaluation of the article, and also
what you think of them in terms of their value, validity,
methods, etc. Do not discuss the credentials of the authors,
where they teach, or how many publications they have.
OUTLINE ( Please review the Week 2 Assignment Template,
posted along with these Announcements, as an example of how
to construct an outline for this assignment. )
Construct an outline for a paper that will identify and discuss 3
themes common to the articles you read for this assignment (you
will write the paper in module 4). The paper will require
identification of elements and themes common to the articles as
well as a synthesis of those themes. THERE IS A
SAMPLE/INSTRUCTIONAL ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
AND A TEMPLATE FOR THE OUTLINE PROVIDED (It will
accompany these announcements), MAKE SURE YOU USE
THE OUTLINE TEMPLATE TO CONSTRUCT YOUR

OUTLINE WITH THE SAME SECTIONS.
NOTE: The paper that is due week 4 will be based on the
readings for weeks 1-4. That means that your outline needs to
incorporate the reading from weeks 3 & 4 as well, which means
you will need to read ahead? You will need to at least skim the
4 articles from Modules 3 and 4 so you can include them in your
outline. The articles for weeks 1-4 are the following:
Johansson (2007), Perera (2013), Hebbrecht (2013), Kluners
(2014), Schutt & Castonguay (2001), Summers (2006), and
Newirth (2014). EACH THEME IN THE OUTLINE (AND
THUS YOUR PAPER) MUST INCLUDE SUPPORT FROM AT
LEAST THREE OF THE ABOVE ARTICLES. See syllabus for
links and complete references.
The three themes for this paper MUST be the following (1) THE
UNCONSCIOUS MIND, (2) DREAMS, and (3) EGO DEFENSE
MECHANISMS. Within each theme of your outline, you will
provide some brief phrasing to indicate the material you will
discuss within each theme in your paper. Be sure to include a
clear, concise, and specific thesis statement in your
introduction.
Make sure to cite at least 3 of the 7 articles within each theme
of your outline.
Running head: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 7
Annotated Bibliography and Outline

Annotated Bibliography
Johansson, M. (2007). Historiography and
psychoanalysis. International Forum of Psychoanalysis, 16(2),
103–112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08037060701300083
For the annotated bibliography, you will annotate each of the
three articles for modules 1 and 2, this includes Hebbrecht
(2013), Johansson (2007), and Perera (2013)
Annotations are descriptive and critical assessments of
literature that help researchers evaluate texts and determine
relevancy in relation to a particular research project.
Ultimately, this is a note-taking tool that fosters critical
thinking, demonstrates understanding, and evaluates the source
material for possible later use. Annotated bibliographies are
helpful tools for organizing and preparing for a research paper
or project. Instead of reading articles and forgetting what you
have read, you can have a convenient document full of helpful
information about the articles you have read. In addition to
helping you remember what you have read, an annotated
bibliography can help you see the bigger picture of the
literature you are reading. It can help you visualize the overall
status of the topic, as well as where your unique question might
fit into the field of literature.
Entries should be in alphabetical order, include the full APA
formatted reference, including doi, and an annotation (of at
least 250 words). Your annotation should include indicative,
informative, and evaluative information about the article. If you
are unsure of what these three types of information are, please
see: http://www.gcumedia.com/lms-resources/student-success-

center/docs/Preparing-Annotated-Bibliographies.pdf Remember
that each of your annotations should be at least 250 words in
length and include both summative and evaluative information.
Please see the assignment rubric for more information on how
the assignment will be graded.
Skywalker, L. (1981). Dagobah: Swamp planet or treasury trove
of secret knowledge? Journal of Jedi Studies, 77, 293-309.
Retrieved from http://www.journalof jedistudies.org
Annotated bibliographies are helpful tools for organizing and
preparing for a research paper or project. Instead of reading
articles and forgetting what you have read, you can have a
convenient document full of helpful information about the
articles you have read. In addition to helping you remember
what you have read, an annotated bibliography can help you see
the bigger picture of the literature you are reading. It can help
you visualize the overall status of the topic, as well as where
your unique question might fit in.
Entries should be in alphabetical order, include the full APA
formatted reference, including doi, a GCU persistent link, and
an annotation of at least 250 words. Your annotation should
include indicative, informative, and evaluative information
about the article. If you are unsure of what these three types of
information are, please see: http://www.gcumedia.com/lms-
resources/student-success-center/docs/Preparing-Annotated-
Bibliographies.pdf. For the annotated bibliography, you will
annotate each of the three articles for modules 1 and 2, this
includes Hebbrecht (2013), Johansson (2007), and Perera (2013)
Note the purpose of the article, the participants/subject of the
study, the conclusions drawn by the author(s), and the validity
of the conclusions. Evaluate the article: is it a credible source?
Describe the credibility of the author – are there any biases?
How well did the author support his or her assertions? Did they
provide an adequate literature review? Were there any
limitations?
Kenobi, O.W. (1977). Mos Eisley spaceport: A wretched hive of
scum and villainy. Journal of Intergalactic Spaceports, 7, 42-50.

http://dx.doi.org/4815162342
Kenobi presents a solid argument for the wretchedness of the
Mos Eisley spaceport. His research is thorough, current, and his
claims are well-supported. He examines the denizens of the
spaceport, thoroughly documenting the caliber of their
occupations and characters, setting up a firm argument for their
inadequacy as galactic citizens. Based on a thorough review of
the literature, an exhaustive survey of his sample population,
and an analysis of the data using SPSS, he concludes that there
is no spaceport more wretched than Mos Eisley. Comment by
Windows User: Please note, this template is correctly formatted.
Based on other literature in the field, and the ample support
provided by Kenobi in this article, the conclusions drawn here
seem valid. Kenobi is a prolific researcher in this field, with 85
publications in peer-reviewed journals, and five texts published
with well-regarded academic publishers. This article is
published in the leading journal of spaceport research,
indicating credibility for the article and an intended audience of
other spaceport experts.
Your outline should include information from the articles from
Modules 1-4. This includes Johansson (2007), Perera (2013),
Hebbrecht (2013), Kluners (2014), Schutt & Castonguay (2001),
Summers (2006), and Newirth (2014). EACH THEME MUST
INCLUDE SUPPORT FROM AT LEAST THREE OF THESE
ARTICLES. Please delete all instructions and comments before
submitting your work. As specified in the announcements, The
three themes for this paper MUST be the following (1) THE
UNCONSCIOUS MIND, (2) DREAMS, and (3) EGO DEFENSE
MECHANISMS. Within each theme of your outline, you will
provide some brief phrasing to indicate the material you will
discuss within each theme in your paper. Be sure to include a
clear, concise, and specific thesis statement in your
introduction.

Provide a Title for Your Paper Comment by Windows User:
Construct an outline for a paper that will explain and synthesize
the articles in Modules 1 through 4 on the topic of the
Unconscious Mind and Dream Analysis. The paper will require
identification of themes common to the articles as well as a
statement of the conclusions that can be drawn when the articles
are taken together as a single entity.
You will be writing the paper in the next assignment. Focus
specifically on the key developmental terms, processes and
challenges that individuals may face up through adulthood. Why
are the unconscious mind, dreams, and ego defense mechanisms
important to understand from the Psychoanalytic perspective?
Be sure to address the notion that Freud and the Psychodynamic
and Psychoanalytic theory suggest that early stages of human
development have a significant impact on our relationships and
our Ego throughout the life span.
· Introduction
A. Capture the reader’s interest (Provide one or two opening
sentences here).
B. Provide context for the paper (Set up what your paper is
about here)
1. Statement of common themes (Provide your statement here).
C. State your thesis (Provide your thesis statement here)
Comment by Windows User: A Thesis Statement: should
be as clear and specific as possible and have a definable,
arguable claim. It does not simply announce a topic: it says
something about the topic.
Your stated purpose/thesis statement should reflect the analysis
you will be doing, which is to analyze and synthesize common
themes. It should be a clear reflection of your synthesized
conclusion. Here are some helpful sites for writing a strong and
clear thesis statement:

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/545/01/
Weak Thesis Statements: Recognizing and Fixing Them
http://create.arizona.edu/content/weak-thesis-statements-
recognizing-and-fixing-them
Thesis handout: http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/thesis-
statements/
· Theme 1: Name of Theme Comment by Windows User:
Each theme MUST have support from at least three of the
articles. Please use a citation, so it is easy to identify from
where you are pulling your support.
You are not being asked to provide three article summaries,
rather you are being asked to provide three articles common to
the articles. This resource can help you to understand synthesis.
https://www.bgsu.edu/content/dam/BGSU/learning-
commons/documents/writing/synthesis/asked-to-synthesize.pdf
A. Present an important theme you observed in the three
articles.
1. What is the theme?
2. Why is it important? Provide at least your topic sentence for
the theme.
B. Use evidence from at least three articles to support your
conclusion that this is an important theme.
1. What does each article say about the idea?
2. How are the different articles connected around this
particular theme?
Here is an example of what I expect from you. Let’s pretend
that all three articles describe the health benefits of yoga.
· Theme 2: Health Benefits
A. Yoga is a discipline for the body and mind, with mental and
physical health benefits.

1. Yogisatre (2016) examines the physical health benefits of
yoga
1. Increased flexibility, increased core strength, better posture
2. Vikram and Hatha (2013) explores the mental health benefits
of yoga
1. Practitioners are more relaxed, have better control of their
breathing
3. Kellish et al. (2014) discusses both physical and mental
health benefits
1. The meditative elements of yoga are linked with decreased
stress, depression, and anxiety; correlation with lower blood
pressure, reduced chronic pain, and better sleep
· Theme 3: Name of Theme
A. Present an important theme you observed in the three
articles.
1. What is the theme?
2. Why is it important? Provide at least your topic sentence for
the theme.
B. Use evidence from each of the three articles to support your
conclusion that this is an important theme.
1. What does each article say about the idea?
2. How are the different articles connected around this
particular theme?
· Conclusion Comment by Windows User: Be sure that your
conclusion is in alignment with your thesis (which should be
supported by each of your themes). The conclusion needs to
reacquaint the reader with the thesis statement and review the
major points of the paper. Then clearly emphasize your
synthesized conclusion.
https://www.umuc.edu/writingcenter/writingresources/conclude.
cfm

Check out the following site for tips on writing a conclusion:
http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/conclusions/
A. Provide a statement of conclusion. Here you will briefly
summarize the themes, hitting the major points of the paper.
The conclusion should align with the thesis statement and show
that it has been accomplished.
B. Provide a synthesized conclusion, that is, a statement of the
conclusions that can be drawn when the articles are taken
together as a single entity. What is the overall synthesized
message? Be clear, and do not simply summarize your
discussion of the themes, or restate the themes; you need to
synthesize them. What is the new idea that you see arising when
you consider the 3 articles together as one? By tying all
articles’ material together, support the assertion from the thesis.
READ THESE INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY!
· Make sure that your references are in hanging indent and use
Microsoft Word to format the indent – do not tab over!
A. Highlight the references and then right-click to get the menu.
Click on “Paragraph,” and then you’ll see the “Special
selection” section under “indents.” Select “Hanging” from the
pull-down menu and make sure that it’s set to 0.5 inch indent.
Click OK and the hanging indent will be set.
· Make sure that your references are in alphabetical order,
double spaced, and include doi information.
· Please save your work as just your first and last name so that
your name is the filename of your work, this helps me grade
work more quickly. For instance,
RIDGE MILLETT.docx
· You work must be submitted to Turnitin, please review your
report to ensure that you have correctly paraphrased in any of
your annotations and you have not plagiarized.
· PLEASE DELETE ALL OF MY INSTRUCTIONS BEFORE

SUBMITTING YOUR WORK
·
References
Author, A., Author, A., & Author, A. (2014). The article title is
in sentence case. Journal of APA Style, 42, 74-89. doi:
48.1516.2342 Comment by Windows User: Newer journal
articles will print the doi on the first page. If you do not see
one, go to www.crossref.org and look up the article to see if a
doi has been assigned.
Author, A., Author, A., & Author, A. (2014). The article title is
in sentence case: If there is no DOI include the journal home
page in the reference. Journal of APA Style, 42, 74-89.
Retrieved from http://www.journalhomepage.org Comment by
Windows User: If no doi is available, include retrieval
information for the journal’s website. NOTE: a GCU permalink
(URL with “lopes”) should NEVER be included on your
reference page.
Author, A. (2014). Book titles are in italics and still in sentence
case. City: Publisher.
Author, A. (2014, March). Articles from a magazine or
newspaper. Psychology Today, 39, 32-49.
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PSYCHOANALYSIS' PAST, PRESENT, AND
FUTURE:
Sherlock Holmes, Sir Lancelot, and the Wizard of Oz
Joseph Newirth. PhD
Adelphi University

This paper describes three psychoanalytic perspectives each of
which represent
central elements of psychoanalysis· past. present and future
through the literary
metaphors of Sherlock Holmes. Sir Lancelot and the Wizard of
Oz. These
metaphors provide a way of understanding the evolving nature
of psychoana-
lytic theory and practice. Sherlock Holmes represents a
nineteenth century
search for hidden truths, Sir Lancelot represents contemporary
approaches
which emphasize new relational experiences and the Wizard of
Oz represents
the emerging transformational models in psychoanalysis which
emphasize the
creation of subjective meaning. Transformational models are
emerging in psy-
choanalysis. developmental psychology and neuropsychology;
each emphasizes
multiple modes of apprehending the world and the development
of the capacity
for symbolization and the creation of subjective meaning. A
transformational
model of psychoanalysis is described and the process of
progressive symbol-
ization is illustrated with four moments from an extended
psychoanalytic
treatment. Additional clinical material is used to illustrate the
three psychoan-
alytic approaches.
KeJ worcl·: comparative theory, transformational models,
relational psychoanal-
ysis, symbolization, metaphor

Psychoanalytic theory has continuously evolved from Freud's
early collaboration with
Breuer (Breuer & Freud. l 893) through the presenl. Discussions
of the evolving nature of
psychoanalysis are often presented as partisan debates (Blass.
::!O 10) that attempt to define
"what psychoanalysis is.'' Rather than entering this argument, I
take the position that
psychoanalysis is a living system that evolves, sometimes
smoothly integrating past
clinical and theoretical perspectives and sometimes being
disrupted by new ideas in
keeping with emerging scientific and cultural developments. In
this paper, I will highlight
three psychoanalytic perspectives, each of which when taken
alone represents central
l"llis article was published Online First May 5. 2014.
Corrc~p,mdencc concerning this article should be addn:sscd to
Jo~cph Ne, irth. PhD. Adelphi
Unhcr.sit~ . Garden City. NY l 1530-0701. E-mail: jocnc,, irth.u
~m.,il.com
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308 NI VII{ 111
elements of psychoanalysis' past, present, and future. but when
taken together they
represent multiple aspects of the complc:-.. activity of clinical
psychoanalysis in the
moment-to-moment choices between analyst and patient.
Complex activities such as psychoanalysis. riding a bicycle, or
flirting are developed
through implicit procedural learning (BPCSG, 2007). These
activities are hard to describe
in linear discursive language and may best be understood
through metaphors, which
function as evocative, multidimensional. presentational symbols
(Langer. 1942) that
organize intcrsubjcctivc experiences in artistic, dramatic, and
poetic fom1s. Several
authors (Hamilton, 1993: Hanley, 1990) in discussing
differences and similarities among
psychoanalytic theories suggest two basic dimensions:
correspondence, which emphasizes
the theories relationship with knowable external events. and
coherence, which emphasizes
the theories· ability to make consistent meaning conceptually
and clinically. In this paper,
I emphasize a coherence model of psychoanalytic theory and
practice. I believe that what
is largely knowable and teachable in psychoanalytic theory are
the underlying models that
reflect internal consistency/coherence and the scientific and
cultural zeitgeist in which
each theory developed.
With a wink to Dickens· "A Christmas Carol," I will begin by

presenting three literary
metaphors: similar to Scrooge·s dream of Marlowe·s ghost,
these metaphors embody
different perspectives on psychoanalysis' past, present, and
future: (a) Sherlock Holmes,
the rational, objective detective/scientist in search of hidden
truths; (b) Sir Lancelot, the
fla, ... ed hero. who struggles with enactments in the
transference-countertransference rela-
tion.,hip and the opportunities to repair the inevitable ruptures
in the therapeutic relation-
ship; and (c) the Wizard of Oz. a creator of illusions and
personal meaning who facilitates
the development of enactments, symbolization, and the
transfonnation of the patient's concrete
persecutory experience into generative metaphors. In addition
10 comparing these different
psychoanalytic perspectives, 1 will use the metaphor of the
Wizard of Oz as a springboard to
articulate an emerging trnnsfonnational model of
psychoanalysis, one that emphasizes the
development of the capacity for symbolization. for how the
mind makes meaning.
Sherlock Holmes: The Search for Hidden Truth
Freud used several metaphors to describe the analyst's stance in
relation to the patient that
reflected his evolving views of psychoanalytic theory and
technique. His early metaphor
of the analyst as a surgeon (Freud, 1912) expressed his belief
that we should act like
medical expe11s. have a sense of our own authority. and be
disciplined and objective. The
metaphor of the surgeon reflected a theory of psychoanalytic
action within the topographic

model. in which the patient's difficulties, his symptoms and
neurosis, were thought of like
an infection that needed to be carefully drained in an aseptic
environment. Abreaction and
remembering forgotten events became the equivalents of the
medical procedure of lancing
an infection and were thought to be sufficient to return the
patient to health. With the emergence
of the structural model, in which resistance, repression, and
defense were the central
issues, Freud suggested that the analyst be like a general alert in
the battle with the
palicnt's resistance, expanding the model of psychoanalysis
from a simple medical
procedure to a prolonged struggle with a fierce enemy. Freud's
(190()) third metaphor,
Sherlock Holmes, suggested that like the great 19th century
detective, analysts' persbtent.
deductive, rational, inquiry brings to light the patient's hidden
truths and forgotten crimes.
In a letter to Jung, r reud ( 1909) discusses an interaction with
M. Spielrein in which
his use of the metaphor of Sherlock Holmes rellected the
growing emphasis (Freud. 19.20)
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on the transfonnation of passively experienced repetitive trauma
into active, internal.
agcntic experience through bringing hidden truths into the light
of day.
Fraulein Sr,ielrdn has admitted in her second letter that her
bu~ine~s has to do with you: upan
from that. she has not disclo:o;cd hcr intentions. M) reply HL~
c er so ise ,md penetrating: I
made it .tpp~Jr ns though the most tenuous of clues had enabled
me Sherlod; l lolmes-likc to
guess the situation (which of course wa~ none too difficult after
)OUr commun1ca11ons) and
suggested a more ,tppropriutc procedure. something
endopsychic, as it ere. Whether it ill
he cffc:cti'e. I don't know. But no I 0111st cntrcat you, don't
go too far in the direction or

contrition and reaction (Fm11I. 1909, pp. 234-235) .
In this brief communication, which seems to refer to Jung's
affair with Spielrein.
Freud metaphorizes the analyst's position in the implicit
structure of the analytic rela-
tionship, reframing the psychoanalytic method and emphasizing
the process of inquiry
over that of battle. The psychoanalyst's role evolved from that
of a general in a struggle
with a resistant patient to that of a clever detective oho
uncovers forgotten crimes and
hidden truths, helping the patient take responsibility for his or
her disowned actions. This
reconceptualization of psychoanalytic action emphasizes the
patient's movement from
unconscious or disowned experiences (Schafor, I 976) passively
experienced as events in
the external world to the recognition of unconscious wishes and
truths, which are at the root of the
patient's unhappiness and self-destructive choices. Freud's idea
of making the uncon-
scious conscious. of the ego and secondary process rational
thought dominating the id and
primary process thought, are embodied in the metaphor of the
analyst as a detective and
the zeitgeist of modernism and science, which put a premium on
defeating the dark
irrational impulses of man and bringing them under rational
control. Kohut ( 1984)
criticized Freud's 19th century perspective as "truth morality.''
He (Kohut, 1984, p. 54)
believes that this conservative view of man as guilty demands
that the analyst be a moral
presence, ferreting out lies and exposing hidden truths. This
view of man as inherently

guilty is echoed by another fictional detective who presented
the rhetorical question :
"Who knows what evil lurks in the heart of men'! The Shadow
knows!'"
Sir Lnncelot: The Analyst as flawed Hero
Interpersonal and relational psychoanalysis redefined concepts
of structure, psychological
development. psychopathology, and the nature of therapeutic
action. These theories
rejected Freud"s one-person intrapsychic focus and developed a
two-person interpersonal
perspective. Psychopathology was thought of as an individual's
desperate attempts to
maintain attachment and security through clinging to childhood
patterns, traumas, and
beliefs in the analytic and in other relationships. Interpersonal
psychoanalysis developed
a more active approach than classical psychoanalysis. viewing
the analyst as a participant
observer bringing his or her personal dynamics into the
transference countertransfercnce
experiences. Levenson ( I ()72) described the inevitability of
becoming trapped within these
transference countcrtransfcrence structures and the importance
of the analyst's first-person
experience as a participant, which provided a critical
opportunity to work out these
complex transference counte11ransference enactments in the
here and now.
Relational analysts (Aron, 199:!; Mitchell, 1991; Renik, 1995)
expanded this inter-
personal perspective and emphasized the analyst's subjectivity,
personal history. self-

disclosure, and the therapeutic effects of new relational
experiences in the analytic dyad
in which the analyst functions (Burke. 1992) as a new object
and a traditional transference
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310 Nl.·lR 111
object. As a new object, the analyst provides novel positive
experiences that contrast the
patient's earlier experiences with their historical objects. These
new experiences awaken
aspects of the patient, freeing himlher from the repetitions of
the past. Often the analyst
becomes intcrsubjectivcly entangled in an enactment,
unwittingly acting out aspects of the
transference countcrtransfcrence relationship and rupturing the
therapeutic harmony. This
rupture typically becomes repaired as the analyst recognizes his
or her subjective and

personal contribution to the transference countertransference
difficulties. These repeating
experiences of rupture and repair result in critical encounters,
often involving the analyst's
self-disclosure, a deepening sense of mutual knowing that
fosters greater freedom and
intimacy in the analytic relationship.
The narratives of many cases presented by interpersonal and
relational analysts
(Gerson, 1996; Mitchell. 1991) describe patients as victims of
abusive or negligent
parents. having suffered childhood trauma, including sexual or
physical abuse. If the
literary genre of classical psychoanalysis is the detective novel.
then the literary genre of
interpersonal and relational psychoanalysis is the romantic.
adventure novel, in which a
flawed hero, the analyst, rescues the trapped, damaged, and
emotionally stunted victim,
the patient. These clinical illustrations olien emphasize patients'
and analysts' struggles
with their inner demons, the po,crful hold of the traumatic
events of the past and the fear
that accompanies this mutual journey into new uncharted
experiences. I think of Sir
Lancelot. the imperfect Knight of King Arthur's Round Table.
as a metaphor that
represents the romantic and heroic struggles described ln these
case histories. in which the
analyst, after confronting his or her own demons and personal
failures, slays the dragon,
freeing the patient from the prisons of the past. Like the Sir
Lancelot legend, analysis
becomes a trial for analyst and patient (Davies. J 9()8) as they
struggle with the multiple

sci f-states that analyst and patient bring into the transference
countertransfcrence rela-
tionship.
Benjamin 's (2009) paper on the necessity of acknowledging
failure illustrates the
implicit and explicit struggles of the analyst, as a flawed hero
like Sir Lancelot, who frees
the patient from the repetitions of the past through a series of
personal encounters .
Benjamin {2009 ) describes her work with Hannah. emphasizing
Hannah's childhood
experiences of maternal failure and her own struggle to not to
enter into the more
traditional role of the interpreting analyst, Sherlock Holmes,
emphasizing truth over
experience. Benjamin's paper allows us to enter into the
experience of the analyst as she
chooses between being a new object as opposed to being a
transference object and the
struggle to maintain his or her position as a new object.
providing new relational
experience within the transference countertransference
relationship. I think of this analytic
model as a romantic, heroic relationship, in which the analyst
rescues the patient from a
traumatic and dangerous past through her presence as a different
person, providing
reparative experiences and encouraging the patient to become a
new. more authentic.
albeit flawed. self, much like the analyst.
Benjamin (200Q; p. 446) illustrates her struggle to be a
soothing maternal presence and
not to interpret the transference, or become emotionally
disregulatcd as did the patient's

mother, who failed to survive Hannah's affective stonns. Being
a new object disconfirmed
Hannah's certainty that the other "would be crushed by her
destructive disappointment;
and that she must protect that other/mother by showing herself
to be unworthy. Thus she
experienced herself' as the destructive one who kept ruining a
potential viable third."
Benjamin describes a particular moment as a personal failure,
losing her place as a
thoughtful relational analyst who provides new soothing
experience. Responding out of
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fmstration and anger, she describes this moment as becoming an
"authentic'' selt: 1 I put
·'authentic'' in quotation because it represents a shift in the
analyst's position from being
a new object into being a person (Benjamin, 2000). a flawed
hero. unadorned by theory.
Benjamin (2009; p. 447) comments that she speaks as if Hannah
were her own daughter
and questioned why .. she thought her anxiety and vulnerability
were so unacceptable, why
weren't they a part of imperlect but acceptable humanness?"
Although Benjamin de-
scribes this as an analytic failure, the patient experiences
Benjamin heroically, as her
"staunch defender,'' rescuing her from being trapped in her
repetitive self-disparaging
behaviors. From a more traditional perspective. the patient's
approving response may be
thought of as repeating an old transference pattern in which she
protects the analyst as she
did her mother: however, this possibility remains unexplored,
perhaps because of Benja-
min's emphasis on the experiential dimension of the relationship
rather than on discov-

ering hidden meaning in repetitive transference experiences .
Benjamin describes a second moment of failure, becoming
trapped in an enactment in
which she becomes ang,y with Hannah who describes herself as
an incompetent mother.
Benjamin describes the value of this enactment as she and the
patient work out their
multiple self-states, showing how the inevitable processes of
rupture and repair are critical
aspects in the development of new analytic experiences and
growth. Throughout this
enactment, Benjamin remains herself: esche ing efforts at
interpretation and simply being
a flawed hero. Sir Lancelot. Benjamin consistently emphasizes
her role as a new object,
often experiencing herself as an authentic person, sometimes
flawed and sometimes
heroic, but always in an experience near encounter with the
patient. If the classical
position emphasized the discovery of hidden tniths and
forgotten crimes, then the
relational position redefines therapeutic action as repeating
experiences of rescue, rupture,
and repair; of the encounter between the Hawed patient and the
flawed analyst; and the
meeting between Guinevere and Sir Lancelot.
The Wizard of Oz: The Analyst as Creator of Illusions
The Wizard of Oz can be thought of within the literary genre of
magical realism: similar
to most children's books, it captures the unconscious struggles
that inhabit our lives,
dreams, and fantasies. I think of the Wizard of Oz as a metaphor
for therapeutic action

within the 1ransformutional model of psychoanalysis.
Transformational models arc emerg-
ing in diflerent areas of psychoanalysis and psychology and
focus on the individual's
ability to represent and symbolize e~periencc, to make meaning,
rather than the discovel)·
of disowned and repressed wishes and unacknowledged ac1ions
or attempts to repair
repetitive, self-destructive relationship pauerns. Many
psychoanalytic theorists (Ferro.
2006; Grotstd n. 2007; Ncwirth. :?003; Ogden, 201 O; Riolo,
2007; Symington. 2007)
associated with transfom1ational models have extended Bion's
and Winnicott's theories of
symbolization, reverie, and transitional experience, focusing on
the development of the
patient's capacity for symbolic thought. Transformational
models are also cu1Tent in
developmental and neuropsychological theories. The concept of
mentalization (Fonagy,
Target, Gergely. Allen. & Bateman, 2003), implicit relational
knowing, procedural learn-
ing. moments of change (Boston Change Process Study Group,
2007), mirror neurons, and
1 I eH.·nsc,n i 1972 ) discuss the shili in analytic virtues from
the clussical position of sincerit)
(p.irit)) to the interper~nnal position ol' uuthenticit) . The
notion of m11hcnticit) seems to he one that
pcr'ades romantic litcr,llurc.
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the differential functions of right and letl brain hemispheres
(Schorc. 2003. 2009)
emphasize the development of the capacity to represent
experience and generate symbolic,
subjective meaning.
Patients who organize experience concretely typically locate
thoughts and experience
in the external world of facts and authority rather than as
products of their own or
another's mind. Unable to symbolize meaning, they organize
experience and thoughts

concretely through action, are flooded by affect, and represent
experience in modes of
psychic (Fonagy ct al., 2003) or symbolic (Segal, 1978)
equivalence as absolutely real.
Grotstc in ( 1995) refers to patients who are unable to
symbolize their experience and are
trapped in an external world of impersonal meaning as "Orphans
of the Real.'' In this
concrete mode, I am what I am, you are what you arc, and
everything will always be the
same. Although coming from different sectors of psychological
and neurological science,
transfonnational models similarly conceptualize the mind as
parallel systems that appre-
hend and generate meaning in an external. objective realm and
an internal, subjective
realm. Transformational models focus on the development of
the patient's capacity to
symbolize concrete, externalized, often paranoid experiences,
enacted in the transference
countertransrcrence relationship. into symbolic, affective.
subjective experience through
the use of spontaneous and intentional enactments, transitional
experiences, presentational
symbols. and metaphors. This model of making meaning
contrasts with traditional
hierarchical models. in which meaning and memories arc lost
through repression and
recovered through an interpretive process, or the interpersonal-
relational model. in which
meanings are developed through expanding experience and
encounters that disconfinn
older scripts and introduce new relational experiences.
I would like to consider the Wizard of Oz as an allegory for the
psychoanalytic

experience in the trnnsformational model. Dorothy. an orphan,
is transported by a tornado
to the Land of Oz, where we follow her desperate attempts to
return home. Returning
home is an allusion for her confusion, for her lack of direction,
for her anxiety about
becoming an adolescent and having lost her parents, and for her
struggles with various
loved and hated maternal objects-the bad witch who she
destroys and the good witch
who helps her on her way. To return home, she is told to get
help from the Wizard of Oz,
the one who is supposed to know, and who she believes will
help her find her way home.
On the way to Oz. she meets three fellow travelers: the
Scarecrow, the Tin Man, and the
Cowardly Lion. She invites them to join her on the journey with
the promise that the
Wizard will help each of them to become the person he dreams
of becoming.
The Wizard of Oz is a contemporary therapist: people come to
him for help. to achieve
their goals, and to become the person they wish to be. He is
conflicted about his role, and
he knows that he does not know how to answer the questions
that he is asked. He also feels
lost and wishes to find his own way home. However, he seems
to have discovered that he
can help people by helping them create symbolic experiences-
illusions, metaphoric
enactments, and transitional experiences in which each person
can discover and create
himlherselfthrough the development of symbolic experiences.
The Wizard of Oz docs not
function as a detective finding hidden truths and forgotten

crimes. or as a flawed hero
rescuing or repairing an injured patient through new affective
experiences; rather, he is a
kind of actor. creating illusions (Sym ing1 011 . 2007:
Winnicou, 1971) that transforn1
patients' concrete paranoid experiences into symbolic subjective
experiences. Jung ( 1981)
presented a similar view of the analyst, suggesting that the
archetype for the therapist is
the trickster. the court jester, the magician, or the comic. all of
who help the king to pierce
the veil of certainty and of external reality and enter into deeper
experiences of knowledge
and wisdom.
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Like Dorothy. we become angry with the Wizard when the
screen is pulled away and
we sec that he is simply a man who creates illusions and does
not have special abilities
and knowledge. Our anger reflects our disappointment that the
analyst does not know what
we wish he knew and cannot act in the way we hoped he could.
He is only able to help
us generate symbolic, transitional experiences, develop
metaphors that integrate and
symbolize our fearful disowned and desired experiences: a
diploma for the Scarecrow so
that he can know his intelligence; a valentine's heart for the Tin
Man so that he can know
his capacity to feel and love; a medal for the lion so that he can
puIT out his chest. roar
his presence, and know his courage: and ruby slippers so that
Dorothy can experience her
power to retum home. the power that she always potentially had
but could not symbolize
and actualize. These symbolic or metaphoric acts arc not
superficial carnival tricks; they
are deeply saturated. presentationtil symbols (Langer, 1942)
that involve complex devel-
opmental, self-reflective experiences that suggest increased
capacity for symbolization,
mentalization. and the continuous creative internal
conversations involved in reverie and
dreaming.
Lac:in (2007) also identifies the analyst. in his or her
relationship with the patient,
much like the Wizard of Oz, as being "the one who is supposed
to know.'· This view of

the analyst that he is the one who is supposed to know- revolves
around the question
of who knows und who pretends to know or who does not know
and who pretends to not
know. The patient believes that the analyst !,,nows the way the
putient can resolve his or
her problems in living or that he or she knows the truth thut the
patient fears knowing. The
analyst knows that he or she does not know how the patient
should live while also
knowing thut. in the evolving transference countertransference
relationship, the possibility
will present itself for the patient to become more fully himself
and to metuphorize his
e~perience so that he may live more fully in the symbolic
world. Lacan (Dor, 1998)
discusses the linguistic functions of metaphor and metonymy,
suggesting that they parallel
Freud's ideas of condensation and displucement in dreams and
unconscious thought. I
want to suggest that metaphors are a central idea in the
transfonnational model and ure
ways thut we express. symbolize. subjectify, and make our own
the implicit relational
structures that ure deeply embedded in our unconscious, or
neuropsychologically speak·
ing, in right-brain structures.
Clinical Illustration: I Want a Penis
Like the Wizard of Oz. the unalyst, by entering more deeply
into the symbolic, dreamlike
joumey through the trnnslercnce countertransference muze,
helps his or her patients
transform concrete experience of shame und cowardliness into
courage, passion, and

agency. As analysts, we facilitate these transfonnations through
processes of reverie and
symbolizution; through the development of transitional
experiences; and through an
evolving capadty for play, trust, und intimacy in the analytic
relationship. The following
cuse illustrates the metaphor of the Wizard of Oz as a
representation of the transformu-
tionul model of psychoanalysis. I will present several moments
in my work with a
long-leml analytic patient that illustrates the metaphorization
and transformation of a
significant disowned uspect ofmy patient's experience that had
been expressed concretely
in frequem painful, repetitive experiences in her life.
I had been working with Holly for many years. during which
time she resolved much
of her early depression; substantially improved her relationship
with her husbund; helped
launch her children into selt:.directed und affirming careers;
und expanded her sense of
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314 NEWllnll
herself from that of a depressed maternal caretaker into a more
complex identity as a
woman, an academic, and a person able to stand up for herself.
Early in our work we
focused on her fearfulness of entering or engaging the world;
this anxiety had a gener-
alized phobic quality and was concretely expressed as a ··fear
of Hying." This phobic
auilude toward the world had been significantly resolved and
resulted in Holly's being
able, among other things. to enter into a graduate program in
which she shined and
received accolades and the recognition that had been missing
earlier in her life. However,
like many people, the necessity to complete her thesis resulted
in a return of her phobic
orientation and an inability to complete this final step.
Holly has had a long-standing fantasy of having either a radio
or TV show in which
she would facilitate discussions between children and adults.
However, she has been
afraid to pursue or create the opportunities to make her fantasy
into a reality. In our work,
we have identified her fear of being seen, her anxiety about
potentially exhibitionistic
wishes and experiences, and her difficulty separating from and
competing with her sisters.
It is not clear whether this fantasy, which she experiences as
real, is only a concrete

expression 'of her desire to be seen, to have a voice, to stand
out, and to differentiate
herself from her mother and her three older sisters or is an
unconscious exhibitionistic
wish that stands behind her phobic altitude toward the orld,
inhibiting her forward
progress.
Several years ago, Holly was awakened by an anxiety-filled
dream in which she was
a lawyer, dressed in a sophisticated Annani suit. and as she
began to present the closing
arguments of her case, she became paralyzed and could not
speak. In talking about the
dream. we focused on the suit, which she recalled as navy blue,
fitted, and very
elegant- something that she would never own. It became clear
that being seen in this very
grown-up way was extremely frightening, bringing up memories
of her childhood and a
sense that she should always be the little sister ''sitting in the
back seat of the car" on
family trips. In working with this dream, we developed an
evocative metaphor for her
contl icted feelings about being seen: a red Armani suit. which
expressed her fear of being
seen and her desire to stand out.
At another time. the patient had a dream that she initially felt
too embarrassed to talk
about in analysis. In this dream she was about to perfonn, to
sing in public; the setting was
unclear, but the excitement was palpable. As she held the
microphone up lo sing, it
became a penis, and she froze in the dream and felt embarrassed
thinking about the

multiple sexual meanings of the dream. We spoke about many
possible interpretations of
this dream. One obvious interpretation was about the
transference countertransference
relationship as involving her and.'or my sexual desires. A
second interpretation was that
like other men, I could not tolerate her having her own.
independent voice and would
overwhelm her sexually. putting her in her place. Another
interpretation was that in
becoming a woman, she had to give up her O n voice. to
castrate herself, and become a
female eunuch (Greer. 1971 ). A fourth. more traditional
interpretation was that of penis
envy- her inability to accept herself as a woman. All of these
interpretations arc plausible
and reflect different psychoanalytic perspectives. However,
what seemed new in this
dream, and in our work on it, was not the sexual tension and
reverie that was present and
had frequently come into the foreground in our transference
countertransfcrence relation-
ship. but rather her equating her voice, her ability to speak. with
a penis. or perhaps more
exactly with the absence of a penis. It was as if Holly, like the
scarecrow in the Wizard
of Oz who sang the song, "If I only had a brain;· dreamt that
she was singing her own
song, "If I only had a penis:• to articulate her lack ofa capacity
to have a voice of her own
and to be fully alive.
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Holly's dream raises interesting questions about how we think
of sexual dreams, such
as Holly's dream of the microphone becoming a penis. It seems
to me that contemporary
American psychoanalysis has interpreted sexual content, like
the penis in Holly's dream,
primarily in two ways: (a) as a 1 iteral sexual object
representing a repressed wish/
experience or as an abstract cultural experience; or (b) as either
an erotic desire/fear or as
an experience of gender. power, domination, and subm ission.
Lacan adds another per-
spective to the discussion of sexual symbols. Lacan (2007)
diflerentiates the concept of
the penis from that of the phallic object. The penis is a
reference to an actual body part,
and the phallus or phallic object reflects the movement from
concrete. immature forms of
thinking focused on images (the mirror stage) to the capacity to

use language, to be part
of the symbolic order, including experiences of subjective
desire, and the recognition of
loss and absence. Lacan·s differentiation of the penis from the
phallus describes the
difference between concrete experience of actual body parts and
the symbolic meaning of
metaphorical objects. For Lacan. the phallus, or phal lie object,
is a metaphor representing
a movement from the mirror stage in which the individual wants
to see him/herself puffed
up, larger than life. and dependent on others' applause to the
symbolic mode in which the
person struggles to use words and metaphors to express his or
her desire while recognizing
that words always fall short. Lacan (2007) describes this
process of transfonnation, or
metaphorization, as ·'traversing the fantasy,'' which involves a
symbolic recognition that
we arc the authors of our own lives. From a Lacanian
perspective, my patient's dream may
not simply be a dream about erotic desire in the transference
countertransterence rela-
tionship or our gendered power dynamics, but rather her wish to
have her own phallus. a
wish to enter into the symbolic realm in which she can speak,
articulate her desire, have
her own voice. and be able to mctaphorize her anxiety about
being seen and heard, to go
beyond the limits imposed by her concrete, unsymbolized
experience in family and
culture.
Holly's mother died about a year ago. at an advanced aged,
having survived several
major illnesses and two husbands. Her father died many years

before when she was a late
adolescent. Holly had surprised herself by taking the lead in
arranging care for her mother
during this illness, which lasted several months. Holly spent a
lot of time with her mother,
recognizing that her mother's inability to know, or want to
know. about her illness
recapitulated her difficulty knowing her own and her children's
feelings, her inability to
express emotions, particularly sad, depressed feelings of loss.
Holly felt very good about
her ability to know her own feelings and deal with the sadness
and loss of her mother.
Approximately 4 months after Holly's mother's death, the
following event occurred.
She arrived for a session, and with a combination of excitement
and vigilance said,"[ want
a penis." She described how she had been thinking about getting
a ·'penis" and that she
really wanted to do it. Her affect felt as if she was about to
embark on an adventure. When
I asked about this, she elaborated on her thoughts, her fantasy.
in an unusually unembar-
rassed way. She wanted to get a strap-on penis, she wanted to
know what it felt like to
have this appendage, she wanted to look at herself in the mirror,
she wanted to wear it
under her clothes in public so that only she knew about it, and
she discussed it with her husband
and suggested that she might like to use it in their sexual
relationship. She wondered if this
meant that she wanted to be a lesbian, and she felt that was not
where she was at. She
wanted to have a penis that she could play with in all possible
ways. and she wanted to

know what it feels like to have a penis.
I found myself propelled into many simultaneous thoughts and
reveries by Holly's
straightforward statement of her desire for a penis. First. my old
psychoanalytic super ego
came to the fore: it felt threatened and demanded an
interpretation and sa id that we had
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316 NEWIRIJI
come to the ultimate truth penis envy and castration anxiety.
Second, my relational self
came to the fore, believing that this must renect some unknown
part of myself, a personal
failure that I needed to identify, talk about, and then rescue
Holly from her wish to act out.
Lastly, I felt inquisitive and wanted to join Holly in this new
playful experience,
imagining what it would be like for her and imagining her being
in various places wearing

and being aware of her penis, including in sessions with me. My
response, which
somewhat surprised me, was asking her if she knew where to get
a penis and then telling
her about a store that I had often passed that specialized in
erotic toys for women. Rather
than interpreting and searching for some repressed oedipal wish
or focusing on our
immediate encounter, I seemed to be reacting in a playful way,
seeing and experiencing
this penis as a transitional object. The session continued in a
playful way, it felt wann, and
like with other transitional experiences, it was not possible to
say whether we were talking
about reality or creating a dreamlike space that Holly and I
could enter together.
I believe that the patient playfully introducing her wish to have
a penis was an
invitation to develop a transitional experience around her
central themes of phobic
anxiety, of being seen and heard, and of power, which was
encoded in her familial and
cultural experiences of gender. Throughout Holly's treatment,
fears of separation, of
standing apart from her sisters and mother. of being seen, of
being heard, and of being free
have been experienced as concrete realities in modes of psychic
equivalents as absolute
truth, as facts, rather than symbolically as thoughts, scripts,
symbols, or laws that must be
followed or could be transgressed. Although we may think that
Holly's penis represented
a concrete experience of gender and power. I see it as a
movement into a metaphorical
experience, using a strap-on penis as a presentational symbol, a

metaphor, like a perfor-
mance artist uses objects to express deep affective, symbolic
experiences in shocking and
humorous ways. We may think of this metaphor[c enactment as
illustrating the difference
between the functional and symbolic use of objects, as the
difference between tools and
toys, and as the diflerence between work and play.
Discussions of the development of the capacity for symbolic
experience are often
difficult and confusing because we are not used to thinking
about representational activity
as having different psychological qualities and as occurring in
parallel universes of
external and internal space. From most perspectives, my patient
is more than capable of
symbolic thought; she speaks and conducts herself as a
sophisticated, competent profes-
sional. However. her persistent anxiety symptoms and her
phobic attitude toward speak-
ing, being seen, and following her desires suggest that there are
unconscious limits on her
ability to be the author of her own life. Although our work
included interpretation,
articulating memories and forgotten truths, and involved many
of the interpersonal and
relational processes described above, I believe this process of
progressive symbolization
was a critical feature of our work. I would like to use the four
moments from my work
ith Holly to illustrate the process of progressive
symbolization and metaphorization that
are central to the transformational model of therapeutic action.
Each of the analytic moments can be thought of as part of a

progressive movement
from an externalized, concrete. and phobic experience of herself
as a passive actor toward
an internal, metaphoric. and symbolic experience of herself as
an empowered subject. Her
fear of flying may be understood as a concrete and externalized
phobic experience of
personal excitement, pleasure, and power in the exploration of
herself and the world. Her
dream of being a well-dressed attorney paralyzed when she was
about to speak and be
seen suggests an internalization of her experience of personal
excitement, pleasure. and
power as she moves from an externalized phobic orientation to a
fear of her own capacities
that she can begin to challenge herself through metaphorizing
this fantasy and seeing
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SIIFRI.OCK 1101.MES, SIR LANCH.Or AND HI!: WIZARD
OI- 0/. 31 7
herself dressed in an red Armani suit. Her dream of a
microphone turning into a penis as
she is about to sing represents another important movement
from the more concrete
internalized action that was involved in the dream of being a
law) er. to a more symbolic
experience of the microphone as a phallfc object. something
which she could potentially
have and use. These shifts from concrete to symbolic
representation arc described by
Segal (xxxx} as a shiti in attitude from treating a thought "as ir'
it is real to an attitude of
treating a thought from the perspective of ·'what it'' it is real.
Finally. Holly's wish to have
a penis and my participation in this transitional experience
reflects her ability to experi-
ence the penis (phallus) more fully as a symbol or metaphor, as
a toy that she can play
with, and a transitional experiences that she can own. This
transitional experience
represents her increasing capacity for symbolization and the
development of a set of
personal metaphors that allowed her to move from a phobic and
powerless state to one in
which she could experience herself as a powerful and playful
person having her own mind
separate from the roles given to her by her family, her culture,
and her analyst.
I believe that Holly's wish to have a penis and my ability to
validate her desire for a
penis was a transfomtational moment- a metaphoric enactment
of her long disowned

desire to be seen, heard, and a powerful and competent person.
This metaphoric enactment
or transitional experience developed through my joining her and
telling her where she
might safely go to purchase a penis, rather than interpreting her
desire from a Freudian or
a relational/cultural perspective, and helping her create a new
symbolic e>..perience in the
dreamlike 'orld of the analytic relationship. Holly and I
continued talking about her
.. fantasies'' about her penis, and as this evolved, she seemed
able to become more engaged
in other experiences involving potency and pleasure, such as
resuming work on her thesis.
1 am conflicted about whether to write about whether Holly
purchased her penis or not.
This conflict reflects my sense of not fulfilling aspects of my
role as a psychoanalyst,
defining the reality of sexual identity. and discouraging acting
out. However, I feel that it
would be in bad faith to Holly and to my view of psychoanalysis
as a transfom1ational
process, to the Wizard of Oz, to move this subjective dreamlike
experience into an
objectified reality. I believe that Holly's penis became our
metaphor, a transitional
experience in which we, in the safety of the illusory world of
therapy. could play with her
penis and allow her to become a more complete person and to
enter more fully into the
symbolic world. However, in the transitional experiences that
are generated in psycho-
analysis, it is hard to know what is real and what is illusory.
Was I encouraging her acting
out, supporting a denial of the painful truth of penis envy, of
limitations, or was I denying

the seriousness of her experience of being powerless and
subordinated to a patriarchal
order? Am I like the Wizard or Oz simply hiding behind a
screen and using theatrical
tricks and props? Am I the one who is supposed to know and
does not know, or have llwe
facilitated an important transfonnation through developing the
metaphor of-lolly's penis?
The transformational model conceptualizes psychoanalysis as a
series of potential now
moments (Stem et al.; xxx) in which subjective meaning
becomes generated through
metaphoric enactments, the development of metaphors that
reorganize experience, allow-
ing us to integrate disowned aspects of ourselves as we move
forward in life. Interest in
metaphor as a specific kind of symbolic and linguistic structure
has been growing. For
example, Enckell (20 l 0) contrasts metaphors with discursive
symbols and argues that
metaphors bring a future temporal focus and intentionality into
experience. guiding a
person as he or she moves into the future, creating a life.
Likewise, Fonagy (2007) and
others (Lakoff & Johnson. 1999) have highlighted the
importance of metaphors as the
individual integrates the many emotional. ph) sical, and
cognitive elements that allow
him/her to become a self-reflective agent. Although not using
the concept of metaphor,
,,,, -:.
~ :. , . ., ~

-.:: ~ . -an-.;
- •,
·~ -
~ -
~ ~
_;. ;
~ ~
.f .. _
, -.--.., ,
,
:' :.t -- '
318 NFWIRTII
Ogden (2007) has written about similar processes in his
discussion of talking like
dreaming. in hich conversations between analyst and patient
become dreamlike struc-
tures in which patients can move from concrete modes of
deadened experience into deeply
symbolic experiences of themselves as more fully alive, the
authors or their experience.
This focus on metaphor helps us to think about differences in
representation in uncon-
scious processes such as dreams as contrasted to discursive
symbols or abstract thought
such as historical memories.
Final Thoughts
In viewing psychoanalysis as an evolving theory. I have
suggested three literary meta-

phors to highlight the evolution or different aspects of the
therapeutic action of psycho-
analysis: the search for hidden truth, the importance of the
transference countertransrer-
ence experience in creating new modes or relatedness, and the
development of the
capacity for symbolic thought and metaphors in creating
subjective meaning. Although
these perspectives evolved during different historical periods
and are linked with different
psychoanalytic. philosophical, cultural, and scientific systems
of thought, they are all
clements in contemporary psychoanalytic practice. The
developing transfonnational mod-
els in psychoanalysis, developmental psychology. and
neuropsychology focus our atten-
tion on the importance of the patient's capacity to represent
experience and make meaning
in a symbolic. generative mode. In this clinical model.
enactments are not simply useful
as a source ofinfonnation, or as new experience. but are useful
in increasing the patient's
capacity for the development of metaphors that allow the patient
to organize his or her lite
in a generative, intentional, and active way. Many
psychoanalytic authors, including
Grotstcin, (2007), Ogden (20 I 0), Ferro t2006). Symington
(2007), Riolo (2007), and
Lombardi (2009). present transformational perspectives
extending Bion's concepts of
alpha function, reverie. dreaming, and waking dream thoughts
and focus on the develop-
ment of the capacity to symbolize and create metaphoric
experiences. These contemporary
Kleinian approaches can synergistically be integrated with
developmental, neuropsycho-

logical, and Lacanian perspectives. each contributing to a
deepening of our understanding
of the function of symbols and metaphors in analysis and in the
unconscious.
I have argued for the metaphor of the Wizard or Oz as a way of
conceptualizing a
contemporary view of the analytic process as a transfo1mational
experience that facilitates
the patient's development of the capacity to create meaning and
to symbolize and develop
metaphors that represent unconscious, imp I icit relational
structures. This metaphor con-
trasts with that of Sherlock Holmes. a great 19th century
detective, and Sir Lancelot, the
Hawed hero that represents analysis as a romantic journey. To
return lo the beginning,
psychoanalysis takes place in the explicit, conscious realm and
in the· implicit. uncon-
scious realms where our psychoanalytic metaphors determine
what we hear. how we act.
and what we say. I think that it is important for each of us to
detennine our own metaphor
and to see how it helps or hinders us in deepening our work
with patients and moving
psychoanalysis into the future.
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~ , .
..,. -....
.,
-~
~
- ,;
.;;,_
~ ~
C, ·= . ~~
: -= , .
·- :. :; . ,
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MARTIN KLUNERS
Freud as a Philosopher
of History1
1/philosophie de l'histoire, '' ''philosophy of history" ls the
name Voltaire,
in 17652 gave to a project, which dominated European-
especially
German philosophy for the following three generations and was
impor-
tant until the Fall of Communism at the end of the 20th century.
This
ideology for decades functioned as a substitute for religion for a
quarter
of the world's population and also influenced the work of,
probably the
most influential philosopher of history, Karl Marx. Despite the
great
diversity of the many different approaches in a period of more
than two
hundred years, there are five main themes that theories of
philosophers
of history from different times treat again and again :
{l) Voltaire himself advised what philosophically enlightened
llistorim1s
slto11ld do with history: "In all nations," he wrote, history was
"distorted by

fables, until finally philosophy enlightened Man." 1 Histori,1ns
should
therefore untangle the deformed history by using their critical
intellect.
A hundred years later the protagonists of German hic;torism,
Droysen and
Dilthey, created the perhaps most important theories of
historians'
duties: Droysen interpreted Man as a being with two qualities-
an acting
subject on the one hand, and a subject of historical cognition on
the
other. Man can understand the reasons why people do or do not
do certain
things. So for Droysen the duty of the historian is the
reconstruction of
the intention of human action"*. Dilthey advanced Droysen's
theory and
called his science of "[tjhe rule-guided understanding of
permanently
fixed manifestations of life," of "exegesis or interpretation,"
lwrme11c11-
tics:5 Historians should, among other things, reproduce
coherences of
memory.6 Still at the end of the 20th century-after the so-called
linguis-
tic turn-thinkers continue to formulate imperatives for the
historian's
work from a narrative point of view. Paul Ricoeur wrote an
analysis of
The Journal of l'sychohlstory -12 (1) Su111m11r 201-1
56 Martin Kliiners

Time awl Narrati11e7 in three volumes that Hayden White
called "the most
important synthesis of literary and historical theory produced"
in the
20th century.a
(2) Voltaire's main aim-as of most philosophers of history in the
18th
century-was to show how Man was not the object of God's
disposal, but
made history himself, that he could understand the sense of
history by
his intellectual potency and that there had been a conlir111om
progress in
tl1e unfolding of intellect:ual capacities, of" rcaio11 11 or
"e11lighte11ment." This
pattern returns, in different forms, In the main works of the
philosophy
of history, from Voltaire to Condorcet, Schelling and Hegel.
Even Weber's
analysis of rationalisation is a kind of sociological philosophy
of history
that examines the progress of enlightenment in occidental
history. In its
negation the pattern of growing enlightenment leads to the
pessimistic
Viale1.tic of {111/ight1m111ent9 of Horkheimer and Adorno.
One could call it
the main pattern, the centre of occidental philosophy of history;
il is
identical with the optimism of the age of enlightenment and,
after hav.
ing provoked its own negation in failed and bloody revolutions,
with the

delusion of this optimism (see also 5) .
(3) For some of the thinkers the ascent of enlightenment did not
take place
in a simple and linear development, but in a dialectic process.
Fichte and
especially Hegel created virtuoso dialectic systems, which
influenced ?-.-farx.
(4) According to Arnold Gehlen it was also Fichte who invented
the motif
of Elltfri'md1111g, alienation, by defining liberty as regaining
control over lost
products of one's own acting. 10 Especially for Karl Marx
£11tfrt!111dt111g became
one of the most important concepts of his materialistic theory,
as history for
him was the history of growing alienation, caused by the
contradiction
between the means of production and the relations of
production.
(5) After revolutions had ended in terror or failure, the ideas of
the
enlightenment, especially that Man made his own history, lost
more and
more their persuasive power. Later, Schelling even began to
doubt the
might of historical reason, which he had himself celebrated in
his
youth. 11 In the 19th century the conviction prevailed that
human reason
was unconscious and that one could not predict the aftermath of
human
acts-history had shown that human acts often resulted in effects
totally

different from those predicted or projected. This theme-in
German
often described as 11Ko11ti11ge11z11 (co11ti11ge11q) 12-is
the reason why philos-
Freud as a Philosopher of History 57
ophy of history, which had been the paradigmatic philosophical
disci-
pline from the middle of the 18th to the 19th century, generally
forfeited
its importance am.I began to be critici1cd.-evcn leading, in
some cases,
to the complete refusal not only of the idea of growing
enlightenment,
but of any attempt to understand the sense of history. This was
true espe-
cially after the experience of the two world wars, genocide, and
totalitar-
iani,;m in the 20th century.
Philosophy of history in the late 20th century seemed to exist
only in
what German philosopher Odo Marquard (born 1928) called
"Schwund-
stu fen" IJ-shrinkagc levels.
Despite this crisis of philosophy of history and the many
critiques that
occurred since the 19th century, a renaissance of this concept
can be
observed in an increasingly globalizcd world, which seeks new
kinds sig-
nificance. Great work,; of universal history like those of Weber,

Toynbee
and others that do not share the classical motifs of philosophy
of history,
like increasing enlightenment and liberty, 14 have shown what a
serious,
scientific philosophy of history based on empirically gained
data might
look like. Apart from this, th ere ha~ been an epistemological
debate on
formal aspects and, as a result, a slight rehabilitation of
philosophy of
history since Arthur C. Dan to demomtrated the explaining
functions of
narrating sentences in his A1111lytical p/Ji/osophy o(
history.15
So many of the questions posed by philosophers of history arc
still rel-
evant today. In particular, the unintentional consequences of
human act~
arc a scientific problem that docs not lose its fascination or its
interest.
I would like to show why another Sc/11vwulst11{e of
philosophy of his-
tory- psychoanalysis16-has lhc best answers to nearly all of
these ques-
tions: Psychoanalysis itself is, in the words of the German
historian
J-(,ms-Ulrich Wehler, a "historical science" as it uses the
individual history
of the patient as a basis for its diagnoses and therapy. 17 There
arc some
connecting lines between philosophy, philosopher~ of history,
and the
science Freud founded. Hi

HISTORIANS' DUTIES
When Voltaire describes history-or better the image of history
up to his
time- as a biased, warped thing (and one would like to add:
biased and
warped by memory•), " 1" the solution he postulates for this
problem mani-
fests analogies to the psychoanalytic notion of working-through.
The his-
torian is, in p~ychoanalytic terms, a kind of representative of
the sec-
ondary process. Voltaire can be seen here as a precursor of Paul
Ricoeur
who in his connection of literary and historical theory compares
the com-
58 Martin Kliiners
position of the plot to the psychoanalytic situation. Ricoeur
calls the com-
position of the plot "mimesis" and divides it into prefiguration,
configu-
ration and refiguration, or mimesis I, II and 111.20
Prefiguration or mimesis
I is identical with the reader's ability to recognize acting by its
structural
characteristics; it is pre-narrative. The configuration (mimesis
If) mediates
between mimesis I and Ill, between the prior understanding and
the final
understanding of refiguration in which the reader compares the
read story
with his own life story. Ricoeur defines the history of the

individual's life as
based on untold stories; in order to get its narrative identity,
these untold,
repressed stories have to be told, using the fragments passed
down by
memory-similar to what Dilthey, one hundred years before,
called the
reproduction of coherences of memory. This working-through
can be used
not only for the reconstruction of the individual's story, but also
for that
of groups and society.21 There is a fundamental affinity
between the work
of the historian and that of the psychoanalyst.
Nietzsche, in contrast, saw the necessity of a "critical" history
which
should have the force to "break" and to clear away the past to
make life
possible.22 To the suffering individual liberation from history
could be,
according to Nietzsche, a boon. One could be curious about how
Niet-
zsche would have argued if he had gotten to know Freud's
theory and
therapy. He might have realized and even appreciated that
liberation
from history-is something that simply is not possible. A better
under-
standing and, In the best case, a reconciliation with history is
the aim of
psychoanalytic working-through. Not liberation from history,
but libera-
tion from the distortion of history, can cure the sufferer. The
liberation
Nietzsche postulated is more like what psychoanalysis calls

repression
and in fact is the opposite of a successful healing.
Another boundary line between historical theory and
psychoanalysis
is relakd to what Droysen considered the historian's main duty:
The
reconstruction of the intention of human action is a kind of
ps)'c/10/ogy.
But Droysen limits himself to conscious intention, and can give
no real
answer to the question of why human acts so often have other
conse-
quences than those consciously intended. Psychoanalysis is the
"better"
historism as it takes account of the unconscious.23 The
integration of the
unconscious also allows us to examine the meaning of the wish
in his-
tory-both the wish of the acting individuals or groups who
"make" his·
tory, as well as the wish of those who write history: One of the
greatest
problems of philosophical historiography is the dialectic of
(unrealistic)
wish and resulting delusion. The examination of what
philosophers of
history wanted to see in history and whr they wanted to see it
would be an
illuminating project and might be the basis for the historian's or
histori-

ographer's own self-reflection.24
RATIONALISATION
Two philosophers writing at the end of the 18th century provide
exam-
ples of the idea of the co11li1111011s progress of l111ma11
rcnso11: Condorcet,
ignoring the contemporary violent and inhuman aspects of the
French
revolution that will later kill him, is the a.uthor of a Sketch for
a Historical
Picture o{llw Pmsress oftlw Htmum Jtliml in which he argues
for the neces-
sity of the progress of reason. In its untroubled optimism
Condorcet's
work is considered the classical example of the idea of progress
in the age
of enlightenment.25 In Germany, the young Schelling writes at
nearly the
same time a chronology of the self-fulfilment of reason. In hi,;
account
the first stage in human history was the direct and unadulterated
condi-
tion of sense perception-paradise; the second was that of the fall
of
mankind, in which logos destroyed the unity of life in the sense
percep-
tion; and in the third stage efforts to undo the fall of mankind
and the
redemption of the world by the aid of reason lead to a new
paradise on a
higher level. Human history therefore is a "history of liberating
human
reason from the limits of sense perception to the existence of
the unity of
reason."2<, This is very similar to what Freud nearly 150 years

later calls
The l'rugreH i11 Spirihmlit)• in his analysis of Mose'i and
Monotheism: One of
the, according to Freud, most important "precepts of Mosaic
religion,"
"the prohibition against making an image of God," signified
subordinating
sense perception to an abstract idea; it was a triumph of
spirituality over
the senses; more precisely an instinctual renunciation
accompanied by
its psychologically necessary consequencesF Progress in
5pirituality from
the psychoanalytic point of view is instinctual renunciation and
its ori-
gins are assigned to a certain historic period , the development
of Mosaic
monotheism, which is not for from Ma:-. Neber's definition of
the origim
of occidental rationalisation: The "disenchantment of the world"
which
began, according to Weber, with both Hellenistic scientific
thought and
ancient Jewish prophecy and led finally to the inner worldly
asceticism
of Protestantism. Inner worldly asceticism itself can be seen as
a sort of
sublimation am! would therefore also be related to the variouc;
modalities
of instinctual renunciation.28
The self-fulfilment of reason as described by Schelling is an
idea that
became very important in the philosophy of another exponent of
Ger-
man idealism whose work is regarded ac; the climax of

philosophy of his-
tory. Hegel interprets world history as tile history of reason;
reason rules
60 Martin Kluners
the world.29 But "reason" for Hegel does not necessarily mean
conscious-
ness. Reason in fact uses human passions for its self-fulfilment:
"This
maybe called the c1mni11:,: of reason-that it sets the passiom to
work for
itself, while that which develops its existence through such
impulsion
pays the penalty, and suffers loss."30 The optimi)tic view of a
cunning of
reason, a heritage of the age of enlightenment, may alienate
today's read-
ers of Hegel's philosophy as well as all of the optimistic
theories of the
18th and early 19th centuries, but the supposition that there has
been a
historic increase of knowledge and an increase in rationality is
still con-
sidered to be common sense in the present time.
I would like to connect the idea of lncre.ising rationality or
cm1scicms-
nesi; with that of the cultural or historic ego, a term that already
appears
in Schelling's writings.31 Increasing consciou,;ncss wa~ an
expression of
an extension of the ego.n The historic ego tends to its own
extension,

but the ego is not always in control of this process-it not only
sets the
passions to work for itself, but also is set by the passio,t lo
work for them.
The idea that the ego and the passions arc cmlagonim that often
fight
against each other allows us to see the ambivalence of
rationality or
enlightenment- which was a favourite theme of many 20th
century
thinkers, as formulated by Horkhcimer .ind Adorno in the
Viafrctic of
E11/ighte11111e11t. They reversed Hegel's optimistic
teleoloh•y of the self-fulfil-
ment of reason and wrote a negative teleolobry of reason, a
history of the
decline of enlightenment from emancipation to governance. But
as a
negative teleology is not less tendentious than a positive one,
there has
to be a more realistic and less ideological solution to explain
the ambiva-
lence of emancipation: emancipation is hmdamentally Oedipal.
Oedipus
aspires to emancipation from parental, or, in the patriarchal
society,
fatherly dominance. This struggle for independence however is
not
always successful as patriarchal dominance include~ the
introjection of
dominance structures into the son's psyche. So fatherly
dominance in
fact docs not get abolished, but substituted for by another
dominance,
the dominance of the son. If the history of the emancipatory
process can

be interpreted as an Oedipal individuation, the ambivalence of
this
dynamic psychological process is the cause for the ambivalence
of
enlightenment. This ambivalence results from the relationship
of father
and son-the father has the function of a role model for the son,
but in
truth is seen also as an enem}' to fight against. The~e hostile
feelings of
the ~on against the father evoke a deep sense of guilt that has to
be ratio-
nalic;ed. So "rationalisation" is not only a term for the rational
attain-
ment of an aim and the increasing assertion of this principle in
history,
but also has an important psychopathologica aspect as the
psychoana-
lytic use of this term already suggests: Introduced in 1908 by
Ernest Jones
into the psychoanalytic vocabulary, rationalisation de~cribes
the ambi-
tion to find coherent, "rational" reasons for non-identified real
motives
of acting, sentiments, thought~ etc. which is supported by
ideologies,
morality, religion, or political convictions-what Weber called
ideas-as
the activity of the superego reinforces the ego's mechanisms of
dcfcncc.:n
The a~sumption that ideologies, morality, religion, and political

convic-
tions could influence thinking would offer the possibility of
using psy-
choanalysis to help understand historically powerful ideas and
to finally
find an answer to the question of why history so often yields
other devel-
opments than those consciously intended.
DIALECTIC
for the thinkers of German idealism rationalisation was a
dialectic
process. I would like to focus on the parallels between I legel's
and Freud's
dialectic as Paul Ricoeur analysed them in his Essar 011
lnterprctation.3"'
Ricoeur seeks "to find in Freud an inverted image of Hegel":15
by comparing
their respective dialectics: Freud links, in the words of Ricoeur,
"a thema-
tized arcl1aeology of the unconscious to an unthematized
teleology of the
process of becoming conscious," while "Hegel links an explicit
teleology
of mind or spirit to an implicit archaeology of life and
desire."J6 Hegel
does not develop a phcnomenologv of the consciousness, but of
spirit, so
spirit is more than con'iciousness. Between "the I legelian
dialectic of m/11-
pliwted consciousness" and ''the process of consciousness that
develops in
the analytic relation there is a remarkable structural homology,"
'' [t]he
entire analytic relation can he reinterpreted as a dialectic of
consciousness,

rlsing from life to self-consciousness, from the satisfaction of
desire to the
recognition of the other consciousncss."37 According to
Ricoeur, the rela-
tion between the analyst and the patient is similar to, the
Hegelian rela-
tion between master and slave. The Hegelian terms of
"satisfaction" and
''recognition" are of such great importance for psychoanalysis
that "we
can say that all the dramas psychoanalysis discovers are located
on the
path that leads from 'satisfaction' to ' recognition."'-18 Freud's
thought is,
like that of Hegel, fundamentally dialectical, especially in the
second
topogrnphy: ''The second topography is the dialeclic properly
so-called in
and through which arise the various instinctual dichotomies and
the
opposed pairs or instinctual vicissitudes l, .. ). The question of
the superego
lies at the origin of the dialectical situation [ ... ]. Furthermore,
the series of
pairs, ego-id, ego-superego, ego-world, which constitute these
dependent
62 Martin Kliiners
relations, are all presented, as in the Hegelian dialectic, as
master-slave
relationships that must be overcome."39 For Freud world
history, the rela-
tionship of human nature, cultural development and religion-are

seen as
the mirroring of the dynamic conflicts between ego, id and
superego40-
this dialectic is the base of a potential synthesis of Hegelian
philosophy of
history and psychoanalytic cultural theory.
ALIENATION
Karl Marx upended the Hegelian idealistic dialectic and
interpreted the
idea mentioned above, tracing it originally back to Fichte, that
alienation
is losing control over the products of one's own acting, in a
materialist
way: La/Juur is not only the quality that distinguishes man from
animal, it is
also the reason for the transformation of human nature and for
human
E11tfre111d1mg (alie11ation), the central term of Marxist
theory. The dual char-
acter of labour-as it involves the human relationship to nature
as well as
being a social phenomenon-causes the alienation not only of the
individ-
ual, hut also of his social situation. History is the story of
increasing alien-
ation and will end in the self-destruction of capitalism. Control
over his-
tory will finally be regained by means of the revolution of the
proletariat:"
There lrnve been many attempts to link ~forxism with
psychoanalysis
such as those of the Critical Theory or E.xistentlalism,42 as
well as Reich,
Fromm, and much of what came to be called the Freudian Left,

It is prob·
ably the idea of alienation and the offer of solutions to undo it
that
makes psychoanalysis so attractive for Marxist thinkers. Also,
Freud was
very sceptical about Marxist theory, especially its method of
explaining
alienation only by materialistic criteria and the reduction of
human his-
tory to a socio-economic process.43 Especially in Ober ei11e
Wclta11sclw11-
1mg+' Freud criticizes the complete absence of psychological
arguments In
Marxist theory, the similarity of Marxism and religion as
producers of
illusions, the intolerance of the "practical Marxism"-
Bolshevism-
toward critics, which reminds Freud of the former intolerance of
the
Church etc .... Freud compares the expectancc of a future
paradise on
earth to Jewish messianism- more than a decade before Lowith
does the
same in Mca11i11g in Hi.w,ry:H Furthermore, for Freud the
transformation
of human nature within a few generations as intended by
Marxism is
deeply unrealistic.
If one follows the German historian Heinz Dieter Kittsteiner
who argued
that Marx's term Nah1rwiichsigkcit is a synonym for the
unconscious and
communism nothing else than the abolishment of the
unconscious his-
tory,46 p~ychoanalysi~ for Marxist thinkers would have the

function of sup-
plementing a political-economic theory psychologically, of a
ps,vchologirn/
method to abolish the unconscious. But at the same time the
differences
between Marxist and psychoanalytic theory become clearer:
Psychoanaly-
sis does not aim to "abolish" the unconscious, but only to
transform alien-
ated parts of the ego, to get them back from the id. The
psychoanalytic def-
inition and interpretation of consciousness is much more
complex than
the philosophical one. For Psychoanalysis consciousness is
influenced by
many factors other than the material or social being.4 7
There might be an at least indirect parallel in their respective
notions of
;i ienation. Freud, in a letter to Romain Rolland in 1936,·18
says that alien-
ation exlsts in two forms: either a part of reality seems to be
alien or a
part of the ego does. Alienation is a special kind of defence that
wants to
deny the existence of elements from the outside world or from
the lnner
world. In the concrete case that he tries to explain to his friend
Rolland, a
guilt feeling causes a disturbance of memory on the Acropolis.
This guilt

feeling is evoked by the encounter with the sphere of Greek
antiquity-
which for Freud is a symbol of having surpassed the father by
having, in
contrast to him, learned Greek at school and had a higher,
humanistic
education. Surpassing the father though is ;inalogous to
violating an
interdiction. Interpreted psychoanalytically, also historic
alienation could
result from the sense of guilt of the son who surpasses the
father, which
occurs in the course of the progress of civilization.
CONTINGENCY
After the questions concerning the historians' duties, the
process of ratio-
nalisation, the dialectic and the nlienation in history, the last,
and in the
present time perhaps, the most important problem of philosophy
of his-
tory regards the unintended consequences of human action. Yet
Droysen
suggested that historical facts are not based on the conscious
acts of voli-
tion of few individuals, but on the interaction of many, that they
are the
result of a correlation of action. 4!1 In Droysen's time another
concept
becilme more and more important and was popular already
before the
rise of the psychoanalysis: Schelling had introduced the
unconscious into
the philosophical discourse (although Leibniz had had similar
ideas hun-
dred years earlier), but especially Eduard von Hartmann's book

The Phi-
losop/1,,1 o{llle Unconscious (1869) was very important in the
second half of
the 19th century . .so Freud claimed later that only hypnotism-
which he
considered a forerunner of psychoanalysis-had made the
unconscious
an object of scientific cxperiment.51 However, the unconscious
finally
found its way not only into psychology, but also into the
theories of his-
torians. Ernst Troeltsch describes, as the major problem of
historical
research, the tension between the common and the particular,
between
64 Martin KWners
society and individuals, between objective and subjective
spirit.52 To
resolve this problem he proposes the unconscious as a
"fundamental"
term of history.-n His definition of the unconscious is close to
that of psy-
chology; Troeltsch though docs not refer to Freud or other depth
psy-
chologists. I le even suggests categories equivalent to what
psychoanaly-
sis calls "preconscious."·q Both the unconscious and the
preconscious
operate not only in the individual, but also in society. Troeltsch
antici-
pates to a certain extent the considerations about the supra-
individual

unconscious of psychoanalysts like Erich Fromm and Mario
Erdheim.ss
Fromm supposed a "filtcr"-consisting of language, logic, and
morals-
decide,; which experiences are allowed to become conscious
and which
have to remain unconscious. The whole cultural Jpparatus
serves to
uphold the supra-lndividual uncomciousnessY' A change in the
status
quo makes it pos,;ible for unconscious experiences to come to
conscious-
ness because they lose their dangerousness.57 Mario F.rdheim
defines the
supra-individual unconscious as the attributes of a society that
do not get
reflected in a ~ufficient Wa}' and therefore cause unexpected
develop-
ment,;. At the same time they are responsible for cultural
change. The
central problem of philosophy of history is the lack of regard
for uncon-
scious factors in history.1t8 Al,;o deeply influenced by
psychoanalytic
thought, the sociological theory of Norbert Elias tries to resolve
the prob-
lem of contingency by examining the process of human
interaction: the
analysis of "figurations"- networks of interdependent humans-
allow us
to reconstruct the structures of human action which seems at
first unde-
signed, but in reality arc the result of interdependent individual
acts. The
larger the figuration, the more intensive is the control of the
affects, the

might of tile superego. ~9 Due to figurational sociology the
traditional
confrontation of "individual" and "society" as antagonists loses
its
importance and seems more and more to be an artificial
construct. Elias
does not only give an answer to the question of Wh}' human
acts often
have unintended consequences, he also demonstrates how
Freudian
topography, the theory of superego, ego and id, and sociological
theory
can be .synthesized. With this approach there might also be a
way to
understand the mechanisms by which historic ideas have an
effect on
individuals and societ}'. Weber's sociology of religion was in
fact a refor-
mulated philosophy of history, an examination of the influence
of the
spirit and the ideas and their indirect, unconscious
consequences.
CONCLUSION
After describing what I consider the five main a!ipects of
philosophy of
history and their connections with psychoanalysis, I would like
to bring
four of them-rationalisation, dialectic, alienation and
contingency-
together in a short hypothetical reconstruction of their supposed

original
coherence, as in my opinion they are ,111 different parts of one
great
socio-psychological problem.
For a long time, alienation was the object of philosophic
speculJtion
that did not allow secure assertions because of our lack of
knowledge
about prehistoric societies. But cultural anthropology has made
great
progress since the 19th century, and what we know today about
human
prehistory enables us to evaluate philosophic terms by
comparing their
meaning to certain pre- and protohistoric phenomena. for 99%
of his
history Man lived as hunter and gatherer with very few cultural
changes.
The "big bang" of cultural development, took place in what is
called
Neolithisation toda}': sedentariness, farming, use of
domesticated ani-
mals, new forms of labour, the growth of human societies and
the
increasing number of wars60 had deep impacts on Man's
relation to
nature, with great psychological consequences.61 We have to
imagine the
alienation starting here as ii psrchic alienation, particularly
because of the
increase of violent conflicts and aggressiveness in Neolithic
societies.
Guilt is also a special form of c1ggression-an aggression
directed not to
the exterior, but to the· psychic interior.<•2 I would like to

suggest that the
increase in external aggresc;ion- as in wars, but a lso under
growing pres-
!>ttre from family conflicts- leilds tu an increase in internal
aggression as
well , iln increase in guilt. 1 he ego becomes weakened by the
id and later
by the superego, a development caused by. transgenerational
transmis-
sion of traumatic experiences . The ego tends, as mentioned
ilbove, to its
own extension-enllghtenment, rationalisation , progress in
splrituality
can all be seen as expressions of the ego-extension. According
to cultural
anthropologist Marvin Harris, the increase in violent conflicts
can lead to
another relationship of fa there; and sons. I !,mis believes that
the sexually
determined hostility between fathers and sons- the Oedipus
complex-
is not the origin, but the result of the increase in violent
conflicts and in
new ideals of virility in more ilnd more militant societies.6:i
However, the
intensification of Oedipal conflicts probably has strengthened
the will of
the sons to liberate themselves from their fatherc;' suppression,
the will of
emancipation. But as they lrnd internalised dominance
structures them-
.selve,;, their emancipation had to remain a very .imbivalent
thing. The
interior as well as the exterior conflicts were master-slave
rcliltionships.
Freud was right to regard the dynamic conflicts of ego,

superego and id as
the foundation of human history. The ad'antilge of
psychoanalytic "phi-
losophy of history" over the traditional philosophy of history is
based on
the fact that it takes into consideration the unconscious aspects
of
66 Martin Kli.iners
human acting-Psychoanalytic theory makes possible a more
realistic
image of Man and his history as both social and a natural being.
Martin Kliiners (bom 1979) studied History and Gen11m1
literature at Hum-
boldt University in Berlin. His />/JD thesi~ defense was in
Febmary 2012 at
Ruhr University Rochum (Faculty of Social Science). He car1
be reached at
111.kl [email protected] .tie.
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Rohhcck, Johannes. 2004. G1°scl11chtsphilosoplrir. z11r
Ei11fiUm111s. (Zur Elnfilhrung, 302).
Hamburg: Junius.
Ril)en, Jorn ,Uld Straub, Jtirgen (editors). 1998. Die d1111kle
Spur dcr 'e,sanJenheit. /1'-
r/romra/} ti~clle Z11gd11ge tum Gescl1iclrtsbew11{itst'i11,
('iuhrkamp. I aschcnbuch Wl~sen-
schaft, 1403). Frankfurt/ M.: Suhrkamp.
Rusen, Jcrn and Straub, J1irgen (L'llilors). 2010. Dark /raws of
tlw f'"St. l'syclwmralysis a///l
historical thi11k/11g. New York let al .]: Herghahn Books. (I
his translation do~ not
contain all the articles of the German original.)
Straub, Jurgen. 1998. Psych0<11111l>'$I', Geschichtc 1111</
Gesclricht.nl'lu e,,schaft. Eine Ei11fil/1
nms i11 s,1:5tematisc/1er ,bsicht. In: Rusen, J(lrn and Straub,
Jurgen fe<litor,;). 1998. Die
tl1111klr .'ip11r dcr Verga11gc11IIL'it. l'~>·clwa11al>•lische
Z11gii11.~c 111111 G,•sc/1iclrts/Je'11'11fltsei11,
lSuhrl,.amp-TaschcnbuLl1 Wl,cmL11art, 1403). i:r,mkfurt/1'I.
Suhrkamp, pp. 12-32.
·1 <.-ssar, Hans 2008. Die l'roc/11J..tic11 Jt~c/fschaftllchcr
U11/x'll'llutl1eit. l.i11e 11,111e AlllhmpologiL'
Spmd1plli/11so11lrie, Erkm11t11istlreorie mu/
Gesel/fc/m(nphilasoplrit·. I lamhurg: Dlplomlt.1

I roelt~cl1, Ernst. J 922. Gesmmm IIC! Schrif1111. Vol. 3: Der
I fistorfm111s rmtl 11'i11e l'mblemr,
Erst,•s (d,uigcs) B11clr. Dm luJisc Irr l'mhlmr tlrr
GcS<l1iclrtsplrilosophic. Tiiblngen: ~ lol ,r.
Voltaire, I ranois-Marie. 196.t £rn1/ s11r le~ 1111c11rs et l
'c•s11rit ,It's 1111tiom ct .mr /i•s pri11ci-
1111m {crits ,ii! l'ilistoire ,lep11l~ C'harlewagm• imqu',i Louis
XIII 1·.dited by Rene Pomeau.
Vol. 2. l'aris: Garnier.
W~b,r, Max 1920. Ges(l111111c•ltt' Au(Jiitte z11r
Rl!ligiomsotiologie. Vu/. 1: lJic protesta11tisc/1r
Ethik 111111,h'r Geist ties K1111italism11s Ttibingcn: Mohr.
Wehler, I lan~-t:lrlch 1971. GeKhicl,tc 111ul
l'syc/111111111/rsr. (Pocket, 25). Kmn: Kicpen-
heuer & Witsch.
White, llayden. 19R7. Tire C<mtc11t of tlw {arm. Nam1ti1•r
,li.mmrsc mul lristorical reprcs1•11.
tatimt. Baltimore, Md [1•1 al.] : Johns I lopkins University
Press.
Zuckermann, Moshe (edltor), 2004: Grschiclrtc 11ml
l'~,1'/1omwfrse. ( lei ,·iver Jahrhuch fiir
deutsche Leschilhte, 32). Gi>ttlngen: Wallstcin.
ENDNOTES
1. Tills article gives an outline or the main results or my PhD
thesis that has hccn
published In 201.'l (Kitiners, Martin. 201:.i.
Gescl1ichtfflhilosop/1ic' 1111d l'syrlwa1111l}'St'.
GOttingen- ' & It unlpress). I tried to use original English texts
or translations

whcrcvu possible.
2. Angchm, Fmll. 1991. G1·.sd1ichts11/1/loso1•ltie..
(Gmndi..urs !'hilosophlc, 15). Stuttgart let
al.) ; Koltlhamrncr, p. ulJ. One year before, In 176-1, Volt,1irc
used the expression
"philmopltie de l'hlstulre" for the first time ln a wcenslon ur
Hume's Camplt•tc His-
torr 11/ £11.~lmul (Nagl-Ducek,11, Herta (editor). 1996. Der
Simi dt•s Historisclw11.
C iC' ~cltic/11 .spltilo.~opltisrlte Dcb,1t tcn. (Fi sci ll.'r:
rachcnlJ1lcher, 12 776). Frankf urt/"t>I..
Fischer, p. 7 ).
3. Voltaire, Franoi~-Marle. 196J Emu s11r J,s 1111t·11rs et
l't'Sf'rit dc!s 11atium et .rnr Ir.
pri11cipaw,: fait~ ,IL' l'lristaire depuls Clwrlemag11e j11sq11',i
I.auir }(Ill. Edited hy Rene
Pomcau. lol. 2, Paci~. Garnier, p. 800.
-1. Rohbc<.k, Johannes. 200.J. Geschichtsplrilvsophie lllr
Ei11fiiltn111g. (Zur t::lnfilhrung,
J02). l·famburg: Junius, p. 77. See also Droysen, Johann G.
1977. Historik. cdltcd by
Peter Leyh. Stuttgart Uad Cnnnstatt: l'ron11nann-Mol1boog, p.
424.
'i. Oihhc)', Wllhelm. 2002. Tire fvmwtio11 of the ltfatorirnl
1mr/1/ in thr h11111a11 .sci1•11cc•.s.
Fdited, with Jn introduction, hy Rudolr ,, Mnkl.:rcel and Frft
hJof Rodi. l'rlnceton,
N.J.: Princeton University Prcs, pp. 2]7-23!!.
6. At nearly the same time Nicttsche saw history .is a kind of
iifi.>'~ servant whose v:iiuc
resulted only In it, meaning for ltfo. l'rcoccupatlon with history

should, according
to Nietz.chc, not he cxaggcrntcd as It might pwnmt the
lmli,·iduum-that, hy con-
cerning ltself with that what was, rcmaim:d mentally In the
pnst- frnm life.
(Untimclr Me1/itatim1s II, 011 tlrc Use~ ntul Disa1/m11t11ges
of'Histnry (or Liff', chapter J)
7. Rlwcur, J'aul , 1984-88 ( l9H'i-H5). Time mu/ Nc1rmlil't'
(Temps ft Ut?cit). 3 ml~. tr,1ml.ited
by Kathleen MclAmghiin and D,l·id Pcllaucr. Chlc:,1go:
University of Chicago l'rL~~-
8. Whltc, llaydcn. 1987, 1'/w ccmtellt of the fbrm. Ncrrmtfrc
1/immrsc 1111d liistorirnl rrpre-
St'lltalim1. llaltimore, Md (ct al.); Johns Hnpklns University
Pres~. p. 170.
9. lforkhL•imcr, Max and ;dorno, ·1 hcodor I. 2002. Diall'ctic
o(r'1J/(~htenmc11t. l'/Jilo-
roplliwl fmgml'11/s. Edikd by Gunzelin ~chmid Noerr.
Translated hy Eumund Jcph-
cott, <;tanford, Calif. : St,,nford University Press.
10. Gchlen, ,mold. l 9S2/5.t U/ler tlie Gt•burt der Freiheit aus
der £11tfre11ulr111g, In: Arclliv
fiir Rccl!L',-111111 S0li11/pl1ilo.rn[1hie. -10, pp. 338-353
(here: pp. 3JH-3l9).
11. Kltt~tclncr, Helm~ D. 2004. Wir wmlrn gehN- Ober
A11alogir11 Zll'ische11 dem U11bc-

ll'Ufl,le11 ;,, der Gesc/Jic/1tl' 1111d im .. Tell~. In:
Zw:kermann, Moshe (editor), 2004:
Gt~chic/J/e 1111d Ps_1•c/rumwly.s1'. (I el ,vlvcr Jahrhu<.h
fiH dcut~chc lreschlchte, U).
Guttingcn: ValbteJn, pp. $6 !U (here; p. 66).
12. Angchrn 1991 , p. 123.
1:t Marquard, Odo. 1 '.l82. Sc/1wh•rigkdtc!11 mit der
Gesch/chtspl1iiosc1phic. (Suhrkamp-
Tasd1cnhuch Wlsscnsclrnft, 39-1). l 'rankfurt/M.: Suhrkamp, p.
25.
14. Angdun 1991, p. 162.
1 S. Dan to, Arthur C. 196S. ;1,wlrtica/ pltilosoplrr of l,isror)'.
Cambridge: Camhridgc Uni-
vcrslty Press. Sec al~o RohhL>ck 2004, 105.
16. Psychuanalysis may he talh:cl a Schwundstufe of philosophy
of history bcLause
according to ~larqu.ird psychoanalysi~ I~ a "disenchanted''
form of Germ.in
"Naturphllmophie"-"Naturphilosophlc'' it~elf yet is a
Sd1wumhtufc of philoso-
phy of hi~tory (!larqumd 1982, pp. 91 and un. !Ice aln
Marquard, Odo. 1987.
Trnmu•11J1•11t11/c•r fllt-a/is11111.~, llm11,111tiscl1e
N11turphilo.1opl,ie, l'srclwa11a/pc. (Schrlftcn-
rclhc 111r philosophlschcn Praxis, 3). Kdin: 11intcr, p. 4).
17. Wchler, llans-Ulrich . 1971. Gr•sc/1/drt<• mu/
l'syclwmml>~<;e. (Pocket, 25). Kiiln: Kie·
pcnhcucr « Nitsc:h, p. 19.
18. It is true that l·rcud Look several philosophy coursL>s with
Professor Brent.mo at the

Uniwrsitv of Vienna from 1874 tlll 1876, that he read Ludwig
l·cuerbac:h and that he
also attended the l.cscvercin dcr dcutschcn Studenten (reading
society of German stu•
dents) here he probably had his first c:ontact with the
thought~ of S<.hopcnhaucr
and Nict,.schc. Bui, soon afWr that, he lost intcrc,;t in
ph!losophy ;i,; ,m academic sub-
ject and conLcntratcd on his study of medicine (sec Kl(mcrs
2013, pp. 187 -190).
19. Voltaire 1963, p 804.
20. Sec the first volume of Ricoeur'~ Timi· mu/ .Vmmti1•e.
21. Sec the third volume of Time ,111,I Nc1rr11til'I.'.
22. Sec almvc (Untimely Mc,lilati011<; II, On the Use'<; muJ
Di.m,fra11111~cs o(Historr (or Lift•,
chapter J).
23. It ~hould be mentioned that the last important tlmJrM of
German hlstorism, fanst
·1 roclts<.h ( 1 B6S- l 923), also took ,1crnu11t of the
unconsdous which at his Lime had
bt'<'ornc an important category in cultural science (sec below,
chapter Contingern.-y).
24. J'or the imporl.incc of pS)'t..hoanalys!s .is hasLs for thl!
historian's self-rcflcctlon see
Straub, Jiirgm. 199R. l')'Clwmwlyse, Gcscl1ic/lre 11ml
Ge.Khicl1t.rn'i.ue11scl1nft. Eine Ei/1.
fiihnmg in sr~ti!111111ischcr A!lsic/11. In: Rtisen, J/im and
Straub, J1irgcn (editors). 1998.
Die d1111klt: Sp11r du 1'c,sw1smhl'il. Psycliummlytisclzc•
Z11sii11_i:t: 1.11111 Grsc/1icl1tshe11·11flt·
sei11. SuhrkJmp-Taschcnhud1 Wissenschaft, 1403). Frankfurt /
~!. ; Suhrkamp, pp.

12·32 (here: pp. ]0-31 ). An l·nglish tramlatJon of thl artlclc
t..an hL· found at
70 Martin Kluners
Rusen, Jorn and Straub, Jurgen (editors). 2010. Dark traces of
the past. Psrrlwanalysis
a111f historical thi11ki11s. New York [et al.): Uerghahn Hooks
2~. Angchrn 1991. p. 72.
26. Baumgartner, Hans M. 1996. Phllosophie clcr G,•schic/1te
1u,cl1 elem £111/e der
Gcschid1tsphilosophic. I1emerk1mge11 zu111 grge11wifrtigc,1
Stand des gesc/1ichtsp/rilosophl·
sclrm Denkens. In: Nagl-Docekal, Herta (editor). 1996. Der
Si1111 ties Historiscl1c11.
Gcsclrlchtsphllo.mphlsche Dcbatte,1. (Fischer-TaschenbOchcr,
12776). Frankfurt/M.:
Fischer, pp. 151-172 (here: p. 154). My translation. ilso Hchte
wrote that the order
of the world and so equally that of natural processes ls rational.
Where reason can-
not yet be effocllve by the aid of llbf!rt}, it is effectlvf! as
natural law, as "dark
instinct" (Fichte, Johann G. 1845. Siimt/iclU' Werkc. Vol. 7:
L11r /'olitik, Moral mrd
l'hilomplrlc ,/er Ge~c/1/clttc. hilted by Immanuel H Hchtc.
LL!p,di;- ~foyer und Muel-
ler, pp. 8-9).
27. l·reud, ~lgmund. 1939. Moses a11d Monotlrcism. 'Iramlated
from the German by
Katherine Jones. London: Hogarth Press, pp. 178· 179.

28. Weber, Max. 1920. Gcsnmmclte A11{siltzc z11r
Religlo11ssuziologk. Vol. J: Die 1,rotcst1111·
ti.~du: l:tilik wul tier Geist des Kapitnlis11111s. Tiihlngcn:
Mohr, pp. 94,95.
29. "The only Thought which Philosophy brings with It to the
contemplation of His-
tory, is the simple conception of /lcason; that Reason Is the
Sovereign of the World;
that the history of the world, therefore, presents us with a
rational process." {liege!,
Georg W. i:. 2001 . TI1c Pltllosophy <l{l1istol'}', With prefaces
by Charles Hegel and the
translator, J. 'iihree. Translated by John Slhree. Kitchener:
llatoche nook.~, p. 22)
30. /hid., p. 47. Odo Marquard pulls together the Idea of
cu1111i11g 11{n•aso11 and psycho-
analytic ~ublirnatlon: Marquard 1987, p. 217.
31. llarquard 1987, p. 16.
'2. Munchener Vorlesungen (1827), according to Marquilrd
1987, p. 16.
33. For the characteristics of rationalisation see Laplanche, Jean
and Pontalls, jf!an-
Bcrtrand. 1988. TI1e la11x11ngc of" psyrlro111U1IJ:fis.
Translat<.><l by Donald Nicholson-
Smllh. With an introduction by Oanlel l.agache. London:
Karnac, pp. 375-376.
:i.J. I do not treat the materialistic inversion of I legellan
dial<.-ctlc here .is Marx will be
discussed In the next chapter ahout alienation.

'i5. IUcocur, l'aul. 1970. Freud and Plrllosofllr)•, Arr Essay 011
I11terpretntion. Translated by
Ocnis Savage. New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 4bl.
J6. I/lid.
'{7. llicoeur 1970, p. -1 7-l.
J8. //,id.
:w. Ricocur 1970, p. -177 .
• I(). Freud, Sigmund. 1935. Postscript. A11 , 11tohiogmpl1irnl
.'itml,1 (1925). The Stamlard
Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund
Frcuc.J, Volume XX
(1925-1926): An Autobiographical Study, Inhibitions,
Symptoms and Anxiety, The
Question of Lay Analysis and Other Works . London: Hogarth
l'ress, pp. 71-74.
-11. Rohheck 2004, pp. 66-67. Sec .ilso ingehrn 199 I, pp. 105-
119.
42. Marquard 1987, p. 18.
43. Freud precedes the critic by Lowlth (!~with, Karl. 1957.
Mc1111i11g i11 history. Tire thc-
,ilogical i111plicntio11s of tile plll/o.rnp/111 of' hlIWry.
Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, p. 33). Ulwlth's work w.is first puhlishcd In 1949.
-14 . Freud, Sigmund. 1932. TI1c Q11cstfo11 of a
IVcltan(cha111111g. l he Standard Edition of
the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume
XXII (1932-1936):
New Introductory lectures on psyclm.an.ilysls and other works,
XXXV. London:

Mog~rth Press, pp. 158·182.
45. Uiwith 1957, p. 42.
46. Kittswiner 2004, p. 7S.
'17. A good summary of the psychoanalytlc meaning of the t~rm
consciousness can be
found In l.aplam:he/l'ontalis I 988, pp. 84,88.
48. Freud, 'iigmund. 1916. A DMurlm11c1' of Memory• 011 tire
tlcropclis. The Standard Edi·
tlon of the Complete Psychological Works or Sigmund Freud,
Volume XXII (1932-
1936): New Introductory Lectures on l'~ychu-tnalysls and
Otht:r Works. London:
I logarth !'rcS. pp. 2 j 7-248.
49. Rohhcc.:k 2004, p. 90.
50. Godde, Gunter. 1999. Tmditiomli11iw ,t,•s
HU11bc11"11f.,1m-. Sclwpe11/ra11er, Nietzsclre,
Fm1d. Tublngen: Ed. Dlskord, pp. 25-28 .
. 'i 1. Freud, Sigmund. 1924. A S/Jnrt Aammt o( Psrcho-
A11alysis. The Standard Edition of
the Complete l'~ychologlcal Works or ~lgrnund Freud, Volume
XIX (1923-1925):
The Ego and the Id and Other Work.~. London: 1 logarth Press,
pp. 189-210.
52. ·r mdtsch, F.mst. 1922. Gesmnmelte ~chri/lc11. Vol. 3: Der
Histnri.m111s 11ml seine Pm-

/,feme. Erstes (t'i11ziges) JJ11ch: Das logi~clic f'mblcm der
Ge~chicf1tsJ1hilosophic. Tilhin-
gen: Mohr, p. 44.
53. Troclt.s1.h 1922, p. 46.
54. Trm!ltsch uses the term ''halhbewul{t" imtead of
"vorbewugl" (ibid., p. 46).
~5. !"or the psychoanalysts' theories of the supra·!nd!vldual
unconsc.:lous see Tessar,
Ham. 2008. me l'rod11ktim1 .~csc/Jsclw{lfilfur
U11hettusstht!it. Eine 11e11e i111/rropo/ogie,
SJrmrllp/11/osof'lrie, Erkemm,istlrcorie um/
G,•sc/lsclw{tsp/11/osoph/e. I laml>urg: Diplomlca .
.'i6. 1:romm, f.rlch 1990. Die £11td,·ck111rs 111!~
gese/lsclraftfiche11 U11/Jr11•11f<t,•11. Zur Ne11he-
~ti1111111111g tier l'syrlrocmalysc. Edited by Rainer Funk.
(Schr!ften aus dem Nachlaft 3).
Weinheim: Beltz, p. 81.
57. Fromm 1990, pp. 90-91.
58. Tessar, Hans. 2008. Die Pro,l11klio11 scsellsclwfl/iclrcr
U11/Jew11sst/rt'it. Ei11e 11e//t! ,11thro-
f1Ulogie, Spmchp/1ilosnphi,•, Erke1111/11istheor/c 11ml
Gesellscha{L~pllllosopl,ic. Hamburg:
Dlplomirn, pp. 65-69. See e.g. Erdheim, Mario. 1982. Die
gt>sellsdra{tfiche l'rod11ktlo11
,,011 U11bew11/W1elt. Eine Ei11fillm111g i11 ,Jen
etl111ops)'Clwa1111l)'flsche11 /'rvze~. Frank·
rurt/M: Suhrkamp.
59. Lllienthal, M.irkus. 2001c. Nnrhert Elias: 0/ler tlcn Proze/3
der :Lil'ilis11tio11 / 1937- :t9).
In: Gamm, Gerhard/I lctzcl, Andrcas/L!llcnthal, Markus, 2001:

Jmcrpret,1tlo111.'11.
Hm1ptwerkc der Sozialphilosophic. (Rcciams Universal-
Bl!Jllotlwk, 18114) . Stuttgart:
R~>clam, pp. I:-14-147 (here: pp. 136 ant.I 145) and Elias,
Norbert. 1969. TI1c Cil'ilizing
J'rocess, :of.I. Tile History of ,.fmmcrs, Oxford: BJ:1ckwcll
,md, published in 1982,
·01.11. State For11111tio11 111111 Cil'i/i1.tlfic111.
60. 1 larris, Marl'in. 1989. K11/l11m11tlrropolosic. Ein
Lehrlmc/1. Translated hy Sylvia 11.
Schomburg-Scherff. Frankfurt/1-1./Ncw York: Campus, p. 214
(translatlon based on;
Harri~, t>.larvln. 1987. C11lt11rai m1thropologJ0• ~ecuml
edition. New York (ct al.) ;
Harper & How).
61. DcMau~c n:gan.ls a <.:hnngc of ch!ldrcn's education as the
mll reason for cultural
change ([)eMause, Lloyd. 1989. Gn1111Jla:se11 der
l'srchol1istorlc. Ps,l't:hollistorlsclw
St:ltriftl'II. Edited hy Aurel Ende. Translated by 1urel Ende,
Eva I.ohncr•l lorn and
Peter Orban. Frnnkfurt/M.: Suhrkamp, p. 285).
62. Freud, Sigmund. 19'l0. Cil'ilizntio11 mu/ its disco11te11ts.
rite Standard Edition of thl'
Complete l'sychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XXI
( 1927-1931 ): The
Future of an Illusion, Ci•i111.atlon and its Dlsc.:ontcnts, and
Other Works, pp . .'i7-
I..J6. London; I log.irlh Press, chapter VII.
61. Jlarrls 1989, p. 356.

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- ,
Psychotherapy Volume 38/Spring 2001/Number I
REVIVING FREUD'S VISION OF A PSYCHOANALYTIC
SCIENCE: IMPLICATIONS FOR CLINICAL
TRAINING AND EDUCATION
ALEXANDERJ. SCHUT LOUIS G. CASTONGUAY
Pennsylvania State University
Traditional assumptions about the
analytic encounter have contributed to
the detachment of psychoanalytic
psychotherapy from the empirical
movement that has dominated
mainstream academic clinical
psychology. However, recent research
findings on the process and mechanisms
of change within psychoanalytic forms of
treatment now provide much needed

empirical support for some of the basic
tenets of psychoanalytic theory and
practice, challenge long-standing
notions regarding the link between
therapeutic technique and clinical
improvement, and suggel·t that factors
once believed to be unique to
psychoanalytic psychotherapy might be
playing a crucial role in the promotion
of change in other therapeutic
modalities. The implications of these
process research findings for the present
state and future of clinical training and
education are provided.
Preparation of lhis manuscripl was supported in pan by
Nalional lns1i1u1e of Menial Heallh Research Granc MH·
SR593.
An earlier version of chis article was submined by lhc first
au1hor and awarded lirsl prize in 1999 for the American Psy-
chological Association's Division 29 S1uden1 Paper Campell·
lion on Education and Training.
Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed
to Aleunder J. Schue , Department of Psychology. Pcnnsylva.
nia S1a1e University, 429 Moore Building, Universicy Park.
PA 16802. E-mail: [email protected]
40
Although Freud expressed his wish for a scien-
tifically informed psychoanalytic psychotherapy
over 100 years ago (see Westen, 1998), a survey
of modem-day practitioners indicates that the
bevy of empirical findings generated from aca-
demic psychology (e.g . , psychotherapy research)

has little, if any, impact on actual, day-to-day
clinical practice (Beutler, Williams, Wakefield,
& Entwistle, 1995). Indeed, many analytically
oriented psychologists would probably agree that
the research activities expected of them during
their graduate training are either irrelevant to or
far removed from the conduct of analytic work .
Although this state of affairs is probably multiply
determined , we believe that the schism analysts
face between the "ivory tower" of academic psy-
chology and the "real world" of psychoanalytic
practice is a product of at least two tacit assump-
tions about the analytic encounter that have been
perpetuated within the scientific and practicing
communities. First, there has been a long-
standing belief that the analytic process is, and
should remain, exempt from the scientific endeav-
ors of academic psychology because of its inher-
ent complexity and/or because it involves the as-
sessment and treatment of private, hard-to-
operationalize structures, processes, and contents
of the mind . Second is the assumption that re-
searching the analytic encounter in some way con-
taminates or disrupts the treatment process,
thereby invalidating the very phenomenon to be
studied.
These two assumptions have contributed to
the virtual detachment of psychoanalytic psy-
chotherapy from the empirical movement that
has dominated the rest of academic clinical psy-
chology (Strupp, 1976) . In our view, this dis-
connection of analytic practice from scientific
inquiry is problematic for at least two reasons .
First, with the infiltration of managed-care or-
ganizations in psychotherapy practice and the

- !.
Psychoanalytic Research, Education, & Training
press for implementing empirically supported
treatments (usually brief, symptom-oriented
treatment methods) (e .g., Chambless & Hollon,
1998), the failure of the analytic community to
provide scientific support for its concepts or
treatment methods threatens to render psycho-
analytic psychotherapy a nonreimbursable form
of therapy and push it toward the realm of an
outdated pseudoclinical science. Second, the
weak impact of scientific findings on the appli-
cation of psychoanalytic psychotherapy is anti·
thctical to the mission of clinical training and
education set forth by the American Psychologi-
cal Association (APA) after it adopted the Boul-
der Model in 1949 (APA, 1950). Trainees arc,
at the least, expected to read relevant scientific
literature and utilize research methodology to
bolster the efficacy of their analytic treatment or
to provide empirical support for their theoretical
conceptualizations regarding psychopathology
or psychotherapy.
Fortunately, however, over the last two-and-
s -half decades, a contingent of psychoanalytic
psychotherapy researchers has begun to gener-
ate a substantial body of empirical research on
the analytic encounter, breathing new life into
the psychoanalytic approach and reaffirming its
position as a worthy clinical and scientific enter-

prise. Recent publications have already pre-
sented clear evidence for the beneficial impact
of psychodynamically oriented therapy (Ander-
son & Lambert, 1995 ; Crits-Christoph, 1992;
Luborsky et al., 1993). ln this article, we first
specifically highlight empirical studies that ex-
plicate the process and mechanisms of change
in psychoanalytic psychotherapy and show bow
such programmatic research demonstrates em-
pirical support for some of the basic tenets of
psychoanalytic theory and practice. Next, we
summarize recent process research findings on
analytic treatment that present a challenge to
traditionally held theoretical notions or assump-
tions regarding therapeutic technique and clini-
cal improvement, which, in turn, may suggest
the need for conceptual and/or clinical refine-
ments. Finally, we show how the study of pro-
cess in psychoanalytic and nonanalytic psycho-
therapies has generated strong evidence to
suggest that analytic researchers can inform the-
oreticians and researchers of other orientations
about the basic mechanisms of change operating
in their approaches. The implications of these
reviewed empirical findings in terms of the pres-
ent state and future of clinical training and edu-
cation are offered in the closing section.'
A Sample of Research Findings on Some Buie
Tenets of Psychoanalytic Theory and Practice
Within the last 25 years, several groups initi-
ated sophisticated programs of research investi-
gating the fundamental assumptions about the
psychoanalytic process as originally posited by

Freud or other important authors of this tradition
(e.g., Sullivan) . Perhaps one of the more prolific
groups associated with this line of clinical re-
search was started by Lester Luborsky at the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania. Luborsky and his col-
leagues ( 1985) have committed to a series of
investigations of what they aptly called "Freud's
grandest clinical hypothesis": the phenomenon of
transference . Using clients' narratives of their
interpersonal relationships or "relationship epi-
sodes" as the source of data, Luborsky and col-
leagues developed a system to objectively de-
scribe clients' central relationship patterns. Their
method, entitled the "core conflictual relationship
theme" (CCRT), was intended to operationalize
and extract the template or general relationship
pattern that Freud ( 1912/ 1958) suggested clients
brought to session. These templates or relation-
ship patterns, Freud argued, arc eventually expe-
rienced in the moment with the therapist and are
expressed by the client via the transference.
As described by Luborsky and Crits-Christoph
(1990), the CCRT has three components: the cli-
ents' wishes, intentions, or needs; the (expected)
responses of others, and the responses of self.
Research shows that each of the CCRT compo-
nents-the presumed elements of Freud's hy-
pothesized transference template-as well as the
relationship episodes themselves can be reliably
identified in psychotherapy transcripts (Crits-
Christoph, Luborsky, Popp, Mellon, & Mark ,
1990). This line of research also generated empir-
ical evidence corresponding with many of Freud's
basic assumptions about transf ere nee phenomena
as outlined in his clinical "technique'' papers

1 Although we: focus attention in this article on empirically
derived psychoanalytic: psychotherapy process findings and
their implications for clinical training and education, it is
important 10 nore that the researc:h programs from which these
findings arc based are indebted to the groundbrcalcing efforu
of many psychoanalytic: r:linir:al inveslieations that have taken
plac:e over the last c,:ntury.
41
A . J. Schut & l. G. Castonguay
(e .g., Freud, 1912/1958; 1914/1958). Using the
CCRT method, Luborsky (1990) and his col-
leagues showed that (a) clients' main relational
patterns are found within relationship episodes
about the therapist, that is, their pattern comes to
"involve" the therapist; (b) the relational pattern
originates in early parental relationships and ex-
hibits consistency over time; (c) clients' wishes
conflict with responses of self and others; and
(d) the use of interpretations, particularly those
that focus on the client's pattern as reflected in
the CCRT, change the expression of the pattern
and are associated with client improvement.
The CCRT method is just one of the many
systems currently used to assess transference phe-
nomena. More generally, such systems are used
to develop psychodynamic case fonnulations that
later serve to guide actual therapeutic interven-
tions. Although describing each system is beyond
the scope of this article, the reader is directed to

recent volumes and journal articles devoted to
comparing the psychometric properties and clini-
cal usage of some of the more popular systems
(e.g., Horowitz, 1991 ; Luborsky, Popp, & Bar-
ber, 1994).
Alongside these developments in transference/
case-fonnulation measures arc equally exciting
innovations in other domains of analytic theory
and practice. They include the movement toward
operationalizing and empirically demonstrating
(a) the clinical ramifications of the quality and
depth of patients' object representations (e.g., Blatt,
Stayner, Auerbach, & Behrends, 1996),
(b) the patient's representation and internalization
of the therapist (e.g., Harrist, Quintana, Strupp,
& Henry, 1994; Orlinsky & Geller, 1993),
(c) the relationship between perceived childhood
experiences with primary caregivers and actions
directed towards the self in adulthood (e.g., Ben-
jamin, 1996), (d) the development of the thera-
peutic alliance and its link with treatment outcome
(e.g . • Gaston . 1990; Horvath & Symonds , 1991;
Westennan , 1998) , (e) mechanisms of defense
(e.g. , Perry , 1993), (f) countcrtransfcrence phe-
nomena (e.g .• Hayes, Riker, & Ingram, 1997;
Nonnandin & Bouchard, 1993), (g) primary and
secondary process mcntation (e.g . , Bucci &
Miller, 1993), (h) the structure and functions of
emotions (e.g., Dahl, 1991), and (i) the system-
atic codification of psychoanalytic technique
(e.g., Barber & Crits-Christoph, 1996; Jones &
Pulos, 1993; Piper, Oebbanc, de Carufel, & Bien-
venu, 1987) .
42

While many more lines of research on psycho-
analytic theory and practice continue to emerge
(see reviews by Beutler & Crago, I 99 I: Bornstein
& Masling, 1998; Fisher & Greenberg, 1996;
Henry, Strupp, Schacht, & Gaston, 1994; Lubor-
sky, Barber, & Beutler, 1993; Luborsky, Barber,
& Crits-Christoph, 1990; Miller, Luborsky, Bar-
ber, & Docherty, 1993; Wallerstein & DeWitt,
1997; Weiss & Sampson, 1986; Westen, 1998),
the take-home message for the reader is that the
psychoanalytic encounter can, indeed, be subjected
to rigorous scientific methods and survive! Strong
evidence now suggests that once-considered vague
analytic constructs and techniques can be operation-
alized, reliably and validly assessed, and meaning-
fully linked with client improvement.
Recent Challenges to Old Assumptions About
the Link Between Technique and the Process
or Change
Alongside these advancements within the psy-
choanalytic psychotherapy research field arc intri-
guing data that raise serious questions about
traditional views of the relationship between psy-
choanalytic technique and the process of change.
For example, Strachey ( 1934) and others have
argued extensively in the clinical literature that
the "mutative" factor or the vehicle of cure in
psychoanalytic psychotherapy is the interpreta-
tion or the transference . Until recently, this clini-
cal hypothesis went unchallenged by convincing
empirical evidence and perhaps inadvertently led
some analysts to take this clinical postulate to
an extreme position, for example, the idea that

frequent use or transference interpretations intrin-
sically leads to greater client improvement than
moderate or infrequent use of such interventions
(sec Piper, Azim, Joyce, & McCallum, 1991).
However, several recent, well-controlled em-
pirical studies conducted at independent sites in-
dicate that such an extreme position is far from
accurate (see Henry ct al., 1994; Piper, Joyce,
McCallum, & Azim, 1993, for reviews). In gen-
eral, excessive use of transference interpretations
has been found to be either ineffective or actually
detrimental to the therapeutic alliance and to out-
come {e.g., Hflglend , 1993; Piper ct al., 1991;
Piper, Debbane, Bienvenu, de Carufcl, & Garant,
1986). This docs not mean, however, that trans-
ference interpretations arc not helpful or that they
should not be used in treatment. For example,
research shows that the accuracy or suitability of
the therapist' s interpretations, including transfer-
cnce interpretations, is predictive of clients' in-
session progress or productivity (e.g., Silb-
crschatz, Fretter, & Curtis, 1986), the develop-
ment of the therapeutic alliance (Crits-Christoph,
Barber, & Kurcias, 1993), and outcome (Crits-
Christoph, Cooper, & Luborsky, 1988). More
finer-grained analyses indicate that the clients'
quality of object relations (i.e., primitive vs . ma-
ture) may also moderate the relationships among
transference interpretations, alliance, and treat-
ment outcome. For example, research by Piper

ct al. ( 1993) has showed that a low frequency of
highly accurate transference interpretations ap-
pears to facilitate J10Sitive outcomes in individuals
with mature object relations. For those with less
mature object relations, Piper ct al. (1993) found
that highly accurate transference interpretations
were associated with poorer therapeutic alliance
and outcome. More recently, Connolly ct al.
(l 999) and Ogrodniczuk, Piper, Joyce, and
McCallum (1999) found that higher levels of
transf crcnce interpretations were associated with
poorer outcomes for those clients described as
having low quality of object relations. Conse-
quently, Connolly ct al. ( 1999) and Piper, Joyce,
McCallum, and Azim (1998) suggested that more
supportive, as opposed to interpretive, therapeu-
tic work might be beneficial for individuals pre-
senting with primitive modes of relating. This is
in line with other investigations demonstrating
that less disturbed patients benefited more from
expressive (or interpretive) interventions,
whereas more disturbed patients improved with
supportive types of therapeutic techniques (Horo-
witz, Marmar, Weiss, DeWitt, & Rosenbaum,
1984; Jones, Cumming, & Horowitz, 1988).
As cogently argued by Binder and Strupp
( 1997), however, the majority of research investi-
gating proposed links between therapeutic tech-
niques and outcome have typically failed to con-
sider the interpersonal tone and context from
within which such interventions arc provided.
Thus, the frequent failure to find strong positive
links between technique and outcome (Lambert,
1992) may be more a function of how and under
what interpersonal context the therapist provides

his or her interventions (i.e., an issue of process)
rather than a function of the actual type of inter-
ventions he or she uses (i.e., an issue of content).
The distinction between process and content is
not necessarily new to analysts regarding their
clinical work, but it does potentially shed addi-
tional light on older notions from classical theory
that suggest simply providing particular types of
interventions (e.g. , confrontations, interpreta-
tions) be related to client improvement. TilC im-
portance of the process/content distinction is
highlighted from the Vanderbilt I and II Psycho-
therapy Research Projects. In these studies, it was
revealed that therapists, while using similar tech-
niques with similar patients, exhibited markedly
different interpersonal behaviors in their "poor"
outcome cases as compared to their "good" out-
come cases (Henry, Schacht, & Strupp, 1986,
1990). Specifically, therapists' "good" outcome
cases involved significantly more affiliative
modes of therapist communication (e.g., they
were more affirming and understanding, more
helping and protecting, and Jess belittling and
blaming), whereas therapists' "poor" outcome
cases involved significantly more negative (i.e.,
hostile and controlling) types of interpersonal ex-
changes. For example, there was a greater fre-
quency in the poor outcome cases of negative
interpersonal complementarity,. where hostility
from one member of the therapeutic dyad "pulled
for" hostility from the other participant.
Although Henry ct al. (1986, 1990) did not
investigate the relationship between specific types

of interventions and interpersonal process within
the client-therapist dyad, their results suggest that
while the content of interventions may not vary
across clients, the process by which the therapist
provides his or her interventions may yield radi-
cally different therapeutic outcomes. Interest-
ingly, even specific training designed to help ther-
apists detect and manage negative process within
the therapeutic relationship did not guarantee im-
proved outcome, as many therapists showed more
frequent hostile or complex communication (e.g.,
communication that simultaneously supports and
blames) while increasing their adherence to tech-
niques (e.g., transference interpretations) follow-
ing such training (Henry, Strupp, Butler, Schacht,
& Binder, 1993).
Clearly, these data cast doubt on old notions
that simply implementing techniques undoubtedly
leads to client improvement. The negative
transfercnce-countertransfercnce matrix created
by particular client-therapist interactions may
only add "fuel to the fire" unless careful consider-
ation is given to the ways in which one offers his
or her interventions. Binder and Strupp (1997),
along with many other analysts (e.g. , Aron, 1996;
Kohut, 1984; Schwaber, 1983), argued that great
care must also be made with respect to the thcoret-
43
A. J. Schut & L. G. Castonguay
icaJ and philosophical propositions from which

one works. More specifically. it has been argued
that individuals working from che clal>ical psy.
choanalytic perspec1ive often use methods that
are "experience-discant," 1hat implicitly blame the
client for his or her troubles. and/or that promote
the view thac the client is distoning reality and
thal the therapisc is the arbiter of truth . Such mod-
els may serve to only disengage the client and
therapist from one ano1her and promote negative
process (Binder & S1rupp. 1997). 1
An alternative, relational view of 1he analytic
process (e.g .• Aron. 1996; Mitchell, 1988: Safran
& Muran. 2000) strives for a more ··experience-
near" perspective in which the therapist and client
both examine their contributions 10 the unfolding
of 1he therapeutic relationship. Through "meta-
communicative feedback," whereby the therapist
aims to process his or her observations aboul the
here-and-now interaction with the client. it is ar·
gued that negative process can be more easily
detected and effectively managed (Binder &
Strupp, 1997. p. 133).
Building Bridges: Identification of the Basic
Mechanisms of Change and the Movement
Toward Psychotherapy Integration
Recent studies devoted lo comparing the pro-
cess of change in psychoanalytic and other forms
of psychotherapy have also yielded surprising evi-
dence suggesting 1ha1 factors once believed to be
unique 10 psychoanalytic psychotherapy may actu-
ally play a crucial role in the promotion of change
in other therapeutic modalities. For example, in a
study comparing lhe process of change in cognitive-

behavioral and brief psychodynamic psychotherapy
for depression, Jones and Pulos ( 1993) found 1ha1
! These: chntcal msigh1s hnvc: n:ccivc:d prelimin~ry c:mpin·
cal support from an c:"'plor.tlory s1udy conduc1ed by Cas1on-
J,!U.t)'· Goldfried. Hayes, Raue, Wis.:r, and Shapiro ( 1990).
These: au1hors found tha1 p~ychodynamic 1hc:r11p1s1
intcrven•
1ions aimed a1 ch11n11ing clienls • views of sc:lf were
nc:g:111vcly
rc:la1ed to improvement. Contcn1 analyses conduc1ed to clarify
1his find ing n:vcaled 1ha11hc: 1herapiMs frequently
n:auributcd
1he rc:~pons1h ilil y 10 c lients (or hlamcd them) for thc:1r
prob-
lems (e.g. , ··1s ii possible 1hat !he w:iy your wife: behaves is.
1n part . 11 react ion to your own bchav,or?"). These results.
however. should be considered wi1h caution until rcplic.uc:d.
Allhnugh the: size of 1hc ncga11vc: com:lation bc:twc:.=n the:
thcrapisl intcrvcn1lons and client improvement was
subs1anti11l
(i e ,. - 0 SI ). thiscorrcla1 ion was only marginally s1gnilican1
< p < . 11 due: to the small s.imple .
44
actions and techniques typically associated with
psychodynamic approaches (e.g .. therapists' em-
phasis on deepening clients' feelings; interpreta-
tion of clients' warded-off wishes , feelings. or
ideas: linking of clients' feelings or perceptions
to sicuations of 1he pa!>t) were associated with
client improvement in both cognitive-behavioral
and psychodynamic treatments . However. none
of 1he techniques and activities typically associ-
ated with cognittve-behavioral therapy (e.g.,

theraplstl>' didactic-Ilk~ behavior: emphasis of
specific activities clients should eng<1ge in outside
of treatment; discu!l!lion of clients' ideas or belief
system!>) were found 10 relate to positive change
in either treatml!nt. In a similar vein, Hayes. Cas-
tonguay and Goldfried (1996), using a theory-
neutral coding system 10 study the process of
change in cognitive therapy for depression, dis-
covered 1hat interventions addressing interper-
sonal and developmental aspects of clients ' func-
tioning (e .g. . attachment experiences with
parents) were found 10 be positively associated
with client improvement. whereas intervencions
addressing intrapersonal aspects of cognicion
were not . Finally. studies of the psychodynamic
construct of the working or therapeutic alliance
(e.g .. Zetzel, 1956) have shown chat the alli-
ance is strongly predictive of outcome in psy-
chodynamic therapy and also 1n' cognitive,
cognitive-behavioral. interpersonal, and phar-
macological therapies (e .g. , Castonguay. Gold·
fried. Wiser. Raue, & Hayes. 1996; Krupnick
et al. . 1996).
The results of these process studies provide
much needed empirical suppon for psychoana-
lytic models of change. However, these data also
point to che identification of basic mechanisms
of change that may cul across other theoretical
orientations. This latter observation is panicularly
notewonhy given the recent trend in psychother-
apy research for identifying "common factors" of
treatment (e .g . . Arkowicz. 1992) and given the
increasingly popular movement toward the prac·
tice of eclectic or integrative psychotherapy (Cas-
tonguay & Goldfried. 1994; Jensen. Bergin, &

Greaves. 1990). In fact. several theorists from
nonanalycic orientations have already begun the
process of integrating psychoanalytic clinical wis-
dom into their practice. Perhaps one of the more
well-known integrative models comes from Jer-
emy Safran, who has developed a fruitful line
of clinical~research integrating psychodynamic-
interpersonal, experiential. and cognicive tradi-
tions. His integrative approach has stemmed a
vast number of studies devoted to helping clini-
cians negotiate and repair ruptures to the thera-
peutic alliance (e.g., Safran & Muran, 1996).
Largely influenced by the work of Safran and
substantially based on the process findings de-
scribed above, a group of researchers has devel-
oped " fonn of therapy that integrates psychody-
namic and interpersonal techniques within a
cognitive-behavioral treatment (CBT) for gen-
eralized anxiety disorder (GAD) (Newman, Cas-
tonguay, & Borkovcc, 1999). Specifically, the
protocol adds to the coping and skill-training
techniques of CBT a number of procedures to
(a) increase emotional deepening, (b) explore and
resolve conflicts between needs and fears, (c) ex-
plore past relationships with early caregivers,
(d) address current maladaptive interpersonal pat-
terns, and (c) explore and repair alliance ruptures
that emerge in therapy. The rationale underlying
the addition of these techniques is based on the
fact that although CBT therapists tend not to focus

substantially on emotional, conflictual, develop-
mental, and interpersonal issues, process findings
suggest that when they do so in ways that arc
reminiscent of psychodynamic and interpersonal
practices their patients show greater improvement
(sec Castonguay, 2000). Results from a prelimi-
nary investigation of this new treatment indicate
that CBT and psychodynamic~lly oriented tech-
niques can indeed be integrated , that is , that thera-
pists can adhere to the treatment protocol and
implement it with minimal competence (New-
man, Castonguay, Borkovec, & Schut, 1999),
and that the therapist and client experience (e.g.,
feelings, thoughts, actions) in therapy is consist-
ent with the model of change underlying the pro-
tocol (Castonguay, Schut, Newman, & Borko-
vec, 1999). Based on preliminary, but promising,
outcome results (Borkovcc, Newman, & Caston-
guay, 1998; Newman, Castonguay, Borkovec, &
Molnar, in press), a large clinical trial is currently
being conducted comparing the integnuive fonn
of therapy with CBT -which currently stands as
the gold-standard treatment for GAD.
Despite these recent trends and preliminary re-
sults from comparative process studies, however,
much more research on the psychoanalytic pro-
cess (and on the identification of the specific ac-
tive ingredients in psychoanalytic psychotherapy)
needs to be conducted before more precise con-
clusions can be made. This observation coalesces
with the recommendations made by members of
the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)
workshop on psychotherapy integration, who in-
dicated that researchers must continue to elucidate

the "crucial components of treatment" before
more fruitful integration is to occur (Wolfe &
Goldfried, 1988, p. 449) . This being said, future
researchers may wish to investigate the role of
other factors that have rich clinical and theoretical
roots within psychoanalytic fonns of treatment
(e.g., holding and containing functions on the
pan of the analyst, the use of support), as well
as factors that have traditionally gone under-
investigated (e.g. , clients' and therapists' race,
ethnicity, sexual orientation) as they may relate
to the process of change.
Implications or the Reviewed Psychoanalytic
Process Research Findings for Clinical
Training and Education
We began this article by describing how psy-
choanalytic clinicians have historically either
failed to sec the relevance of their graduate re-
search training on the practice of psychoanalytic
psychotherapy or refused to integrate clinical re-
search methods or empirical findings from aca-
demic psychology into their current-day analytic
work. We ·then noted how these realities, stem-
ming from traditionally held assumptions about
the analytic process, have contributed to the de-
tachment of psychoanalytic psychotherapy from
the empirical approach that has dominated main-
stream academic clinical psychology throughout
this century. ln our opinion, this disregard for
the scientific tradition by individuals within the
analytic community reflects a breakdown in the
graduate clinical training and education process.
Specifically, we strongly believe that there needs
to be greater effort made by the training faculty

in clinical programs to expose students to the type
of process research findings and methodologies
we reviewed in this article. Programs that fail to
introduce such clinically relevant data and meth-
odology in their graduate seminars on research
methods, advanced psychotherapy, or clinical
practica perform a great disservice to the prof cs-
sional development of their trainees and perpetu-
ate the already-existing schism between the scien-
tific and practicing communities. In our view,
process research findings such as those described
above speak directly to the conduct of psychother-
apy, which, in tum, lead to better theoretical and
clinical developments regarding the nature and
task of therapeutic change. For analytic prac-
45
titioners in particular, process research findings
that lend support to some of the long-held theoret-
ical constructs or techniques developed from clin-
ical wisdom may be (within the current social
and political climate) required if psychoanalytic
psychotherapy plans to remain a viable clinical
science .
It is thus no longer appropriate or valid for the
psychodynamically oriented therapist who also
serves as a faculty member, mentor, or clinical
supervisor to students to believe that research on
the moment-to-moment processes between thera-
pist and patient fails to capture the complexity

and vicissitudes of the therapeutic interaction, is
unreliable, or is unable to measure such private
internal or interpersonal states . As we have
shown, programmatic research shows that some
of the most fundamental aspects and core tenets
of psychoanalytic theory and practice (e.g .. trans-
ference) can indeed be operationalized, reliably
and validly assessed, and meaningfully linked
with client improvement. Studies such as these
need to continue, but the onus now lies with the
educators in tenns of integrating these process
research methods into their graduate-training cur-
ricula. Clearly, advisors could encourage trainees
to conduct psychoanalytic process research stud-
ies as pan of their master's or disscnation projects
or enlist their skills for their own ongoing process
research . Client and therapist self-reports of the
therapeutic encounter (e.g., Orlinsky & Howard,
1966) or observer-based coding of the intra-
psychic and interpersonal aspects of the analyst-
patient dyad (e.g ., Benjamin, J 974) can be imple-
mented into any research paradigm. Trainees may
also wish to study the process and mechanisms
of change using archival data sets or organize
data collection for research on more naturalistic
settings, for example, some state psychological
associations have begun to implement practice-
research networks (cf. Borkovcc & Castonguay.
1998) .
Our review of some of the more recent psycho-
analytic process research findings on transference
interpretation challenges assumptions carried
over from classical analytic theory regarding the
link between technique and client improvement.
We believe that this line of research clearly high-

lights how scientific exploration of the conditions
under which therapists use such techniques can
infonn clinical practice as well as the training of
future therapists . As discussed by Henry ct al.
( 1993) and Binder and Strupp ( 1997), the prepon-
46
derance of negative process in psychotherapy is
commonly a function of the use of therapeutic
techniques under poor interpersonal contexts. The
literature we have summarized by Henry ct al .
(1986. 1990) thus suggests that clinical training
and supervision may need to expand its focus
from simply training students in the use of particu-
lar therapeutic techniques to include the training
of how to detect and manage negative interper-
sonal cycles . According to Binder and Strupp
(1997), metacommunication may be a highly
therapeutic tool when working with negative in-
terpersonal complementarity between members of
the analytic dyad . From this perspective of clini-
cal training, students could feasibly empirically
observe the effects of various interpersonal trans-
actions within their own caseload. Such intensive,
single-case process research designs have been
encouraged by Moras, Telfer, and Barlow (1993)
and by Rice and Greenberg ( 1984) .
Finally , our brief review of studies examining
the process of change in psychoanalytic and non-
analytic forms of treatment appear to infonn the
practice and training of not only dynamic thera-
pists but also those of other orientations. For ex-
ample, it was revealed that mechanisms once con·
sidcred unique to psychoanalytic psychotherapy

(e.g. , the link between present-day functioning
and early experience with primary caregivers)
may, surprisingly, serve as a vehicle of change in
these other treatment modalities . These ~ndings
clearly provide needed empirical support for psy-
choanalytic theories of change . However, as we
have shown with a new treatment for GAD, re-
searchers and clinicians from other theoretical/
clinical orientations (e.g .. cognitive-behavioral,
humanistic) may also find that integrating the
above findings into their clinical research pro-
grams or private practices will assist them in the
construction and development of more effective
treannents (Grcncavage & Norcross, 1990). In ad-
dition, nonpsychodynamically oriented graduate
programs could integrate these findings in such a
way as to improve the clinical training and educa-
tion of their students . Students in valved in cogni-
tive-behavioral programs, for example, should be
exposed to the empirical findings that demonstrate
that not only do psychodynamic processes (e .g . ,
emotional deepening, exploration of attachment
issues) take place in cognitive-behavioral therapy
but that they arc also related to client improve-
ment. Because research evidence indicates that
such processes arc active ingredients of change,
they deserve to become integral parts of any grad-
uate training anchored in the Boulder Model.
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;
, .::
~ -·
~ ..:.
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.=: ;:;
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~ ~
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49
THE DREAM AS A PICTURE
OF THE PSYCHOANALYTIC PROCESS
Marc Hebbrecht12

Resume
«le reve c:omme image du proc:essus»
offre 1111 apen;u sur I 'ensemble du travail
qui a ete fail au cours de la psycha-
nalyse. Le reve aura un role crucial dans
la therapie 011 dons l'ana(vse. la lucidite
et la tran.parence sont essentiel/es pour
le processus a11a/ytiq11e. Meme sf le
patient n 'insiste pas sur /'importance du
reve pendant la seance, illelle se rappelle
ce reve central, d'une maniere claire et
ne / 'oublie pas ni dans I 'analyse ni apres
son achevemenl. Ce type de reve a un
impact signijicatif sur l 'analyste. Bien
que ce type de reve puisse .mrvenir au
cow·s de n'importe quel processus
ana(vtique, c'est souvenl au cours de la
psychotherapie avec /es personnes
lraumatisees el /es personnes affectees
d'un deuil non reso/u. L 'auteur utilise 1111
materiel clinique de son travail. Le degel
d '1111 monde interne ge/e est explique par.
l/11 reve el elle est liee a rm changement
dans comre-transfert. Le second reve
presenle ill11Stre la mecanisation d'une
ana(vse. Le dernier cos demon/re
Abstract
"The dream as a picwre of the process"
gives an overview of the work that has
been done during the psychoanalytic
process. The dream is going to play a
crucial role in the therapy or in the
analysis. Its lucidity a11d transparency are
characteristic. Although the patient
doesn '/ stress the importance of the dream

during the session, he/she remembers them
clearly and also later in the analysis or
after termination, he/she doesn 't forget
this central dream. This kind of dream has
a special impact on the analyst. Although
this type of dream may occur during every
analytic: pra,·ess, it emerges frequent(v
during psychotherapies with traumatized
people or with people who sujjer
unresolved mourning. The author uses
clinical material from his own work. The
thawing of a frozen inner world is
illuminated by a dream and linked to a
shift in the co1111tertramference. The
second dream i/lus1rates the
mechanisation of an analysis. The last
case demo11j;1rates how changes in the
1
~ Sociele Beige de Psyc:hanalyse; [email protected]
124 The dream as a picture of the psychoanalytic process
comment /es changemenls dans /es pro-
cessus sont presentrls par /es elabora-
tions ana(vtiques du premier reve ana-
lytique. Dans un des reves, ii y a une
represenlation visuelle de la comprehen-
sion inconsciente du processus ana-
(vtique. l 'autre reve est une image de
I 'exlension de l'espace interieur.
Mots-clcs: contre-transfert, reves, reve
gele, processus psychanalytique.

Introduction
process are porlrayed by elaborations oj
the first analytic dream . In one of the
dreams there is a visual representation oj
the unconscious comprehension of the
analytic process. The other dream is a
picture of the expansion of the inner space.
Key words: countertransference, dreams,
frozen dream, psychoanalytic process.
Thanks to the work of Klein and Bion, dreaming is not regarded
merely
as a process for allaying tensions in order to maintain sleep;
dreams are seen
as pictures of dream life which is a process that goes on all the
time, awake
or asleep (Meltzer, 1984 ).
While referring to a dream as a picture or as a photograph, I
mean that
the dream is quite lucid and clear, characterized by a marked
coherence; it is
a snapshot of something going on, of a living and moving
process - this in
contrast with a film . Sometimes these dreams are the result of
unresolved
mourning or traumatic happenings. I follow Ogden (2004a) in
this respect
that coming to life emotionally is synonymous with becoming
increasingly
able to dream one's experience, that is to dream oneself into
existence. In
participating in dreaming the patient's undreamt and interrupted

dreams, the
analyst is not simply coming to understand the patient; he and
the patient are
living together the previously undreamable or yet-to-be dreamt
emotional
experience in the transference-countertransference.
In his Interpretation of dreams Freud ( 1900) teaches us to
mistrust the
coherence and the lucidity of dreams. It is always a result of a
complex
dream-work even when a manifest dream seems very
photographic. The
process of secondary revision gives the dream a misleading
coherence and
Marc Hebbrecht 125
transparency because it has to distract the dream censor. In his
discussion of
condensation as an aspect of the dream-work, Freud showed us
the
similarities of condensation with the construction of
photographic images of
families. By overlapping several photographs the commonalities
become
more salient, while contradictory images erase each other.
Freud's technique consists of breaking up the manifest dream in
its
different elements and listening to the associations of the
dreamer, it is the
dreamer who discovers the hidden meaning of his dream - the
analyst can

remove the obstacles during this gradual process of
understanding while
working on the resistances. Meltzer (1984) criticizes Freud
because he
developed the idea that dreams could never speak the truth
directly, only
indirectly, like a newspaper under a tyrannical regime. Freud
could not
accept the dream as a real experience, because he holds to the
idea that
dreams manipulate preceding psychic material. Meltzer reverses
this aspect
of Freud's dream theory by making the emotional e',{perience
precede
ideation, in order to consider the dream as a form of
unconscious thought.
Dream-Jife ·is a creative activity in search of new meanings.
Sometimes during the analytic process, the patient will create a
dream
which overviews the process. The dream represents in a visual
and a
theatrical form what is changing in the inner world due to the
analytic work.
Dreams may represent all kind of processes as a picture. The
functional
phenomenon of Silberer (1914) is an example of how a process
may be
represented in tenns of images: waking may be symbolised as
crossing a
threshold, leaving one room and entering another, departure,
homecoming,
parting with a companion, diving into water etc.
Dreams are messengers about the analytic process. The message
of the

dream is never a monolithic, univocal message. but is always
polysemic and
ambiguous. Dreaming is a form of thinking, also a thinking
about the
analytic process, it is unconscious thinking about the emotional
experience
of being in psychoanalysis, which is also an aesthetic
experience. The dream
of the first patient I am going to present, had an aesthetic
impact on me as if
I watched a painting. This is only one of the so many
perspectives which
may help to clarify the essence of dreams.
The narrative of a dream can be compared with bringing a
picture to the
session and sharing it with the analyst. The dream which has
been dreamt is
a living thing, a movement of the mind and in the mind.
Between the dream
and the narrative of the dream, there is a gap of time in which a
whole series
of perceptible transformations has taken place (Resnik 1987).
Sometimes,
the work of the resistance transforms the liveliness of the dream
into the
fixity of a picture.
Other analysts have used photographic metaphors to
characterize
dreams. Fairbairn ( 1952) conceives the dream as a film in

which each
character represents an aspect of the dreamer himself, who is
both the
director and the actor in a one-man show. A photograph is an
immobilisation, a cessation of the film.
Some dreams have more impact than others on both patient and
analyst.
During periods in psychoanalytic psychotherapy or in
psychoanalysis,
the analyst is confused about the direction of the process. After
laboriously
working through the resistances, guarding the analytic setting
and the
analytic role while surviving the attacks of the patient and
metabolizing the
projective identifications, our efforts are rewarded by the
patient: he/she
brings a dream which has an impact on us because it clarifies
the
psychoanalytic process. These dreams illuminate the process;
they may be
considered a picture (or a photo, an X-ray, a scan) of the
process. There are
some similarities with dreams that tum over a page, as described
by
Quinodoz (2002), but they have no paradoxical qualities. In his
excellent
contribution on this topic, Quinodoz states that in dreams that
tum over a
page, the primitive anxiety-inducing content frightens the
dreamer, although
the psychoanalyst sees them as sign of progress in psychic

integration
despite their regressive appearance. They are an indication that
change has
occurred. There are also some similarities with recapitulative
dreams,
described by Guillaumin (l 979). Recapitulative dreams portray
a sequence
of episodes that recapitulate the dreamer's basic conflicts while
at the same
Marc Hebbrecht 127
time offering an active solution to them. They reveal "the
subject's" most
important and fundamental problems, illuminating both the past
and the
future of the dreamer's defensive organization, especially in the
context of
the transference and thus considerably facilitating the
psychoanalysf s task
of interpretation.
"The dream as a picture of the process" is similar because of its
lucidity
and transparency. It is also a working-through dream which
gives an
overview of what already happened in the process, of the
psychological
work that has been done. It is not a nightmare; it is not anxiety
inducing and
it has no unpleasant content. The dream is going to play a
crucial role in the
therapy or in the analysis. Although he/she doesn't stress the
importance of

the dream during the session, the patient remembers them very
clearly and
also later in the analysis or after tennination, he/she never
forgets these
central dreams. This kind of dream has an impact on the
analyst; it is a
penetrating dream. The analyst is fascinated by them as if he
watches a
picture from an important emotional moment of his past. The
analyst is put
into the position of a spectator. Although this type of dream can
occur in
every analytic process, it emerges frequently during
psychoanalyses or
psychotherapies with traumatized people or with people who
suffer
unresolved or established pathological mourning. "Frozen
dreams" as
described by Volkan ( 1981) could fall in the category of
dreams as pictures
of a stagnated process. These dreams are composed of one
tableau after
another with no action. Sometimes patients liken these dreams
to a slide
series, or compare them to slices of bread slipping out of their
wrapping.
Associations to such dreams reflect fixation in the work of
mourning, a
defensive situation in which the patient tries to deny aggression
toward the
dead person while at the same time finding a way to bring the
latter back to
life. The conflict between the wish to do so and the dread of
success is

handled by "freezing" the conflict and averting resolution.
In posttraumatic nightmares, the original traumatic event is
visually
present and recurs often in a rigid and fixed way, which is a
signal that
psychic metabolisation didn't take place (Schreuder, 2003). The
original
experience remains a sensuous. indigested impression which can
not be
transformed by alpha-function because alpha-function is not
operative as a
consequence of the trauma or because the emotional experience
is
unthinkable, it can only be managed by other way as there are
evacuation via
acting out or projective identification or somatisation (Bion,
1962). One of
the functions of dreams is the pictographic and symbolic
representation of
originally pre-symbolic experiences. Their interpretation will
facilitate the
reconstructive process the psyche needs in order to improve its
own capacity
to mentalize originally non-thinkable experiences and hence to
make them
thinkable, even if not rememberable (Mancia, 2003). One of the
main goals
of the psychoanalytic enterprise is to enhance the patient's

capacity to be
alive as much as possible of the full spectrum of human
experience.
As an illustration of "dreams as a picture of the process" , I'll
present
three examples, chosen from three different analytic processes.
The dream as a picture of the unfreezing of established
pathological
mourning
Mrs. A., a teacher of 35 years old. asks for an appointment after
a
narcissistic injury: her school director (an older woman) made a
hurting
remark about her seriousness and her lack of humour. During
the first
meeting, I am impressed by the heaviness in the encounter, but
there is
something contradictory in her presentation, as if there is a dead
part and a
lively part: her face and the upper part of her body are very
strict - as if she
lives her life as a strict teacher - but she wears a short skirt with
beautiful
dark panties and very elegant red shoes, which gives her a more
seductive
appearance. My first hypothesis is that the conflict with her
director
reactivates oedipal anxieties which are followed by regression
towards anal
and oral fixation points. This could explain her obsessional
character and her

depressive attitudes. Her father died during her early
adolescence but she
tells me in a convincing way that she mourned this loss; she
keeps a memory
of a good and loving father
Marc Hebbrecht 129
During the first months of the psychoanalytic psychotherapy
(twice a
week during three years), there is a stereotyped pattern of
interaction. The
non-verbal communication is much more impressive than the
story she is
telling. When I ask her to come in and leave the waiting room,
she smiles
gently as if she is very glad to enter, but once she has entered
my office, she
becomes very slow and takes all the time to open her coat, she
walks slowly
to the chair, sits down, sighs deeply, watches me with a rigid
face and waits
silently. As if she wants to explore the reaction she is going to
provoke in
me. She puts herself in an observing and watching position.
After some time
she starts speaking, mostly the last 15 minutes. She speaks
softly, in a
monotonous way, as if she considers every word she utters. At
the end of
every meeting, she starts crying. During our meetings she plays
with her
hands and her sleeves in a seductive way. When I tell her at the

end of the
session that her time is up, she looks at me disappointed and
starts
questioning me: "Is this all you had to say? Are you alive or
dead?"
She presents herself as a sad little girl who dawdles and
procrastinates;
by behaving in this way, she makes me impatient and induces
fantasies in
me of shaking her but also of comforting her in a caring,
fatherly way. Her
enactments confuse my thinking and I am less occupied, more
absent; I feel
some kind of depersonalization. I see her enactments as a re-
actualisation of
a paternal transference (she is speaking to a dead body), but
also of a
maternal transference. She describes her older brother as the
favourite child
of her mother; compared to him, her mother named her a boring
and com-
plaining child. By making her sessions as boring as possible,
she tests me if
my benevolent, neutral attitude survives her passive-aggressive
behaviour.
After this first period, she develops a new story which gives me
the
opportunity to make interpretations. I interpret her dawdling
behaviour as a
resistance and as a compromise between her wish to open
herself and to
show her deeper feelings of fear, anger and emotional closeness
in a paternal

transference. But there is also a wish to provoke me and to be
accepted by
me in a maternal transference but with a concomitant fear to be
hurt by me
or not to be loved anymore.
This time she brings new material. She thinks that an older man
is
watching her in the train from a certain distance. Progressively
she creates a
conviction that this strange man is her father, well disguised,
who is trying
to make contact with her. She already planned to encounter the
older man,
but she is afraid to destroy this illusion. During this phase, it
becomes clear
that she couldn't have mourned the loss of her father; she can ' t
understand
why she wept so little after his death. She was just sixteen. It
was her mother
who asked her to hide her sorrow because studies mattered; she
had to be the
strong role model for the younger children.
She brings dreams, not exactly real dreams, rather photographic
images:
a father who waves his arm, or her father who winks. She tells
me these
short dreams in a very neutral and monotonous way. In the
countertransference I don't feel anger or irritation anymore, but
there is a

feeling of sadness which arises in me during her sessions,
sometimes
without a direct relation with the content of the sessions.
In the second half of the second year of her therapy, she tells
me a
dream which can be considered a picture of the change not only
in the
process, but also of her psychic functioning:
" I walk through a desolate landscape. It is very cold, nothing
can be
seen, it is under a thick layer of snow. In the middle of the
landscape, there
is a square where it didn't snow. On this square there are several
statues; the
statues are dead people who have been frozen or who are
petrified. But
suddenly these statues come to life again, they change into
doctors with
white coats and funny heads; they are mad and crazy doctors.
And than I see
how the sun rises and the snow melts and far away on the
horizon I see how
the landscape changes, it is green and beautiful. At the end of
the dream I
see my mother; I wake up, a little bit anxious."
Her associations: "In the dream, it is very cold, but I feel happy
.. . I
can't see the sex of the dead people .. . Now I think of Eric
Clapton's song:
Tears In Heaven ... Once I dreamt about my father who danced

with angels
in Heaven. In the past I dreamt a lot about statues or frozen
people, these
dreams recurred, but now it is different. The statues come to
life. It is
132 The dream as a pie/Ure of the psychoanalytic process
object that could be used, that could contain her destructive
wishes and that
mostly could be used to reanimate the image of her father.
In tem1s of Racker ( 1968), in the beginning I was put in a
complementary countertransference position; she evacuated in
me her
internal object and I was treated by her as a dead object. The
dream can be
seen as a picture of the process (the dead father introject which
is transferred
on me- "the silly doctor" - is coming to live; father sun is
coming up, but
than she has to face the oedipal rivalry with her mother).
Following the dream, the countertransference is concordant; I
am iden-
tified with the self of the patient: I feel her warmth and sorrow,
I am no longer

identified with the dead or frozen introject. An important aspect
of the process
is the shift in the countertransference position; she must have
felt that because
of our common work, I felt more open and empathic towards
her.
The dream of thawing is characterized by a remarkable lucidity.
We
could conceive the dream as a picture of the process of bringing
the dream
presentation into a dialectical one, thereby creating meaningful
emotional
experience where there had only been static coexistence of bits
of data
(Ogden, 1986). Her previous dreams could not really be
conceived as
dreams ... no associations could be made on them. They were
visual images
composed of elements that could not be linked and upon which
no
unconscious psychological work could be done. The thawing
dream is a
genuine dream in which we observe the psychological work that
has been
done: it changes something and it goes somewhere (Ogden,
2003 ). Her

coming to life emotionally was synonymous with becoming
increasingly
able to dream her experience: She dreamt herself into existence
and her
dream awoke the analyst. The dream was also a richer, bigger
and more
detailed picture than before. During a long time, she was
trapped in a cold
world ruled by her mother and filled with frozen father-objects
but thanks to
our common efforts her containing capacities expanded: a new
kind of
dream emerged in relation to which we both had associations
that felt real
and expressive of what was happening in the analytic
relationship (Ogden,
2004b).
Marc Hebbrecht 133
The dream as a picture of the routinization of the process
The dream which I'll mention here has been taken from an
analysis of a
female doctor, that lasted four years, three sessions a week.
Mrs. B.
consulted me, because of chronic and deep seated feelings of
guilt

concerning professional achievement which started after her
marriage.
She suffered from a phobia to intrude on her patients, a fear of
giving
injections and performing minor surgery. In these cases she
always needed
her husband to do the necessary painful procedures. Shortly
after the death
of her father, her marriage broke up. This loss meant to her not
only a severe
narcissistic blow but also an attack on her anal character
defences with
temper tantrums, rage and sadomasochistic struggles with her
husband
followed by self-accusations.
With her marriage she gradually lost her autonomy and her
capacity for
independent functioning without the active support of her
husband. Without
his support, she remained passive. In her dreams she showed me
the
idealization of the penis, her wishes to get and to incorporate
the paternal
penis. or to be a penis herself. When she does get the penis it
turns into
something filthy, disgusting or into faeces. Another element in
her analysis
was the deep seated guilt of having surpassed the mother and
her sisters after
her graduation as a doctor. Shortly after her graduation she had
a brief affair
with her supervisor, a father-substitute, which was followed by
guilt feelings

and regression to passivity. Her graduation and the sexual
transgression with
the supervisor meant the castration of the father, the possession
of his penis
and the dispossession of the mother.
After the summer interruption in her second year, her analysis
takes
progressively more stereotyped characteristics: she begins every
session by
telling two or three dreams, she waits patiently for my
questions, she presents
her associations and sometimes I make some comments.
Although she was a
fascinating patient, I became progressively more passive. Her
reporting of
dreams, became a routine, which can be described as an ego-
syntonic
character resistance (Greenson, 1967) or a silent resistance
(Glover, 1955).
After some time, she presents a dream which can be conceived
as a
picture of the process.
This dream helped me show her how she devitalized her
analysis.
Devitalisation, taking the life out of something or someone, was
a problem
in her whole life: her marriage, her job as a general practitioner.
Her dream report:

"There is a bakery in a cellar; the bread is delicious. The
atmosphere in
the bakery is pleasant, wann and cosy. But instead of buying her
bread in
this bakery, she takes the bread out of a bread dispenser."
This dream made me more active again and was a welcomed
opportunity
to show her what has been characterizing the process for weeks.
The dream
awakens the analyst and it precedes an important change of the
patient.
Instead of enjoying the wannth of her desires, she transforms
the
analysis into something mechanical. My interpretation is
followed by
memories of her father, a quiet and silent man, always kind to
her, but not
actively interested in her.
Her father didn't mirror sufficiently her authentic female
qualities and
capacities; he showed more interest in men, work and football.
In retrospect, my passivity which I experienced during weeks
before
this dream was her way to push me in the role of the distant
father who
didn't accept her idealizing needs sufficiently. I was in a
complementary
identification with the father-object; the weak and not very
ambitious man,
who avoided his clever and beautiful daughter. But in a

concordant
identification I was identified with parts of her self too : the
doctor who
doesn't dare to give the necessary injections.
With the progress of this analysis, the patient became more and
more
active and could use her analysis as a way to fertilize her whole
life. She
could take the wann bread from the bakery in the cellar (on two
levels: 1.
the establishment of the good object in the inner world 2. the
internalisation
of the phallus/the penis of the father) and enjoy it, and become
stronger
because of this experience.
Marc Hebbrecht 135
Swimming pool dreams: pictures of the process in motion
Mrs. C has been undergoing psychoanalysis, four times a week,
for six
years due to incapacitating panic attacks and multiple phobias:
phobias for
escalators, for finding herself in a traffic jam while driving,
also a severe
flying phobia. The main theme of the phobia is an anxiety of
being
incarcerated, of being enclosed and not having any possibility

to escape or to
be ruled by others and to depend on them. Her mother had told
her that she
was an ugly baby - in contrast with her sister, the first child -
who was very
beautiful. As a child she was seen as an obedient and perfect
girl who never
created problems. In front of relatives the patient was praised
by her mother
for her kindness and caring capacities although she felt very
insecure when
she had to baby-sit for neighbours at a young age. She was
attached to her
extremely dominant and explosive mother in an ambivalent way;
her mother
used her as an audience for her own sad stories about a
childhood full of
anxieties caused by the grandmother who suffered from
paranoid
schizophrenia, but she was not allowed to share her own
feelings with her
mother; at that moment she had to behave firmly and self
assured. The father
is described as a kind man, very silent and distant, and difficult
to get in

touch with because her mother always stood in between them. In
explosive
situations caused by the mother he always took her mother's
side and he was
afraid to defend his daughter in a direct way. In early puberty
she has been
sexually abused by a priest who was asked by her parents to
help her study
French. At 18, she starts studying languages at the university,
but because of
crippling anxieties she is cooped up in her room and develops a
railway
phobia on her way home.
Mrs. C is a hysterical woman: seductive without being
exhibitionistic, in
a very discrete way: it is the way she shakes hands, her smile,
her hesitation,
the way she looks. During the first three years of the analysis,
she was very
defensive, a real master in letting me wait: her attendance was
very irregular,
long silences, sometimes she reported a dream but with no
associations, or
dreams which seemed very clear to me but she rejected my
interpretations.

136 The dream as a piclure of the psychoanalytic process
During sessions sometimes I had fantasies of trying to open a
hermetically
locked black box, but there was no keyhole - as if a secret code
was
necessary before it might be opened, but there was no bottom to
push. Or I
had very violent fantasies of trying to cleave a large piece of
wood, but there
was a hard and callous part which resisted all my efforts. The
problem in
this analysis was how to enter, how to come in - I had also
fantasies as if I
was a patient husband married to a vaginistic woman. At some
point I've
decided to take on an accompanying attitude without becoming
detached and
being aware of not being too charming; the best way to reach
her during the
first years was to listen to her as a mother who listens patiently
to an anxious
child and who mirrors, contains and expresses sympathy. Every
interpretation which added something new was responded with
strong
resistance manifested through silences, not coming, suddenly
changing the
topic of discussion.
Her first dream of the analysis is a swimming pool dream :
"I am swimming, it is dark and there is no one present. Next, I
am

entering a bank office. Inside there is a swimming pool. I start
swimming
but than I realize that I am in your house. But the house is in a
different
environment, it is built in a hilly landscape with forests- at
some distance,
there is a big tower visible. You ask me to visit the house, you
show me one
room but after a while your wife takes over."
Her associations: "My father was a bank director. I worked in a
bank
before my marriage.
When I was a child I dreamt of burglars entering the house and
forcing
her to give the key of the safe. I promised to get them, but in
the other room
I phoned and informed the police who caught the thieves. I
woke up with a
feeling of victory and joy.
At the end of the session she tells me that when she was I 0, she
had
recurrent dreams of a murderer who had killed her younger
sister and cut her
in small pieces. With the large heap of flesh, the family made a
fondue."
Marc Hebbrecht 137

In May 2002 she had a second swimming pool dream:
"I am with a group in a swimming pool. Everyone in turn has to
dive
and to bring a message to the bottom. But it is not very clear. It
is possible
that everyone has to read the message and bring it to the
surface. While we
are diving one after another, someone has to be on the lookout
for others.
Because our activities happen secretly; what we are doing may
not be seen."
Her associations:
"In the dream everyone had to bring a little piece to the bottom.
Small
parts of mosaic and put them side by side. And slowly, a
message became
visible. But up to that point we don't know what we will see.
Analysis is
similar, it is putting little parts of a jigsaw puzzle side by side.
But we never
know what kind of building will be created. Some years ago I
dived in the
Silver-Lake. We are obliged to dive as a couple. I never left my
companion
out of sight; I had to watch him constantly. But don't think it is
so poetic,
diving in the Silver-Lake ... there is nothing to see ... only mud,

cloudy water,
dirty things. When we reached a certain depth, I wanted to rise
to the surface
as soon as possible."
My interpretation: "After diving, you come very quickly to the
surface.
We could stay together at the bottom and explore the depth and
take our
time to read the hidden messages."
Her associations: "I only saw a brick of concrete. I tried to look
if there
was something underneath, but the brick was too heavy to lift.
But I liked
diving; it is necessary to communicate in code under water, with
signs and
gestures. During diving lessons, I played as if I had no oxygen
anymore. My
companion reacted with an obscene gesture and we laughed, we
enjoyed
ourselves enormously. But afterwards we were reprimanded by
the
instructor; because we enjoyed ourselves too much. You know:
diving is a
serious thing."
My intervention: "Oh, you are on the lookout for the instructor,
what a

pity!"
Patient: "Now I have another memory. At home there is a
proverb on
the wall of the room; it is about love. If love is blind, how can
it find you?
Do you want to know what my husband wrote under it? He
wrote: Only by
touching.
I think of my mother. She has changed; she is becoming
friendlier and
more accepting. For Mother's day my daughter drew a picture of
me: I was a
saint, no devil traits. My daughter finds me too obedient."
In April 2003 she had a third swimming pool dream:
" I am in the swimming pool with other people. At the edge of
the pool,
the lifeguard orders us to dive and to enter a hole at the bottom
of the pool.
This hole is the entry in a tunnel which brings us into another
compartment,
a very narrow space but with quite enough air above the water
surface. He

reassures us that we ' ll find a staircase which leads to a door
and that he will
open the door from the outside. But I don ' t trust him. I ask him
to show me
how to do it, to dive first and enter the tunnel before I do it."
Discussion with Mrs. C :
The first dream predicts what will happen in the analysis; she
has to
face loneliness, darkness. The analysis with me is going to
awake memories
of being together with her father (the bank) and sharing the
penis (the big
tower), but than comes the mother (my wife) on the stage, who
takes over.
Underneath this peaceful picture and her friendly and kind
appearance there
are cruel, sadistic and cannibalistic tendencies. Her associations
on the first
dream help me understand that my attempts to open her inner
world will be
followed by her temptations to triumph over me (the burglar),
which really
happened later during the process.
The particular importance of the first dream in analysis has
been

recognized by Stekel ( 1943 ), who pointed out that 'the first
dream already
contains the important secret, around which the neurosis is
crystallized,
revealed in symbolic language. It is often impossible for us to
understand
this first dream, and only in the course of the analysis will it
become clear to
us what the analysand wanted to say with the first dream. Other
analytic
authors also showed that it can serve as a guideline for the
analyst with
respect to the evolution of the analytic process (Beratis, 1984).
Marc Hebbrechl 139
The second dream shows very clearly that she has an
unconscious
comprehension of the analytic process although one of her
major resistances
was that she consciously did not understand what it meant to do
analytic
work. There is a tendency to keep it clean and to leave the dirty,
ugly things
in herself out of her awareness. There is also shame about being
in
psychoanalysis; someone has to be on the outlook, not to be
discovered. And

there are others too; she is not alone anymore but being with
others
confronts her with rivalry and envy.
The third dream shows us that there has been an expansion in
her inner
space; there is another compartment. The dream is a picture of
this
expansion. It is also an encouragement to go deeper and to
explore the
primitive mother images, the re-entry in the mother body, being
close to her
mother because it means being sucked in and incarcerated. She
hopes that I
will be capable to open her when she feels incarcerated in the
analysis
because of the reactivation of primitive anxieties which are
linked to the pre-
oedipal mother, but she doesn't trust this. Since this last dream,
there is a
change in the analytic alliance: she is less resistant, her anxiety
and phobias
disappear. She internalized the analyst (the lifeguard).
Occasionally a patient brings forth lucid and fascinating dreams
which
appear very exciting to the analyst and stimulate his curiosity.
This often
happened with this last patient. It was her way to seduce me
while she stuck
at the surface and didn't bring associations or kept silent when I
tried to
make a comment on her dream. It was her way to stimulate in
the
transference, the attention, the sympathy of her silent father

who had a secret
private life and who didn't show his interests sufficiently
towards her. She
stimulated my curiosity but punished me by making herself
inaccessible. I
felt rebuffed; she turned into active what she had experienced in
a passive
way during her childhood : her father had not been sufficiently
accessible
towards her.
140 The dream as a picture o.fthe psychoanalytic process
Conclusion
Some dreams are pictures of the process. I gave three clinical
illustrations to demonstrate my opinion.
The thawing in an inner world which was frozen by unresolved
mourning was illuminated by a dream and linked to a shift in
the quality of
the countertransference. The second case was an illustration that
a dream
brings to light how a patient mechanizes her analysis and her
whole life. The
last case shows how changes in the process are portrayed by
repetitions and
elaborations of the first analytic dream.

Finally, we may wonder when a dream acquires '·picture like"
qualities.
There are several psychodynamic mechanisms which freeze the
dream into a
picture. From a classical Freudian point of view, as a result of
the
"secondary revision", the dream loses its appearance of
absurdity and
disconnectedness and approximates to the model of an
intelligible
experience. It is as if these dreams which seem faultlessly
logical and
reasonable, have already been interpreted once, before being
submitted to
waking interpretation. This fourth factor of the dream-work
seeks to mould
the material offered to it into something like a day-dream. If a
day-dream of
this kind has already been formed within the nexus of the
dream-thoughts,
the secondary revision will prefer to take possession of the
ready-made day-
dream and seek to introduce it into the content of the dream.
This is what

Freud writes in his chapter on the secondary revision (Freud,
1900). He
concludes that the secondary dream-work is also to be held
responsible for a
contribution to the plastic intensity of the different dream-
elements.
Secondly the work of the resistance transforms the liveliness of
the
dream into the fixity of a picture. Obsessive-compulsive
personalities
sometimes are so preoccupied with orderliness, perfection and
mental and
interpersonal control, at the expense of flexibility and openness
that they
present their associations and dreams in a more schematic way.
They present
their dreams as pictures.
Marc Hebbrecht 141
As a result of unresolved mourning or traumatisation, the alpha-
function
is not ready to transform overwhelming emotional experience
which has the
quality of beta-elements. The intolerable beta-elements are

projected either
into the soma or into images of internal or external objects
(Grotstein, 2004).
These images evoke no associations. The analysand needs the
alpha-function
of the analyst to transfonn these overwhelming emotions. The
analyst has to
dream the patient before the patient can bring meaningful
dreams and do
associative work on them. This is illustrated in my first and my
third case
vignette. Thanks to the transformative work over months which
is mostly
silent, difficult and not very gratifying for the analyst, the
analyst is
rewarded with a very lucid dream with picture qualities and
connected with
deep emotions. This dream portrays the work that has been
done; it is an
overview of the previous process - portrayed as a picture - and
gives a
sudden flash of insight to the analyst. The dream becomes an
important good
object in the inner world of the patient and will be remembered
as a moment
of change even years after the termination of the analysis.
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142 The dream as a picture o,fthe psychoanalytic process
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Worcester, 1992.
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London, 1992.
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with paradoxical regressive content, Int. J. Psychoana/., 80:
225-38.
16. QUINODOZ, J.M. (2002). Dreams that turn over a page.
Paradoxical dreams
in psychoanalysis. Brunner-Routledge, Hove.
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Karnac, London,
1991.
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London, 2000.
19. SILBERER, H. (1914). Probleme der Mystik und ihrer

Symbolik. Wien.
20. SCHREUDER, B.J.N. (2003). Psychotrauma. De
psychobiologie van
schokkende ervaringen. Van Gorcum, Assen.
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International Forum of Psychoanalysis. 2007; 16: 103- 112 ll
RouUedgc ~ t.,.•trumCAMp
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Historiography and psychoanalysis
PER MAGNUS JOHANSSON
Department of History of Ideas and Theory of Science,
Gothenburg University, Sweden
Abstract
The act of writing the history of psychoanalysis poses crucial
questions with regard to the openness of society. This article
examines the fundamental issues faced by researchers when they
set about writing the history of psychoanalysis in a specific
country. The significance of reconstructing features of the
psychoanalytical practice is discussed. The opposition that

exists
between the current academic ideals and those of the
psychoanalytic societies is outlined with reference to the
changes that
society has undergone, particularly during the past 30 years. In
this context, the stance maintained by psychoanalysts with
regard to psychiatry, academic psychology, and the university
education of psychotherapists is defined. Government
accreditation processes for psychologists and psychotherapists
arc likewise illustrated in the light of the opinions held by
psychoanalysts at different moments in time.
Key words: Archives, France, history of psychoa11alysis,
psychotherapy, Sweden, university
This article addresses some of the central questions
and issues that tend to arise during scholarly
attempts at documenting the history of psycho~
analysis. My intent is to illuminate the potential
issues brought to the fore in any given country while
recording the history of psychoanalysis. This piece
was prompted by my own efforts with regard to the
history of psychoanalysis in Sweden, a task that
has occupied my thoughts for more than a decade. I
have taken the opportunity to discuss these thoughts
whenever I have found myself in an academic
environment, or among researchers or psychoana-
lysts, in Gothenburg as well as in Paris.
During the past 1 S years, for the most part in
Paris, the historian Elisabeth Roudinesco and I have
discussed the problems associated with writing the
history of psychoanalysis. It was Elisabeth who, in
the early 1990s, prompted me to take on the task of
writing the history of psychoanalysis in Sweden. She
paid her last visit to Gothenburg in September

2006, where we had a public d iscussion on the
theme "the historiography of psychoanalyses." Over
the same period of time, I also shared my thoughts
with Sven-Eric Lledman, who, for the past 27 years,
has supervised research studies at the deparnnent of
History of Ideas and Sciences at the University of
Gothenburg. Our talks inspired me to carry out my
work with the history of psychoanalysis in Sweden. I
have also regularly had discussions on historiography
with the Swedish historian of psychology, Ingemar
Nilsson, active at the same department as myself and
Lledman.
Four overall aspects that ought to be taken into
consideration when describing the history of psycho-
analysis will be discussed here. To begin with, the
historian must form an opinion of psychoanalysis
from both an external and an internal perspective,
and then examine the consequences of the differ-
ences that appear. As a theory, psychoanalysis
has regularly drawn external and, to a large extent,
destructive criticism. When looking at psychoanaly-
sis over time, a picture of inner conflicts emerges. In
many countries, these conflicts have clearly marked
its path and make scientific assessment a difficult
task.
Second, the historian must consider the fact that
the training of psychoanalysts takes place within
private associations, and not in educational institu-
tions regulated by the state. Hence, there is no
accredited authorization for members of the psycho-
analytic profession, and no formal qualifications for
psychoanalysts exist. This results in a certain lack of

Com:spondcncc: Per Magnus Johansson l'hO, Har:i Kyrl<opla
26, 411 23 Gotcbora, Sweden, E-mail; J)CT.magnu, johanu
[email protected];lwjpncuc
(Rtctivtd ZO Ftbruary Z007; acctpttd Z6 Ftbrnary Z007)
ISSN 0803-706X prinl/lSSN 1651-2324 onlinc O 2007 Taylor &
Fr:ancis
DOI: I0. 1080/ 08037060701l00083
104 P. M. Johansson
clarity as to who are entitled to call themselves
psychoanalysts. Thus, psychoanalytic associations
and their members often have a complex and
ambiguous relationship to the ideals of the academic
world. At the same time, the often-questioned
position of the private association, combined with
the universal and profoundly human need for
recognition, creates highly charged, sometimes ex-
plosive, personal ties between the various members
of the groups and with the representatives of
academic institutions.
Third, certain specific characteristics of the psy-
choanalytic theory must be taken into account: It
is both a theory pertaining to man as a cultural
being, and a theory pertaining to the treaanent of
psychological distress. In other words, it is both a
theory and a practice. This in itself complex aspect is
expressed by the fact that the psychoanalytic trans-
mission of knowledge is effected verbally as well as
by way of the written word, and of the two, the
oral exchange is the most essential part. All in all,

this compels historians to devote themselves to
serious efforts involving in-depth interviews, a thor-
ough investigation of the available archives, and a
comprehensive analysis of the written material.
The transmission of psychoanalytic knowledge
brings the question of training and education to
the fore. My article also addresses the fact that
psychoanalytic training is distinguished by a close
relationship between the aspiring psychoanalyst and
his or her more experienced teachers and super-
visors, with particular reference to the very special
bond between the trainee/analysand and the training
analyst. Herc, the importance of the oral transmis-
sion of knowledge becomes clearly apparent. Right
from the start, the training analysis itself and the
supervision of these sessions - both essential parts of
the training process - are in conflict with standard
academic educational structures. No third, indepen-
dent or unbiased party is present to observe what
takes place during this phase of the training, which
amounts to a procedure that goes contrary to the
ideals and demands of publicly regulated courses of
education. Instead, the prevailing ideal in psycho-
analytic theory emphasizes this close relationship as
the starting point and necessary prerequisite to
obtain a deeper knowledge of the candidate's un-
conscious wishes and conflicts.
The fourth aspect is the question of the archives.
This will be discussed, as will its relationship to the
three other abovementioned aspects. The archives,
which can be defined as the actual physical space in
which written records and other kinds of testimo-
nials of the psychoanalytic movement have been
preserved, have a crucial function in understanding

the history of psychoanalysis. All four of these
aspects have their implications with regard to histor-
iography.
Presently, psychoanalysis has been introduced in
approximately 35 countries, but its history has been
recorded in only a few of these, such as France,
Sweden, and the USA. In several countries, the
accounts are only partial or fragmental. There arc
several difficulties inherent in portraying the history
of psychoanalysis, and the work is time-consuming
and demands much patience. I will, in line with the
structure outlined above, describe how these diffi-
culties arc manifested and, at the same time, provide
some explanations of their origin and nature.
I will attempt to decipher some of the issues within
the aforementioned problem areas with the help of
dichotomies and oppositions that characterize both
psychoanalysis and the work involved in reconstruct-
ing_ the history of psychoanalysis. The first dichot-
omy is the one that exists between external and
internal problems. Let us begin with the external
circumstances.
An assessment of psychoanalysis
Initially, it must be established that anyone who
takes an interest in psychoanalysis in any of its
configurations addresses a theory that is regularly
attacked and subjected to unyielding criticism by
academicians, particularly those with a foundation
in the natural sciences. This criticism comes from
sources such as psychiatrists rooted in biologistic
thinking, academic psychologists, analytic philoso-

phers, and, furthermore, journalists from different
subject fields; the list is by no means complete.
Other groups or individuais regularly engage in the
criticism of psychoanalysis. These critics have, for
reasons not always altogether clear, taken upon
themselves the task of re"udiating Sigmund Freud
(1856 - 1939) as well as any psychoanalyst who, in
one way or another, makes references to the founder
of psychoanalysis. These critics appear to be on a
mission : to fervently refute psychoanalysis.
At the same time, there is another group- often
belonging to an individual psychoanalytic society or
organization - that sees it as their duty to defend
psychoanalysis against any and every form of criti-
cism . They make references to psychoanalysis, to
Sigmund Freud, Melanie Klein, Jacques Lacan, the
neo-Freudians or Heinz Kohut (1913- 1981) and a
few others, but cannot, or will not, discuss the
relevance of psychoanalysis, its place in the history
of ideas and its limitations.
The acrual or perceived shortcomings of psycho-
analysis arc seen as an insurmountable threat. These
defenders of psychoanalysis fail to realize that every
theory has evolved in a historical context. In addition
to this, they appear to have difficulty understanding
that parts of the theory are coloured by variable
economic, ideological, and social circumstances.
More challenging still for these defence attorneys
of psychoanalysis is putting psychoanalytic theory
in its context with regard to the history of ideas,
and recognizing the precursors of the theory of

the unconscious. They have also found it difficult
to acknowledge the fact that other authors, such as
those within the fields of science or literature, have
written about issues and questions that psycho-
analysts see as belonging to their special sphere of
interest and expertise. Accordingly, psychoanalytic
theory has not had enough exposure to the changing
reality it is supposed to understand, and, as a result,
theoretical work has become stagnant. It has become
difficult for the defenders of psychoanalysis to
comment on current and essential issues. In addition
to this, they do not know how to respond to new
empirical findings.
Between these two factions, the critics and the
defenders of psychoanalysis, there is a long history of
mutual suspicion and destructive criticism. In the
eyes of an independent researcher, their clashes
appear to be sadly lacking in intellectual .itality, and
they rarely appear to be an expression of a scientifi-
cally interesting dispute or an exchange of ideas. Both
sides seem more interested in fortifying their own
position, and they exhibit a lack of interest in the
thoughts and writings of the other side. Those on the
outside tend to be biased against psychoanalytic
theory and, in line with their preconceived ideas,
discard it too rashly. Those on the inside appear to
have lost their powers of discrimination, and seem
unable to put the psychoanalytic theory in its histor-
ical context. The two groups complement each other,
yet there is no true scientific or intellectual exchange.
Conflicts
Yet another task the historian must undertake is to
try to understand the conflicts that have arisen, and

still arise, in the wake of psychoanalysis. These
conflicts involve the previously described unproduc-
tive disputes between psychoanalysts and those on
the outside who have decided to take exception
to psychoanalysis. In part, we are talking about
conflicts between psychoanalysts. With regard to
psychoanalytic associations, these conflicts have
occasionally resulted in a rift within these societies
and the rise of new societies. Internal . upheaval is
expressed by certain members or factions breaking
away from the society. Conflicts of this nature exist
in most countries where psychoanalysis has been
introduced. So, let us attempt to paint a broad
overview of the situations in France and in Sweden.
Historiography and psychoanalysis 105
Psychoanalysis was introduced into France during
the 1920s, and in 1926, the International Psycho-
analytical Association (IPA)-associated and still
active Societe psychanalytique de Paris (SPP) was
formed. In France, the foremost source of conflict
stems from the early 1950s, due to the controversy
arising between those who chose to follow Jacques
Lacan ( 1901-1981) on his path in developing a new
and original contribution to psychoanalytic theory,
and those who chose not to do so.
In 1953, the Societe Franfaise de psychanalyse was
founded as a result of a dispute between psycho-
analysts within the SPP concerning lay-analysis,
that is whether it should be possible to work as a
psychoanalyst without being trained as a medical
doctor. (This conflict we know has been important
within the psychoanalytic movement from the 1920s
and onwards, Sigmund Freud raising the issue as

early as in 1926 in The question of lay analysis (1926/
1940- 1952).) For 10 productive years between
1953 and 1963, psychoanalysts with different points
of view then worked together.
This structure subsisted until the next inevitable
institutional division presented itself, and the French
psychoanalysts concerned found themselves again
unable to work within the same society. This was a
division in which the controversy surrounding Lacan
played a decisive role, and which finally resulted in
the banning of Lacan as a training analyst (in
Stockholm, 1963). In 1964, some psychoanalysts
chose to join the then newly founded French, IPA-
associated, society L'Association psychanalytique de
France. Others chose to follow Lacan and joined
the Ecole freudienne de Paris (EFP), a society he
founded in the same year. Five years later, indivi-
duals from Lacan's newly-founded society joined
forces with other professionals from outside the
circle around Lacan, and founded the Organisation
psychanalytique de langue franfaise. This has contin-
ued to be known as Quarrieme Groupe, the designa-
tion by which it was initially described. After
the dissolution of the EFP in 1980, a number of
psychoanalytic societies and schools appeared in
France. At the time this article was written, some
20 established psychoanalytic societies presently
exist in France; most were founded in the 1980s
and are based in Paris.
In Sweden, the conflicts of the 1950s led, in the
1960s, to a division of the Swedish Psychoanalytical
Society into two separate societies. A holistically
inspired society emerged from the Swedish Psycho-
analytical Society. Owing to internal and organiza-

tional conflicts within the Swedish Psychoanalytical
Society, a working group was formed in 1963. Their
efforts led, in 1968, to the formal formation of the
Swedish Society for Holistic Psychotherapy and
106 P. M. Johansson
Psychoanalysis (Svenska Foreningen for Holistisk
Psykoterapi och Psykoanalys). The original society
(which kept its old name) remained associated with
the IPA, while the new society emerged as a non
IPA-associated psychoanalytic society. At the 2001
International Psychoanalytic Congress in Nice, the
society-which by then had 75 members-applied
for IPA membership. It did so under a new name,
Svenska psykoanalyciska sallskapet (the Swedish Psy-
choanalytic Association). The application was pre-
sented to the IPA after a period of collaboration with
the Swedish Psychoanalytical Society in scientific
matters during the 1990s. The association was
granted membership as a Provisional Society within
the IPA in 2001. It had previously been associated
with the International Federation of Psychoanalytic
Societies. Now, in 2007, the possibility of the two
Swedish psychoanalytic societies uniting and becom-
ing one association is being discussed.
Obviously, the internal conflicts have taken differ-
ent expressions in different countries and at different
times. 1 However, they share a common denomina-
tor: the fact that various transference relationships
have been impossible to analyse. Instead, relations
have become charged with emotion, often to the
point at which people have felt offended and

pressured to the limit. Disappointment and resent-
ment directed at former colleagues have forced the
combatant psychoanalysts to go their separate ways.
Many times, as pointed out earlier, this has resulted
in the forming of new psychoanalytic societies. In
accordance with the title of Elisabeth Roudinesco's
two books about psychoanalysis in France, the 20th
century could justly be characterized as the "One-
hundred-year battle".
Writing the history of psychoanalysis is conse-
quently often writing about a theory, represented by
persons who are, or have been, in conflict with each
other. Several of these conflicts arc often described
as controversy over theoretical or technical mancrs.
Some of these conflicts have their actual basis in
theoretical opposition, although not all of them
do. The individual players-the psychoanalysts
involved-are often convinced that the point of
contention has crucial importance. I maintain, how-
ever, that it is highly doubtful whether the majority
of these conflicts arc indeed of a theoretical nature.
This consequently leaves the historian with a range
of questions to consider, such as: What is concealed
behind a particular theoretical conflict? And what is
its actual content?
It is of great importance to recognize that no
historian can avoid being influenced by a situation
marked by contention and controversy, particularly
when coupled with the concept that one must adopt
a stance, either for or against, regarding a specific
issue (although, naturally, historians are not the only
individuals affected by such a situation). Under such
premises, it is also reasonable to apply psycho-

analytic thinking and assume that significant por-
tions of this influence act out on an unconscious
level. However, the fact that an influence is operative
on the unconscious does not make it any less
effective or dramatic. Anyone attempting to record
the history of psychoanalysis should keep this in
mind.
Universities and psychoanalysis
The relationship between ncademia2 and the psycho-
analytic societies has also been marred by all sorts
of conflict. In most countries, there are stories
about psychoanalysts who have felt themselves to
be ill-treated by the academic power elite. In many
cases, psychoanalysts have experienced a sense of
being oppressed or restrained by academia. Their
reactions have ranged from dissociating themselves
completely from the university sphere, to nourishing
a fervent hope of gaining a place in the academic
world of research, or in some cases, even both.
Thus, it is important to take fundamental differ-
ences into account, with regard to the predominant
academic tradition among psychiatrists and psychol-
ogists, which principally v:rifies and falsifies hypoth-
eses, compared with the approach within the
psychoanalytic sphere. Psychoanalytical theory is
not regarded as being an evidence-based theory.
These two traditions are based on separate scientific
ideals and different ways of dealing with the question
of truth.
The fact that the training of psychoanalysts takes
place outside the bounds of the university, in
societies run by the psychoanalysts themselves, and

not infrequently by leaders with a vested interest in
the institution, has created a climate of suspicion on
the part of people outside these societies. The
additional fact that Sigmund Freud, and his heirs,
attached a fundamental value to what is known as
training analysis- the analysis undertaken by the
aspiring psychoanalyst under the tutelage of an
older, experienced psychoanalyst- as a means of
achieving professional skills, has also cast a measure
of suspicion on the profession, since this essential
part of the training does not incorporate any
monitoring processes conducted by a third party.
An additional aspect to consider is that the training
analysis process generally has a great deal of impact
on the future of the aspiring psychoanalyst.
The predominant academic and scientific tradi-
tion is marked by a pronounced appreciation of
objectivity and impartiality, and the ambition to
make as clear a distinction as possible between what
is true or false. In addition to this, there is an
insistence on either verifiable or falsifiable hypoth-
eses. This tradition depends on, and puts its
faith in, experiments, control groups, observation,
testing or similar instruments to produce responses
to hypotheses and questions. Its representa-
tives frequently take exception to psychoanalysis.
Reservations may exist as to whether the personal,
individual clinical experience can indeed generate
universally applicable knowledge, a body of knowl-
edge that goes beyond the particular case at hand.
In some cases, these reservations arc replaced by
a firm conviction that such individual cases can

in no circumstances provide evidence to support
a theory. Representatives of traditional scientific
thinking find it difficult to see the capacity for
generalized knowledge that this mode of procedure
gives rise to.
For a long period of time, psychoanalysts have
taken no interest in the standards and demands of
the academic world, and have not infrequently
looked down on anyone who has adopted those
ideals. The exclusive ideal has been to work full time
as a psychoanalyst in private practice and to be as
independent as possible, that is to have little or
no connection with academia or public ventures.
During certain periods, this ideal of independence
prevailed within certain individual psychoanalytic
societies, and psychoanalysts whose activities were
Jinked to the public sphere were regarded with
suspicion. In several societies, psychoanalysts have
failed to see the · value inherent in their members
having various orientations and different types of
assignment. There has been a tendency to look at
private practice as opposed to employment within
the public sphere. The lack of governmental accred-
itation with regard to the psychoanalytic profession
has also been an important factor.
Psychoanalysts and accreditation
Any individual committing fully to a psychoanalytic
journey needs to realize that this process will involve
certain risks, a fact that is true for most commit-
ments where something is at stake. The individual
who makes a sincere attempt will find that becoming
a psychoanalyst is not only time-consuming and
expensive; it also requires a substantial amount of

commitment and courage. Moreover, there are no
guarantees that the venture will end in success.
This does not distinguish psychoanalysis from
other psychotherapeutic pursuits, 3 but the stakes
with regard to time and money invested are generally
higher during the psychoanalytic training experience
compared with the corresponding training process
for a psychotherapist.
Historiography and psychoanalysis l 07
Therefore, it can be argued that psychoanalytic
training involves a greater risk. In several countries,
psychoanalysts have periodically found themselves
facing opposition from society and the establish-
ment, which, again, is the case at the beginning of
the 21 n century.
The position of psychoanalysis has changed over
time, as we know. Its situation has varied in different
ways in different countries. After the Second World
War, psychoanalysis gained a strong position in the
USA, where it was integrated into academic psy-
chiatry. In Sweden as well, psychoanalysis had a
prominent position between 1960 and 1990. In spite
of this favorable situation, Swedish psychoanalysts
failed to build a foundation for their successors, a
point of departure from which they could partake
in a fruitful scientific exchange of ideas in times
of change. In France, the untiring work of Jacques
Lacan to create a dialogue with a number of other
disciplines has accomplished the following: in
France today, psychoanalysis still holds a strong
position and a given place in public debate.

Of significance in the present context is also the
fact that any account of the history of psychoanalysis
is simultaneously the history of a profession without
any official authorization/accreditation. This matter
has split psychoanalysts into two camps, and here
another dichotomy becomes apparent. Some forces
have worked to establish a governmental authoriza-
tion process for psychoanalysts. Others have main-
tained that any need for governmental authorization
and/or approval in this respect is irreconcilable
with psychoanalytic theory and ethics. In France,
there is an ongoing discussion between the adherents
of these two positions, a discussion that also aspires
to understand and clarify the difference between
psychoanalysis and psychotherapy. In Sweden, dur-
ing the 1950s, a group of psychoanalysts from the
Swedish Psychoanalytical Society lobbied for an
accreditation of the psychoanalytical profession that
would be issued by the government. Although their
efforts came to nothing at that rime, the idea of
establishing such an authorization for psychoanalysts
has not been completely abandoned within the
psychoanalytic community.
It should be mentioned that the majority of
Swedish psychoanalysts arc either medical doctors
or psychologists as wellj these two professions
represent the most common educational foundation
for psychoanalysts in Sweden, as in many other
countries. Consequently, psychoanalysts have, in
most cases, been able to support their authority
with the help of another registered profession. In the
beginning, most psychoanalysts were physicians.
Today, many members of the Swedish Psychoanaly-
tical Society are physicians, but, since 1978, many

108 P. M. Johamson
have been as likely to be psychologists and registered
psychotherapists. The latter form of authorization
has existed since 1985. However, these profess-
ional authorizations have very little relevance
when it comes to the view held by psychoanalytic
societies on who has the right to call themselves a
psychoanalyst.
Within these societies, the view is often expressed
that psychoanalysis and psychotherapy are two
different things. Nevertheless, since 1985, most
Swedish psychoanalysts have been equipped with
some form of double authorization. Furthermore,
the two Swedish psychoanalytic societies both
provide training for psychotherapists leading to a
governmental accreditation in that profession, so
the relationship between psychoanalysis and psy-
chotherapy is still somewhat unresolved in Sweden.
Thus, a Swedish psychoanalyst is typically either a
physician and a registered psychotherapist, or a
psychologist and a registered psychotherapist.
This situation presents certain finer points that
must be considered. Throughout the entire 20th
century, the majority of psychoanalysts have been
highly critical of psychologists and psychotherapists,
and of those psychiatrists who do not incorporate
psychoanalysis into their profession. This criticism
reflects the thought that these occupational titles
indicate the existence of separate disciplines with
disparate concepts of truth. Their therapeutic goals
may also be described being different. These alleged

differences notwithstanding, there have been signifi-
cant financial and prestige benefits in store for
psychoanalysts who arc also physicians. Being a
physician has, in various situations, been useful. To
some extent, this also applies to registered psychol-
ogists, even if, due to the lesser amount of prestige
attached to the latter profession, and a generally
lower income level, the benefits are less obvious.
Furthermore, in the history of psychoanalysis- as
illustrated by a Swedish example I have discussed in
earlier publications Oohansson, 1999, pp. 611 - 618;
2006, pp. 13 - 16) - one often comes across categor-
izations such as "a real psychoanalyst," as opposed
to "a so-called psychoanalyst," or a person who
"calls himself a psychoanalyst" but who "is not really
a psychoanalyst" but "merely a psychodynamic
psychotherapist", according to the speaker. Here
too, we have two parallel structures. There have been
examples of psychoanalysts who, within a particular
society, have taken upon themselves to informally
determine which members "truly" work and think as
psychoanalysts, and which members have strayed
too far from what is considered to be authentic
psychoanalytic practice, thereby allowing the ideals
and demands of society to trigger concessions that
arc too great.
According to commentators from inside these
circles, there are individuals who call themselves
psychoanalysts but who in fact are not "real"
psychoanalysts, even though they have completed
the formal training stipulated by the society, and
even though they arc approved by its decision-
making authority. It is also not uncommon for
members of a particular society to entertain the

fundamental idea that their own members, who
are trained within their society or within another
" approved" society, arc the "real" psychoanalysts,
whereas others merely use the title of psycho-
analyst without truly being one (Norman, 1992,
pp. 268- 277).
This type of behavior has emerged in times when
psychoanalysts have been in demand, and there has
been a pronounced interest in psychoanalysis . Cate-
gorizations of this type tend to recede in urgency
when psychoanalysis finds itself less in demand and
more called into question. A decline in demand may
express itself as a lack of opportunity, making it
difficult for young, not yet established psychoana-
lysts to find a sufficient number of analysands. At the
same time, however, established psychoanalysts
appear to be less productive and passionate with
regard to the psychoanalytic adventure and the
responsibility for the psychoanalytical heritage and
genealogical transmission, that is, in acting for the
future of psychoanalysis. The abovementioned inter-
nal deauthorization is a part of the course of
psychoanalytic history; it needs to become - for the
historian as well as for members of the psycho-
analytic societies - an object of intellectual analysis
and not repression. It remains to be seen what the
future will bring in this respect.
The transmission of knowledge-theory and
practice
An important aspect, and one that frequently gen-
erates opposition, is the fact that psychoanalysis is
both a theory and a practice. Psychoanalysis offers
both a theory about the treatment of individuals with

psychological distress, and a theory of how we, as
human beings, try to find various ways of expressing
ourselves, both in solitude and in the company of
others. Through this ambiguity, psychoanalysis be-
comes a theory that, in part, deals with man as an
enigmatic creature experiencing a sense of lack, who
is thus compelled to gain access to culture. Addi-
tionally, it is a therapeutic technique that, in spite of
a prevailing climate of resistance, has been designed
in relation to psychoanalytic theory, in other words a
practice that generates empirical information.
In this context, it is important to remember that
researchers who devote their time to writing the
history of psychoanalysis will end up focusing mainly
on clinicians who have applied themselves to writing
as well. Consequently, when studying the history
of psychoanalysis, one should study how psycho-
analysis was introduced in a particular country
by way of its cultural avenues, universities, philoso-
phy, and literature: the intellectual introduction
of psychoanalysis. On the other hand, one should
also study its introduction by way of treatment
aspects; what one might call the medical introduc-
tion. During the first half of the last century, this
medical introduction was principally associated
with psychiatry, but after the Second World War,
clinical psychology and psychotherapy also opened
up other medical introductions. This ambiguity
makes it imperative for the historian to possess
a broad base of in-depth expertise. In order to
understand psychoanalysis, it is vital to process the
intellectual and the medical introduction with the

same level of knowledge.
The division between theory and practice is also
present in connection with psychoanalytic training.
The candidates study a variety of classic psycho-
analytic texts, they receive supervision and tutoring
with regard to their own work with patients, and, last
but not least, they undergo a training analysis. In this
way, the body of knowledge pertaining to psycho-
analysis is transmitted by way of both the written and
the spoken word. This is, as previously mentioned,
another important factor to consider, one which
complicates the historiography process. In order to
obtain a balanced and nuanced picture of the history
of psychoanalysis with regard to how it relates to the
present situation, scholars arc required to recon-
struct and analyse the underlying theories as well as
the practical applications.
Historians must analyse relevant theoretical texts
or other documents that arc important from a
historical point of view- such as transcripts, regula-
tions, letters, and other written communications -
originating from the period of interest, and interview
people who are part of this history as well. Archives
can be the best option with regard to regulations
and the documentation of society matters. Conse-
quently, researchers need access to the relevant
archives. In other words, historical work consists of
textual analysis, a conscientious interview process
and the thorough exploration of archives. I will
return to these aspects in greater detail later on.
Textual analysis
An important and complex issue, and one that is

relevant in all research pursuits, concerns the assess-
ment of the significance of individual texts. This is
another instance in which, when writing the history
Histon'ography and psychoanalysis 109
of psychoanalysis, academic standards pertaining to
the treatment of scientific criteria and the need for
transparency may be in conflict with the standards
and criteria of the psychoanalytic societies. The fact
that a substantial proportion of the books and
articles written by psychoanalysts have not generally
been subjected to scrutiny by university-based pro-
fessionals or close examination by any other public
agency can further complicate the issue. It is not
uncommon that texts that are held in high esteem
by psychoanalytic societies and the psychoanalysts
who hold leading positions within them arc not
attributed the same value by the university.
Such cases can be found in every country where
psychoanalysis is established. On an international
level, several examples exist. Melanie Klein (1882-
1960) and Sandor Ferenczi (1873-1933) arc two
psychoanalysts who are highly regarded by many
currently practicing psychoanalysts as contributors
of crucial knowledge when it comes co understand-
ing the inner world of children, the darker sides of
the human psyche, and the possibility of change
through psychotherapeutic treatment. However,
their contributions arc largely disregarded by most
classical, medical, and psychological departments
at universities around the world. This discrepancy
is not without significance for scholars facing the
task of writing the history of psychoanalysis. Numer-
ous similar examples, as well as national instances,

abound. This requires independent thinking on the
part of historians during textual analysis.
Interviews and assessment
Another significant issue is the evaluation of the
achievements of a particular psychoanalyst with
regard to his or her practice. What has he or she
accomplished as a practicing psychoanalyst, training
analyst, teacher, and supervisor? How should this
person's input be assessed? The historian is faced
with the delicate task of trying to chisel out a
balanced opinion of a body of work that, in part,
can only be evaluated by studying individual testi-
monies, and for which confirmation from an inde-
pendent third party is non-existent. This task will
instead fall upon the historian. Paul Roazen (1936 -
2005) was a pioneer in the field of interviewing
subjects who, in different ways, had experience of
psychoanalytical practice. In both Brother animal.
The story of Freud and Tausk ( 1969) and Freud a11d
his followers (1971), he shows the importance of
interviews in the reconstruction of psychoanalytical
history.
At the same time, one should remember that any
scholar writing about the history of psychoanalysis
will be focusing on clinicians who have also been
110 P. M . Johansson
writers. The latter aspect- the main focus on
psychoanalysts who have been published- is a pre-
requisite for anyone who intends to partake in an

academic context. In reconstructing the history of
psychoanalysis, one writes about subjects who have
recorded their observations and conclusions in writ-
ing and who, in addition to this, have had a clinical
practice. Thus, it comes down to making an assess-
ment of the sum of activities and achievements of
a particular psychoanalyst.
Some individuals who clearly have a place in the
history of psychoanalysis in France and who have
also been published are: Fran~oise Daito ( 1908-
1988), Jacques Lacan (1901 - 1981), Serge Leclaire
(1924-1994), Maud Mannoni (1923- 1998), and
Fran.;ois Perrier (1922 - 1990). In Sweden, five
comparable examples are Ola Andersson (1919 -
1990) , Stefi Pedersen (1908 - 1980), Lajos Szekely
(1904-1995), Alfhild Tamm {1876 - 1959), and
Pehr Henrik Torngren (1908 - 1965). All of these
individuals engaged in clinical practice and wrote
books and/or articles.
Yet it is vital to keep in mind that all the various
texts written by practicing psychoanalysts are not
necessarily of the same value or consequence as
their practical work; that is the work they have
accomplished as psychoanalysts in private practice,
and the position they have achieved in this respect.
Under these premises, most of the psychoanalysts
who deserve consideration have also held a position
of some importance within a psychoanalytic society
and, consequently, at an educational institution. In
my opinion, the institutional experience of the
various subjects appears to colour the evaluation of
the importance of a particular psychoanalyst as a
scientifically important writer. In other words, the
very fact that he or she has been an influential person

invested with real or imaginary importance and
power within an organization paves the way for a
more positive evaluation of his or her scientific
achievements than would have been the case had
this person's position been less prominent. Addi-
tionally, it is not uncommon for individual psycho-
analysts to rewrite their own history against a
backdrop made up of the institutional disputes in
which they have been involved, thus rendering it
difficult indeed to produce a balanced account of the
historical matter at hand.
Similar processes do, of course, occur in the
academic world as well. However, I maintain that
the structures that exist to counteract these tenden-
cies are more fragile within the psychoanalytic
societies. Obviously, some psychoanalysts leave a
more significant imprint by way of their writings
than through their practice. A Swedish example is
Ola Andersson; his efforts are characterized by a
more unusual set of circumstances that generally do
not lead to a retrospective inflation of the value of the
researcher's work by analysands, students or pa-
tients.
Then, as we know, it happens that an individual
psychoanalyst succeeds in achieving results of deci-
sive importance for an analysand in the course of
the latter's training analysis. Psychoanalysis can
sometimes amount to a life-changing experience.
For natural reasons, it is extremely difficult for
the trainee to express an objective, unbiased, and
judicious opinion about articles or books written by
this training analyst. A person's judgment is always
filtered through his or her personal experience, and

this is also true of the transference process. This
transference can be symbolic as well as imaginary-
structured according to what French psychoanalysts
called the "symbolic transference" or coloured
mainly by the imaginary field. In the first instance,
there is a need for judiciousness and the assessment
of veracity. In the second instance, the personal
experience and its impact is pivotal-aspects that
may interfere with impartiality and correctness, and
make it difficult for the person to act in a suitably
discerning manner.
There are, of course, intermediate forms between
these extremes. Nevertheless, it is not uncommon
that when interviewing analysands, pupils or rela-
tives of an individual psychoanalyst, the historian
will sometimes hear opinions that have lost touch
with the demand for consensus that is normative
within the university and/or in the public sphere. In
such circumstances, the historian needs to be aware
of these pitfalls to reach a sound assessment.
Archives: their place i11 relatio11 to historical research
Yet another important factor connected to the
writing of the history of psychoanalysis is, as men-
tioned previously, the question of archives. The
status of the archives can be regarded in relation to
the previously discussed conflicts, and the ambig-
uous position of psychoanalysis: the fact that it is a
theory about what I call "the mysterious human
being" as well as a form of treatment, supported by a
theory and with its own distinctively elaborated
technique. Several archives have been closed to
researchers who are not members of a particular
psychoanalytic society. Within the school founded by

Lacan-formally dissolved in 1980-the archival
material is even more difficult to assess. For example,
Elisabeth Roudinesco (personal communication) ran
into a number of difficulties when she tried to gain
access to archival material while writing the history
of psychoanalysis in France: she was repeatedly met
with silence, and her letters were left unanswered.
Researchers who have gained access to archives
associated with a national psychoanalytic society
have done so with the assistance of members in
leading positions, individuals who have entrusted
them with the material even though they are not
members of the society in question. Furthermore,
those responsible for Freud's remaining letters have
chosen to keep part of his correspondence secret.
Consequently, a portion of Freud's history is still
subject to censorship today. Many national psycho-
analytic societies keep their archives closed to non-
members and independent researchers, and have
done so for an extensive period of time. The
Sigmund Freud Archives in Washington DC have
been closed in a similar way. Reviewers and re-
searchers are waiting for the complete correspon-
dence between Freud and his wife, Martha, to be
published. Until fairly recently, the correspondence
between Freud and his daughter, the psychoanalyst
Anna Freud (1895- 1982), and the complete corre-
spondence between Freud and two of his pupils -
Karl Abraham (1877- 1925) and Max Eitingon
(1881 - 1943) - was not available. Although more
than 67 years have passed since the death of
Sigmund Freud, his correspondence has not ceased
to attract interest.

Furthermore, there is good reason to assume that
most uncensored archives are not to be found at
the national societies. The material has often
been dispersed and is in the possession of various
members. To be granted access to these particular
sources, the historian needs to obtain the trust of the
owner of the archive. The custodian of the material
must be motivated by an obligation towards trans-
parency and the disclosure of the truth in order
to put his personal archive at the historian's disposal.
With some luck and a number of convincing
credentials, the scholar can gain access to uncen-
sored and extremely rewarding archives that will
provide information of significant value." Obviously,
historians will always be subject to random factors
and an uncertain outcome. (For reasons of privacy,
there are obvious limitations with respect to infor-
mation regarding analysands and patients. A psycho-
analyse may have made certain written records that
cannot be stored in archives. This limitation is not an
issue. The problem is rather the pervasive climate of
secrecy within and pertaining to the societies, and
which runs counter to the principle of public access
to official records.) In all research of this kind, there
is always an element of chance.
Conclusion
Every truly effective account of history evolves as
the result of an interaction between proximity and
Hision'ography and psychoa11alysis 111
distance. Too much proximity tends to turn the
historical account into a tribute, a congratulatory

chronicle. Too much distance always entails the
risk of the historian becoming a mere onlooker,
an observer with an outside perspective who never
connects with the cardinal points of the theory,
practice or movement that is to be studied, analysed,
and chronicled. If this is the case, the historian will
be unable to understand what has been at stake for
the different players involved.
A researcher writing the history of psychoanalysis
faces an accentuation of these risks, for all the
reasons described above. In the history of psycho-
analysis, there are all too many examples of con-
gratulatory chronicles as well as historiographies
characterized by a sterile stance and a distance
from the subject matter that renders it uninteresting.
In both cases, the historian's personal and/or poli-
tical ambitions have come to the forefront, and
his potential for scientific discrimination has conse-
quently receded. The Swedish psychoanalyst and
associate professor, Ola Andersson ( 1962), the
Swiss-Canadian researcher Henri F. Ellenberger
(1970), and the American researcher Nathan J.
Hale ( 1971, 1995) are three brilliant exceptions.
There arc those who successfully make their way
through this emotionally charged territory, attempt·
ing to record the history of psychoanalysis in a way
that will give it its proper place: the place that the
actual circumstances allow, free from idealization as
well as diabolical denigration.
To this should be added the fact that the historian
needs co prepare himself for the highly charged
emotions his work will stir up when published.
Critics will be annoyed that the historian has not

sufficiently noticed the importance of X and the
qualities of X's publications, or they will criticize him
or her for giving undue credit to Y and Y's theoretical
work. Most likely, however, some individuals will be
grateful. They will find the efforts meaningful, and
they will be relieved that a portion of history, of
which they are part, has been recorded in spite of all
difficulties. For the next generation of psychoana-
lysts, written history will be a vital reference point in
an always uncertain future. And at present, the
future seems more uncertain than ever.
Notes
I. In the same way that every country is subject to a specific and
unique introduction of psychoanalysis, the evolution of the
same will also have its own distinctive national fonn . Different
countries moy also resemble each other: there may be
similarities in terms of content of the discussions r.iised by
the new discipline, as well as a resemblance regarding the
expressions of resimmcc towards it. Naturally, these likenesses
112 P. M. Johansson
may also be reflected in the psychoanalytic historiography of
different countries.
2. It is inevitable that, in a changing society like ours, the
university as an institution must also change. There arc
regularly indications that its natural position as a guarantor
for sound and objective knowledge, intellectual integrity 11I1d
high standards is being undermined. The consequences of this
are unimaginable. However, this is not the subject of my
article. My point of departure is that the university has been,

and still fundamentally is, a place where new knowledge is
produced under intellectually respectable circumstances.
3. This article will not discuss the particulars regarding the
various forms of psychotherapy, nor the way in which they
may involve risk-taking. The author of this article is presently
working on a book about the history of psychotherapy in
Gothenburg, and will pursue this subject matter in his forth-
coming book.
4. While J was occupied with writing an account of the history
of
psychoanalysis, l had access to some uncensored archives of
great interest for a historian. I thank Nils and Gunnar Harding
for their generosity in making the archive of their father, Gl>sta
Harding, available to me. Likewise, I would like to mention
Edilh Sz~kely, who is a psychoanalyst. She opened the archive
of her husband, Lajos Szekely, to me. In addition to this, the
psychoanalyst Annastina Rilton gave me access to several
important archival documents. The board of the Swedish
Psychoanalytical Society allowed me to work undisturbed in
the archive of the society. Their obliging attitude was very
helpful and conducive to my research.
References
Andersson, 0. ( 1962). Smdies i11 the prehistory of the
psychoanalysis.
The erio/ogy of psycho11e11rost.S and some re/ared thtmt1 rn
Sigmund Frtud's sciemific writings a11d lttttn 1886- 1896
(doctoral dissertation]. Stockholm: Norstcdts.
Ellenberger, Henri F. (l 970). Tht discot1ery of rht
111,consi:ious. The
history a11d evo/111io11 of dynamic psychiatry. New York:
Basic

Books.
Hale, N. G., Jr. (1971) . Frt11d in America, Vol. 1, Frt11d and
tht
Americans- 1he btgi11nings of psychoanalysis m 11,e United
Stares, 1876- 1917. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hale, N. G.,Jr. (1995). Freud ,n America, Vol. 2, The rise and
crisis
of psychoanalysis in zhc Umitd States; Freud a11d tht
Americam,
1917- 1985. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Freud, S. (1926/1940 - 1952). Die Frage der Laicnanalyse -
Untc:rredungcn mit eincm Unpartciischen ['lne question of
lay analysis]. Gesammeltt ~rkt, XIV (Complete worlfs, XIV].
Frankfurt am Main: S Fischer Verlag.
Johansson, P. M. (1999). Freuds psykoa11alys, Arvtagare i
Svenge
[Fremfs psychoa11a/ysis. The heirs III Sweden) [doctoral dis-
sertation]. G6teborg: Daidalos.
Johansson, P. M. (2006). Invited commentary on the interview
wilh Jan Stensson. International Forum of Psy, hoanalysis, 15,
13 - 16.
Nonnan, J. (1992). The psychoanalytical scene in Sweden. In P.
Kuncr (Ed.) Psychoanalysis Imer11atio11al- a guide 10 pzycho-
a11a/ysis throughout the wo,ld, Vol I, E11ropt (pp. 268 - 277).
Stungart-Bad Cannstan: Frommann-Hob:boog.
Roazcn, P. (1969). Brother a11ima/: The story of Freud and
Tausk,
New York: Alfred A Knopf.

Roazen, P. (1975). Freud and his followers. New Yorkl Alfred
A
Knopf.
Author
Per Magnus Johansson is a registered psychologist
and registered psychotherapist. He is an associate
professor at the department of History of Ideas
and Theory of Science at Gothenburg University,
as well as Editor-in-Chief of Psykoana/ytisk Tid/Skrift
[Psychoa11alytica/ time/writing] and the author of
four books. He has also wrincn some twenty fore-
words and postscripts to various books and approxi-
mately 100 articles in Swedish, English, and French.
Johansson works as a psychoanalyst in private
practice and teaches at the study programme for
psychologists at the University of Gothenburg as well
as at the department of History of Ideas and Theory
of Science. He also holds courses within the training
programme for future psychotherapists at the Uni-
versity of Gothenburg. In 2006, he received the
distinction of 0/ficier dans l'Ordre des Pa/mes Acade-
miques, awarded by the French Ministry of Educa-
tion. He is responsible, jointly with Claudia Fahlke,
for the publication, in January 2007, at Natur och
Kultur, of the book Pcrsonlighetspsykologi [Personality
psychology], to which he had also contributed a
chapter. At present, he is working on a book about
the history of psychotherapy in Sweden.

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