DirectionsLocate the annotated bibliography and outline you.docx

Directions:
Locate the annotated bibliography and outline you created in the
Module 2 assignment. Using the outline you developed, the
information from the annotated bibliography, and the feedback
provided by your instructor, write a paper (2,000-2,250 words)
that synthesizes all of the articles assigned in the first four
modules of this course. Do that by including the following:
1. A statement of common themes addressed in each of the
articles.
2. A statement of the conclusions that can be drawn when the
articles are taken together as a single entity. What is the overall
message of the group of articles? Focus specifically on the key
developmental terms, processes and challenges that individuals
may face up through adulthood. Why are the unconscious mind,
dreams, and ego defense mechanisms important to understand
from the Psychoanalytic perspective? Be sure to address the
notion that Freud and the Psychodynamic and Psychoanalytic
theory suggest that early stages of human development have a
significant impact on our relationships and our Ego throughout
the life span.
FORMAL ASSIGNMENT: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY &
OUTLINE
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
You will complete an annotated bibliography of the following
articles (links to the articles are found in topics 1 & 2 of the
syllabus). Annotations are descriptive and critical assessments
of literature that help researchers to evaluate texts and
determine relevancy in relation to a particular research project.
Ultimately, they are a note-taking tool that fosters critical

thinking, demonstrates understanding, and evaluates the source
material for possible later use. In this assignment, you will read
and annotate the following three articles
Johansson, M. (2007). Historiography and Psychoanalysis.
International Forum of Psychoanalysis, 16(2), 103–112.
Perera, S. B. (2013). Circling, Dreaming, Aging. Psychological
Perspectives, 56(2), 137–148.
Hebbrecht, M. (2013). The dream as a picture of the
psychoanalytic process. Romanian Journal of Psychoanalysis,
6(2), 123–142.
1. Please annotate the journal articles assigned in the first 2
Modules of this course ( the 3 articles are listed above).
Annotations for each article should consist of a MINIMUM of
250 original words (i.e., no quoted material).
2. Alphabetize the three journal articles by the last name of the
first author for each article.
3. Please make sure to discuss both the strengths and limitations
of each article as part of your evaluation of the article, and also
what you think of them in terms of their value, validity,
methods, etc. Do not discuss the credentials of the authors,
where they teach, or how many publications they have.
OUTLINE ( Please review the Week 2 Assignment Template,
posted along with these Announcements, as an example of how
to construct an outline for this assignment. )
Construct an outline for a paper that will identify and discuss 3
themes common to the articles you read for this assignment (you
will write the paper in module 4). The paper will require
identification of elements and themes common to the articles as
well as a synthesis of those themes. THERE IS A
SAMPLE/INSTRUCTIONAL ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
AND A TEMPLATE FOR THE OUTLINE PROVIDED (It will
accompany these announcements), MAKE SURE YOU USE
THE OUTLINE TEMPLATE TO CONSTRUCT YOUR

OUTLINE WITH THE SAME SECTIONS.
NOTE: The paper that is due week 4 will be based on the
readings for weeks 1-4. That means that your outline needs to
incorporate the reading from weeks 3 & 4 as well, which means
you will need to read ahead? You will need to at least skim the
4 articles from Modules 3 and 4 so you can include them in your
outline. The articles for weeks 1-4 are the following:
Johansson (2007), Perera (2013), Hebbrecht (2013), Kluners
(2014), Schutt & Castonguay (2001), Summers (2006), and
Newirth (2014). EACH THEME IN THE OUTLINE (AND
THUS YOUR PAPER) MUST INCLUDE SUPPORT FROM AT
LEAST THREE OF THE ABOVE ARTICLES. See syllabus for
links and complete references.
The three themes for this paper MUST be the following (1) THE
UNCONSCIOUS MIND, (2) DREAMS, and (3) EGO DEFENSE
MECHANISMS. Within each theme of your outline, you will
provide some brief phrasing to indicate the material you will
discuss within each theme in your paper. Be sure to include a
clear, concise, and specific thesis statement in your
introduction.
Make sure to cite at least 3 of the 7 articles within each theme
of your outline.
Running head: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 7
Annotated Bibliography and Outline

Annotated Bibliography
Johansson, M. (2007). Historiography and
psychoanalysis. International Forum of Psychoanalysis, 16(2),
103–112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08037060701300083
For the annotated bibliography, you will annotate each of the
three articles for modules 1 and 2, this includes Hebbrecht
(2013), Johansson (2007), and Perera (2013)
Annotations are descriptive and critical assessments of
literature that help researchers evaluate texts and determine
relevancy in relation to a particular research project.
Ultimately, this is a note-taking tool that fosters critical
thinking, demonstrates understanding, and evaluates the source
material for possible later use. Annotated bibliographies are
helpful tools for organizing and preparing for a research paper
or project. Instead of reading articles and forgetting what you
have read, you can have a convenient document full of helpful
information about the articles you have read. In addition to
helping you remember what you have read, an annotated
bibliography can help you see the bigger picture of the
literature you are reading. It can help you visualize the overall
status of the topic, as well as where your unique question might
fit into the field of literature.
Entries should be in alphabetical order, include the full APA
formatted reference, including doi, and an annotation (of at
least 250 words). Your annotation should include indicative,
informative, and evaluative information about the article. If you
are unsure of what these three types of information are, please
see: http://www.gcumedia.com/lms-resources/student-success-

center/docs/Preparing-Annotated-Bibliographies.pdf Remember
that each of your annotations should be at least 250 words in
length and include both summative and evaluative information.
Please see the assignment rubric for more information on how
the assignment will be graded.
Skywalker, L. (1981). Dagobah: Swamp planet or treasury trove
of secret knowledge? Journal of Jedi Studies, 77, 293-309.
Retrieved from http://www.journalof jedistudies.org
Annotated bibliographies are helpful tools for organizing and
preparing for a research paper or project. Instead of reading
articles and forgetting what you have read, you can have a
convenient document full of helpful information about the
articles you have read. In addition to helping you remember
what you have read, an annotated bibliography can help you see
the bigger picture of the literature you are reading. It can help
you visualize the overall status of the topic, as well as where
your unique question might fit in.
Entries should be in alphabetical order, include the full APA
formatted reference, including doi, a GCU persistent link, and
an annotation of at least 250 words. Your annotation should
include indicative, informative, and evaluative information
about the article. If you are unsure of what these three types of
information are, please see: http://www.gcumedia.com/lms-
resources/student-success-center/docs/Preparing-Annotated-
Bibliographies.pdf. For the annotated bibliography, you will
annotate each of the three articles for modules 1 and 2, this
includes Hebbrecht (2013), Johansson (2007), and Perera (2013)
Note the purpose of the article, the participants/subject of the
study, the conclusions drawn by the author(s), and the validity
of the conclusions. Evaluate the article: is it a credible source?
Describe the credibility of the author – are there any biases?
How well did the author support his or her assertions? Did they
provide an adequate literature review? Were there any
limitations?
Kenobi, O.W. (1977). Mos Eisley spaceport: A wretched hive of
scum and villainy. Journal of Intergalactic Spaceports, 7, 42-50.

http://dx.doi.org/4815162342
Kenobi presents a solid argument for the wretchedness of the
Mos Eisley spaceport. His research is thorough, current, and his
claims are well-supported. He examines the denizens of the
spaceport, thoroughly documenting the caliber of their
occupations and characters, setting up a firm argument for their
inadequacy as galactic citizens. Based on a thorough review of
the literature, an exhaustive survey of his sample population,
and an analysis of the data using SPSS, he concludes that there
is no spaceport more wretched than Mos Eisley. Comment by
Windows User: Please note, this template is correctly formatted.
Based on other literature in the field, and the ample support
provided by Kenobi in this article, the conclusions drawn here
seem valid. Kenobi is a prolific researcher in this field, with 85
publications in peer-reviewed journals, and five texts published
with well-regarded academic publishers. This article is
published in the leading journal of spaceport research,
indicating credibility for the article and an intended audience of
other spaceport experts.
Your outline should include information from the articles from
Modules 1-4. This includes Johansson (2007), Perera (2013),
Hebbrecht (2013), Kluners (2014), Schutt & Castonguay (2001),
Summers (2006), and Newirth (2014). EACH THEME MUST
INCLUDE SUPPORT FROM AT LEAST THREE OF THESE
ARTICLES. Please delete all instructions and comments before
submitting your work. As specified in the announcements, The
three themes for this paper MUST be the following (1) THE
UNCONSCIOUS MIND, (2) DREAMS, and (3) EGO DEFENSE
MECHANISMS. Within each theme of your outline, you will
provide some brief phrasing to indicate the material you will
discuss within each theme in your paper. Be sure to include a
clear, concise, and specific thesis statement in your
introduction.

Provide a Title for Your Paper Comment by Windows User:
Construct an outline for a paper that will explain and synthesize
the articles in Modules 1 through 4 on the topic of the
Unconscious Mind and Dream Analysis. The paper will require
identification of themes common to the articles as well as a
statement of the conclusions that can be drawn when the articles
are taken together as a single entity.
You will be writing the paper in the next assignment. Focus
specifically on the key developmental terms, processes and
challenges that individuals may face up through adulthood. Why
are the unconscious mind, dreams, and ego defense mechanisms
important to understand from the Psychoanalytic perspective?
Be sure to address the notion that Freud and the Psychodynamic
and Psychoanalytic theory suggest that early stages of human
development have a significant impact on our relationships and
our Ego throughout the life span.
· Introduction
A. Capture the reader’s interest (Provide one or two opening
sentences here).
B. Provide context for the paper (Set up what your paper is
about here)
1. Statement of common themes (Provide your statement here).
C. State your thesis (Provide your thesis statement here)
Comment by Windows User: A Thesis Statement: should
be as clear and specific as possible and have a definable,
arguable claim. It does not simply announce a topic: it says
something about the topic.
Your stated purpose/thesis statement should reflect the analysis
you will be doing, which is to analyze and synthesize common
themes. It should be a clear reflection of your synthesized
conclusion. Here are some helpful sites for writing a strong and
clear thesis statement:

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/545/01/
Weak Thesis Statements: Recognizing and Fixing Them
http://create.arizona.edu/content/weak-thesis-statements-
recognizing-and-fixing-them
Thesis handout: http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/thesis-
statements/
· Theme 1: Name of Theme Comment by Windows User:
Each theme MUST have support from at least three of the
articles. Please use a citation, so it is easy to identify from
where you are pulling your support.
You are not being asked to provide three article summaries,
rather you are being asked to provide three articles common to
the articles. This resource can help you to understand synthesis.
https://www.bgsu.edu/content/dam/BGSU/learning-
commons/documents/writing/synthesis/asked-to-synthesize.pdf
A. Present an important theme you observed in the three
articles.
1. What is the theme?
2. Why is it important? Provide at least your topic sentence for
the theme.
B. Use evidence from at least three articles to support your
conclusion that this is an important theme.
1. What does each article say about the idea?
2. How are the different articles connected around this
particular theme?
Here is an example of what I expect from you. Let’s pretend
that all three articles describe the health benefits of yoga.
· Theme 2: Health Benefits
A. Yoga is a discipline for the body and mind, with mental and
physical health benefits.

1. Yogisatre (2016) examines the physical health benefits of
yoga
1. Increased flexibility, increased core strength, better posture
2. Vikram and Hatha (2013) explores the mental health benefits
of yoga
1. Practitioners are more relaxed, have better control of their
breathing
3. Kellish et al. (2014) discusses both physical and mental
health benefits
1. The meditative elements of yoga are linked with decreased
stress, depression, and anxiety; correlation with lower blood
pressure, reduced chronic pain, and better sleep
· Theme 3: Name of Theme
A. Present an important theme you observed in the three
articles.
1. What is the theme?
2. Why is it important? Provide at least your topic sentence for
the theme.
B. Use evidence from each of the three articles to support your
conclusion that this is an important theme.
1. What does each article say about the idea?
2. How are the different articles connected around this
particular theme?
· Conclusion Comment by Windows User: Be sure that your
conclusion is in alignment with your thesis (which should be
supported by each of your themes). The conclusion needs to
reacquaint the reader with the thesis statement and review the
major points of the paper. Then clearly emphasize your
synthesized conclusion.
https://www.umuc.edu/writingcenter/writingresources/conclude.
cfm

Check out the following site for tips on writing a conclusion:
http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/conclusions/
A. Provide a statement of conclusion. Here you will briefly
summarize the themes, hitting the major points of the paper.
The conclusion should align with the thesis statement and show
that it has been accomplished.
B. Provide a synthesized conclusion, that is, a statement of the
conclusions that can be drawn when the articles are taken
together as a single entity. What is the overall synthesized
message? Be clear, and do not simply summarize your
discussion of the themes, or restate the themes; you need to
synthesize them. What is the new idea that you see arising when
you consider the 3 articles together as one? By tying all
articles’ material together, support the assertion from the thesis.
READ THESE INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY!
· Make sure that your references are in hanging indent and use
Microsoft Word to format the indent – do not tab over!
A. Highlight the references and then right-click to get the menu.
Click on “Paragraph,” and then you’ll see the “Special
selection” section under “indents.” Select “Hanging” from the
pull-down menu and make sure that it’s set to 0.5 inch indent.
Click OK and the hanging indent will be set.
· Make sure that your references are in alphabetical order,
double spaced, and include doi information.
· Please save your work as just your first and last name so that
your name is the filename of your work, this helps me grade
work more quickly. For instance,
RIDGE MILLETT.docx
· You work must be submitted to Turnitin, please review your
report to ensure that you have correctly paraphrased in any of
your annotations and you have not plagiarized.
· PLEASE DELETE ALL OF MY INSTRUCTIONS BEFORE

SUBMITTING YOUR WORK
·
References
Author, A., Author, A., & Author, A. (2014). The article title is
in sentence case. Journal of APA Style, 42, 74-89. doi:
48.1516.2342 Comment by Windows User: Newer journal
articles will print the doi on the first page. If you do not see
one, go to www.crossref.org and look up the article to see if a
doi has been assigned.
Author, A., Author, A., & Author, A. (2014). The article title is
in sentence case: If there is no DOI include the journal home
page in the reference. Journal of APA Style, 42, 74-89.
Retrieved from http://www.journalhomepage.org Comment by
Windows User: If no doi is available, include retrieval
information for the journal’s website. NOTE: a GCU permalink
(URL with “lopes”) should NEVER be included on your
reference page.
Author, A. (2014). Book titles are in italics and still in sentence
case. City: Publisher.
Author, A. (2014, March). Articles from a magazine or
newspaper. Psychology Today, 39, 32-49.
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PSYCHOANALYSIS' PAST, PRESENT, AND
FUTURE:
Sherlock Holmes, Sir Lancelot, and the Wizard of Oz
Joseph Newirth. PhD
Adelphi University

This paper describes three psychoanalytic perspectives each of
which represent
central elements of psychoanalysis· past. present and future
through the literary
metaphors of Sherlock Holmes. Sir Lancelot and the Wizard of
Oz. These
metaphors provide a way of understanding the evolving nature
of psychoana-
lytic theory and practice. Sherlock Holmes represents a
nineteenth century
search for hidden truths, Sir Lancelot represents contemporary
approaches
which emphasize new relational experiences and the Wizard of
Oz represents
the emerging transformational models in psychoanalysis which
emphasize the
creation of subjective meaning. Transformational models are
emerging in psy-
choanalysis. developmental psychology and neuropsychology;
each emphasizes
multiple modes of apprehending the world and the development
of the capacity
for symbolization and the creation of subjective meaning. A
transformational
model of psychoanalysis is described and the process of
progressive symbol-
ization is illustrated with four moments from an extended
psychoanalytic
treatment. Additional clinical material is used to illustrate the
three psychoan-
alytic approaches.
KeJ worcl·: comparative theory, transformational models,
relational psychoanal-
ysis, symbolization, metaphor

Psychoanalytic theory has continuously evolved from Freud's
early collaboration with
Breuer (Breuer & Freud. l 893) through the presenl. Discussions
of the evolving nature of
psychoanalysis are often presented as partisan debates (Blass.
::!O 10) that attempt to define
"what psychoanalysis is.'' Rather than entering this argument, I
take the position that
psychoanalysis is a living system that evolves, sometimes
smoothly integrating past
clinical and theoretical perspectives and sometimes being
disrupted by new ideas in
keeping with emerging scientific and cultural developments. In
this paper, I will highlight
three psychoanalytic perspectives, each of which when taken
alone represents central
l"llis article was published Online First May 5. 2014.
Corrc~p,mdencc concerning this article should be addn:sscd to
Jo~cph Ne, irth. PhD. Adelphi
Unhcr.sit~ . Garden City. NY l 1530-0701. E-mail: jocnc,, irth.u
~m.,il.com
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308 NI VII{ 111
elements of psychoanalysis' past, present, and future. but when
taken together they
represent multiple aspects of the complc:-.. activity of clinical
psychoanalysis in the
moment-to-moment choices between analyst and patient.
Complex activities such as psychoanalysis. riding a bicycle, or
flirting are developed
through implicit procedural learning (BPCSG, 2007). These
activities are hard to describe
in linear discursive language and may best be understood
through metaphors, which
function as evocative, multidimensional. presentational symbols
(Langer. 1942) that
organize intcrsubjcctivc experiences in artistic, dramatic, and
poetic fom1s. Several
authors (Hamilton, 1993: Hanley, 1990) in discussing
differences and similarities among
psychoanalytic theories suggest two basic dimensions:
correspondence, which emphasizes
the theories relationship with knowable external events. and
coherence, which emphasizes
the theories· ability to make consistent meaning conceptually
and clinically. In this paper,
I emphasize a coherence model of psychoanalytic theory and
practice. I believe that what
is largely knowable and teachable in psychoanalytic theory are
the underlying models that
reflect internal consistency/coherence and the scientific and
cultural zeitgeist in which
each theory developed.
With a wink to Dickens· "A Christmas Carol," I will begin by

presenting three literary
metaphors: similar to Scrooge·s dream of Marlowe·s ghost,
these metaphors embody
different perspectives on psychoanalysis' past, present, and
future: (a) Sherlock Holmes,
the rational, objective detective/scientist in search of hidden
truths; (b) Sir Lancelot, the
fla, ... ed hero. who struggles with enactments in the
transference-countertransference rela-
tion.,hip and the opportunities to repair the inevitable ruptures
in the therapeutic relation-
ship; and (c) the Wizard of Oz. a creator of illusions and
personal meaning who facilitates
the development of enactments, symbolization, and the
transfonnation of the patient's concrete
persecutory experience into generative metaphors. In addition
10 comparing these different
psychoanalytic perspectives, 1 will use the metaphor of the
Wizard of Oz as a springboard to
articulate an emerging trnnsfonnational model of
psychoanalysis, one that emphasizes the
development of the capacity for symbolization. for how the
mind makes meaning.
Sherlock Holmes: The Search for Hidden Truth
Freud used several metaphors to describe the analyst's stance in
relation to the patient that
reflected his evolving views of psychoanalytic theory and
technique. His early metaphor
of the analyst as a surgeon (Freud, 1912) expressed his belief
that we should act like
medical expe11s. have a sense of our own authority. and be
disciplined and objective. The
metaphor of the surgeon reflected a theory of psychoanalytic
action within the topographic

model. in which the patient's difficulties, his symptoms and
neurosis, were thought of like
an infection that needed to be carefully drained in an aseptic
environment. Abreaction and
remembering forgotten events became the equivalents of the
medical procedure of lancing
an infection and were thought to be sufficient to return the
patient to health. With the emergence
of the structural model, in which resistance, repression, and
defense were the central
issues, Freud suggested that the analyst be like a general alert in
the battle with the
palicnt's resistance, expanding the model of psychoanalysis
from a simple medical
procedure to a prolonged struggle with a fierce enemy. Freud's
(190()) third metaphor,
Sherlock Holmes, suggested that like the great 19th century
detective, analysts' persbtent.
deductive, rational, inquiry brings to light the patient's hidden
truths and forgotten crimes.
In a letter to Jung, r reud ( 1909) discusses an interaction with
M. Spielrein in which
his use of the metaphor of Sherlock Holmes rellected the
growing emphasis (Freud. 19.20)
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on the transfonnation of passively experienced repetitive trauma
into active, internal.
agcntic experience through bringing hidden truths into the light
of day.
Fraulein Sr,ielrdn has admitted in her second letter that her
bu~ine~s has to do with you: upan
from that. she has not disclo:o;cd hcr intentions. M) reply HL~
c er so ise ,md penetrating: I
made it .tpp~Jr ns though the most tenuous of clues had enabled
me Sherlod; l lolmes-likc to
guess the situation (which of course wa~ none too difficult after
)OUr commun1ca11ons) and
suggested a more ,tppropriutc procedure. something
endopsychic, as it ere. Whether it ill
he cffc:cti'e. I don't know. But no I 0111st cntrcat you, don't
go too far in the direction or

contrition and reaction (Fm11I. 1909, pp. 234-235) .
In this brief communication, which seems to refer to Jung's
affair with Spielrein.
Freud metaphorizes the analyst's position in the implicit
structure of the analytic rela-
tionship, reframing the psychoanalytic method and emphasizing
the process of inquiry
over that of battle. The psychoanalyst's role evolved from that
of a general in a struggle
with a resistant patient to that of a clever detective oho
uncovers forgotten crimes and
hidden truths, helping the patient take responsibility for his or
her disowned actions. This
reconceptualization of psychoanalytic action emphasizes the
patient's movement from
unconscious or disowned experiences (Schafor, I 976) passively
experienced as events in
the external world to the recognition of unconscious wishes and
truths, which are at the root of the
patient's unhappiness and self-destructive choices. Freud's idea
of making the uncon-
scious conscious. of the ego and secondary process rational
thought dominating the id and
primary process thought, are embodied in the metaphor of the
analyst as a detective and
the zeitgeist of modernism and science, which put a premium on
defeating the dark
irrational impulses of man and bringing them under rational
control. Kohut ( 1984)
criticized Freud's 19th century perspective as "truth morality.''
He (Kohut, 1984, p. 54)
believes that this conservative view of man as guilty demands
that the analyst be a moral
presence, ferreting out lies and exposing hidden truths. This
view of man as inherently

guilty is echoed by another fictional detective who presented
the rhetorical question :
"Who knows what evil lurks in the heart of men'! The Shadow
knows!'"
Sir Lnncelot: The Analyst as flawed Hero
Interpersonal and relational psychoanalysis redefined concepts
of structure, psychological
development. psychopathology, and the nature of therapeutic
action. These theories
rejected Freud"s one-person intrapsychic focus and developed a
two-person interpersonal
perspective. Psychopathology was thought of as an individual's
desperate attempts to
maintain attachment and security through clinging to childhood
patterns, traumas, and
beliefs in the analytic and in other relationships. Interpersonal
psychoanalysis developed
a more active approach than classical psychoanalysis. viewing
the analyst as a participant
observer bringing his or her personal dynamics into the
transference countertransfercnce
experiences. Levenson ( I ()72) described the inevitability of
becoming trapped within these
transference countcrtransfcrence structures and the importance
of the analyst's first-person
experience as a participant, which provided a critical
opportunity to work out these
complex transference counte11ransference enactments in the
here and now.
Relational analysts (Aron, 199:!; Mitchell, 1991; Renik, 1995)
expanded this inter-
personal perspective and emphasized the analyst's subjectivity,
personal history. self-

disclosure, and the therapeutic effects of new relational
experiences in the analytic dyad
in which the analyst functions (Burke. 1992) as a new object
and a traditional transference
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310 Nl.·lR 111
object. As a new object, the analyst provides novel positive
experiences that contrast the
patient's earlier experiences with their historical objects. These
new experiences awaken
aspects of the patient, freeing himlher from the repetitions of
the past. Often the analyst
becomes intcrsubjectivcly entangled in an enactment,
unwittingly acting out aspects of the
transference countcrtransfcrence relationship and rupturing the
therapeutic harmony. This
rupture typically becomes repaired as the analyst recognizes his
or her subjective and

personal contribution to the transference countertransference
difficulties. These repeating
experiences of rupture and repair result in critical encounters,
often involving the analyst's
self-disclosure, a deepening sense of mutual knowing that
fosters greater freedom and
intimacy in the analytic relationship.
The narratives of many cases presented by interpersonal and
relational analysts
(Gerson, 1996; Mitchell. 1991) describe patients as victims of
abusive or negligent
parents. having suffered childhood trauma, including sexual or
physical abuse. If the
literary genre of classical psychoanalysis is the detective novel.
then the literary genre of
interpersonal and relational psychoanalysis is the romantic.
adventure novel, in which a
flawed hero, the analyst, rescues the trapped, damaged, and
emotionally stunted victim,
the patient. These clinical illustrations olien emphasize patients'
and analysts' struggles
with their inner demons, the po,crful hold of the traumatic
events of the past and the fear
that accompanies this mutual journey into new uncharted
experiences. I think of Sir
Lancelot. the imperfect Knight of King Arthur's Round Table.
as a metaphor that
represents the romantic and heroic struggles described ln these
case histories. in which the
analyst, after confronting his or her own demons and personal
failures, slays the dragon,
freeing the patient from the prisons of the past. Like the Sir
Lancelot legend, analysis
becomes a trial for analyst and patient (Davies. J 9()8) as they
struggle with the multiple

sci f-states that analyst and patient bring into the transference
countertransfcrence rela-
tionship.
Benjamin 's (2009) paper on the necessity of acknowledging
failure illustrates the
implicit and explicit struggles of the analyst, as a flawed hero
like Sir Lancelot, who frees
the patient from the repetitions of the past through a series of
personal encounters .
Benjamin {2009 ) describes her work with Hannah. emphasizing
Hannah's childhood
experiences of maternal failure and her own struggle to not to
enter into the more
traditional role of the interpreting analyst, Sherlock Holmes,
emphasizing truth over
experience. Benjamin's paper allows us to enter into the
experience of the analyst as she
chooses between being a new object as opposed to being a
transference object and the
struggle to maintain his or her position as a new object.
providing new relational
experience within the transference countertransference
relationship. I think of this analytic
model as a romantic, heroic relationship, in which the analyst
rescues the patient from a
traumatic and dangerous past through her presence as a different
person, providing
reparative experiences and encouraging the patient to become a
new. more authentic.
albeit flawed. self, much like the analyst.
Benjamin (200Q; p. 446) illustrates her struggle to be a
soothing maternal presence and
not to interpret the transference, or become emotionally
disregulatcd as did the patient's

mother, who failed to survive Hannah's affective stonns. Being
a new object disconfirmed
Hannah's certainty that the other "would be crushed by her
destructive disappointment;
and that she must protect that other/mother by showing herself
to be unworthy. Thus she
experienced herself' as the destructive one who kept ruining a
potential viable third."
Benjamin describes a particular moment as a personal failure,
losing her place as a
thoughtful relational analyst who provides new soothing
experience. Responding out of
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fmstration and anger, she describes this moment as becoming an
"authentic'' selt: 1 I put
·'authentic'' in quotation because it represents a shift in the
analyst's position from being
a new object into being a person (Benjamin, 2000). a flawed
hero. unadorned by theory.
Benjamin (2009; p. 447) comments that she speaks as if Hannah
were her own daughter
and questioned why .. she thought her anxiety and vulnerability
were so unacceptable, why
weren't they a part of imperlect but acceptable humanness?"
Although Benjamin de-
scribes this as an analytic failure, the patient experiences
Benjamin heroically, as her
"staunch defender,'' rescuing her from being trapped in her
repetitive self-disparaging
behaviors. From a more traditional perspective. the patient's
approving response may be
thought of as repeating an old transference pattern in which she
protects the analyst as she
did her mother: however, this possibility remains unexplored,
perhaps because of Benja-
min's emphasis on the experiential dimension of the relationship
rather than on discov-

ering hidden meaning in repetitive transference experiences .
Benjamin describes a second moment of failure, becoming
trapped in an enactment in
which she becomes ang,y with Hannah who describes herself as
an incompetent mother.
Benjamin describes the value of this enactment as she and the
patient work out their
multiple self-states, showing how the inevitable processes of
rupture and repair are critical
aspects in the development of new analytic experiences and
growth. Throughout this
enactment, Benjamin remains herself: esche ing efforts at
interpretation and simply being
a flawed hero. Sir Lancelot. Benjamin consistently emphasizes
her role as a new object,
often experiencing herself as an authentic person, sometimes
flawed and sometimes
heroic, but always in an experience near encounter with the
patient. If the classical
position emphasized the discovery of hidden tniths and
forgotten crimes, then the
relational position redefines therapeutic action as repeating
experiences of rescue, rupture,
and repair; of the encounter between the Hawed patient and the
flawed analyst; and the
meeting between Guinevere and Sir Lancelot.
The Wizard of Oz: The Analyst as Creator of Illusions
The Wizard of Oz can be thought of within the literary genre of
magical realism: similar
to most children's books, it captures the unconscious struggles
that inhabit our lives,
dreams, and fantasies. I think of the Wizard of Oz as a metaphor
for therapeutic action

within the 1ransformutional model of psychoanalysis.
Transformational models arc emerg-
ing in diflerent areas of psychoanalysis and psychology and
focus on the individual's
ability to represent and symbolize e~periencc, to make meaning,
rather than the discovel)·
of disowned and repressed wishes and unacknowledged ac1ions
or attempts to repair
repetitive, self-destructive relationship pauerns. Many
psychoanalytic theorists (Ferro.
2006; Grotstd n. 2007; Ncwirth. :?003; Ogden, 201 O; Riolo,
2007; Symington. 2007)
associated with transfom1ational models have extended Bion's
and Winnicott's theories of
symbolization, reverie, and transitional experience, focusing on
the development of the
patient's capacity for symbolic thought. Transformational
models are also cu1Tent in
developmental and neuropsychological theories. The concept of
mentalization (Fonagy,
Target, Gergely. Allen. & Bateman, 2003), implicit relational
knowing, procedural learn-
ing. moments of change (Boston Change Process Study Group,
2007), mirror neurons, and
1 I eH.·nsc,n i 1972 ) discuss the shili in analytic virtues from
the clussical position of sincerit)
(p.irit)) to the interper~nnal position ol' uuthenticit) . The
notion of m11hcnticit) seems to he one that
pcr'ades romantic litcr,llurc.
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the differential functions of right and letl brain hemispheres
(Schorc. 2003. 2009)
emphasize the development of the capacity to represent
experience and generate symbolic,
subjective meaning.
Patients who organize experience concretely typically locate
thoughts and experience
in the external world of facts and authority rather than as
products of their own or
another's mind. Unable to symbolize meaning, they organize
experience and thoughts

concretely through action, are flooded by affect, and represent
experience in modes of
psychic (Fonagy ct al., 2003) or symbolic (Segal, 1978)
equivalence as absolutely real.
Grotstc in ( 1995) refers to patients who are unable to
symbolize their experience and are
trapped in an external world of impersonal meaning as "Orphans
of the Real.'' In this
concrete mode, I am what I am, you are what you arc, and
everything will always be the
same. Although coming from different sectors of psychological
and neurological science,
transfonnational models similarly conceptualize the mind as
parallel systems that appre-
hend and generate meaning in an external. objective realm and
an internal, subjective
realm. Transformational models focus on the development of
the patient's capacity to
symbolize concrete, externalized, often paranoid experiences,
enacted in the transference
countertransrcrence relationship. into symbolic, affective.
subjective experience through
the use of spontaneous and intentional enactments, transitional
experiences, presentational
symbols. and metaphors. This model of making meaning
contrasts with traditional
hierarchical models. in which meaning and memories arc lost
through repression and
recovered through an interpretive process, or the interpersonal-
relational model. in which
meanings are developed through expanding experience and
encounters that disconfinn
older scripts and introduce new relational experiences.
I would like to consider the Wizard of Oz as an allegory for the
psychoanalytic

experience in the trnnsformational model. Dorothy. an orphan,
is transported by a tornado
to the Land of Oz, where we follow her desperate attempts to
return home. Returning
home is an allusion for her confusion, for her lack of direction,
for her anxiety about
becoming an adolescent and having lost her parents, and for her
struggles with various
loved and hated maternal objects-the bad witch who she
destroys and the good witch
who helps her on her way. To return home, she is told to get
help from the Wizard of Oz,
the one who is supposed to know, and who she believes will
help her find her way home.
On the way to Oz. she meets three fellow travelers: the
Scarecrow, the Tin Man, and the
Cowardly Lion. She invites them to join her on the journey with
the promise that the
Wizard will help each of them to become the person he dreams
of becoming.
The Wizard of Oz is a contemporary therapist: people come to
him for help. to achieve
their goals, and to become the person they wish to be. He is
conflicted about his role, and
he knows that he does not know how to answer the questions
that he is asked. He also feels
lost and wishes to find his own way home. However, he seems
to have discovered that he
can help people by helping them create symbolic experiences-
illusions, metaphoric
enactments, and transitional experiences in which each person
can discover and create
himlherselfthrough the development of symbolic experiences.
The Wizard of Oz docs not
function as a detective finding hidden truths and forgotten

crimes. or as a flawed hero
rescuing or repairing an injured patient through new affective
experiences; rather, he is a
kind of actor. creating illusions (Sym ing1 011 . 2007:
Winnicou, 1971) that transforn1
patients' concrete paranoid experiences into symbolic subjective
experiences. Jung ( 1981)
presented a similar view of the analyst, suggesting that the
archetype for the therapist is
the trickster. the court jester, the magician, or the comic. all of
who help the king to pierce
the veil of certainty and of external reality and enter into deeper
experiences of knowledge
and wisdom.
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Like Dorothy. we become angry with the Wizard when the
screen is pulled away and
we sec that he is simply a man who creates illusions and does
not have special abilities
and knowledge. Our anger reflects our disappointment that the
analyst does not know what
we wish he knew and cannot act in the way we hoped he could.
He is only able to help
us generate symbolic, transitional experiences, develop
metaphors that integrate and
symbolize our fearful disowned and desired experiences: a
diploma for the Scarecrow so
that he can know his intelligence; a valentine's heart for the Tin
Man so that he can know
his capacity to feel and love; a medal for the lion so that he can
puIT out his chest. roar
his presence, and know his courage: and ruby slippers so that
Dorothy can experience her
power to retum home. the power that she always potentially had
but could not symbolize
and actualize. These symbolic or metaphoric acts arc not
superficial carnival tricks; they
are deeply saturated. presentationtil symbols (Langer, 1942)
that involve complex devel-
opmental, self-reflective experiences that suggest increased
capacity for symbolization,
mentalization. and the continuous creative internal
conversations involved in reverie and
dreaming.
Lac:in (2007) also identifies the analyst. in his or her
relationship with the patient,
much like the Wizard of Oz, as being "the one who is supposed
to know.'· This view of

the analyst that he is the one who is supposed to know- revolves
around the question
of who knows und who pretends to know or who does not know
and who pretends to not
know. The patient believes that the analyst !,,nows the way the
putient can resolve his or
her problems in living or that he or she knows the truth thut the
patient fears knowing. The
analyst knows that he or she does not know how the patient
should live while also
knowing thut. in the evolving transference countertransference
relationship, the possibility
will present itself for the patient to become more fully himself
and to metuphorize his
e~perience so that he may live more fully in the symbolic
world. Lacan (Dor, 1998)
discusses the linguistic functions of metaphor and metonymy,
suggesting that they parallel
Freud's ideas of condensation and displucement in dreams and
unconscious thought. I
want to suggest that metaphors are a central idea in the
transfonnational model and ure
ways thut we express. symbolize. subjectify, and make our own
the implicit relational
structures that ure deeply embedded in our unconscious, or
neuropsychologically speak·
ing, in right-brain structures.
Clinical Illustration: I Want a Penis
Like the Wizard of Oz. the unalyst, by entering more deeply
into the symbolic, dreamlike
joumey through the trnnslercnce countertransference muze,
helps his or her patients
transform concrete experience of shame und cowardliness into
courage, passion, and

agency. As analysts, we facilitate these transfonnations through
processes of reverie and
symbolizution; through the development of transitional
experiences; and through an
evolving capadty for play, trust, und intimacy in the analytic
relationship. The following
cuse illustrates the metaphor of the Wizard of Oz as a
representation of the transformu-
tionul model of psychoanalysis. I will present several moments
in my work with a
long-leml analytic patient that illustrates the metaphorization
and transformation of a
significant disowned uspect ofmy patient's experience that had
been expressed concretely
in frequem painful, repetitive experiences in her life.
I had been working with Holly for many years. during which
time she resolved much
of her early depression; substantially improved her relationship
with her husbund; helped
launch her children into selt:.directed und affirming careers;
und expanded her sense of
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314 NEWllnll
herself from that of a depressed maternal caretaker into a more
complex identity as a
woman, an academic, and a person able to stand up for herself.
Early in our work we
focused on her fearfulness of entering or engaging the world;
this anxiety had a gener-
alized phobic quality and was concretely expressed as a ··fear
of Hying." This phobic
auilude toward the world had been significantly resolved and
resulted in Holly's being
able, among other things. to enter into a graduate program in
which she shined and
received accolades and the recognition that had been missing
earlier in her life. However,
like many people, the necessity to complete her thesis resulted
in a return of her phobic
orientation and an inability to complete this final step.
Holly has had a long-standing fantasy of having either a radio
or TV show in which
she would facilitate discussions between children and adults.
However, she has been
afraid to pursue or create the opportunities to make her fantasy
into a reality. In our work,
we have identified her fear of being seen, her anxiety about
potentially exhibitionistic
wishes and experiences, and her difficulty separating from and
competing with her sisters.
It is not clear whether this fantasy, which she experiences as
real, is only a concrete

expression 'of her desire to be seen, to have a voice, to stand
out, and to differentiate
herself from her mother and her three older sisters or is an
unconscious exhibitionistic
wish that stands behind her phobic altitude toward the orld,
inhibiting her forward
progress.
Several years ago, Holly was awakened by an anxiety-filled
dream in which she was
a lawyer, dressed in a sophisticated Annani suit. and as she
began to present the closing
arguments of her case, she became paralyzed and could not
speak. In talking about the
dream. we focused on the suit, which she recalled as navy blue,
fitted, and very
elegant- something that she would never own. It became clear
that being seen in this very
grown-up way was extremely frightening, bringing up memories
of her childhood and a
sense that she should always be the little sister ''sitting in the
back seat of the car" on
family trips. In working with this dream, we developed an
evocative metaphor for her
contl icted feelings about being seen: a red Armani suit. which
expressed her fear of being
seen and her desire to stand out.
At another time. the patient had a dream that she initially felt
too embarrassed to talk
about in analysis. In this dream she was about to perfonn, to
sing in public; the setting was
unclear, but the excitement was palpable. As she held the
microphone up lo sing, it
became a penis, and she froze in the dream and felt embarrassed
thinking about the

multiple sexual meanings of the dream. We spoke about many
possible interpretations of
this dream. One obvious interpretation was about the
transference countertransference
relationship as involving her and.'or my sexual desires. A
second interpretation was that
like other men, I could not tolerate her having her own.
independent voice and would
overwhelm her sexually. putting her in her place. Another
interpretation was that in
becoming a woman, she had to give up her O n voice. to
castrate herself, and become a
female eunuch (Greer. 1971 ). A fourth. more traditional
interpretation was that of penis
envy- her inability to accept herself as a woman. All of these
interpretations arc plausible
and reflect different psychoanalytic perspectives. However,
what seemed new in this
dream, and in our work on it, was not the sexual tension and
reverie that was present and
had frequently come into the foreground in our transference
countertransfcrence relation-
ship. but rather her equating her voice, her ability to speak. with
a penis. or perhaps more
exactly with the absence of a penis. It was as if Holly, like the
scarecrow in the Wizard
of Oz who sang the song, "If I only had a brain;· dreamt that
she was singing her own
song, "If I only had a penis:• to articulate her lack ofa capacity
to have a voice of her own
and to be fully alive.
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Holly's dream raises interesting questions about how we think
of sexual dreams, such
as Holly's dream of the microphone becoming a penis. It seems
to me that contemporary
American psychoanalysis has interpreted sexual content, like
the penis in Holly's dream,
primarily in two ways: (a) as a 1 iteral sexual object
representing a repressed wish/
experience or as an abstract cultural experience; or (b) as either
an erotic desire/fear or as
an experience of gender. power, domination, and subm ission.
Lacan adds another per-
spective to the discussion of sexual symbols. Lacan (2007)
diflerentiates the concept of
the penis from that of the phallic object. The penis is a
reference to an actual body part,
and the phallus or phallic object reflects the movement from
concrete. immature forms of
thinking focused on images (the mirror stage) to the capacity to

use language, to be part
of the symbolic order, including experiences of subjective
desire, and the recognition of
loss and absence. Lacan·s differentiation of the penis from the
phallus describes the
difference between concrete experience of actual body parts and
the symbolic meaning of
metaphorical objects. For Lacan. the phallus, or phal lie object,
is a metaphor representing
a movement from the mirror stage in which the individual wants
to see him/herself puffed
up, larger than life. and dependent on others' applause to the
symbolic mode in which the
person struggles to use words and metaphors to express his or
her desire while recognizing
that words always fall short. Lacan (2007) describes this
process of transfonnation, or
metaphorization, as ·'traversing the fantasy,'' which involves a
symbolic recognition that
we arc the authors of our own lives. From a Lacanian
perspective, my patient's dream may
not simply be a dream about erotic desire in the transference
countertransterence rela-
tionship or our gendered power dynamics, but rather her wish to
have her own phallus. a
wish to enter into the symbolic realm in which she can speak,
articulate her desire, have
her own voice. and be able to mctaphorize her anxiety about
being seen and heard, to go
beyond the limits imposed by her concrete, unsymbolized
experience in family and
culture.
Holly's mother died about a year ago. at an advanced aged,
having survived several
major illnesses and two husbands. Her father died many years

before when she was a late
adolescent. Holly had surprised herself by taking the lead in
arranging care for her mother
during this illness, which lasted several months. Holly spent a
lot of time with her mother,
recognizing that her mother's inability to know, or want to
know. about her illness
recapitulated her difficulty knowing her own and her children's
feelings, her inability to
express emotions, particularly sad, depressed feelings of loss.
Holly felt very good about
her ability to know her own feelings and deal with the sadness
and loss of her mother.
Approximately 4 months after Holly's mother's death, the
following event occurred.
She arrived for a session, and with a combination of excitement
and vigilance said,"[ want
a penis." She described how she had been thinking about getting
a ·'penis" and that she
really wanted to do it. Her affect felt as if she was about to
embark on an adventure. When
I asked about this, she elaborated on her thoughts, her fantasy.
in an unusually unembar-
rassed way. She wanted to get a strap-on penis, she wanted to
know what it felt like to
have this appendage, she wanted to look at herself in the mirror,
she wanted to wear it
under her clothes in public so that only she knew about it, and
she discussed it with her husband
and suggested that she might like to use it in their sexual
relationship. She wondered if this
meant that she wanted to be a lesbian, and she felt that was not
where she was at. She
wanted to have a penis that she could play with in all possible
ways. and she wanted to

know what it feels like to have a penis.
I found myself propelled into many simultaneous thoughts and
reveries by Holly's
straightforward statement of her desire for a penis. First. my old
psychoanalytic super ego
came to the fore: it felt threatened and demanded an
interpretation and sa id that we had
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316 NEWIRIJI
come to the ultimate truth penis envy and castration anxiety.
Second, my relational self
came to the fore, believing that this must renect some unknown
part of myself, a personal
failure that I needed to identify, talk about, and then rescue
Holly from her wish to act out.
Lastly, I felt inquisitive and wanted to join Holly in this new
playful experience,
imagining what it would be like for her and imagining her being
in various places wearing

and being aware of her penis, including in sessions with me. My
response, which
somewhat surprised me, was asking her if she knew where to get
a penis and then telling
her about a store that I had often passed that specialized in
erotic toys for women. Rather
than interpreting and searching for some repressed oedipal wish
or focusing on our
immediate encounter, I seemed to be reacting in a playful way,
seeing and experiencing
this penis as a transitional object. The session continued in a
playful way, it felt wann, and
like with other transitional experiences, it was not possible to
say whether we were talking
about reality or creating a dreamlike space that Holly and I
could enter together.
I believe that the patient playfully introducing her wish to have
a penis was an
invitation to develop a transitional experience around her
central themes of phobic
anxiety, of being seen and heard, and of power, which was
encoded in her familial and
cultural experiences of gender. Throughout Holly's treatment,
fears of separation, of
standing apart from her sisters and mother. of being seen, of
being heard, and of being free
have been experienced as concrete realities in modes of psychic
equivalents as absolute
truth, as facts, rather than symbolically as thoughts, scripts,
symbols, or laws that must be
followed or could be transgressed. Although we may think that
Holly's penis represented
a concrete experience of gender and power. I see it as a
movement into a metaphorical
experience, using a strap-on penis as a presentational symbol, a

metaphor, like a perfor-
mance artist uses objects to express deep affective, symbolic
experiences in shocking and
humorous ways. We may think of this metaphor[c enactment as
illustrating the difference
between the functional and symbolic use of objects, as the
difference between tools and
toys, and as the diflerence between work and play.
Discussions of the development of the capacity for symbolic
experience are often
difficult and confusing because we are not used to thinking
about representational activity
as having different psychological qualities and as occurring in
parallel universes of
external and internal space. From most perspectives, my patient
is more than capable of
symbolic thought; she speaks and conducts herself as a
sophisticated, competent profes-
sional. However. her persistent anxiety symptoms and her
phobic attitude toward speak-
ing, being seen, and following her desires suggest that there are
unconscious limits on her
ability to be the author of her own life. Although our work
included interpretation,
articulating memories and forgotten truths, and involved many
of the interpersonal and
relational processes described above, I believe this process of
progressive symbolization
was a critical feature of our work. I would like to use the four
moments from my work
ith Holly to illustrate the process of progressive
symbolization and metaphorization that
are central to the transformational model of therapeutic action.
Each of the analytic moments can be thought of as part of a

progressive movement
from an externalized, concrete. and phobic experience of herself
as a passive actor toward
an internal, metaphoric. and symbolic experience of herself as
an empowered subject. Her
fear of flying may be understood as a concrete and externalized
phobic experience of
personal excitement, pleasure, and power in the exploration of
herself and the world. Her
dream of being a well-dressed attorney paralyzed when she was
about to speak and be
seen suggests an internalization of her experience of personal
excitement, pleasure. and
power as she moves from an externalized phobic orientation to a
fear of her own capacities
that she can begin to challenge herself through metaphorizing
this fantasy and seeing
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SIIFRI.OCK 1101.MES, SIR LANCH.Or AND HI!: WIZARD
OI- 0/. 31 7
herself dressed in an red Armani suit. Her dream of a
microphone turning into a penis as
she is about to sing represents another important movement
from the more concrete
internalized action that was involved in the dream of being a
law) er. to a more symbolic
experience of the microphone as a phallfc object. something
which she could potentially
have and use. These shifts from concrete to symbolic
representation arc described by
Segal (xxxx} as a shiti in attitude from treating a thought "as ir'
it is real to an attitude of
treating a thought from the perspective of ·'what it'' it is real.
Finally. Holly's wish to have
a penis and my participation in this transitional experience
reflects her ability to experi-
ence the penis (phallus) more fully as a symbol or metaphor, as
a toy that she can play
with, and a transitional experiences that she can own. This
transitional experience
represents her increasing capacity for symbolization and the
development of a set of
personal metaphors that allowed her to move from a phobic and
powerless state to one in
which she could experience herself as a powerful and playful
person having her own mind
separate from the roles given to her by her family, her culture,
and her analyst.
I believe that Holly's wish to have a penis and my ability to
validate her desire for a
penis was a transfomtational moment- a metaphoric enactment
of her long disowned

desire to be seen, heard, and a powerful and competent person.
This metaphoric enactment
or transitional experience developed through my joining her and
telling her where she
might safely go to purchase a penis, rather than interpreting her
desire from a Freudian or
a relational/cultural perspective, and helping her create a new
symbolic e>..perience in the
dreamlike 'orld of the analytic relationship. Holly and I
continued talking about her
.. fantasies'' about her penis, and as this evolved, she seemed
able to become more engaged
in other experiences involving potency and pleasure, such as
resuming work on her thesis.
1 am conflicted about whether to write about whether Holly
purchased her penis or not.
This conflict reflects my sense of not fulfilling aspects of my
role as a psychoanalyst,
defining the reality of sexual identity. and discouraging acting
out. However, I feel that it
would be in bad faith to Holly and to my view of psychoanalysis
as a transfom1ational
process, to the Wizard of Oz, to move this subjective dreamlike
experience into an
objectified reality. I believe that Holly's penis became our
metaphor, a transitional
experience in which we, in the safety of the illusory world of
therapy. could play with her
penis and allow her to become a more complete person and to
enter more fully into the
symbolic world. However, in the transitional experiences that
are generated in psycho-
analysis, it is hard to know what is real and what is illusory.
Was I encouraging her acting
out, supporting a denial of the painful truth of penis envy, of
limitations, or was I denying

the seriousness of her experience of being powerless and
subordinated to a patriarchal
order? Am I like the Wizard or Oz simply hiding behind a
screen and using theatrical
tricks and props? Am I the one who is supposed to know and
does not know, or have llwe
facilitated an important transfonnation through developing the
metaphor of-lolly's penis?
The transformational model conceptualizes psychoanalysis as a
series of potential now
moments (Stem et al.; xxx) in which subjective meaning
becomes generated through
metaphoric enactments, the development of metaphors that
reorganize experience, allow-
ing us to integrate disowned aspects of ourselves as we move
forward in life. Interest in
metaphor as a specific kind of symbolic and linguistic structure
has been growing. For
example, Enckell (20 l 0) contrasts metaphors with discursive
symbols and argues that
metaphors bring a future temporal focus and intentionality into
experience. guiding a
person as he or she moves into the future, creating a life.
Likewise, Fonagy (2007) and
others (Lakoff & Johnson. 1999) have highlighted the
importance of metaphors as the
individual integrates the many emotional. ph) sical, and
cognitive elements that allow
him/her to become a self-reflective agent. Although not using
the concept of metaphor,
,,,, -:.
~ :. , . ., ~

-.:: ~ . -an-.;
- •,
·~ -
~ -
~ ~
_;. ;
~ ~
.f .. _
, -.--.., ,
,
:' :.t -- '
318 NFWIRTII
Ogden (2007) has written about similar processes in his
discussion of talking like
dreaming. in hich conversations between analyst and patient
become dreamlike struc-
tures in which patients can move from concrete modes of
deadened experience into deeply
symbolic experiences of themselves as more fully alive, the
authors or their experience.
This focus on metaphor helps us to think about differences in
representation in uncon-
scious processes such as dreams as contrasted to discursive
symbols or abstract thought
such as historical memories.
Final Thoughts
In viewing psychoanalysis as an evolving theory. I have
suggested three literary meta-

phors to highlight the evolution or different aspects of the
therapeutic action of psycho-
analysis: the search for hidden truth, the importance of the
transference countertransrer-
ence experience in creating new modes or relatedness, and the
development of the
capacity for symbolic thought and metaphors in creating
subjective meaning. Although
these perspectives evolved during different historical periods
and are linked with different
psychoanalytic. philosophical, cultural, and scientific systems
of thought, they are all
clements in contemporary psychoanalytic practice. The
developing transfonnational mod-
els in psychoanalysis, developmental psychology. and
neuropsychology focus our atten-
tion on the importance of the patient's capacity to represent
experience and make meaning
in a symbolic. generative mode. In this clinical model.
enactments are not simply useful
as a source ofinfonnation, or as new experience. but are useful
in increasing the patient's
capacity for the development of metaphors that allow the patient
to organize his or her lite
in a generative, intentional, and active way. Many
psychoanalytic authors, including
Grotstcin, (2007), Ogden (20 I 0), Ferro t2006). Symington
(2007), Riolo (2007), and
Lombardi (2009). present transformational perspectives
extending Bion's concepts of
alpha function, reverie. dreaming, and waking dream thoughts
and focus on the develop-
ment of the capacity to symbolize and create metaphoric
experiences. These contemporary
Kleinian approaches can synergistically be integrated with
developmental, neuropsycho-

logical, and Lacanian perspectives. each contributing to a
deepening of our understanding
of the function of symbols and metaphors in analysis and in the
unconscious.
I have argued for the metaphor of the Wizard or Oz as a way of
conceptualizing a
contemporary view of the analytic process as a transfo1mational
experience that facilitates
the patient's development of the capacity to create meaning and
to symbolize and develop
metaphors that represent unconscious, imp I icit relational
structures. This metaphor con-
trasts with that of Sherlock Holmes. a great 19th century
detective, and Sir Lancelot, the
Hawed hero that represents analysis as a romantic journey. To
return lo the beginning,
psychoanalysis takes place in the explicit, conscious realm and
in the· implicit. uncon-
scious realms where our psychoanalytic metaphors determine
what we hear. how we act.
and what we say. I think that it is important for each of us to
detennine our own metaphor
and to see how it helps or hinders us in deepening our work
with patients and moving
psychoanalysis into the future.
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~ , .
..,. -....
.,
-~
~
- ,;
.;;,_
~ ~
C, ·= . ~~
: -= , .
·- :. :; . ,
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MARTIN KLUNERS
Freud as a Philosopher
of History1
1/philosophie de l'histoire, '' ''philosophy of history" ls the
name Voltaire,
in 17652 gave to a project, which dominated European-
especially
German philosophy for the following three generations and was
impor-
tant until the Fall of Communism at the end of the 20th century.
This
ideology for decades functioned as a substitute for religion for a
quarter
of the world's population and also influenced the work of,
probably the
most influential philosopher of history, Karl Marx. Despite the
great
diversity of the many different approaches in a period of more
than two
hundred years, there are five main themes that theories of
philosophers
of history from different times treat again and again :
{l) Voltaire himself advised what philosophically enlightened
llistorim1s
slto11ld do with history: "In all nations," he wrote, history was
"distorted by

fables, until finally philosophy enlightened Man." 1 Histori,1ns
should
therefore untangle the deformed history by using their critical
intellect.
A hundred years later the protagonists of German hic;torism,
Droysen and
Dilthey, created the perhaps most important theories of
historians'
duties: Droysen interpreted Man as a being with two qualities-
an acting
subject on the one hand, and a subject of historical cognition on
the
other. Man can understand the reasons why people do or do not
do certain
things. So for Droysen the duty of the historian is the
reconstruction of
the intention of human action"*. Dilthey advanced Droysen's
theory and
called his science of "[tjhe rule-guided understanding of
permanently
fixed manifestations of life," of "exegesis or interpretation,"
lwrme11c11-
tics:5 Historians should, among other things, reproduce
coherences of
memory.6 Still at the end of the 20th century-after the so-called
linguis-
tic turn-thinkers continue to formulate imperatives for the
historian's
work from a narrative point of view. Paul Ricoeur wrote an
analysis of
The Journal of l'sychohlstory -12 (1) Su111m11r 201-1
56 Martin Kliiners

Time awl Narrati11e7 in three volumes that Hayden White
called "the most
important synthesis of literary and historical theory produced"
in the
20th century.a
(2) Voltaire's main aim-as of most philosophers of history in the
18th
century-was to show how Man was not the object of God's
disposal, but
made history himself, that he could understand the sense of
history by
his intellectual potency and that there had been a conlir111om
progress in
tl1e unfolding of intellect:ual capacities, of" rcaio11 11 or
"e11lighte11ment." This
pattern returns, in different forms, In the main works of the
philosophy
of history, from Voltaire to Condorcet, Schelling and Hegel.
Even Weber's
analysis of rationalisation is a kind of sociological philosophy
of history
that examines the progress of enlightenment in occidental
history. In its
negation the pattern of growing enlightenment leads to the
pessimistic
Viale1.tic of {111/ight1m111ent9 of Horkheimer and Adorno.
One could call it
the main pattern, the centre of occidental philosophy of history;
il is
identical with the optimism of the age of enlightenment and,
after hav.
ing provoked its own negation in failed and bloody revolutions,
with the

delusion of this optimism (see also 5) .
(3) For some of the thinkers the ascent of enlightenment did not
take place
in a simple and linear development, but in a dialectic process.
Fichte and
especially Hegel created virtuoso dialectic systems, which
influenced ?-.-farx.
(4) According to Arnold Gehlen it was also Fichte who invented
the motif
of Elltfri'md1111g, alienation, by defining liberty as regaining
control over lost
products of one's own acting. 10 Especially for Karl Marx
£11tfrt!111dt111g became
one of the most important concepts of his materialistic theory,
as history for
him was the history of growing alienation, caused by the
contradiction
between the means of production and the relations of
production.
(5) After revolutions had ended in terror or failure, the ideas of
the
enlightenment, especially that Man made his own history, lost
more and
more their persuasive power. Later, Schelling even began to
doubt the
might of historical reason, which he had himself celebrated in
his
youth. 11 In the 19th century the conviction prevailed that
human reason
was unconscious and that one could not predict the aftermath of
human
acts-history had shown that human acts often resulted in effects
totally

different from those predicted or projected. This theme-in
German
often described as 11Ko11ti11ge11z11 (co11ti11ge11q) 12-is
the reason why philos-
Freud as a Philosopher of History 57
ophy of history, which had been the paradigmatic philosophical
disci-
pline from the middle of the 18th to the 19th century, generally
forfeited
its importance am.I began to be critici1cd.-evcn leading, in
some cases,
to the complete refusal not only of the idea of growing
enlightenment,
but of any attempt to understand the sense of history. This was
true espe-
cially after the experience of the two world wars, genocide, and
totalitar-
iani,;m in the 20th century.
Philosophy of history in the late 20th century seemed to exist
only in
what German philosopher Odo Marquard (born 1928) called
"Schwund-
stu fen" IJ-shrinkagc levels.
Despite this crisis of philosophy of history and the many
critiques that
occurred since the 19th century, a renaissance of this concept
can be
observed in an increasingly globalizcd world, which seeks new
kinds sig-
nificance. Great work,; of universal history like those of Weber,

Toynbee
and others that do not share the classical motifs of philosophy
of history,
like increasing enlightenment and liberty, 14 have shown what a
serious,
scientific philosophy of history based on empirically gained
data might
look like. Apart from this, th ere ha~ been an epistemological
debate on
formal aspects and, as a result, a slight rehabilitation of
philosophy of
history since Arthur C. Dan to demomtrated the explaining
functions of
narrating sentences in his A1111lytical p/Ji/osophy o(
history.15
So many of the questions posed by philosophers of history arc
still rel-
evant today. In particular, the unintentional consequences of
human act~
arc a scientific problem that docs not lose its fascination or its
interest.
I would like to show why another Sc/11vwulst11{e of
philosophy of his-
tory- psychoanalysis16-has lhc best answers to nearly all of
these ques-
tions: Psychoanalysis itself is, in the words of the German
historian
J-(,ms-Ulrich Wehler, a "historical science" as it uses the
individual history
of the patient as a basis for its diagnoses and therapy. 17 There
arc some
connecting lines between philosophy, philosopher~ of history,
and the
science Freud founded. Hi

HISTORIANS' DUTIES
When Voltaire describes history-or better the image of history
up to his
time- as a biased, warped thing (and one would like to add:
biased and
warped by memory•), " 1" the solution he postulates for this
problem mani-
fests analogies to the psychoanalytic notion of working-through.
The his-
torian is, in p~ychoanalytic terms, a kind of representative of
the sec-
ondary process. Voltaire can be seen here as a precursor of Paul
Ricoeur
who in his connection of literary and historical theory compares
the com-
58 Martin Kliiners
position of the plot to the psychoanalytic situation. Ricoeur
calls the com-
position of the plot "mimesis" and divides it into prefiguration,
configu-
ration and refiguration, or mimesis I, II and 111.20
Prefiguration or mimesis
I is identical with the reader's ability to recognize acting by its
structural
characteristics; it is pre-narrative. The configuration (mimesis
If) mediates
between mimesis I and Ill, between the prior understanding and
the final
understanding of refiguration in which the reader compares the
read story
with his own life story. Ricoeur defines the history of the

individual's life as
based on untold stories; in order to get its narrative identity,
these untold,
repressed stories have to be told, using the fragments passed
down by
memory-similar to what Dilthey, one hundred years before,
called the
reproduction of coherences of memory. This working-through
can be used
not only for the reconstruction of the individual's story, but also
for that
of groups and society.21 There is a fundamental affinity
between the work
of the historian and that of the psychoanalyst.
Nietzsche, in contrast, saw the necessity of a "critical" history
which
should have the force to "break" and to clear away the past to
make life
possible.22 To the suffering individual liberation from history
could be,
according to Nietzsche, a boon. One could be curious about how
Niet-
zsche would have argued if he had gotten to know Freud's
theory and
therapy. He might have realized and even appreciated that
liberation
from history-is something that simply is not possible. A better
under-
standing and, In the best case, a reconciliation with history is
the aim of
psychoanalytic working-through. Not liberation from history,
but libera-
tion from the distortion of history, can cure the sufferer. The
liberation
Nietzsche postulated is more like what psychoanalysis calls

repression
and in fact is the opposite of a successful healing.
Another boundary line between historical theory and
psychoanalysis
is relakd to what Droysen considered the historian's main duty:
The
reconstruction of the intention of human action is a kind of
ps)'c/10/ogy.
But Droysen limits himself to conscious intention, and can give
no real
answer to the question of why human acts so often have other
conse-
quences than those consciously intended. Psychoanalysis is the
"better"
historism as it takes account of the unconscious.23 The
integration of the
unconscious also allows us to examine the meaning of the wish
in his-
tory-both the wish of the acting individuals or groups who
"make" his·
tory, as well as the wish of those who write history: One of the
greatest
problems of philosophical historiography is the dialectic of
(unrealistic)
wish and resulting delusion. The examination of what
philosophers of
history wanted to see in history and whr they wanted to see it
would be an
illuminating project and might be the basis for the historian's or
histori-

ographer's own self-reflection.24
RATIONALISATION
Two philosophers writing at the end of the 18th century provide
exam-
ples of the idea of the co11li1111011s progress of l111ma11
rcnso11: Condorcet,
ignoring the contemporary violent and inhuman aspects of the
French
revolution that will later kill him, is the a.uthor of a Sketch for
a Historical
Picture o{llw Pmsress oftlw Htmum Jtliml in which he argues
for the neces-
sity of the progress of reason. In its untroubled optimism
Condorcet's
work is considered the classical example of the idea of progress
in the age
of enlightenment.25 In Germany, the young Schelling writes at
nearly the
same time a chronology of the self-fulfilment of reason. In hi,;
account
the first stage in human history was the direct and unadulterated
condi-
tion of sense perception-paradise; the second was that of the fall
of
mankind, in which logos destroyed the unity of life in the sense
percep-
tion; and in the third stage efforts to undo the fall of mankind
and the
redemption of the world by the aid of reason lead to a new
paradise on a
higher level. Human history therefore is a "history of liberating
human
reason from the limits of sense perception to the existence of
the unity of
reason."2<, This is very similar to what Freud nearly 150 years

later calls
The l'rugreH i11 Spirihmlit)• in his analysis of Mose'i and
Monotheism: One of
the, according to Freud, most important "precepts of Mosaic
religion,"
"the prohibition against making an image of God," signified
subordinating
sense perception to an abstract idea; it was a triumph of
spirituality over
the senses; more precisely an instinctual renunciation
accompanied by
its psychologically necessary consequencesF Progress in
5pirituality from
the psychoanalytic point of view is instinctual renunciation and
its ori-
gins are assigned to a certain historic period , the development
of Mosaic
monotheism, which is not for from Ma:-. Neber's definition of
the origim
of occidental rationalisation: The "disenchantment of the world"
which
began, according to Weber, with both Hellenistic scientific
thought and
ancient Jewish prophecy and led finally to the inner worldly
asceticism
of Protestantism. Inner worldly asceticism itself can be seen as
a sort of
sublimation am! would therefore also be related to the variouc;
modalities
of instinctual renunciation.28
The self-fulfilment of reason as described by Schelling is an
idea that
became very important in the philosophy of another exponent of
Ger-
man idealism whose work is regarded ac; the climax of

philosophy of his-
tory. Hegel interprets world history as tile history of reason;
reason rules
60 Martin Kluners
the world.29 But "reason" for Hegel does not necessarily mean
conscious-
ness. Reason in fact uses human passions for its self-fulfilment:
"This
maybe called the c1mni11:,: of reason-that it sets the passiom to
work for
itself, while that which develops its existence through such
impulsion
pays the penalty, and suffers loss."30 The optimi)tic view of a
cunning of
reason, a heritage of the age of enlightenment, may alienate
today's read-
ers of Hegel's philosophy as well as all of the optimistic
theories of the
18th and early 19th centuries, but the supposition that there has
been a
historic increase of knowledge and an increase in rationality is
still con-
sidered to be common sense in the present time.
I would like to connect the idea of lncre.ising rationality or
cm1scicms-
nesi; with that of the cultural or historic ego, a term that already
appears
in Schelling's writings.31 Increasing consciou,;ncss wa~ an
expression of
an extension of the ego.n The historic ego tends to its own
extension,

but the ego is not always in control of this process-it not only
sets the
passions to work for itself, but also is set by the passio,t lo
work for them.
The idea that the ego and the passions arc cmlagonim that often
fight
against each other allows us to see the ambivalence of
rationality or
enlightenment- which was a favourite theme of many 20th
century
thinkers, as formulated by Horkhcimer .ind Adorno in the
Viafrctic of
E11/ighte11111e11t. They reversed Hegel's optimistic
teleoloh•y of the self-fulfil-
ment of reason and wrote a negative teleolobry of reason, a
history of the
decline of enlightenment from emancipation to governance. But
as a
negative teleology is not less tendentious than a positive one,
there has
to be a more realistic and less ideological solution to explain
the ambiva-
lence of emancipation: emancipation is hmdamentally Oedipal.
Oedipus
aspires to emancipation from parental, or, in the patriarchal
society,
fatherly dominance. This struggle for independence however is
not
always successful as patriarchal dominance include~ the
introjection of
dominance structures into the son's psyche. So fatherly
dominance in
fact docs not get abolished, but substituted for by another
dominance,
the dominance of the son. If the history of the emancipatory
process can

be interpreted as an Oedipal individuation, the ambivalence of
this
dynamic psychological process is the cause for the ambivalence
of
enlightenment. This ambivalence results from the relationship
of father
and son-the father has the function of a role model for the son,
but in
truth is seen also as an enem}' to fight against. The~e hostile
feelings of
the ~on against the father evoke a deep sense of guilt that has to
be ratio-
nalic;ed. So "rationalisation" is not only a term for the rational
attain-
ment of an aim and the increasing assertion of this principle in
history,
but also has an important psychopathologica aspect as the
psychoana-
lytic use of this term already suggests: Introduced in 1908 by
Ernest Jones
into the psychoanalytic vocabulary, rationalisation de~cribes
the ambi-
tion to find coherent, "rational" reasons for non-identified real
motives
of acting, sentiments, thought~ etc. which is supported by
ideologies,
morality, religion, or political convictions-what Weber called
ideas-as
the activity of the superego reinforces the ego's mechanisms of
dcfcncc.:n
The a~sumption that ideologies, morality, religion, and political

convic-
tions could influence thinking would offer the possibility of
using psy-
choanalysis to help understand historically powerful ideas and
to finally
find an answer to the question of why history so often yields
other devel-
opments than those consciously intended.
DIALECTIC
for the thinkers of German idealism rationalisation was a
dialectic
process. I would like to focus on the parallels between I legel's
and Freud's
dialectic as Paul Ricoeur analysed them in his Essar 011
lnterprctation.3"'
Ricoeur seeks "to find in Freud an inverted image of Hegel":15
by comparing
their respective dialectics: Freud links, in the words of Ricoeur,
"a thema-
tized arcl1aeology of the unconscious to an unthematized
teleology of the
process of becoming conscious," while "Hegel links an explicit
teleology
of mind or spirit to an implicit archaeology of life and
desire."J6 Hegel
does not develop a phcnomenologv of the consciousness, but of
spirit, so
spirit is more than con'iciousness. Between "the I legelian
dialectic of m/11-
pliwted consciousness" and ''the process of consciousness that
develops in
the analytic relation there is a remarkable structural homology,"
'' [t]he
entire analytic relation can he reinterpreted as a dialectic of
consciousness,

rlsing from life to self-consciousness, from the satisfaction of
desire to the
recognition of the other consciousncss."37 According to
Ricoeur, the rela-
tion between the analyst and the patient is similar to, the
Hegelian rela-
tion between master and slave. The Hegelian terms of
"satisfaction" and
''recognition" are of such great importance for psychoanalysis
that "we
can say that all the dramas psychoanalysis discovers are located
on the
path that leads from 'satisfaction' to ' recognition."'-18 Freud's
thought is,
like that of Hegel, fundamentally dialectical, especially in the
second
topogrnphy: ''The second topography is the dialeclic properly
so-called in
and through which arise the various instinctual dichotomies and
the
opposed pairs or instinctual vicissitudes l, .. ). The question of
the superego
lies at the origin of the dialectical situation [ ... ]. Furthermore,
the series of
pairs, ego-id, ego-superego, ego-world, which constitute these
dependent
62 Martin Kliiners
relations, are all presented, as in the Hegelian dialectic, as
master-slave
relationships that must be overcome."39 For Freud world
history, the rela-
tionship of human nature, cultural development and religion-are

seen as
the mirroring of the dynamic conflicts between ego, id and
superego40-
this dialectic is the base of a potential synthesis of Hegelian
philosophy of
history and psychoanalytic cultural theory.
ALIENATION
Karl Marx upended the Hegelian idealistic dialectic and
interpreted the
idea mentioned above, tracing it originally back to Fichte, that
alienation
is losing control over the products of one's own acting, in a
materialist
way: La/Juur is not only the quality that distinguishes man from
animal, it is
also the reason for the transformation of human nature and for
human
E11tfre111d1mg (alie11ation), the central term of Marxist
theory. The dual char-
acter of labour-as it involves the human relationship to nature
as well as
being a social phenomenon-causes the alienation not only of the
individ-
ual, hut also of his social situation. History is the story of
increasing alien-
ation and will end in the self-destruction of capitalism. Control
over his-
tory will finally be regained by means of the revolution of the
proletariat:"
There lrnve been many attempts to link ~forxism with
psychoanalysis
such as those of the Critical Theory or E.xistentlalism,42 as
well as Reich,
Fromm, and much of what came to be called the Freudian Left,

It is prob·
ably the idea of alienation and the offer of solutions to undo it
that
makes psychoanalysis so attractive for Marxist thinkers. Also,
Freud was
very sceptical about Marxist theory, especially its method of
explaining
alienation only by materialistic criteria and the reduction of
human his-
tory to a socio-economic process.43 Especially in Ober ei11e
Wclta11sclw11-
1mg+' Freud criticizes the complete absence of psychological
arguments In
Marxist theory, the similarity of Marxism and religion as
producers of
illusions, the intolerance of the "practical Marxism"-
Bolshevism-
toward critics, which reminds Freud of the former intolerance of
the
Church etc .... Freud compares the expectancc of a future
paradise on
earth to Jewish messianism- more than a decade before Lowith
does the
same in Mca11i11g in Hi.w,ry:H Furthermore, for Freud the
transformation
of human nature within a few generations as intended by
Marxism is
deeply unrealistic.
If one follows the German historian Heinz Dieter Kittsteiner
who argued
that Marx's term Nah1rwiichsigkcit is a synonym for the
unconscious and
communism nothing else than the abolishment of the
unconscious his-
tory,46 p~ychoanalysi~ for Marxist thinkers would have the

function of sup-
plementing a political-economic theory psychologically, of a
ps,vchologirn/
method to abolish the unconscious. But at the same time the
differences
between Marxist and psychoanalytic theory become clearer:
Psychoanaly-
sis does not aim to "abolish" the unconscious, but only to
transform alien-
ated parts of the ego, to get them back from the id. The
psychoanalytic def-
inition and interpretation of consciousness is much more
complex than
the philosophical one. For Psychoanalysis consciousness is
influenced by
many factors other than the material or social being.4 7
There might be an at least indirect parallel in their respective
notions of
;i ienation. Freud, in a letter to Romain Rolland in 1936,·18
says that alien-
ation exlsts in two forms: either a part of reality seems to be
alien or a
part of the ego does. Alienation is a special kind of defence that
wants to
deny the existence of elements from the outside world or from
the lnner
world. In the concrete case that he tries to explain to his friend
Rolland, a
guilt feeling causes a disturbance of memory on the Acropolis.
This guilt

feeling is evoked by the encounter with the sphere of Greek
antiquity-
which for Freud is a symbol of having surpassed the father by
having, in
contrast to him, learned Greek at school and had a higher,
humanistic
education. Surpassing the father though is ;inalogous to
violating an
interdiction. Interpreted psychoanalytically, also historic
alienation could
result from the sense of guilt of the son who surpasses the
father, which
occurs in the course of the progress of civilization.
CONTINGENCY
After the questions concerning the historians' duties, the
process of ratio-
nalisation, the dialectic and the nlienation in history, the last,
and in the
present time perhaps, the most important problem of philosophy
of his-
tory regards the unintended consequences of human action. Yet
Droysen
suggested that historical facts are not based on the conscious
acts of voli-
tion of few individuals, but on the interaction of many, that they
are the
result of a correlation of action. 4!1 In Droysen's time another
concept
becilme more and more important and was popular already
before the
rise of the psychoanalysis: Schelling had introduced the
unconscious into
the philosophical discourse (although Leibniz had had similar
ideas hun-
dred years earlier), but especially Eduard von Hartmann's book

The Phi-
losop/1,,1 o{llle Unconscious (1869) was very important in the
second half of
the 19th century . .so Freud claimed later that only hypnotism-
which he
considered a forerunner of psychoanalysis-had made the
unconscious
an object of scientific cxperiment.51 However, the unconscious
finally
found its way not only into psychology, but also into the
theories of his-
torians. Ernst Troeltsch describes, as the major problem of
historical
research, the tension between the common and the particular,
between
64 Martin KWners
society and individuals, between objective and subjective
spirit.52 To
resolve this problem he proposes the unconscious as a
"fundamental"
term of history.-n His definition of the unconscious is close to
that of psy-
chology; Troeltsch though docs not refer to Freud or other depth
psy-
chologists. I le even suggests categories equivalent to what
psychoanaly-
sis calls "preconscious."·q Both the unconscious and the
preconscious
operate not only in the individual, but also in society. Troeltsch
antici-
pates to a certain extent the considerations about the supra-
individual

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