This document analyzes factors affecting non-farm employment in rural Punjab using data from the National Sample Survey Organization's 50th and 68th rounds. It finds that from 1993-1994 to 2011-2012, the proportion of rural households earning a livelihood from non-farm work increased from 22.7% to 35.7%. Specifically, the share working as self-employed in non-agriculture rose from 15.6% to 17.2%, and those as casual laborers in non-agriculture increased from not reported to 18.5%. Education levels, number of skilled household members, household head's education, and belonging to a more developed district significantly impacted the choice to work in rural non-farm sectors.
Pakistan Rural Investment Climate Survey: Background and Sample Frame Desgnidspak
The main purpose of this paper is to examine the nature of rural non-farm sector in Pakistan. The non-farm sector can absorb a large number of rural labour force in various activities such as, industry, trade/business, craft, and services and thus can play an important role in increasing employment and income. Rural areas of Pakistan are characterized by higher incidence of poverty, lower levels of literacy, poor health status, low access to basic services and amenities, and higher levels underemployment as compared to the Urban areas. The paper presents the nature of rural non-farm sector in Pakistan by analyzing the data of Labour Force Survey and Small and Household Manufacturing Industries
This document discusses migration, labor supply, wages and agriculture in rural Odisha, India. It finds that migration has impacted labor supply, real wage rates, productivity, output and cropping patterns in agriculture. Specifically:
- Migration of unskilled labor out of agriculture to other sectors has been a characteristic of economic development globally and in India. This has led to labor shortages and increasing wages in rural Odisha's agriculture sector.
- Studies show migration reduces farm labor participation and shifts cropping patterns to less labor-intensive crops. Higher wages from migration remittances compensate for lost farm output in some areas but reduce labor efforts and productivity in others.
- Minimum wage laws in India intended
Land Utilization and Cropping Pattern in Himachal Pradeshijtsrd
Since the agricultural sector accounts for the lions share in the Net State Domestic Product and employs more than two third of the working population, its growth is vital for the growth of the State economy and consequently, the socio economic upliftment of the rural masses. From this perspective, it is interesting to make a critical appraisal of the changing profile of agriculture in Himachal Pradesh. The present section gives an account of the changes in agriculture sector of Himachal Pradesh. A change in cropping patterns has been taking place in the State as elsewhere in the country. The shift in cropping pattern is normally advantageous and indicates a dynamic economy. The change depends upon the crops involved and the multifarious stimuli such as the changing economic, technological, and institutional factors. Food crops include cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruit crops, and spices together accounted for 96.00 per cent of the total cropped area while non food crops shared the remaining. The area under fruit crops registered the highest increase i.e. 1.3 per cent in 1970 71 to 8.03 per cent in 2019 2020 followed by wheat, vegetables, maize, and spices. However, the area under two principal cereal crops i.e. paddy, barley, pulses and oilseeds are decreased. Pulses suffered a maximum decline, followed by barley, paddy, total non food crops and total oilseeds during the reference period. The decrease in area under pulses and oilseeds might not be immediately disadvantageous to the fanners because of the present low level output input ratio of these crops, but nevertheless, it has national repercussions. Dr. Sham Singh Bains | Mr. Devinder Kumar Atlas "Land Utilization and Cropping Pattern in Himachal Pradesh" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-2 , February 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd49407.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/economics/other/49407/land-utilization-and-cropping-pattern-in-himachal-pradesh/dr-sham-singh-bains
https://ijaast.com/index.html
Our journal has open-access nature of IJAAST fosters global collaboration. Researchers from diverse geographical locations can engage with and build upon each other's work, transcending borders to collectively address the challenges and opportunities in agricultural science and technology.
Access to agricultural extension services of marginalized farmersHalim Miah
This document summarizes a research paper on access to agricultural extension services for marginalized farmers in Bangladesh. It finds that while small farmers cultivate most of the country's land and drive food security, they lack access to crucial services and resources due to control by powerful local elites. The paper aims to identify gaps in existing services and policies, examine how local power dynamics hinder poor farmers, and develop advocacy strategies to make services more inclusive. It seeks to engage stakeholders to influence policy and bridge gaps at local levels to improve service delivery and accountability for marginalized groups such as women producers.
1) Agriculture faces problems due to limited land supply, making sustained food imports not viable for India's needs. Increased agricultural productivity is required to ensure food security for current and future populations.
2) While services have replaced agriculture as the largest GDP contributor, agriculture remains the largest employer in India. The development of high-yielding seeds and the fertilizer-irrigation package in the 1960s led to large increases in productivity.
3) There are still significant variations in productivity across states and regions in India, highlighting the need to address disparities. Increased production is also required to meet projected demand increases for items like oilseeds, fish, eggs, and fruits by 2020-2021.
Role of non farm sector in the transformation of indias rural economyIAEME Publication
This document summarizes an article from the International Journal of Management about the role of the non-farm sector in transforming India's rural economy. It discusses how the non-farm sector has grown in importance with liberalization, providing employment as agriculture alone cannot support rural populations. Key points covered include how the non-farm sector helps smooth income flows and reduce vulnerability, growing non-farm employment in India, and the conclusion that the non-farm sector plays an important role in rural development as agriculture declines in importance.
AGRICULTURE SECTOR AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSISAndrea Porter
The document discusses the role of agriculture in rural development in India. It notes that agriculture significantly contributes to rural development as over 68% of Indians live in rural areas and agriculture is the primary livelihood. While agriculture's contribution to GDP has declined from 17.7% to 14.1%, it still employs over half of India's workforce and produces over 280 million tonnes of food grains annually. Rural employment has shifted from cultivators to agricultural laborers as fewer people work in agriculture.
Pakistan Rural Investment Climate Survey: Background and Sample Frame Desgnidspak
The main purpose of this paper is to examine the nature of rural non-farm sector in Pakistan. The non-farm sector can absorb a large number of rural labour force in various activities such as, industry, trade/business, craft, and services and thus can play an important role in increasing employment and income. Rural areas of Pakistan are characterized by higher incidence of poverty, lower levels of literacy, poor health status, low access to basic services and amenities, and higher levels underemployment as compared to the Urban areas. The paper presents the nature of rural non-farm sector in Pakistan by analyzing the data of Labour Force Survey and Small and Household Manufacturing Industries
This document discusses migration, labor supply, wages and agriculture in rural Odisha, India. It finds that migration has impacted labor supply, real wage rates, productivity, output and cropping patterns in agriculture. Specifically:
- Migration of unskilled labor out of agriculture to other sectors has been a characteristic of economic development globally and in India. This has led to labor shortages and increasing wages in rural Odisha's agriculture sector.
- Studies show migration reduces farm labor participation and shifts cropping patterns to less labor-intensive crops. Higher wages from migration remittances compensate for lost farm output in some areas but reduce labor efforts and productivity in others.
- Minimum wage laws in India intended
Land Utilization and Cropping Pattern in Himachal Pradeshijtsrd
Since the agricultural sector accounts for the lions share in the Net State Domestic Product and employs more than two third of the working population, its growth is vital for the growth of the State economy and consequently, the socio economic upliftment of the rural masses. From this perspective, it is interesting to make a critical appraisal of the changing profile of agriculture in Himachal Pradesh. The present section gives an account of the changes in agriculture sector of Himachal Pradesh. A change in cropping patterns has been taking place in the State as elsewhere in the country. The shift in cropping pattern is normally advantageous and indicates a dynamic economy. The change depends upon the crops involved and the multifarious stimuli such as the changing economic, technological, and institutional factors. Food crops include cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruit crops, and spices together accounted for 96.00 per cent of the total cropped area while non food crops shared the remaining. The area under fruit crops registered the highest increase i.e. 1.3 per cent in 1970 71 to 8.03 per cent in 2019 2020 followed by wheat, vegetables, maize, and spices. However, the area under two principal cereal crops i.e. paddy, barley, pulses and oilseeds are decreased. Pulses suffered a maximum decline, followed by barley, paddy, total non food crops and total oilseeds during the reference period. The decrease in area under pulses and oilseeds might not be immediately disadvantageous to the fanners because of the present low level output input ratio of these crops, but nevertheless, it has national repercussions. Dr. Sham Singh Bains | Mr. Devinder Kumar Atlas "Land Utilization and Cropping Pattern in Himachal Pradesh" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-2 , February 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd49407.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/economics/other/49407/land-utilization-and-cropping-pattern-in-himachal-pradesh/dr-sham-singh-bains
https://ijaast.com/index.html
Our journal has open-access nature of IJAAST fosters global collaboration. Researchers from diverse geographical locations can engage with and build upon each other's work, transcending borders to collectively address the challenges and opportunities in agricultural science and technology.
Access to agricultural extension services of marginalized farmersHalim Miah
This document summarizes a research paper on access to agricultural extension services for marginalized farmers in Bangladesh. It finds that while small farmers cultivate most of the country's land and drive food security, they lack access to crucial services and resources due to control by powerful local elites. The paper aims to identify gaps in existing services and policies, examine how local power dynamics hinder poor farmers, and develop advocacy strategies to make services more inclusive. It seeks to engage stakeholders to influence policy and bridge gaps at local levels to improve service delivery and accountability for marginalized groups such as women producers.
1) Agriculture faces problems due to limited land supply, making sustained food imports not viable for India's needs. Increased agricultural productivity is required to ensure food security for current and future populations.
2) While services have replaced agriculture as the largest GDP contributor, agriculture remains the largest employer in India. The development of high-yielding seeds and the fertilizer-irrigation package in the 1960s led to large increases in productivity.
3) There are still significant variations in productivity across states and regions in India, highlighting the need to address disparities. Increased production is also required to meet projected demand increases for items like oilseeds, fish, eggs, and fruits by 2020-2021.
Role of non farm sector in the transformation of indias rural economyIAEME Publication
This document summarizes an article from the International Journal of Management about the role of the non-farm sector in transforming India's rural economy. It discusses how the non-farm sector has grown in importance with liberalization, providing employment as agriculture alone cannot support rural populations. Key points covered include how the non-farm sector helps smooth income flows and reduce vulnerability, growing non-farm employment in India, and the conclusion that the non-farm sector plays an important role in rural development as agriculture declines in importance.
AGRICULTURE SECTOR AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSISAndrea Porter
The document discusses the role of agriculture in rural development in India. It notes that agriculture significantly contributes to rural development as over 68% of Indians live in rural areas and agriculture is the primary livelihood. While agriculture's contribution to GDP has declined from 17.7% to 14.1%, it still employs over half of India's workforce and produces over 280 million tonnes of food grains annually. Rural employment has shifted from cultivators to agricultural laborers as fewer people work in agriculture.
AGRICULTURE SECTOR AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSISTony Lisko
The document discusses the role of agriculture in rural development in India. It notes that agriculture significantly contributes to rural development as over 68% of Indians live in rural areas and agriculture is the primary livelihood. While agriculture's contribution to GDP has declined from 17.7% to 14.1%, it still employs over half of India's workforce and produces over 280 million tonnes of food grains annually. Rural employment has shifted from cultivators to agricultural laborers as non-farm jobs have increased.
Agriculture in Bihar: the latent sector of development inventionjournals
Bihar is the third most populous state in India with majority of its population depending on agriculture. Thus, agriculture yet forms the backbone of development. An average Indian still spends almost half of his/her total expenditure on food and roughly half of India’s work force is still engaged in agriculture for its livelihood. Being both a source of livelihood and food security for a vast majority of low income, poor and vulnerable sections of society, its performance assumes greater significance in view of the proposed National Food Security Bill and the ongoing Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) scheme. The experience from BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South African) countries indicates that a one percentage growth in agriculture is at least two to three times more effective in reducing poverty than the same growth emanating from non-agriculture sectors. Thus with proper thrust on technologies, institutional direction, farm level support services, all delivery mechanisms, improved farm infrastructure including rural connectivity , Bihar could be developed as a granary of India. It can also be developed as the major hub of fruits, vegetables, and fisheries for both national and global markets. The entire economic growth processes in Bihar depends on the dynamics of agriculture. There are successful experiments in different parts of the country, which if adopted, can provide an answer to various problems which Bihar is facing in its race to higher productivity levels. Bihar can then surely catch up with the present productivity levels of rice and wheat in Punjab and other cherished goals in maize, pulses, oilseeds, horticulture and livestock production in the next few year Plans. The paper tries to prove that if agriculture is developed systematically then agriculture can be one of the major profit earning sectors for Bihar.
Abstract: Punjabi society is most globalised, while its economy is least globalised. It has a relatively developed agriculture without much direct linkages with the industrial development. During sixties, India agriculture experienced a spectacular increase in production, especially, in that of wheat and rice. It was mainly through an increase in productivity per hectares of these crops. The jump in the rate of increase in productivity of these crops was so sudden and conspicuous that some economists termed the new change as 'Green Revolution’ The main benefits of green revolution were: Increase in food grain output, increase in market surplus, generation of more employment opportunities in the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors, having such great benefits green revolution was not a blessing for the farmers in Punjab. It added lots of problems in the lives of the farmers and made their life full of misery. Punjab has produced a number of paradoxes. The thrust of the paper is to suggest agricultural reforms for future course of growth and development for agriculture sector and ways and means to improve sustainability of agriculture production.
Reverse Migration Due to Long Lockdown in India- Is it Sustainable?Dr. Amarjeet Singh
This document summarizes a research article about reverse migration of workers from urban to rural areas in India due to the long COVID-19 lockdown. It discusses that millions of migrant workers faced immense suffering trying to return home and no longer want to work in cities, instead wanting to sustain themselves with minimal earnings in rural areas. The document then examines factors driving migration from rural to urban areas previously, including lack of rural employment and higher urban wages. It describes the poor conditions that migrant workers, especially short-term circular migrants, faced in cities with low pay, no benefits, and inadequate housing. The lockdown has shown the vulnerability of migrants and many now want to return to their villages permanently.
The transition in the rural economy in the last four decades is examined based on the analysis of growth and composition of output and employment. A reduction in the share of agriculture, and a dominance of non farm activities in the rural economy is noted from 2004–05 onwards. However, agriculture continues to be the predominant source of employment. Employment in the construction sector increased substantially but was not large enough to absorb workers leaving agriculture, resulting in a decline in rural employment after 2004–05. A serious imbalance has emerged in output and employment in different sectors in rural areas requiring urgent attention to create jobs in manufacturing, services, and construction. Creation of jobs in rural areas requires a complete rethink of rural industrialization. Dr. Saroj Kumari "Rural Development Strategies in India" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-4 , June 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd49976.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/49976/rural-development-strategies-in-india/dr-saroj-kumari
Role of Corporate Social Responsibility in Rural IndiaRHIMRJ Journal
More than 60% of India's population lives in rural areas and depends on agriculture for employment and livelihood. Rural development faces issues related to infrastructure, healthcare, education, and socioeconomic conditions. Corporate social responsibility can play an important role in rural development by investing in infrastructure, public services, communication networks, agriculture, healthcare, education, and skill development. This will help generate employment opportunities and improve living standards in rural India.
Determinants of Income Inequality Among Cooperative Farmers in Anambra Stateijtsrd
This study examines determinants of income inequality among cooperative farmers in Anambra State. The study, modeled variables like farmers efficiency, technology, market proximity, credit obtained, farm size, soil fertility, crop type, input supply and agric extension services using descriptive and inferential statistics. The population of this study was made up of 298 members of selected cooperative societies in Anambra State and a sample of 171 was determined for the study using Taro Yamane formula. A structured questionnaire was administered to 171 respondents but only 115 responded to the questionnaire. The data collected using the questionnaires were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Findings revealed that apart from market proximity which was not significant, all other factors farmers' efficiency, technology, credit obtained, farm size, soil fertility, crop type, input supply and agric extension services contributed significantly to the farmers' income. This study therefore recommends that The government should carry out a public enlightenment campaign on the potentials of agricultural cooperatives as sustainable approach for reducing income inequality through synergy and emphasis should be placed more on cooperative education as requirement for growth and development since most of the people in the target areas has low educational background. The agricultural cooperative subsector should be adequately financed to help improve the farmers' income and also reduce income inequality. Agricultural technology transfer through extension services should be encouraged to help create awareness and increase adoption of better ways farming so as to increase the farmers' income and reduce income inequality among others. Anigbogu, Theresa Ukamaka | Uzondu, Chikodiri Scholastica ""Determinants of Income Inequality Among Cooperative Farmers in Anambra State"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23149.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/economics/23149/determinants-of-income-inequality-among-cooperative-farmers-in-anambra-state/anigbogu-theresa-ukamaka
Impact of government school to-land agricultural project on rural development...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a journal article that assesses the impact of a Nigerian government program called the school-to-land agricultural project on rural development in Rivers State. The program aims to promote rural employment, livestock and food crop production, and rural income generation. Survey results from 300 farmer participants and community members reveal that the program has contributed to rural development by increasing livestock and food production. However, the adoption of modern farming techniques and constant review of agricultural policies is recommended to avoid duplication of projects.
This document discusses a study on the livelihood preferences and determining factors of rural youth in East Java, Indonesia. The study analyzed survey data from 200 rural youth using multinomial logit models to measure the response probabilities of four livelihood alternatives: agricultural jobs, non-agricultural employment, non-farm entrepreneurship, and urban employment. The results showed that higher education levels were positively correlated with choosing livelihoods outside of agriculture. Conversely, having more land available through parents decreased the likelihood of choosing non-agricultural livelihoods over farming. Therefore, better land access encourages youth to engage in agricultural work.
A Conceptual Model of Rural Development IndexAI Publications
Rural Areas are deprived of basic amenities such as access to drinking water, electricity, toilets and sewage systems giving rise to unhygienic conditions in the rural areas. Lack of healthcare facility in terms of infrastructure and staff has aggravated problems of health leading to infant mortality, death of pregnant mothers, decreased average life span in rural areas. Poor quality of teaching fraternity and non availability of infrastructure are major reason for illiteracy and unemployment. Non-agricultural income such as animal husbandry, sericulture and vocational trainings that supplement the agricultural income that needs to be focused. Mechanization should be the priority in enhancing agricultural yield followed by storage and transportation facility to the market in raising agricultural income. Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides due to lack of knowledge among farmers contribute to water as well as air pollution deteriorating the environment. The disposable income spent on cultural aspects needs to be taken into consideration in assessing the status of the rural area. There is a need to assess rural areas from five dimensions such as economic, education, health, environment and disposable income in understanding present level of development in rural areas. Cause and effect diagram is established contributing to the development of specified domains. The conceptual index is a composition of Result Index and Cause Index. This distinction aids in examining the result index to measure the current level of rural development and cause index to evaluate the process of rural development for policy makers in identifying the areas of improvement in the overall development of the rural area.
A Study on Occupational Mobility of Farmers of Ariylaur District of Tamil Nad...inventionjournals
This document summarizes a study on occupational mobility among farmers in Ariyalur District, Tamil Nadu, India. The study found that 11 factors were driving farmers to shift from agriculture to non-agricultural occupations. The top four factors were low income from agriculture, struggles marketing agricultural commodities, lack of water resources, and a desire for higher social status. The study also found correlations between low/unstable income and factors like poor soil fertility, variable monsoons, lack of timely inputs, and small landholdings. To reduce this occupational shift, the study recommends improving technologies for soil/water management, integrated farming systems, reclaiming degraded lands, improved extension services, and other measures to boost agricultural incomes and
This document summarizes a paper that examines the role and challenges of small-scale agriculture in India. It notes that small and marginal farmers account for over 80% of agricultural land holdings but only 44% of operated area, indicating significant land inequality. Small farms play an important role in agricultural growth, food security, and livelihoods. However, small farmers face challenges in accessing inputs, credit, technology, and markets. Government intervention and support are still needed to level the playing field for small farms and achieve sustainable agricultural growth and food security in India.
Impact of National Fadama Development Project III in Alleviating Poverty amon...QUESTJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: This paper examined the impact of National Fadama Development Project III on their socioeconomic status, poverty issues and equally assesses the extent to which participation in the programme has reduce poverty among participants. The study relied primary data collected using structured questionnaire and personal interview. The analytical tools used include descriptive statistics and Foster Greer Thorbecke poverty index. The result of the analysis revealed that the per capita expenditure for participants N750,167.64 per annum. While that of non participants was N605833.57 per annum. The poverty line for the participants and non participants were N500,111.36 and N403,889.05 the poverty head count were 18.20% and 41.30%, the gap index was 10.20% and 25.90%, poverty severity index was 3.30% and 6.90% respectively. All the poverty indices showed that non participants were poorer than the participant’s household in the study area. The poverty line and core poverty for participants were found to be higher than that of the non participants, indicating that the participants had better standard of living when compare with non participants, meaning the programme have positive impact on their consumption expenditure through increased in income accrued. Hence, more participants were non poor than the non participants. Therefore, federal government should as a matter of deliberate policy initiated moves towards forcing state and local government through direct deduction from statutory allocation to pay counterparts fund for sustenance of the project.
This research work examined the impact of Agriculture output on Economic Growth in Nigeria, with the objective of determining the relationship between the Agricultural sector and the Economic Growth rates in Nigeria. Thus, the research was aimed at examining the contributions of agriculture (value added) to the growth of the national economy, investigating government expenditure on agriculture in Nigeria, and determining the contributions of crop production from agriculture on the Nigerian economy. Data were collected from the World Bank Data base and CBN statistical bulletin. Co-Integration and Vector Error correction model techniques were employed as well as the Granger Causality test to determine the causality relationship between Agriculture and Economic Growth. As a result of the data collected, analyzed and interpreted, the research found that Agriculture has positive and long run impact on Economic Growth in Nigeria. The paper recommends amongst many other things that the Government of Nigeria should put in more efforts to diversify the Nigerian economy as the Nigerian agricultural sector currently suffers a lot of marginalization which has not enabled it to contribute more significantly as it should.
Agricultural Sector in District Anantnag of J&K: A Shift from Producer to Con...ijtsrd
The district Anantnag right from its inception is known as the major supplier of agricultural produce, because major portion of population of the district comprised of rural areas and were involved in agricultural activities as their main source of income. The non-seriousness of authorities has forced the agricultural section of society to look for some other options. Within a short span of time rice and maize the major crops were replaced by fruit and willow plantation at a larger scale. This shift to new plantation has proved very beneficial as compared to other crops. Kashmiri apple has become very popular throughout the country. Its high demand has really opened the new ways of development. Similarly the willow cricket bats of Kashmir have earned the world reputation. The new module to a certain extent has revived the trade links of Kashmir. One the one hand it has proved to be fruitful business but on the other it has started to bring miseries in shortage of food and very soon people have to face the severe crisis of food. The food at present is procured from other parts of country. During earlier times people were producers, but at present they have become consumers. The authorities have never tried to improve the quality of main crops of valley that resulted in its decline. Dr. Syed Damsaz Ali Andrabi | Dr. Mohd. Yousuf Bhat"Agricultural Sector in District Anantnag of J&K: A Shift from Producer to Consumer" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-1 | Issue-4 , June 2017, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd2218.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/2218/agricultural-sector-in-district-anantnag-of-jandk-a-shift-from-producer-to-consumer/dr-syed-damsaz-ali-andrabi
AGRICULTURE PRODUCTIVITY AND ECONOMIC GROWTH A CASE OF PAKISTANLuz Martinez
The document analyzes the relationship between agriculture productivity and economic growth in Pakistan from 1994 to 2017. It finds that:
- Gross capital formation (GCF) and inflation rate have a negative relationship with economic growth in both the short-run and long-run, while other variables like employed labor force, fertilizer, and agriculture productivity have a positive relationship.
- The government should increase investment in agriculture and introduce new technologies to improve productivity in the sector and boost economic growth.
- Empirical results from time series data and the ARDL model show agriculture productivity positively impacts Pakistan's economic growth. Increased productivity leads to increased income, employment, food security, and foreign exchange earnings.
The document discusses India's agriculture sector. It notes that agriculture is important to the Indian economy, employing over half of India's workforce and contributing 15% to GDP, despite a majority of farmers being small-scale or marginal. Key crops include rice, wheat, and fruits/vegetables. Agricultural growth has fluctuated over time periods. New policies are needed to support small farms, rainfed areas, and rural development for sustainable growth in the sector. The government has implemented various schemes to boost agriculture. Food processing and use of technology also present opportunities in Indian agriculture.
This research work examines the impact of technology adoption on agricultural productivity. It considers the south-west region of Bangladesh as the study area. Since most of the farmers in the study area are engaged in rice production, this study surveys randomly selected 60 rice farmers in the IRRI season of year 2015 through using a questionnaire. This study finds sufficient variation in frequency and degree of technology adoption in agricultural practices among the surveyed farmers. The analysis results indicate that farmers are adopting high level of technology in seed variety and irrigation phases, medium level of technology in land preparation, pest management and fertilizer application phases and low level of technology in weeding and harvesting phases. There is a statistically significant difference in productivity between high and low degree technology adopters. Education and land holdings are the statistically significant variables in determining technology adoption level. According to the study findings, a one percent increase in technology adoption leads to increase in productivity by 0.22 percent, holding other factors constant, and this influence is statistically significant at one percent level. Therefore, this study concludes that there is a scope for further increase in productivity through planned manipulation of technology adoption level in different phases of agricultural production.
Impact of access to agricultural advisory services on rural development in th...AI Publications
Agriculture, the main activity in rural areas, is the real driver of economic growth. Agricultural growth through resulting from advisory services plays an important role in rural development by building and disseminating knowledge, to farmers including the diffusion of new technologies that they can adopt to increase productivity, and their income levels to improve upon their quality of life. Access to advisory services therefore contributes to raising the standard of living of producers through increased production, higher prices, or the combined effect of these two elements. In this perspective, the main objectives to be given in terms of rural development are dictated by the quantitative elements of growth, including increasing income, creating jobs, and diversifying services. Access to agricultural advice also brings beneficial changes in the way of life through the renewal of working conditions and the development of the producer. In this sense, it is no longer a question of controlling growth, but of orienting it differently in order to influence the quality of life.
Uday salunkhe challenges and opportunties for agri sector in indiaudaysalunkhe
This article talks about the Challenges and opportunities for agriculture sector in India. It has been co- authored by Dr. Uday Salunkhe, Director of the prestigious Welingkar Institute of Management and Research
The Statutory Interpretation of Renewable Energy Based on Syllogism of Britis...AI Publications
The current production for energy consumption generates harmful impacts of carbon dioxide to the environment causing instability to sustainable development goals. The constitutional reforms of British Government serve to be an important means of resolving any encountered incompatibilities to political environment. This study aims to evaluate green economy using developed equation for renewable energy towards political polarization of corporate governance. The Kano Model Assessment is used to measure the equivalency of 1970 Patents Act to UK Intellectual Property tabulating the criteria for the fulfillment of sustainable development goals in respect to the environment, artificial intelligence, and dynamic dichotomy of administrative agencies and presidential restriction, as statutory interpretation development to renewable energy. The constitutional forms of British government satisfy the sustainable development goals needed to fight climate change, advocate healthy ecosystem, promote leadership of magnates, and delegate responsibilities towards green economy. The presidential partisanship must be observed to delineate parties of concerns and execute the government prescriptions in equivalence to the dichotomous relationship of technology and the environment in fulfilling the rights and privileges of all citizens. Hence, the political elites can execute corporate governance towards sustainable development of renewable energy promoting environmental parks and zero emission target of carbon dioxide discharges. The economic theory developed in statutory interpretation for renewable energy serves as a tool to reduce detrimental impacts of carbon dioxide to the environment, mitigate climate change, and produce artefacts of bioenergy and artificial intelligence promoting sustainable development. It is suggested to explore other vulnerabilities of artificial intelligence to prosper economic success.
Enhancement of Aqueous Solubility of Piroxicam Using Solvent Deposition SystemAI Publications
Piroxicam is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug that is characterized by low solubility-high permeability. The present study was designed to improve the dissolution rate of piroxicam at the physiological pH's through its increased solubility by using solvent deposition system.
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AGRICULTURE SECTOR AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSISTony Lisko
The document discusses the role of agriculture in rural development in India. It notes that agriculture significantly contributes to rural development as over 68% of Indians live in rural areas and agriculture is the primary livelihood. While agriculture's contribution to GDP has declined from 17.7% to 14.1%, it still employs over half of India's workforce and produces over 280 million tonnes of food grains annually. Rural employment has shifted from cultivators to agricultural laborers as non-farm jobs have increased.
Agriculture in Bihar: the latent sector of development inventionjournals
Bihar is the third most populous state in India with majority of its population depending on agriculture. Thus, agriculture yet forms the backbone of development. An average Indian still spends almost half of his/her total expenditure on food and roughly half of India’s work force is still engaged in agriculture for its livelihood. Being both a source of livelihood and food security for a vast majority of low income, poor and vulnerable sections of society, its performance assumes greater significance in view of the proposed National Food Security Bill and the ongoing Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) scheme. The experience from BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South African) countries indicates that a one percentage growth in agriculture is at least two to three times more effective in reducing poverty than the same growth emanating from non-agriculture sectors. Thus with proper thrust on technologies, institutional direction, farm level support services, all delivery mechanisms, improved farm infrastructure including rural connectivity , Bihar could be developed as a granary of India. It can also be developed as the major hub of fruits, vegetables, and fisheries for both national and global markets. The entire economic growth processes in Bihar depends on the dynamics of agriculture. There are successful experiments in different parts of the country, which if adopted, can provide an answer to various problems which Bihar is facing in its race to higher productivity levels. Bihar can then surely catch up with the present productivity levels of rice and wheat in Punjab and other cherished goals in maize, pulses, oilseeds, horticulture and livestock production in the next few year Plans. The paper tries to prove that if agriculture is developed systematically then agriculture can be one of the major profit earning sectors for Bihar.
Abstract: Punjabi society is most globalised, while its economy is least globalised. It has a relatively developed agriculture without much direct linkages with the industrial development. During sixties, India agriculture experienced a spectacular increase in production, especially, in that of wheat and rice. It was mainly through an increase in productivity per hectares of these crops. The jump in the rate of increase in productivity of these crops was so sudden and conspicuous that some economists termed the new change as 'Green Revolution’ The main benefits of green revolution were: Increase in food grain output, increase in market surplus, generation of more employment opportunities in the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors, having such great benefits green revolution was not a blessing for the farmers in Punjab. It added lots of problems in the lives of the farmers and made their life full of misery. Punjab has produced a number of paradoxes. The thrust of the paper is to suggest agricultural reforms for future course of growth and development for agriculture sector and ways and means to improve sustainability of agriculture production.
Reverse Migration Due to Long Lockdown in India- Is it Sustainable?Dr. Amarjeet Singh
This document summarizes a research article about reverse migration of workers from urban to rural areas in India due to the long COVID-19 lockdown. It discusses that millions of migrant workers faced immense suffering trying to return home and no longer want to work in cities, instead wanting to sustain themselves with minimal earnings in rural areas. The document then examines factors driving migration from rural to urban areas previously, including lack of rural employment and higher urban wages. It describes the poor conditions that migrant workers, especially short-term circular migrants, faced in cities with low pay, no benefits, and inadequate housing. The lockdown has shown the vulnerability of migrants and many now want to return to their villages permanently.
The transition in the rural economy in the last four decades is examined based on the analysis of growth and composition of output and employment. A reduction in the share of agriculture, and a dominance of non farm activities in the rural economy is noted from 2004–05 onwards. However, agriculture continues to be the predominant source of employment. Employment in the construction sector increased substantially but was not large enough to absorb workers leaving agriculture, resulting in a decline in rural employment after 2004–05. A serious imbalance has emerged in output and employment in different sectors in rural areas requiring urgent attention to create jobs in manufacturing, services, and construction. Creation of jobs in rural areas requires a complete rethink of rural industrialization. Dr. Saroj Kumari "Rural Development Strategies in India" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-4 , June 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd49976.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/49976/rural-development-strategies-in-india/dr-saroj-kumari
Role of Corporate Social Responsibility in Rural IndiaRHIMRJ Journal
More than 60% of India's population lives in rural areas and depends on agriculture for employment and livelihood. Rural development faces issues related to infrastructure, healthcare, education, and socioeconomic conditions. Corporate social responsibility can play an important role in rural development by investing in infrastructure, public services, communication networks, agriculture, healthcare, education, and skill development. This will help generate employment opportunities and improve living standards in rural India.
Determinants of Income Inequality Among Cooperative Farmers in Anambra Stateijtsrd
This study examines determinants of income inequality among cooperative farmers in Anambra State. The study, modeled variables like farmers efficiency, technology, market proximity, credit obtained, farm size, soil fertility, crop type, input supply and agric extension services using descriptive and inferential statistics. The population of this study was made up of 298 members of selected cooperative societies in Anambra State and a sample of 171 was determined for the study using Taro Yamane formula. A structured questionnaire was administered to 171 respondents but only 115 responded to the questionnaire. The data collected using the questionnaires were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Findings revealed that apart from market proximity which was not significant, all other factors farmers' efficiency, technology, credit obtained, farm size, soil fertility, crop type, input supply and agric extension services contributed significantly to the farmers' income. This study therefore recommends that The government should carry out a public enlightenment campaign on the potentials of agricultural cooperatives as sustainable approach for reducing income inequality through synergy and emphasis should be placed more on cooperative education as requirement for growth and development since most of the people in the target areas has low educational background. The agricultural cooperative subsector should be adequately financed to help improve the farmers' income and also reduce income inequality. Agricultural technology transfer through extension services should be encouraged to help create awareness and increase adoption of better ways farming so as to increase the farmers' income and reduce income inequality among others. Anigbogu, Theresa Ukamaka | Uzondu, Chikodiri Scholastica ""Determinants of Income Inequality Among Cooperative Farmers in Anambra State"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23149.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/economics/23149/determinants-of-income-inequality-among-cooperative-farmers-in-anambra-state/anigbogu-theresa-ukamaka
Impact of government school to-land agricultural project on rural development...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a journal article that assesses the impact of a Nigerian government program called the school-to-land agricultural project on rural development in Rivers State. The program aims to promote rural employment, livestock and food crop production, and rural income generation. Survey results from 300 farmer participants and community members reveal that the program has contributed to rural development by increasing livestock and food production. However, the adoption of modern farming techniques and constant review of agricultural policies is recommended to avoid duplication of projects.
This document discusses a study on the livelihood preferences and determining factors of rural youth in East Java, Indonesia. The study analyzed survey data from 200 rural youth using multinomial logit models to measure the response probabilities of four livelihood alternatives: agricultural jobs, non-agricultural employment, non-farm entrepreneurship, and urban employment. The results showed that higher education levels were positively correlated with choosing livelihoods outside of agriculture. Conversely, having more land available through parents decreased the likelihood of choosing non-agricultural livelihoods over farming. Therefore, better land access encourages youth to engage in agricultural work.
A Conceptual Model of Rural Development IndexAI Publications
Rural Areas are deprived of basic amenities such as access to drinking water, electricity, toilets and sewage systems giving rise to unhygienic conditions in the rural areas. Lack of healthcare facility in terms of infrastructure and staff has aggravated problems of health leading to infant mortality, death of pregnant mothers, decreased average life span in rural areas. Poor quality of teaching fraternity and non availability of infrastructure are major reason for illiteracy and unemployment. Non-agricultural income such as animal husbandry, sericulture and vocational trainings that supplement the agricultural income that needs to be focused. Mechanization should be the priority in enhancing agricultural yield followed by storage and transportation facility to the market in raising agricultural income. Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides due to lack of knowledge among farmers contribute to water as well as air pollution deteriorating the environment. The disposable income spent on cultural aspects needs to be taken into consideration in assessing the status of the rural area. There is a need to assess rural areas from five dimensions such as economic, education, health, environment and disposable income in understanding present level of development in rural areas. Cause and effect diagram is established contributing to the development of specified domains. The conceptual index is a composition of Result Index and Cause Index. This distinction aids in examining the result index to measure the current level of rural development and cause index to evaluate the process of rural development for policy makers in identifying the areas of improvement in the overall development of the rural area.
A Study on Occupational Mobility of Farmers of Ariylaur District of Tamil Nad...inventionjournals
This document summarizes a study on occupational mobility among farmers in Ariyalur District, Tamil Nadu, India. The study found that 11 factors were driving farmers to shift from agriculture to non-agricultural occupations. The top four factors were low income from agriculture, struggles marketing agricultural commodities, lack of water resources, and a desire for higher social status. The study also found correlations between low/unstable income and factors like poor soil fertility, variable monsoons, lack of timely inputs, and small landholdings. To reduce this occupational shift, the study recommends improving technologies for soil/water management, integrated farming systems, reclaiming degraded lands, improved extension services, and other measures to boost agricultural incomes and
This document summarizes a paper that examines the role and challenges of small-scale agriculture in India. It notes that small and marginal farmers account for over 80% of agricultural land holdings but only 44% of operated area, indicating significant land inequality. Small farms play an important role in agricultural growth, food security, and livelihoods. However, small farmers face challenges in accessing inputs, credit, technology, and markets. Government intervention and support are still needed to level the playing field for small farms and achieve sustainable agricultural growth and food security in India.
Impact of National Fadama Development Project III in Alleviating Poverty amon...QUESTJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: This paper examined the impact of National Fadama Development Project III on their socioeconomic status, poverty issues and equally assesses the extent to which participation in the programme has reduce poverty among participants. The study relied primary data collected using structured questionnaire and personal interview. The analytical tools used include descriptive statistics and Foster Greer Thorbecke poverty index. The result of the analysis revealed that the per capita expenditure for participants N750,167.64 per annum. While that of non participants was N605833.57 per annum. The poverty line for the participants and non participants were N500,111.36 and N403,889.05 the poverty head count were 18.20% and 41.30%, the gap index was 10.20% and 25.90%, poverty severity index was 3.30% and 6.90% respectively. All the poverty indices showed that non participants were poorer than the participant’s household in the study area. The poverty line and core poverty for participants were found to be higher than that of the non participants, indicating that the participants had better standard of living when compare with non participants, meaning the programme have positive impact on their consumption expenditure through increased in income accrued. Hence, more participants were non poor than the non participants. Therefore, federal government should as a matter of deliberate policy initiated moves towards forcing state and local government through direct deduction from statutory allocation to pay counterparts fund for sustenance of the project.
This research work examined the impact of Agriculture output on Economic Growth in Nigeria, with the objective of determining the relationship between the Agricultural sector and the Economic Growth rates in Nigeria. Thus, the research was aimed at examining the contributions of agriculture (value added) to the growth of the national economy, investigating government expenditure on agriculture in Nigeria, and determining the contributions of crop production from agriculture on the Nigerian economy. Data were collected from the World Bank Data base and CBN statistical bulletin. Co-Integration and Vector Error correction model techniques were employed as well as the Granger Causality test to determine the causality relationship between Agriculture and Economic Growth. As a result of the data collected, analyzed and interpreted, the research found that Agriculture has positive and long run impact on Economic Growth in Nigeria. The paper recommends amongst many other things that the Government of Nigeria should put in more efforts to diversify the Nigerian economy as the Nigerian agricultural sector currently suffers a lot of marginalization which has not enabled it to contribute more significantly as it should.
Agricultural Sector in District Anantnag of J&K: A Shift from Producer to Con...ijtsrd
The district Anantnag right from its inception is known as the major supplier of agricultural produce, because major portion of population of the district comprised of rural areas and were involved in agricultural activities as their main source of income. The non-seriousness of authorities has forced the agricultural section of society to look for some other options. Within a short span of time rice and maize the major crops were replaced by fruit and willow plantation at a larger scale. This shift to new plantation has proved very beneficial as compared to other crops. Kashmiri apple has become very popular throughout the country. Its high demand has really opened the new ways of development. Similarly the willow cricket bats of Kashmir have earned the world reputation. The new module to a certain extent has revived the trade links of Kashmir. One the one hand it has proved to be fruitful business but on the other it has started to bring miseries in shortage of food and very soon people have to face the severe crisis of food. The food at present is procured from other parts of country. During earlier times people were producers, but at present they have become consumers. The authorities have never tried to improve the quality of main crops of valley that resulted in its decline. Dr. Syed Damsaz Ali Andrabi | Dr. Mohd. Yousuf Bhat"Agricultural Sector in District Anantnag of J&K: A Shift from Producer to Consumer" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-1 | Issue-4 , June 2017, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd2218.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/2218/agricultural-sector-in-district-anantnag-of-jandk-a-shift-from-producer-to-consumer/dr-syed-damsaz-ali-andrabi
AGRICULTURE PRODUCTIVITY AND ECONOMIC GROWTH A CASE OF PAKISTANLuz Martinez
The document analyzes the relationship between agriculture productivity and economic growth in Pakistan from 1994 to 2017. It finds that:
- Gross capital formation (GCF) and inflation rate have a negative relationship with economic growth in both the short-run and long-run, while other variables like employed labor force, fertilizer, and agriculture productivity have a positive relationship.
- The government should increase investment in agriculture and introduce new technologies to improve productivity in the sector and boost economic growth.
- Empirical results from time series data and the ARDL model show agriculture productivity positively impacts Pakistan's economic growth. Increased productivity leads to increased income, employment, food security, and foreign exchange earnings.
The document discusses India's agriculture sector. It notes that agriculture is important to the Indian economy, employing over half of India's workforce and contributing 15% to GDP, despite a majority of farmers being small-scale or marginal. Key crops include rice, wheat, and fruits/vegetables. Agricultural growth has fluctuated over time periods. New policies are needed to support small farms, rainfed areas, and rural development for sustainable growth in the sector. The government has implemented various schemes to boost agriculture. Food processing and use of technology also present opportunities in Indian agriculture.
This research work examines the impact of technology adoption on agricultural productivity. It considers the south-west region of Bangladesh as the study area. Since most of the farmers in the study area are engaged in rice production, this study surveys randomly selected 60 rice farmers in the IRRI season of year 2015 through using a questionnaire. This study finds sufficient variation in frequency and degree of technology adoption in agricultural practices among the surveyed farmers. The analysis results indicate that farmers are adopting high level of technology in seed variety and irrigation phases, medium level of technology in land preparation, pest management and fertilizer application phases and low level of technology in weeding and harvesting phases. There is a statistically significant difference in productivity between high and low degree technology adopters. Education and land holdings are the statistically significant variables in determining technology adoption level. According to the study findings, a one percent increase in technology adoption leads to increase in productivity by 0.22 percent, holding other factors constant, and this influence is statistically significant at one percent level. Therefore, this study concludes that there is a scope for further increase in productivity through planned manipulation of technology adoption level in different phases of agricultural production.
Impact of access to agricultural advisory services on rural development in th...AI Publications
Agriculture, the main activity in rural areas, is the real driver of economic growth. Agricultural growth through resulting from advisory services plays an important role in rural development by building and disseminating knowledge, to farmers including the diffusion of new technologies that they can adopt to increase productivity, and their income levels to improve upon their quality of life. Access to advisory services therefore contributes to raising the standard of living of producers through increased production, higher prices, or the combined effect of these two elements. In this perspective, the main objectives to be given in terms of rural development are dictated by the quantitative elements of growth, including increasing income, creating jobs, and diversifying services. Access to agricultural advice also brings beneficial changes in the way of life through the renewal of working conditions and the development of the producer. In this sense, it is no longer a question of controlling growth, but of orienting it differently in order to influence the quality of life.
Uday salunkhe challenges and opportunties for agri sector in indiaudaysalunkhe
This article talks about the Challenges and opportunities for agriculture sector in India. It has been co- authored by Dr. Uday Salunkhe, Director of the prestigious Welingkar Institute of Management and Research
Similar to Determinants of non-farm employment in Punjab: Evidence from National Sample Survey Rounds (20)
The Statutory Interpretation of Renewable Energy Based on Syllogism of Britis...AI Publications
The current production for energy consumption generates harmful impacts of carbon dioxide to the environment causing instability to sustainable development goals. The constitutional reforms of British Government serve to be an important means of resolving any encountered incompatibilities to political environment. This study aims to evaluate green economy using developed equation for renewable energy towards political polarization of corporate governance. The Kano Model Assessment is used to measure the equivalency of 1970 Patents Act to UK Intellectual Property tabulating the criteria for the fulfillment of sustainable development goals in respect to the environment, artificial intelligence, and dynamic dichotomy of administrative agencies and presidential restriction, as statutory interpretation development to renewable energy. The constitutional forms of British government satisfy the sustainable development goals needed to fight climate change, advocate healthy ecosystem, promote leadership of magnates, and delegate responsibilities towards green economy. The presidential partisanship must be observed to delineate parties of concerns and execute the government prescriptions in equivalence to the dichotomous relationship of technology and the environment in fulfilling the rights and privileges of all citizens. Hence, the political elites can execute corporate governance towards sustainable development of renewable energy promoting environmental parks and zero emission target of carbon dioxide discharges. The economic theory developed in statutory interpretation for renewable energy serves as a tool to reduce detrimental impacts of carbon dioxide to the environment, mitigate climate change, and produce artefacts of bioenergy and artificial intelligence promoting sustainable development. It is suggested to explore other vulnerabilities of artificial intelligence to prosper economic success.
Enhancement of Aqueous Solubility of Piroxicam Using Solvent Deposition SystemAI Publications
Piroxicam is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug that is characterized by low solubility-high permeability. The present study was designed to improve the dissolution rate of piroxicam at the physiological pH's through its increased solubility by using solvent deposition system.
Analysis of Value Chain of Cow Milk: The Case of Itang Special Woreda, Gambel...AI Publications
Ethiopia has a long and rich history of dairy farming, which was mostly carried out by small and marginal farmers who raised cattle, camels, goats, and sheep, among other species, for milk. Finding the Itang Special Woreda cow milk value chain is the study's main goal. In order to gather primary data, 204 smallholder dairy farmer households were randomly selected, and the market concentration ratio was calculated using 20 traders. Descriptive statistics, econometric models, and rank analysis were used to achieve the above specified goals. Out of all the participants in the milk value chain, producers, cafés, hotels, and dairy cooperatives had the largest gross marketing margins, accounting for 100% of the consumer price in channels I and II, 55% in channels III and V, and 25.5% in channels V. The number of children under five, the number of milking cows owned, the amount of money from non-dairy sources, the frequency of extension service contacts, the amount of milk produced each day, and the availability of market information were found to have an impact on smallholders' involvement in the milk market. Numerous obstacles also limited the amount of milk produced and marketed. The poll claims that general health issues, sickness, predators, and a lack of veterinary care are plaguing farmers. In order to address the issue of milk perishability, the researchers recommended the host community and organization to construct an agro milk processor, renovate the dairy cooperative in the study region, and restructure the current conventional marketing to lower the transaction and cost of milk marketing.
Minds and Machines: Impact of Emotional Intelligence on Investment Decisions ...AI Publications
In the evolving landscape of financial decision-making, this study delves into the intricate relationships among Emotional Intelligence (EI), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and Investment Decisions (ID). By scrutinizing the direct influence of human emotional intelligence on investment choices and elucidating the mediating role of AI in this process, our research seeks to unravel the complex interplay between minds and machines. Through empirical analysis, we reveal that EI not only directly impacts ID but also exerts its influence indirectly through AI-mediated pathways. The findings underscore the pivotal role of emotional awareness in investor decision-making, augmented by the technological capabilities of AI. It suggests that most investors are influenced by the identified emotional intelligence when making investment decisions. Furthermore, AI substantially impacts investors' decision-making process when it comes to investing; nevertheless, AI partially mediates the relationship between emotional intelligence and investment decisions. This nuanced understanding provides valuable insights for financial practitioners, policymakers, and researchers, emphasizing the need for holistic strategies that integrate emotional and technological dimensions in navigating the intricacies of modern investment landscapes. As the synergy between human intuition and artificial intelligence becomes increasingly integral to financial decision-making, this study contributes to the ongoing discourse on the symbiotic relationship between minds and machines in investments.0
Bronchopulmonary cancers are common cancers with a poor prognosis. It is the leading cause of death by cancer in Algeria and in the world. Behind this unfavorable prognosis hides numerous disparities according to age, sex, and exposure to risk factors, ranking 4th among incident cancers and developing countries including Algeria, all sexes combined. It ranks 2nd cancers in men and 3rd among women. Whatever the age observed, the incidence of this cancer is higher in men than in women, however the gap is narrowing to the detriment of the latter. The results of scientific research agree to relate trends in incidence and mortality rates to tobacco consumption, including passive smoking. Furthermore, other risk factors are mentioned such as exposure to asbestos in the workplace or to radon for the general population, or even genetic predisposition. However, the weight of these etiological and/or predisposing factors is in no way comparable to that of tobacco in the genesis of lung cancer and the resulting mortality. We provide a literature review in our article on the descriptive and analytical epidemiology of lung cancer.
Further analysis on Organic agriculture and organic farming in case of Thaila...AI Publications
The objective of this paper is to present Further analysis on Organic agriculture and organic farming in case of Thailand agriculture and enhancing farmer productivity. In view of the demand for organic fertilizers, efforts should also be made to enhance and to develop more effective of compost, bio-fertilizer, and bio-pesticides currently used by farmers. Likewise, emphasis should also be laid on the cultivation of legumes and other crops that can enhance the fertility of the soil, as practiced by farmers in many developing countries to fertilize their lands. On the other hand, most of the farmers who practice this farm system found that they are adopting a number of SLMs and interested in joining the meeting or training to gain more and more knowledge.
Current Changes in the Role of Agriculture and Agri-Farming Structures in Tha...AI Publications
The objective os this study is to present Current Changes in the Role of Agriculture and Agri-Farming Structures in Thailand and Vietnam with SLM practices. Farmer’s adoption and investment in SLM is a key for controlling land degradation, enhancing the well-being of society, and ensuring the optimal use of land resources for the benefit of present and future generations (World Bank, 2006; FAO, 2018). And agriculture remains an essential element of lives of many farmers in term of the strong cultural and symbolic values that attach current working generation to do and to spend time for it but not intern of income generating.
Growth, Yield and Economic Advantage of Onion (Allium cepa L.) Varieties in R...AI Publications
Haphazard and low soil fertility, low yielding verities and poor agronomic practices are among the major factors constraining onion production in the central rift valley of Ethiopia. Therefore, a field experiment was conducted in East Showa Zone of Adami Tulu Jido Combolcha district in central rift valley areas at ziway from October 2021 to April 2022 to identify appropriate rate of NPSB fertilizer and planting pattern of onion varieties. The experiment was laid out in split plot design of factorial arrangement in three replications. The main effect of NPSB blended fertilizer rates and varieties (red coach and red king) significantly (p<0.01) influenced plant height, leaf length, leaf diameter, leaf number and fresh leaf weight, shoot dry matter per plant, and harvest index. Total dry biomass, bulb diameter, neck diameter, average fresh bulb weight, bulb dry matter, marketable bulb yield, and total bulb yield were significantly (p<0.01) influenced only by the main effect of NPSB blended fertilizer rates. In addition, unmarketable bulb yield was statistically significantly affected (p≥0.05) by the blended fertilizer rates and planting pattern. Moreover, days to 90% maturity of onion was affected by the main factor of NPSB fertilizer rate, variety and planting pattern. The non-fertilized plants in the control treatment were inferior in all parameters except unmarketable bulb yield and harvest index. Significantly higher marketable bulb yield (41 t ha-1) and total bulb yield (41.33 t ha-1) was recorded from 300 kg ha-1 NPSB blended fertilizer rate applied. Double row planting method and hybrid red coach onion variety had also gave higher growth and yields. The study revealed that the highest net benefit of Birr, 878,894 with lest cost of Birr 148,006 by the combinations of 150 kg blended NPSB ha-1 with double row planting method (40cm*20cm*7cm) and red coach variety which can be recommendable for higher marketable bulb yield and economic return of hybrid onion for small scale farmers in the study area. Also, for resource full producers (investors), highest net benefit of Birr 1,205,372 with higher cost (159,628 Birr) by application of 300 kg NPSB ha-1 is recommended as a second option. However, the research should be replicated both in season and areas to more verify the recommendations.
Evaluation of In-vitro neuroprotective effect of Ethanolic extract of Canariu...AI Publications
The ethanolic extract of canarium solomonense leaves (ecsl) was studied for its neuroprotective activity. The neuroprotective activity of ECSL was found to have a significant impact on neuronal cell death triggered by hydrogen peroxide (MTT assay) in human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. Scopolamine, a muscarinic receptor blocker, is frequently used to induce cognitive impairment in laboratory animals. Injections of scopolamine influence multiple cognitive functions, including motor function, short-term memory, and attention. Using the Morris water maze, the Y maze, and the passive avoidance paradigm, memory enhancing activity in scopolamine-induced amnesic rats was evaluated. Using the Morris water maze, the Y maze, and the passive avoidance paradigm, ECSL was found to have a substantial effect on the memory of scopolamine- induced amnesic rats. Our experimental data indicated that ECSL can reverse scopolamine induced amnesia and assist with memory issues.
The goal of neuroprotection is to shield neurons against damage, whether that damage is caused by environmental factors, pathogens, or neurodegenerative illnesses. Inhibiting protein-based deposit buildup, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation, as well as rectifying abnormalities of neurotransmitters like dopamine and acetylcholine, are some of the ways in which medicinal herbs have neuroprotective effects [1-3]. This review will focus on the ways in which medicinal herbs may protect neurons.
A phytochemical and pharmacological review on canarium solomonenseAI Publications
The genus Canarium L. consists of 75 species of aromatic trees which are found in the rainforests of tropical Asia, Africa and the Pacific. The medicinal uses, botany, chemical constituents and pharmacological activities are now reviewed. Various compounds are tabulated according to their classes their structures are given. Traditionally canarium solomonense have been used to treat a broad array of illnesses. Pharmacological actions for canarium solomonense as discussed in this review include antibacterial, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective and antitumor activity.
Influences of Digital Marketing in the Buying Decisions of College Students i...AI Publications
This research investigates the influence of digital marketing channels on purchasing decisions among college students in Ramanathapuram District. The study highlights that social media marketing, online advertising, and mobile marketing exhibit substantial positive effects on purchase decisions. However, email marketing's impact appears to be more complex. Moreover, the study explores how demographic variables like gender and academic level shape these effects. Notably, freshman students display varying susceptibility to specific digital marketing messages compared to their junior, senior, or graduate counterparts. These findings offer crucial insights for marketers aiming to tailor their strategies effectively to the preferences and behaviors of college students. By understanding the differential impacts of various digital marketing channels and considering demographic nuances, marketers can refine their approaches, optimize engagement, and ultimately enhance the effectiveness of their campaigns in targeting this demographic.
A Study on Performance of the Karnataka State Cooperative Agriculture & Rural...AI Publications
The Karnataka State Co-operative Agriculture and Rural Development Bank Limited is the apex bank of all the primary co-operative agriculture and rural development banks in the state. All the PCARD Banks in the state are affiliated to it. The KSCARD Bank provides financial accommodation to the PCARD Banks for their lending operations. In order to quick sanction and disbursement of loans and supervision over the PCARD Banks the KSCARD Bank has opened district level branches. Bank has established Women Development Cell to promote entrepreneurship among women in 2005. The Bank is identifying women borrowers in the rural areas by assigning suitable projects to motivate their self-confidence to lead independent life. Progress made in financing women entrepreneurs women.
Breast hamartoma is a rare, well-circumscribed, benign lesion made up of a variable quantity of glandular, adipose and fibrous tissue. This is a lesion that can affect women at any age from puberty. With the increasingly frequent use of imaging methods such as mammography and ultrasound as well as breast biopsy, cases of hamartoma diagnosed are increasing. The diagnosis of these lesions is made by mammography. The histological and radiological aspects are variable and depend on its adipose tissue content. The identification of these lesions is important in order to avoid surgical excisions. We report radio-clinical and pathological records of breast hamartoma.
A retrospective study on ovarian cancer with a median follow-up of 36 months ...AI Publications
Ovarian cancer is relatively common but serious and has a poor prognosis. The aim of this study is to highlight the epidemiological, diagnostic, therapeutic and evolutionary aspects of this malignant pathology managed at the Bejaia university hospital center. This is a retrospective and descriptive study over a period of 3 years (2019 - 2022) carried out on 20 patients who developed ovarian cancer. The average age of the patients was 50 years old, 53.23% of whom were over 45 years old. The CA-125 blood test was positive in 18 out of 20 patients. The tumors were discovered on ultrasound in 87.10% of cases and at laparotomy in 12.90%. Total hysterectomy with bilateral adnexectomy was the most performed procedure (64.52%). The early postoperative course was simple. 15 patients underwent second look surgery (16.13%) for locoregional recurrences. Epithelial tumors were the most frequent histological type (93.55%), including 79% in the advanced stage ( IIIc -IV) and 21% in the early stage (Ia- Ib ). Adjuvant chemotherapy was administered in 80% of patients. With a median follow-up of 36 months, 2 patients were lost to follow-up. The evolution was favorable in 27.42% and in 25.81% deaths occurred late postoperatively. Ovarian cancer is not common but serious given the advanced stages and the high rate of late postoperative deaths which were largely observed in patients deprived of adequate neoadjuvant or adjuvant chemotherapy.
More analysis on environment protection and sustainable agriculture - A case ...AI Publications
This study presents a case of tea and coffee crops , esp. environment protection and sustainable agriculture in Son La and Thai Nguyen of Vietnam. Research results show us that The process of having an agricultural product goes through many steps such as planting, planning, harvesting, packing, transporting, storing and distributing. - The State adopts policies to encourage innovation of agricultural production models and methods towards sustainability, adapting to climate change, saving water, and limiting the use of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides. chemicals and products for environmental treatment in agriculture; develop environmentally friendly agricultural models. Our research limitation is that we can expand for other crops, industries and markets as well.
Assessment of Growth and Yield Performance of Twelve Different Rice Varieties...AI Publications
The present investigation entitled “Assessment of growth and yield performance of twelve different rice varieties under north Konkan coastal zone of Maharashtra” was carried out during the kharif season of the year 2021 and 2022 on the field of ASPEE, Agricultural Research and Development Foundation, Tansa Farm, At Nare, Taluka Wada, District Palghar, Maharashtra, India. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design (RBD). The twelve varieties namely Zini, Jaya, Dandi, Rahghudya, Govindbhog, Dangi, Gurjari, VNR-7, VNR-8, VNR-9, Karjat-3, and Karjat-5 were replicated thrice. The plant height (cm), number of tillers per plant, number of panicles per plant, number of panicles (m²), and length of panicle (cm) were noted to the maximum with cv. “VNR-7”. The highest number of seeds per panicle, test weight (gm), grain yield (q/ha), and straw yield (q/ha) were recorded with the cv. “VNR-7”. While the lowest number of days to 50% flowering was also recorded with cv. “VNR-7” during the year 2021 and 2022.
Cultivating Proactive Cybersecurity Culture among IT Professional to Combat E...AI Publications
In the current digital landscape, cybercriminals continually evolve their techniques to execute successful attacks on businesses, thus posing a great challenge to information technology (IT) professionals. While traditional cybersecurity approaches like layered defense and reactive security have helped IT professionals cope with traditional threats, they are ineffective in dealing with evolving cyberattacks. This paper focuses on the need for a proactive cybersecurity culture among IT professionals to enable them combat evolving threats. The paper emphasis that building a proactive security approach and culture can help among IT professionals anticipate, identify, and mitigate latent threats prior to them exploiting existing vulnerabilities. This paper also points out that as IT professionals use reactive security when dealing with traditional attacks, they can use it collaboratively with proactive security to effectively protect their networks, data, and systems and avoid heavy costs of dealing with cyberattack’s aftermaths and business recovery.
The Impacts of Viral Hepatitis on Liver Enzymes and BilrubinAI Publications
Viral hepatitis is an infection that causes liver inflammation and damage. Several different viruses cause hepatitis, including hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E. The hepatitis A and E viruses typically cause acute infections. The hepatitis B, C, and D viruses can cause acute and chronic infections. Hepatitis A causes only acute infection and typically gets better without treatment after a few weeks. The hepatitis A virus spreads through contact with an infected person’s stool. Protection by getting the hepatitis A vaccine. Hepatitis E is typically an acute infection that gets better without treatment after several weeks. Some types of hepatitis E virus are spread by drinking water contaminated by an infected person’s stool. Other types are spread by eating undercooked pork or wild game. Hepatitis B can cause acute or chronic infection. Recommendation for screening for hepatitis B in pregnant women or in those with a high chance of being infected. Protection from hepatitis B by getting the hepatitis B vaccine. Hepatitis C can cause acute or chronic infection. Doctors usually recommend one-time screening of all adults ages 18 to 79 for hepatitis C. Early diagnosis and treatment can prevent liver damage. The hepatitis D virus is unusual because it can only infect those who have a hepatitis B virus infection. A coinfection occurs when both hepatitis D and hepatitis B infections at the same time. A superinfection occurs already have chronic hepatitis B and then become infected with hepatitis D. The aim of this study is to find the effect of each type of viral hepatitis on the bilirubin (TB , DSB) , and liver enzymes; AST, ALT, ALP,GGT among viral hepatitis patients. 200 patients were selected from the viral hepatitis units in the central public health laboratory in Baghdad city, all the chosen cases were confirmed as a positive samples , they are classified into four equal group each with fifty individual and with a single serological viral hepatitis type either; anti-HAV( IgM ) , HBs Ag , anti-HCV ,or anti-HEV(IgM ). All patients were tested for; serum bilirubin ( TB ,D.SB ) , AST , ALT , ALP , GGT. Another fifty quite healthy and normal person was selected as a control group for comparison. . Liver enzymes and bilirubin changes are more pronounced in HAV, HEV than HCV and HBVAST and ALT lack some sensitivity in detecting HCV ,HBV and mild elevations of ALT or AST in asymptomatic patients can be evaluated efficiently by considering ,hepatitis B, hepatitis C. ALT is generally a more sensitive indicator of acute liver cell damage than AST, It is relatively specific for hepatocyte necrosis with a marked elevations in viral hepatitis. Liver enzymes and bilirubin changes are more pronounced in HAV, HEV than HCV and HBV.AST and ALT lack some sensitivity in detecting HCV ,HBV and mild elevations of ALT or AST in asymptomatic patients can be evaluated efficiently by considering ,hepatitis B, hepatitis C. ALT is generally a more sensitive indicator of acute liver
Determinants of Women Empowerment in Bishoftu Town; Oromia Regional State of ...AI Publications
The purpose of this study was to determine the status of women's empowerment and its determinants using women's asset endowment and decision-making potential as indicators. To determine representative sample size, this study used a two-stage sampling technique, and 122 sample respondents were selected at random. To analyze the data in this study, descriptive statistics and a probit model were used. The average women's empowerment index was 0.41, indicating a relatively lower status of women's empowerment in the study area. According to the study's findings, only 40.9% of women were empowered, while the remaining 59.1% were not. The probit model results show that women's access to the media, women's income, and their husbands' education status have a significant and positive impact on the status of women's empowerment, while the family size of households has a negative impact. As a result, it is important to enhance women's access to the media and income, promote family planning and contraception, and improve men's educational status in order to improve the status of women's empowerment.
Muktapishti is a traditional Ayurvedic preparation made from Shoditha Mukta (Purified Pearl), is believed to help regulate thyroid function and reduce symptoms of hyperthyroidism due to its cooling and balancing properties. Clinical evidence on its efficacy remains limited, necessitating further research to validate its therapeutic benefits.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/SINlygW1Mpc
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Does Over-Masturbation Contribute to Chronic Prostatitis.pptxwalterHu5
In some case, your chronic prostatitis may be related to over-masturbation. Generally, natural medicine Diuretic and Anti-inflammatory Pill can help mee get a cure.
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
Rasamanikya is a excellent preparation in the field of Rasashastra, it is used in various Kushtha Roga, Shwasa, Vicharchika, Bhagandara, Vatarakta, and Phiranga Roga. In this article Preparation& Comparative analytical profile for both Formulationon i.e Rasamanikya prepared by Kushmanda swarasa & Churnodhaka Shodita Haratala. The study aims to provide insights into the comparative efficacy and analytical aspects of these formulations for enhanced therapeutic outcomes.
8 Surprising Reasons To Meditate 40 Minutes A Day That Can Change Your Life.pptxHolistified Wellness
We’re talking about Vedic Meditation, a form of meditation that has been around for at least 5,000 years. Back then, the people who lived in the Indus Valley, now known as India and Pakistan, practised meditation as a fundamental part of daily life. This knowledge that has given us yoga and Ayurveda, was known as Veda, hence the name Vedic. And though there are some written records, the practice has been passed down verbally from generation to generation.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
2. Khurana et al. / Investigation of groundwater flow direction using Geospatial technology: A case study in part of Port
Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria
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Vol-7, Issue-2; Online Available at: https://www.aipublications.com/ijreh/
per cent in 1950-51 which has shrunk to around 20 per
cent in 2020-21[8]. Whereas, the share of agriculture in
employment was 60 per cent in 1993-94, it reduced to
49 per cent in 2011-2012 and 44 per cent in 2018 [9]–[11].
Agriculture in India has played a dominant role in
creating employment opportunities in rural areas and
with adoption of green revolution, the food production
has increased significantly and India has become from
food importer to food exporter [12]. The previous
agriculture policies did not explicitly focus on increasing
farmer’s income and creating quality jobs in agriculture
sector. The national sample survey in 2011-12 highlighted
that one-fifth of rural households with agriculture as
main occupation had family income less than the official
poverty line of India [12]. Furthermore, due to number
of issues like dependency on nature (rainfall, climate
etc.), infrastructure and technology, pricing policy,
cropping pattern and low profitability, the people
starting looking for better job opportunities in other
sectors [13]–[15]. Nonetheless, other sectors also have
its limits in absorbing the surplus workforce. Primarily
due to specific requirements to get adjusted in the
activities owing to specific job requirement in secondary
and service sector. Moreover, the unplanned migration
from rural to urban areas puts pressure on urban
infrastructure and also force low wage migrants to live
in slums or in unhygienic conditions [16]. To reduce the
migration from rural to urban areas and to improve the
socio-economic situation of rural population in India,
there is need for strong and vibrant rural economy. The
vibrant rural economy is also essential to reduce income
inequality and disparities. Probably due to these factors
rural non-farm sector has gained momentum in India
particularly in post liberalization period. Furthermore,
for sustained development of rural areas, development
of rural non-farm is considered as pinnacle for solving
the problems of rural areas [15], [17], [18]. The
development of rural economy in general and rural non-
farm sector in particular depends upon varied of
factors. The empirical findings on rural non-farm sector
highlights that crop yield, growth and
commercialisation of agriculture, distribution and size of
land holdings, education level, urbanisation, demand
and supply factors of goods and services produced by
non-farm sector, and government policies towards the
promotion of non-farm activities are among the crucial
factors impacting the structure and growth of non-farm
sector [17]. Among these factors, the household level
factors have gained importance in the empirical
literature. Probably because of geographical, cultural,
socio-economic diversity in India, these factors vary
from state to state and even among the states varies
from district to district. Therefore, the present study is
an attempt to study the factors enabling the rural
households to participate in the rural non-farm
activities. In particular, the motivation behind the
decisions and ability of the households to participate in
non-farm activities in the state of Punjab.
The rural economy of Punjab, endowed with dominant
but skewed agricultural base and having led the green
revolution in the country since mid-1960s, is now in
deep crisis [19], [20]. Slowing down of agricultural
growth, paddy-wheat monoculture, overexploitation of
natural resources and declining profitability from
farming are the major issues plaguing the economy [19].
As many as 70 per cent of the farmers, who operate less
than 10 acres of land in the state, earn less than what an
average Punjabi family earns today [19]. The farm
household incomes, which grew at around 8-9 per cent
per annum during the 1970s and 1980s, increased only
marginally by 1.21 per cent per annum during the 1990s
[21]. The latest findings of 77th
round of National Sample
Survey Organisation also reveal that monthly average
income of agricultural households of Punjab’s has
increased from Rs 18,059 to Rs 26,701 from 2012-13 to
2018-19 at nominal prices [22], [23]. In this income, apart
from income from crop production, the income from
wages /salaries/labour, leasing out land, non-farm
income, livestock is included. Furthermore, by taking
into account inflation and income from wages or other
professions, it is evident that the farm income has not
grown in the recent times [24]. There has been a
growing incidence of landlessness in the state. The
decline in the number of operational holdings from 11.17
lakh during 1990-91 to 9.97 lakh during 2000-01,
indicates that more and more rural households now
seek livelihoods outside agriculture [25]. As per NSSO
report 2003, agriculture being a loss-making enterprise,
40 per cent of Indian farmers are willing to quit if given
a choice. Consequently, a trend towards rural non-farm
sector is well documented in various studies [20], [26].
The distress in rural economy coupled with drug
menace and unemployment situation, this is no wonder
that Punjab’s youth is looking for greener pastures
abroad and majority of youngster moving abroad are
from farming families. [27], [28]. As a result, people
move from the farm sector to the non-farm sector for
employment. A number of studies [7], [15], [18], [29]–
3. Khurana et al. / Investigation of groundwater flow direction using Geospatial technology: A case study in part of Port
Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria
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[35] have acknowledged rural non-farm sector as
remedy of serious problems of poverty, unemployment
and rural out-migration. Hence, movement of workers
from agrarian sector to non-farm sector is usually
believed to be a sign of economic growth and
development. Furthermore, this transition to rural non-
farm sector faces numerous challenges namely
inadequate skills, education and social barriers.
Therefore, a need was felt to analyse the factors of
employment in non-farm sector in Punjab. Furthermore,
the empirical evidences also suggest that rural non-farm
activities absorb surplus labour when the potential or
growth of farm sector is limited and rural non-farm
sector can be response to distress driven diversification
[7], [36]. Therefore, to design appropriate policy to
boost rural non-farm employment it is crucial to analyse
the main determinants impacting the participation in
rural non-farm sector in Punjab.
II. DATA AND METHODOLOGY
The household unit level data collected by the National
Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) under its various
employment-unemployment surveys (particularly of its
50th
Round and 68th
Round) is the main data source of
the present study. The number of households of Punjab
are 2045 of 50th
round and 1552 households of Punjab of
68th
round. In these rounds, the detailed information on
household characteristics like household size, religion,
social group, land holding, monthly consumption and
household type was collected. Furthermore, detailed
information on demographic characteristics of
household’s members like age, education, current
employment or education status was also collected.
Apart from that, particular on workers like their usual
principal activity was collected. All this information has
been utilised on the present analysis. In order to
examine the nature of employment, rural households in
Punjab were broadly categorised into four activities;
which are self-employed, casual labourer, regular or
salary earners and others, across farm and rural non-
farm sectors. Persons who operated their own farm or
non-farm enterprises or were engaged independently in
a profession or trade on own-account or with one or a
few partners were deemed to be self-employed in
household enterprises. Moreover, persons, who were
casually engaged in others’ farm or rural non-farm
enterprises and in return, received wages according to
the terms of the daily or periodic work contract, were
casual labourer. Persons who worked in others’ farm or
rural non-farm enterprises and in return, received salary
or wages on a regular basis are categorized as regular
wage/salary earners. There were differences in
definition in both the rounds/years. In 50th
round
information on regular wage/salaried persons in rural
area was not collected. Therefore, this category is
missing in the present analysis for 50th
round. To study
the factors impacting the participation in non-farm
employment of rural households, the relationship of
various household’s characteristics and household’s
head characteristics is studied for participation in non-
farm activities as self-employed and then as casual
labourer for information of 50th
round. Later on, for
information of 68th
round, the regression analysis is
done for various household’s characteristics and
household’s head characteristics (as independent
variables) with participation in non-farm activities as
self-employed, as regular wage/salary and then as
casual labourer (as dependent variable). Since the
dependent variables is dummy or categorical, therefore,
binomial limited dependent variable models are used. In
binomial dependent choice models, Probit or Logit
models are usually used in empirical analysis. The results
by Probit or Logit models are approximately close and
even results of one model can be deduced from another
model. Furthermore, the interpretation of coefficient of
Logit models/ odds ratio is relatively easy to understand,
therefore logit models are utilized [37], [38]. The logit
model is non-linear and it is estimated by using
maximum likelihood estimation. For all the logit models,
area under the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC)
is calculated to check the validity of different models.
Three threshold levels (1%, 5% and 10%) are utilised to
measure the significance of various determinants on the
participation of rural households in non-farm activities.
III. Results And Findings
The employment of rural households in various
economic activities in Punjab has been presented in
Table 1. It explores the trend of employment of rural
households over the period of time, i.e. 1993-94 to 2011-
12. The data reveals that the 33 percent of rural
households were self-employed in the agriculture sector
in 1993-94 which declined to 25.2 per cent in the state of
Punjab in the year 2011-12. In the year 1993-94, around
27.7 per cent of rural households in Punjab worked as
casual labourers in the farm sector and proportion of
4. Khurana et al. / Investigation of groundwater flow direction using Geospatial technology: A case study in part of Port
Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria
Int. Ru. Dev. Env. He. Re. 2023 20
Vol-7, Issue-2; Online Available at: https://www.aipublications.com/ijreh/
rural households engaged as a casual labourer in the
farm sector declined significantly to 13.5 per cent in
Punjab, in the year 2011-12.
The proportion of rural households, who derived their
income mainly from self-employment in non-agriculture
was 15.6 percent in 1993-94 and 17.2 per cent of rural
households in the year 2011-12. The essential feature of
the self-employed is that they have the autonomy to
decide how, where and when to produce; and have
economic independence in respect of choice of market,
the scale of operation and finance for carrying out their
operation. The income of the self-employed consists of
a non-separable combination of two parts: a reward for
their labour and profit of their enterprise (NSSO 68th
round). The activity as casual labour in non-agriculture
has emerged as a significant source of employment for
rural households is not a healthy development. During
2011-12, it provided employment to the 18.5 per cent
rural households of Punjab. The data regarding rural
households that were regular wage/salary earners was
only available for 2011-12. NSSO collected this
information in the 68th
round only. Around 18.0 per cent
of households derive their income from regular
wage/salary earnings, in the year 2011-12.
It is evident from the data that the proportion of
households in Punjab working in the rural non-farm
activities has witnessed a considerable increase from
22.7 per cent to 35.7 per cent during 1993-94 to 2011-12.
It seems that the “push factors” forced the agriculture
workforce towards non-agriculture activities, leading to
de-peasantisation [39]. Due to over mechanization of
cultivation, demand for human labour in the farm sector
has also decreased significantly ever since the late 1980s
from 479 million man-days in 1983-84 to 422 million man-
days in 2000-01 and further to 401 million man-days in
2009-10 [40]. An earlier study [41] had also highlighted
that employment in principal crops in Punjab declined
from 480 million man-days in 1983-84 to 432 million
man-days in 1996-97. Clearly, there was a loss of 48
million man-days of employment during the above-
mentioned period. Probably due to these factors, the
proportion of rural non-farm employment has increased
in Punjab. In this situation it would be interesting to
study the type of jobs/occupations preferred in the rural
non-farm. The top five occupations of rural households
of Punjab were listed and compared, based on the
information drawn from NSSO reports of 1993-94 and
2011-12 (see Table 2). In the 50th
round, NSSO classified
these rural non-farm sector occupations into two major
categories i.e. self-employed in non-farm sector and
casual labour in non-farm sector. While, in the 68th
round, these occupations were classified into three
major categories as self-employed in non-farm sector,
casual labour in non-farm sector and regular
wage/salary earning in non-farm sector. In the category
of rural non-farm sector of Punjab in the year 1993-94,
going by the share of self-employed workers in, top
occupations were observed as (i) Merchants,
Shopkeepers and Retail Traders (ii) Street Vendor,
Canvassers and news Vendors(iii) Cycle Rickshaw
Drivers and Rickshaw Pullers (iv)Tailors and Dress
Makers and (v) Bricklayers, Stone Masons and Tile
Setters (see Table 2). Whereas, for the second type of
activity i.e. as casual labour in rural non-farm sector in
Punjab, the top occupations were ‘other’ workers,
construction workers, loaders and unloaders, sweepers,
cleaners and the lowest proportion for Office
Attendants (Peons, Daftris, etc.).
During 2011-12, Punjab’s majority of the rural non-farm
households were self-employed as Directors and Chief
Executives. Moreover, the second-highest proportion of
households opted for the occupation of Building Frame
and Related Trades in Punjab. For causal labour in rural
non-farm sectors, the top occupations were mining and
construction workers, building structure cleaners and
related trades workers. Regarding the third category of
employment activity namely regular wage/salary
earners, the top occupations are motor vehicle drivers
and protective services workers in Punjab. It is evident
from the table that choice of occupation is changing
among the rural households in Punjab. Some of the
occupations which were not common, later on in the
year 2011-12 were chosen by a larger proportion of rural
households.
The factors impacting the choice of working in rural
non-farm sector are explored separately for both the
years i.e. 1993-94 and 2011-12. Initially, definition of
variables used in the present analysis has been
explained. The variables are defined differently for both
the rounds. Then the determinants of decision to
participate in non-farm employment has been identified
for both the rounds of NSSO. The variables for carrying
out analysis are explained as follows:
First, rural non-farm employment is classified into three
sub-categories a) regular salary b) self-employment c)
casual labour. Therefore, rural non-farm was taken up as
a decision variable (dummy variables with three
5. Khurana et al. / Investigation of groundwater flow direction using Geospatial technology: A case study in part of Port
Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria
Int. Ru. Dev. Env. He. Re. 2023 21
Vol-7, Issue-2; Online Available at: https://www.aipublications.com/ijreh/
categories). Second, the independent variables are
broadly classified into two main groups a) Household
characteristics b) Household Head’s characteristics. The
potential determinants have been described in the
Table 3 and 4. Independent variables such as religion,
social category, dependency ratio, literacy ratio,
household size, land possessed and the number of
skilled members in the household were categorised as
household’s characteristics. While, independent
variables like a female head, widow head, head age,
education of head and technical education attained by
head were categorised as household head’s
characteristics. Similarly, for the year 2011-12, Model-I
associates the overall activity of self-employment
(dependent variable) in the rural non-farm sector with
the independent variables which are classified into
Household’s and Household Head’s Characteristics.
Moreover, the second and third model’s dependent
variables are wage/salary and labour in rural non-farm
sector. The determinants of household’s participation in
rural non-farm in Punjab during 1993-94 are shown in
Table 5. It is observed that in Punjab, factors such as
religion, literacy ratio, size of land possessed, number of
skilled members in the household and gender of head
had significant impact on the access to self-employment
in rural non-farm sector. Apart from this, factors such as
dependency ratio, size of household, widow head, age
of head and education of head were found to have
insignificant effect on the participation in rural non-farm
sector.
Among all the religions, the probability of participation
in rural non-farm sector as self-employed was negative
in the case of Sikh community. The probability of a
household to participate in rural non-farm sector as self-
employed was reduced by 55.6 per cent belonging to
Sikh community. In Punjab, most of the Sikh families
have their own land and were into agriculture which
reduced the probability to access the rural non-farm
sector during that mentioned period of time. Moreover,
the households belonging to Schedule caste had also
limited access to the activity of self-employment in rural
non-farm in Punjab, during 1993-94. There were 85.2 per
cent less chances to participate in rural non-farm sector
as self-employed if a household belonged to Schedule
caste. It is significant to note here that the literacy rate
positively impacted the chances of self-employment in
rural non-farm sector in Punjab.
The odds of being employed in non-farm activity as self-
employed increased by more than 4 times with the
increase in literacy rate by one per cent. Likewise, the
probability to participate in rural non-farm sector
increased by 33 per cent with one more skilled person in
the household, in Punjab during 1993-94. Educated
people have much more efficiency to set up and
manage his/her own business as compared to illiterate
person. Moreover, the determinant i.e. female head had
significant negative impact on the participation of
household in the activity of self-employment in rural
non-farm sector. Households with female head had 62
per cent less chances to participate in rural non-farm
activity of self-employment. On the other side, the
model associated to other labour describes that factor
like religion, land possessed by household, gender of
head and education attained by head had significant
negative impact on the probability of participation in
rural non-farm sector as labourer in Punjab during 1993-
94. Moreover, the factors such as caste, dependency
ratio, literacy ratio, size of household, number of skilled
members in household, widow head, head age,
technical education attained by head had not any
significant impact on the probability to participation in
rural non-farm sector as labourer. The study has found
that the chances of participation of Sikh community in
labour were very low. The odds ratio indicates that
there was a significant negative impact of being a Sikh
on the participation in rural non-farm sector as labourer.
If a household belonged to Sikh community in Punjab,
there were 56.30 per cent less chances to participate in
rural non-farm sector as labourer. Moreover, the size of
land possessed by the household also had a significant
negative impact on the involvement in rural non-farm
sector as labourer. It is evident from the data that with
the increase in one unit of land possessed by the
household reduced the probability of participation in
labour in rural non-farm sector by 48 per cent. Family
members of the households with large sized land
holding were occupied in the activity of cultivation.
During the time period of 1993-94, mostly the activities
of cultivation in Punjab were labour intensive and it was
capable to absorb family labour.
Moreover, it was also found that household with female
head had very low probability to get involved in rural
non-farm sector as labourer. The probability of a
household with female head to participate in rural non-
farm sector as labourer got reduced by 61 per cent due
to females in Punjab especially belonging to Jatt-Sikh
community had restrictions to go outside home for
work [42].It is interesting to note here that the
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probability of employment in rural non-farm sector as
labourer also significantly reduced with improvement in
educational level of household head. In Punjab during
1993-94, if a household head was educated, there were
17.5 per cent less chance to participate in rural non-farm
sector as labourer.
Thus, it can be concluded that across the
various determinants of rural non-farm sector, literacy
rate and number of skilled members in the households
had significant positive impact on the participation as
self-employed in non-farm in Punjab, during 1993-94.
While, factors such as religion, land possessed and
female head had significant negative influence on the
participation in rural non-farm sector as self-employed.
Moreover, the determinants like dependency ratio,
household size, head widow, head age and head
educated did not have significant impact on the
participation in rural non-farm sector as self-employed.
Besides this binary logistic model also explores that
religion (Sikh community), land possessed and female
head and educated head were the factors with a
significant negative impact on the participation in
labour in the rural non-farm sector.
During 2011-12, the determinants of the rural non-farm
sector activities such as self-employment, wage/salary
earners and casual labourer in Punjab are depicted in
table 6. Thus, the participation as self-employed in rural
non-farm sector in Punjab found that factors like
religion, social category, household size, land owned,
developed district, and educated head were the
determinants which had a significant impact on the
participation in rural non-farm sector. In addition to this,
the prime factor which had a positive impact on the
growth of the activity of self-employment in rural non-
farm sector was the educated head. Hence, quality
education can promote rural non-farm employment in
the state. The prime need is to enhance the investment
on education.
The household variables such as dependency ratio,
literacy ratio, land owned, develop district had a
significant impact on the engagement of a household in
the rural non-farm sector as a wage/salary earner.
Moreover, a variable related to household head i.e.
technical education attained by the head had a
significant positive influence on the participation of a
household in rural non-farm sector as wage/salary
earner in Punjab, during 2011-12. Whereas, some other
factors like religion, social category, household size,
female head, widow head and age of head and
educated head did not have any significant impact on
the participation of household in rural non-farm sector
as wage/salary earner. Increasing the dependency ratio
reduces the chances for the household to participate in
the rural non-farm sector as the adult members have to
look after their dependent members at home. The
present study also corroborates those results. As the
odds ratio reveals that the probability to join the activity
of wage/salary earner reduced by 66 per cent with an
increase in dependency ratio by one unit. Apart from
this, the size of landholding also had a significant
negative impact on the engagement of households in
the activity of wage/salary earning in the rural non-farm
sector. The probability to participate in wage/salary
earning reduced by 35.3 per cent with the increase in
one more acre of owned land.
Furthermore, among the factors that had a significant
positive impact on the participation of households in
rural non-farm sector, the largest significant positive
impact was found of technical education attained by the
head. The chances to participate by a household in the
activity of wage/salary earning in rural non-farm sector
increased by more than seven times with the increase in
one year of technical education. In addition to that in
Punjab during the 68th
round of NSSO, the literacy ratio
also impacted the engagement of households in rural
non-farm sector positively. The probability to participate
of household in the activity of wage/salary earning in
rural non-farm sector increased by about 2.3 times with
the increase in one per cent of literacy ratio in the
household. Another significant factor that had a positive
impact on the participation of households in the activity
of wage/salary earning in rural non-farm sector was the
developed district. The developed district provides
better infrastructure that promotes the activity of
production in state. It creates chances for the
households to participate in rural non-farm sector. The
study also found that with the improvement in level of
development in the district chances to participate in the
activity of wage /salary earner increased by 1.4 times in
Punjab, during 2011-12. The analysis of the independent
variables of the rural non-farm sector activity of casual
labour in Punjab shows that the household factors like
social category land owned; household head’s
characteristics such as female head, widow head, age of
head and educated head had a significant impact on the
participation of household in the activity of casual
labour in rural non-farm sector. If a household belonged
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to SC or BC category in Punjab there were more chances
to its participation in the activity of casual labour. With
the increase in the size of landholding, the chances to
engage in this activity reduces significantly. The
probability of households engaging in the activity of
casual labour in Punjab reduced by 92.7 per cent with
the increase in the size of landholding by one hectare.
The impact of household heads characteristics
on participation in casual labour indicates that if a
household head was female, there were about 73 per
cent fewer chances to join this activity. On opposite to
it, if the head of the household was a widow, the
probability to participate in the activity of casual labour
in the rural non-farm sector increased by about 3.4
times. Moreover, the study also found that the
probability to engage in rural non-farm sector as a
casual labourer reduced with the increase in age and
educational level of the household head. Thus, the
foregoing analysis concludes that literacy ratio,
developed district and technical education attained by
the head have a significant impact on the probability of
households participating in the activity of wage/salary
earning in rural non-farm sector.
IV. FIGURES AND TABLES
Table 1: Employment of Rural Households in Punjab in
1993-94 & 2011-12. (Percentage share in total)
Type of activity opted by
Household
NSSO
50th
Round
(1993-
1994)
NSSO
68th
Round
(2011-
2012)
A. FARM SECTOR/ AGRICULTURE
Self-Employed 33.0 25.2
Casual Labour 27.7 13.5
Sub-total 60.7 38.7
B. RNFS SECTOR/NON-AGRICULTURE
Self-Employed 15.6 17.2
Casual Labour 7.1 18.5
Sub-total 22.7 35.7
C. Regular Wage/Salary earning n.a. 18.0
D. Others 16.5 7.6
Total 100 100
Source: Unit Level Data [9], [43].
Note: The different definitions of household type have
been used in the 50th
round and 68th
round. The type of
households of regular wage/salary earning, the
information was collected in 68th
round only.
Table 2: Top five rural non-farm occupations of
households in Punjab during year 1993-94 and 2011-12
NSSO 50th
Round (1993-1994)
Self-Employed in RNFS
1. Merchants and Shopkeepers, Retail Trade
2. Street Vendors, Canvassers and News Vendors
3. Cycle Rickshaw Drivers and Rickshaw Pullers
4. Tailors and Dress Makers
5. Bricklayers, Stone Masons and Tile Setters
Casual Labour in RNFS
1. Others
2. Construction Workers
3. Loaders and Unloaders
4. Sweepers, Cleaners and Related Workers
5. Office Attendants (Peons, Daftris, etc.)
NSSO 68th
Round (2011-2012)
Self-Employed in RNFS
1. Directors and Chief Executives
2. Building Frame and Related Trades Workers
3. Shop Salespersons and Demonstrators
4. Street Vendors and Related Workers
5. Building Finishers and Related Trades Workers
Casual Labor in RNFS
1. Mining and Construction Laborers
2. Painters, Building Structure Cleaners and
Related
3. Fishery and Related Laborers
4. Manufacturing Laborers
5. Transport Laborers and Freight Handlers
Regular Wage/Salary
1. Motor Vehicle Drivers
2. Protective Services Workers
3. Fishery and Related Laborers
4. Electrical and Electronic Equipment Mechanics
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and Fitters
5. Messengers, Porters, Door Keepers and
Related Workers
Source: Unit Level Data [9], [43].
Table 3: Definition of variables utilised in the correlation
and regression analysis: 50th
round
Sr.
No
Variables Definition
Model I:
Dependent
Variable
1
Self
Employed
RNF
Dummy variable: =1
if the household’s
Principal occupation
is employment in
self-employment in
non-farm sector. =0
otherwise
Model II:
Dependent
Variable
2
Labour in
RNF
Dummy variable: =1
if the household’s
Principal occupation
is labourer in non-
farm sector, =0
otherwise
Independent
Variable:
Household’s
Characteristics
3 Muslim
Dummy variable:
=1 if the household
belongs to Muslim
religion, =0
otherwise
4 Sikh
Dummy variable:
=1 if the household
belongs to Sikh
religion, =0
otherwise
5 SC
Dummy variable: =1
if the household
belongs to schedule
caste social group.
=0 otherwise
6
Dependency
Ratio
Ratio of number of
persons aged less
than 14 & above 59
and family size in
the household
7
Literacy
Ratio
Ratio of number of
literate persons in
the household and
family size of the
household
8 HH Size
Total number of
household members
9
Land
Possessed
Land possessed by
the Household in
Hectares
10
Number
skilled HH
Number of skilled
members in the
Household
Independent
Variable:
Head’s
Characteristics
11
Female
head
Dummy variable: =1
if the household’s
head is female, =0
otherwise
12 Head widow
Dummy variable: =1
if the household’s
head is widowed or
separated, =0
otherwise
13 Head age
Age of the
household’s head in
years
14
Head
Educated
Dummy variable: =1
if the household’s
head is educated, =0
otherwise
15
Head
Technical
education
Dummy variable: =1
if the household’s
head received any
technical education,
=0 otherwise
Source: Unit Level Data [9]
Table 4: Definition of variables utilised in the correlation
and regression analysis: 68th
round
Sr.
No
Variables Definition
Model I:
Dependent
Variable
1
Self
Employed
Non-Farm
Dummy variable: =1
if the household’s
Principal occupation
is employment in
self-employment in
non-farm sector, =0
otherwise
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Model II:
Dependent
Variable
4 Wage/Salary
Dummy variable: =1
if the household’s
Principal occupation
as Wages/salaries in
non-farm sector, =0
otherwise
Model III:
Dependent
Variable
5 Labour
Dummy variable: =1
if the household’s
Principal occupation
as labourer in non-
farm sector, =0
otherwise
Independent
Variable:
Household’s
Characteristics
3 Muslim
Dummy variable: =1
if the household
belongs to Muslim
religion. =0
otherwise
4 Sikh
Dummy variable: =1
if the household
belongs to Sikh
religion. =0
otherwise
5 SC
Dummy variable: =1
if the household
belongs to schedule
caste social group.
=0 otherwise
6 BC
Dummy variable: =1
if the household
belongs to
backward caste
social group. =0
otherwise
6
Dependency
Ratio
Ratio of number of
persons aged less
than 14 & above 59
and family size in
the household
7
Literacy
Ratio
Ratio of number of
literate persons in
the household and
family size of the
household
8 HH Size
Total number of
household members
9 Land Land possessed by
Possessed the Household in
Hectares
10
Develop
district
Dummy=1 if the
household belongs
to Mohali, Ludhiana,
Roopnagar, SBS
Nagar/ Nawanshar,
Hoshiarpur district
in Punjab. =0
otherwise
11
Less
develop
district
Dummy=1 if the
household belongs
to Fazilka
/Ferozepur, Taran
Taran, Gurdaspur,
Amritsar Mansa
district in Punjab. =0
otherwise
11
Female
head
Dummy variable: =1
if the household’s
head is female
=0 otherwise
Independent
Variable:
Head’s
Characteristics
12 Head widow
Dummy variable: =1
if the household’s
head is widowed or
separated
=0 otherwise
13 Head age
Age of the
household’s head in
years
14
Head
Educated
Dummy variable: =1
if the household’s
head is educated
=0 otherwise
15
Head Tech
education
Dummy variable: =1
if the household’s
head received any
technical education
=0 otherwise
Source: Unit Level Data [43].
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Table 5: Determinants of Household’s participation in
rural non-farm employment of Punjab: 50th
round of NSSO
Variables RNF Employment
Self-
Employed
Other
Labour
Household Related
Muslim 1.285 --
(0.655) --
Sikh 0.444*** 0.437***
(0.066) (0.090)
SC 0.148* --
(0.156) --
Dependency Ratio 0.792 1.836
(0.249) (0.791)
Literacy Ratio 4.027*** 1.596
(1.228) (0.694)
HH size 1.037 0.969
(0.041) (0.055)
Land possessed 0.583*** 0.520***
(0.042) (0.083)
Number skilled HH 1.330*** 0.883
(0.081) (0.096)
Household Head
Related
Female head 0.381** 0.390*
(0.143) (0.211)
Head widow 1.382 0.796
(0.432) (0.358)
Head age 0.995 0.996
(0.006) (0.007)
Head Educated 1.005 0.825***
(0.027) (0.042)
Head Tech education 0.909 1.037
(0.078) (0.154)
Constant 0.174*** 0.298***
(0.061) (0.140)
Observations 1,936 1,893
Area Under ROC 0.80 0.80
Source: Unit Level Data [9].
Note: 1. The Odds ratio are presented above and
figures in parentheses are standard errors.
2. The *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 signify level of
significance.
Table 6: Determinants of Household’s participation in
non-farm rural employment in Punjab: 68th
round
Variables Self-
Employed
Wage/Salary Casual
Labourer
Muslim 0.216** 1.813 1.159
(0.140) (0.894) (0.600)
Sikh 0.667*** 0.929 0.956
(0.101) (0.142) (0.160)
SC 0.749* 1.230 2.020***
(0.127) (0.208) (0.398)
BC 1.772*** 1.188 1.631*
(0.361) (0.256) (0.422)
Dependency
Ratio
0.613 0.340*** 1.416
(0.183) (0.101) (0.446)
Literacy
Ratio
0.953 2.306** 1.093
(0.350) (0.877) (0.399)
HH Size 1.186*** 1.008 1.060
(0.046) (0.041) (0.046)
Land Owned 0.306*** 0.647*** 0.073***
(0.051) (0.058) (0.039)
Develop
district
0.656** 1.379** 1.158
(0.109) (0.207) (0.200)
Less develop
district
-- -- --
-- -- --
Female head 0.636 1.028 0.270***
(0.193) (0.283) (0.089)
Head widow 1.085 0.906 3.377***
(0.298) (0.246) (0.958)
Head age 1.001 0.999 0.976***
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(0.006) (0.006) (0.006)
Head
educated
1.615** 1.404 0.465***
(0.328) (0.297) (0.096)
Head Tech
educated
0.612 7.100*** --
(0.402) (3.797) --
Constant 0.223*** 0.159*** 0.636
(0.094) (0.069) (0.281)
Observations 1,552 1,552 1,534
Area Under
ROC
0.75 0.70 0.80
Source: Unit Level Data [43].
Note: 1. The Odds ratio is presented above and
figures in parentheses are standard errors.
2. The *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 signify level of
significance.
V. CONCLUSION
As the literature on determinants of rural non-farm
sector is available with full of debate, whether the
growth of rural non-farm sector is distress driven or
stimulated by growth factors. So, in the present
chapter, an attempt has been made to examine the
impact of various determinants of rural non-farm sector
in Punjab, during 1993-94 and 2011-12 with the help of
regression analysis. The determinants of rural non-farm
sector such as religion, dependency ratio, literacy ratio,
household size, land possessed and the number of
skilled family members are categorised under
household’s characteristics. Whereas, the variables like
a female head, widow head, age of head and education
of head are categorised as household head’s
characteristics. Literacy ratio and number of skilled
members in the households had a significant positive
impact on the participation of households in the activity
self-employed in rural non-farm sector in Punjab, during
1993-94. While, factors such as religion, land possessed
and female head had a significant negative influence on
the participation of households in rural non-farm sector
as self-employed. Besides this, Binary Logistic Model
also explores that religion (Sikh community), land
possessed and female head and educated head were
the factors with a significant negative impact on the
participation in labour in the rural non-farm sector. In
the case of self-employment in Punjab, it was found that
the key determinant which had a significant positive
impact on the growth of the activity of self-employment
in rural non-farm sector was educated head, during 2011-
12. Moreover, the factors such as literacy rate,
development district and technical education attained
by the head have a positive significant impact on the
probability of households participating in the activity of
wage/salary earning in rural non-farm sector.
Thus, the study concludes that to promote the activities
of self-employment and wage/salary earners,
improvement in education and regional development
through developed infrastructure are the prerequisites.
Moreover, it also explored that the growth of rural non-
farm sector may not be distress driven rather the
development of rural areas and education promotes
rural non-farm sector. Therefore, the prime need is to
enhance the expenditure on education by the
government.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express their gratitude to the National
Sample Survey Organization, Ministry of Statistics and
Programme Implementation, Government of India, for
supplying the unit-level data.
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