This document provides a position stand on the use of instability training for core musculature. It defines the core as the axial skeleton and attached soft tissues. Core stability relies on appropriate muscle activation and intra-abdominal pressure, with abdominal bracing shown to be more effective than hollowing. While instability training can increase muscle activation, it can decrease force, power, velocity and range of motion. The position is that instability training has a role within periodized programs for variety, rehabilitation, and non-athletes but is not recommended as the primary training mode for athletes due to its negative effects on performance factors.
F
oam rollers and massage sticks have increased in popularity
in the fitness industry and are often recommended by
strength and conditioning professionals (5,6,10). There is
evidence that shows positive effects of foam rolling on range of
motion (ROM), recovery, and performance (8,9,10,14). Despite its
effectiveness, the mechanisms as to how foam rolling works are
not fully understood. However, it is likely that acute responses in
foam rolling are similar to those elicited by manual therapy, which
are thought to be neurophysiological in origin .
Muscular strength, functional performances and injury risk in professional an...Fernando Farias
Muscle strength and anaerobic power of the lower extre-
mities are neuromuscular variables that influence perfor-
mance in many sports activities, including soccer. Despite
frequent contradictions in the literature, it may be assumed
that muscle strength and balance play a key role in targeted
acute muscle injuries. The purpose of the present study was
to provide and compare pre-season muscular strength and
power profiles in professional and junior elite soccer players
throughout the developmental years of 15–21.
The effect of instability training on knee joint proprioception and core stre...Fernando Farias
A general 10-week IT program utilizing Swiss balls and body mass as a resistance proved effective for improving knee proprioception as well as trunk flexion and extension strength in previously inactive individuals. The present study demonstrates that the use of body weight as a resis- tance under unstable conditions can provide significant improvements in knee proprioception (for as long as 9 months after training) and trunk strength for the untrained population that should contribute to general health and functionality.
Is self myofascial release an effective preexercise and recovery strategy?Fernando Farias
Sports participation in youth is on the rise (35). In addi-
tion, paradigms in preventive health care are shifting focus
to the benefits of exercise in the aging population, leading
to exercise prescriptions for a previously sedentary group
(14,23,36). As more individuals become active, the number
of exercise-related injuries and conditions such as delayed-
onset muscle soreness (DOMS) is likely increasing (10).
DOMS can limit physical activity or result in pain that de-
ters individuals from continuing their exercise regimen (10).
Whether the athlete is young or old, novice or elite, regular
and/or strenuous exercise can result in DOMS and forma-
tion of fibrous tissue adhesions, leading to decreased range
of motion (ROM) (4,10,15).
Mechanics of the human hamstring muscles during sprintingFernando Farias
As peak musculotendon
force and strain for BF
LH
, ST, and SM occurred around the same time during terminal swing, it is suggested that this period in the
stride cycle may be when the biarticular hamstrings are at greatest injury risk. On this basis, hamstring injury prevention or rehabilitation
programs should preferentially target strengthening exercises that involve eccentric contractions performed with high loads at longer
musculotendon lengths.
Foam Rolling for Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness and Recovery of Dynamic Perfor...Fernando Farias
After an intense bout of exercise, foam rolling is
thought to alleviate muscle fatigue and soreness (ie, delayed-
onset muscle soreness [DOMS]) and improve muscular perfor-
mance. Potentially, foam rolling may be an effective therapeutic
modality to reduce DOMS while enhancing the recovery of
muscular performance.
The use of stretching in the training programs of recrea-
tional and competitive athletes has been historically common-
place. The role of stretching in enhancing athletic performance
has been debated (49). The purpose of this review was to
examine the literature regarding the effect of stretching on
performance, without regard to any of the other purported
effects of stretching, including improvements in joint range
of motion, muscle length, or recovery from or susceptibility
to injury.
F
oam rollers and massage sticks have increased in popularity
in the fitness industry and are often recommended by
strength and conditioning professionals (5,6,10). There is
evidence that shows positive effects of foam rolling on range of
motion (ROM), recovery, and performance (8,9,10,14). Despite its
effectiveness, the mechanisms as to how foam rolling works are
not fully understood. However, it is likely that acute responses in
foam rolling are similar to those elicited by manual therapy, which
are thought to be neurophysiological in origin .
Muscular strength, functional performances and injury risk in professional an...Fernando Farias
Muscle strength and anaerobic power of the lower extre-
mities are neuromuscular variables that influence perfor-
mance in many sports activities, including soccer. Despite
frequent contradictions in the literature, it may be assumed
that muscle strength and balance play a key role in targeted
acute muscle injuries. The purpose of the present study was
to provide and compare pre-season muscular strength and
power profiles in professional and junior elite soccer players
throughout the developmental years of 15–21.
The effect of instability training on knee joint proprioception and core stre...Fernando Farias
A general 10-week IT program utilizing Swiss balls and body mass as a resistance proved effective for improving knee proprioception as well as trunk flexion and extension strength in previously inactive individuals. The present study demonstrates that the use of body weight as a resis- tance under unstable conditions can provide significant improvements in knee proprioception (for as long as 9 months after training) and trunk strength for the untrained population that should contribute to general health and functionality.
Is self myofascial release an effective preexercise and recovery strategy?Fernando Farias
Sports participation in youth is on the rise (35). In addi-
tion, paradigms in preventive health care are shifting focus
to the benefits of exercise in the aging population, leading
to exercise prescriptions for a previously sedentary group
(14,23,36). As more individuals become active, the number
of exercise-related injuries and conditions such as delayed-
onset muscle soreness (DOMS) is likely increasing (10).
DOMS can limit physical activity or result in pain that de-
ters individuals from continuing their exercise regimen (10).
Whether the athlete is young or old, novice or elite, regular
and/or strenuous exercise can result in DOMS and forma-
tion of fibrous tissue adhesions, leading to decreased range
of motion (ROM) (4,10,15).
Mechanics of the human hamstring muscles during sprintingFernando Farias
As peak musculotendon
force and strain for BF
LH
, ST, and SM occurred around the same time during terminal swing, it is suggested that this period in the
stride cycle may be when the biarticular hamstrings are at greatest injury risk. On this basis, hamstring injury prevention or rehabilitation
programs should preferentially target strengthening exercises that involve eccentric contractions performed with high loads at longer
musculotendon lengths.
Foam Rolling for Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness and Recovery of Dynamic Perfor...Fernando Farias
After an intense bout of exercise, foam rolling is
thought to alleviate muscle fatigue and soreness (ie, delayed-
onset muscle soreness [DOMS]) and improve muscular perfor-
mance. Potentially, foam rolling may be an effective therapeutic
modality to reduce DOMS while enhancing the recovery of
muscular performance.
The use of stretching in the training programs of recrea-
tional and competitive athletes has been historically common-
place. The role of stretching in enhancing athletic performance
has been debated (49). The purpose of this review was to
examine the literature regarding the effect of stretching on
performance, without regard to any of the other purported
effects of stretching, including improvements in joint range
of motion, muscle length, or recovery from or susceptibility
to injury.
Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury: Identification of Risk Factors and Prevent...Fernando Farias
Injury to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is common and affects
young individuals, particularly girls, who are active in sports that involve
jumping, pivoting, as well as change of direction. ACL injury is associ-
ated with potential long-term complications including reduction in ac-
tivity levels and osteoarthritis. Multiple intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors
have been identified, which include anatomic variations, neuromuscular
deficits, biomechanical abnormalities, playing environment, and hormonal
status. Multicomponent prevention programs have been shown to be ef-
fective in reducing the incidence of this injury in both girls and boys. Pro-
grams should include a combination of strengthening, stretching, aerobic
conditioning, plyometrics, proprioceptive and balance training, as well as
education and feedback regarding body mechanics and proper landing
pattern. Preventive programs should be implemented at least 6 wk prior to
competition, followed by a maintenance program during the season.
STRETCHING IS A COMMONLY
PRESCRIBED EXERCISE ACTIVITY
THAT HAS BEEN APPLIED TO
WARM-UP, INCREASING RANGE OF
MOTION (ROM), AND RECOVERY
FROM TRAINING. THE PRACTI-
TIONER SHOULD UNDERSTAND
THE EFFECTS OF STRETCHING
EXERCISE AND THE INHERENT DIF-
FERENCES BETWEEN TYPES OF
STRETCHING EXERCISES AND
ACTIVITIES DESIGNED TO
ENHANCE "LOOSENESS" AND
FREEDOM OF MOTION. STRETCH-
ING TO ENHANCE ROM MAY BE
CONTRAINDICATED WHEN
APPLIED TO RECOVERY ACTIVITIES.
STRETCHING FOR RECOVERY
SHOULD BE PAIN-FREE MOTION
WITHIN THE CONSTRAINTS OF
MAXIMUM ROM OF A JOINT.
Is Postexercise muscle soreness a valid indicator of muscular adaptations?Fernando Farias
DELAYED ONSET MUSCLE SORE- NESS (DOMS) IS A COMMON SIDE EFFECT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, PARTICULARLY OF A VIGOROUS NATURE. MANY EXERCISERS WHO REGULARLY PERFORM RESISTANCE TRAINING CONSIDER DOMS TO BE ONE OF THE BEST INDICATORS OF TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS, WITH SOME RELYING UPON THIS SOURCE AS A PRIMARY GAUGE. THIS ARTICLE DISCUSSES THE RELEVANCE OF USING DOMS TO ASSESS WORKOUT QUALITY.
Training the vertical jump to head the ball in soccer Fernando Farias
IN MODERN SOCCER, HEADING
THE BALL IS BOTH AN OFFENSIVE
TOOL USED TO SCORE GOALS
AND A DEFENSIVE MEASURE
AGAINST OPPOSING TEAMS. PRO-
FICIENCY IN HEADING THE BALL
REQUIRES PROPER TECHNIQUE IN
CONJUNCTION WITH AN EFFEC-
TIVE VERTICAL JUMP. THE AIM OF
THIS ARTICLE IS TO ADDRESS THE
FACTORS INVOLVED IN VERTICAL
JUMP PERFORMANCE AND HOW
THEY RELATE SPECIFICALLY TO
HEADING THE BALL
Acute effect of different combined stretching methodsFernando Farias
The purpose of this study was to investigate the acute effect of different stretching methods, during a warm-up,
on the acceleration and speed of soccer players. The acceleration performance of 20 collegiate soccer players (body height:
177.25 ± 5.31 cm; body mass: 65.10 ± 5.62 kg; age: 16.85 ± 0.87 years; BMI: 20.70 ± 5.54; experience: 8.46 ± 1.49
years) was evaluated after different warm-up procedures, using 10 and 20 m tests. Subjects performed five types of a
warm-up: static, dynamic, combined static + dynamic, combined dynamic + static, and no-stretching. Subjects were
divided into five groups. Each group performed five different warm-up protocols in five non-consecutive days. The
warm-up protocol used for each group was randomly assigned. The protocols consisted of 4 min jogging, a 1 min
stretching program (except for the no-stretching protocol), and 2 min rest periods, followed by the 10 and 20 m sprint
test, on the same day. The current findings showed significant differences in the 10 and 20 m tests after dynamic
stretching compared with static, combined, and no-stretching protocols. There were also significant differences between
the combined stretching compared with static and no-stretching protocols. We concluded that soccer players performed
better with respect to acceleration and speed, after dynamic and combined stretching, as they were able to produce more
force for a faster execution.
The effects of self-myofascial release using a foam roll or roller massager on joint range of motion, muscle recovery, and performance: a systematic review
Os resultados atuais indicaram que a ocorrência de lesões de isquiotibiais podem estar associadas a uma mudança hierárquica na distribuição da atividade metabólica dentro do complexo muscular do isquiotibial após o trabalho excêntrico em que o Semitendinoso provavelmente deveria tomar a parte principal, seguido pelo BÍceps Femural e Semimembranoso. Quando o BF aumenta sua contribuição e é ativado em uma extensão proporcionalmente maior, o risco de sofrer uma lesão do isquiotibial pode aumentar substancialmente.
this ppt only focus on the pieces of evidence of swiss ball use in rehabilitation and to build the base so that one can frame effective rehab protocol.
Sprint running acceleration is a key feature of physical performance in team sports, and recent
literature shows that the ability to generate large magnitudes of horizontal ground reaction force
and mechanical effectiveness of force application are paramount. We tested the hypothesis that
very-heavy loaded sled sprint training would induce an improvement in horizontal force
production, via an increased effectiveness of application. Training-induced changes in sprint
performance and mechanical outputs were computed using a field method based on velocity-
time data, before and after an 8-week protocol (16 sessions of 10x20-m sprints). 16 male
amateur soccer players were assigned to either a very-heavy sled (80% body-mass sled load)
or a control group (unresisted sprints). The main outcome of this pilot study is that very-heavy
sled resisted sprint training, using much greater loads than traditionally recommended, clearly
increased maximal horizontal force production compared to standard unloaded sprint training
(effect size of 0.80 vs 0.20 for controls, unclear between-group difference) and mechanical
effectiveness (i.e. more horizontally applied force; effect size of 0.95 vs -0.11, moderate
between-group difference)
Does static stretching reduce maximal muscle performance?Fernando Farias
Kay and Blazevich systemati-
cally examined research that showed
the effects of static stretching on mus-
cle strength and other performance
measures by separating the studies into
total stretch durations of ,30 seconds,
30 to 45 seconds, 1 to 2 minutes, or
.2 minutes. Some practical and tech-
nical considerations may be helpful in
considering their conclusion that static
stretching only impairs muscle function
with longer stretches.
Epidemiological studies have consistently shown hamstring
strain injuries (HSIs) to have a high prevalence rate in many
sports, such as sprinting (11%; Lysholm & Wiklander, 1987),
Australian Rules Football (16–23%; Orchard, 2001; Orchard,
Marsden, Lord, & Garlick, 1997) and football (12–14%:
Ekstrand, Hagglund, & Walden, 2011; Hawkins, Hulse,
Wilkinson, Hodson, & Gibson, 2001). The epidemiology and
aetiology of HSI in football has received extensive attention in
the scientific literature (Ekstrand et al., 2011; Woods et al., 2004),
given the economic burden associated with professional
players missing training and competitive fixtures (Woods,
Hawkins, Hulse, & Hodson, 2002). b
Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury: Identification of Risk Factors and Prevent...Fernando Farias
Injury to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is common and affects
young individuals, particularly girls, who are active in sports that involve
jumping, pivoting, as well as change of direction. ACL injury is associ-
ated with potential long-term complications including reduction in ac-
tivity levels and osteoarthritis. Multiple intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors
have been identified, which include anatomic variations, neuromuscular
deficits, biomechanical abnormalities, playing environment, and hormonal
status. Multicomponent prevention programs have been shown to be ef-
fective in reducing the incidence of this injury in both girls and boys. Pro-
grams should include a combination of strengthening, stretching, aerobic
conditioning, plyometrics, proprioceptive and balance training, as well as
education and feedback regarding body mechanics and proper landing
pattern. Preventive programs should be implemented at least 6 wk prior to
competition, followed by a maintenance program during the season.
STRETCHING IS A COMMONLY
PRESCRIBED EXERCISE ACTIVITY
THAT HAS BEEN APPLIED TO
WARM-UP, INCREASING RANGE OF
MOTION (ROM), AND RECOVERY
FROM TRAINING. THE PRACTI-
TIONER SHOULD UNDERSTAND
THE EFFECTS OF STRETCHING
EXERCISE AND THE INHERENT DIF-
FERENCES BETWEEN TYPES OF
STRETCHING EXERCISES AND
ACTIVITIES DESIGNED TO
ENHANCE "LOOSENESS" AND
FREEDOM OF MOTION. STRETCH-
ING TO ENHANCE ROM MAY BE
CONTRAINDICATED WHEN
APPLIED TO RECOVERY ACTIVITIES.
STRETCHING FOR RECOVERY
SHOULD BE PAIN-FREE MOTION
WITHIN THE CONSTRAINTS OF
MAXIMUM ROM OF A JOINT.
Is Postexercise muscle soreness a valid indicator of muscular adaptations?Fernando Farias
DELAYED ONSET MUSCLE SORE- NESS (DOMS) IS A COMMON SIDE EFFECT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, PARTICULARLY OF A VIGOROUS NATURE. MANY EXERCISERS WHO REGULARLY PERFORM RESISTANCE TRAINING CONSIDER DOMS TO BE ONE OF THE BEST INDICATORS OF TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS, WITH SOME RELYING UPON THIS SOURCE AS A PRIMARY GAUGE. THIS ARTICLE DISCUSSES THE RELEVANCE OF USING DOMS TO ASSESS WORKOUT QUALITY.
Training the vertical jump to head the ball in soccer Fernando Farias
IN MODERN SOCCER, HEADING
THE BALL IS BOTH AN OFFENSIVE
TOOL USED TO SCORE GOALS
AND A DEFENSIVE MEASURE
AGAINST OPPOSING TEAMS. PRO-
FICIENCY IN HEADING THE BALL
REQUIRES PROPER TECHNIQUE IN
CONJUNCTION WITH AN EFFEC-
TIVE VERTICAL JUMP. THE AIM OF
THIS ARTICLE IS TO ADDRESS THE
FACTORS INVOLVED IN VERTICAL
JUMP PERFORMANCE AND HOW
THEY RELATE SPECIFICALLY TO
HEADING THE BALL
Acute effect of different combined stretching methodsFernando Farias
The purpose of this study was to investigate the acute effect of different stretching methods, during a warm-up,
on the acceleration and speed of soccer players. The acceleration performance of 20 collegiate soccer players (body height:
177.25 ± 5.31 cm; body mass: 65.10 ± 5.62 kg; age: 16.85 ± 0.87 years; BMI: 20.70 ± 5.54; experience: 8.46 ± 1.49
years) was evaluated after different warm-up procedures, using 10 and 20 m tests. Subjects performed five types of a
warm-up: static, dynamic, combined static + dynamic, combined dynamic + static, and no-stretching. Subjects were
divided into five groups. Each group performed five different warm-up protocols in five non-consecutive days. The
warm-up protocol used for each group was randomly assigned. The protocols consisted of 4 min jogging, a 1 min
stretching program (except for the no-stretching protocol), and 2 min rest periods, followed by the 10 and 20 m sprint
test, on the same day. The current findings showed significant differences in the 10 and 20 m tests after dynamic
stretching compared with static, combined, and no-stretching protocols. There were also significant differences between
the combined stretching compared with static and no-stretching protocols. We concluded that soccer players performed
better with respect to acceleration and speed, after dynamic and combined stretching, as they were able to produce more
force for a faster execution.
The effects of self-myofascial release using a foam roll or roller massager on joint range of motion, muscle recovery, and performance: a systematic review
Os resultados atuais indicaram que a ocorrência de lesões de isquiotibiais podem estar associadas a uma mudança hierárquica na distribuição da atividade metabólica dentro do complexo muscular do isquiotibial após o trabalho excêntrico em que o Semitendinoso provavelmente deveria tomar a parte principal, seguido pelo BÍceps Femural e Semimembranoso. Quando o BF aumenta sua contribuição e é ativado em uma extensão proporcionalmente maior, o risco de sofrer uma lesão do isquiotibial pode aumentar substancialmente.
this ppt only focus on the pieces of evidence of swiss ball use in rehabilitation and to build the base so that one can frame effective rehab protocol.
Sprint running acceleration is a key feature of physical performance in team sports, and recent
literature shows that the ability to generate large magnitudes of horizontal ground reaction force
and mechanical effectiveness of force application are paramount. We tested the hypothesis that
very-heavy loaded sled sprint training would induce an improvement in horizontal force
production, via an increased effectiveness of application. Training-induced changes in sprint
performance and mechanical outputs were computed using a field method based on velocity-
time data, before and after an 8-week protocol (16 sessions of 10x20-m sprints). 16 male
amateur soccer players were assigned to either a very-heavy sled (80% body-mass sled load)
or a control group (unresisted sprints). The main outcome of this pilot study is that very-heavy
sled resisted sprint training, using much greater loads than traditionally recommended, clearly
increased maximal horizontal force production compared to standard unloaded sprint training
(effect size of 0.80 vs 0.20 for controls, unclear between-group difference) and mechanical
effectiveness (i.e. more horizontally applied force; effect size of 0.95 vs -0.11, moderate
between-group difference)
Does static stretching reduce maximal muscle performance?Fernando Farias
Kay and Blazevich systemati-
cally examined research that showed
the effects of static stretching on mus-
cle strength and other performance
measures by separating the studies into
total stretch durations of ,30 seconds,
30 to 45 seconds, 1 to 2 minutes, or
.2 minutes. Some practical and tech-
nical considerations may be helpful in
considering their conclusion that static
stretching only impairs muscle function
with longer stretches.
Epidemiological studies have consistently shown hamstring
strain injuries (HSIs) to have a high prevalence rate in many
sports, such as sprinting (11%; Lysholm & Wiklander, 1987),
Australian Rules Football (16–23%; Orchard, 2001; Orchard,
Marsden, Lord, & Garlick, 1997) and football (12–14%:
Ekstrand, Hagglund, & Walden, 2011; Hawkins, Hulse,
Wilkinson, Hodson, & Gibson, 2001). The epidemiology and
aetiology of HSI in football has received extensive attention in
the scientific literature (Ekstrand et al., 2011; Woods et al., 2004),
given the economic burden associated with professional
players missing training and competitive fixtures (Woods,
Hawkins, Hulse, & Hodson, 2002). b
Strengthening in upper motor neuron lesions is an important part of rehabilitation of the neurological disorders. Your understanding of strengthening in UMN lesions will be clarified by this presentation, which explains how strengthening in musculoskeletal and neurological illnesses differs.
To Compare The Effect Of Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation Program Ve...IOSR Journals
Abstract: Low back pain has been a matter of concern, affecting up to 90% of population at some point in
their lifetime, up to 50% have more than one episode. People of all age group can be affected by this menace
irrespective to their gender and quality of life. It has become one of the leading causes for the visit to physician
thus also puts a heavy burden on the currency of the country. Physiotherapy is the most widely used form of
treatment adopted for gaining relief from low back pain. The exercises include stretching, strengthening, range
of motion exercises, McKenzie therapy and core stability exercises other techniques like Proprioceptive
neuromuscular facilitation program etc. It has been concluded in various studies core stability exercises and
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation are beneficial in low back pain patients but comparison of their effect
needs to be established to provide early and better relief from the disability. Therefore objective of the study was
to compare the effect of Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation program and Core stabilization exercises on
low back pain patients. 40 subjects aged 30 – 50 years with low back pain for more than 4 weeks were made
part of the study based on inclusion and exclusion criteria and were then divided into two groups named A, B.
Group A received Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation and group B received Core stabilization exercises
and hot pack given initially for 10-15 minutes to the lower back. The exercise program was given for 4 weeks
with a total of 24 sessions and progression of the activity was made within the tolerance of the patient. Pre and
post treatment readings were taken of pain, Oswestry Disability Questionnaire and Functional Reach Test.
Results were analyzed using paired, unpaired t- test. Results showed that there is significant effect on pain,
Oswestry Disability Questionnaire and Functional Reach Test in the two groups but group A was clinically
more significant than groups B. The study concluded that patients with low back pain are benefitted more by
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation program. So, Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation program
should be practiced more.
Keywords: Low Back Pain, Core Stabilization Exercises, Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation.
15 years after I started working in a functional way with athletes of every level, the concept of functional training has become more a buzzword than anything else. In this short introduction to Functional Training for sports I explain the key concept that make this approach so successful...when implementend in the right way!!!
Answer questions based on the information contained in this manual. The CCII Manual covers off all the theory components to becomes a Certified Instructor.
Perfect device and system for seniors, retirees, golden age, and even the oldies.
1. POSITION STAND / PRISE DE POSITION
Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology position
stand: The use of instability to train the core in
athletic and nonathletic conditioning
David G. Behm, Eric J. Drinkwater, Jeffrey M. Willardson, and Patrick M. Cowley
Abstract: The use of instability devices and exercises to train the core musculature is an essential feature of many training
centres and programs. It was the intent of this position stand to provide recommendations regarding the role of instability
in resistance training programs designed to train the core musculature. The core is defined as the axial skeleton and all
soft tissues with a proximal attachment originating on the axial skeleton, regardless of whether the soft tissue terminates
on the axial or appendicular skeleton. Core stability can be achieved with a combination of muscle activation and intra-ab-
dominal pressure. Abdominal bracing has been shown to be more effective than abdominal hollowing in optimizing spinal
stability. When similar exercises are performed, core and limb muscle activation are reported to be higher under unstable
conditions than under stable conditions. However, core muscle activation that is similar to or higher than that achieved in
unstable conditions can also be achieved with ground-based free-weight exercises, such as Olympic lifts, squats, and dead
lifts. Since the addition of unstable bases to resistance exercises can decrease force, power, velocity, and range of motion,
they are not recommended as the primary training mode for athletic conditioning. However, the high muscle activation
with the use of lower loads associated with instability resistance training suggests they can play an important role within a
periodized training schedule, in rehabilitation programs, and for nonathletic individuals who prefer not to use ground-based
free weights to achieve musculoskeletal health benefits.
Key words: resistance training, trunk muscles, back, balance, stability.
Re´sume´ : L’utilisation d’appareils et d’exercices de de´stabilisation pour l’entraıˆnement des muscles profonds du tronc fait
partie du sce´nario de base de plusieurs centres et programmes d’entraıˆnement. Le propos ici est de formuler des recom-
mandations sur le roˆle de l’instabilite´ dans les programmes d’entraıˆnement a` la force des muscles profonds. Ce noyau mus-
culosquelettique de l’organisme est constitue´ du squelette axial et de tous les tissus mous dont l’insertion proximale est sur
le squelette axial, quelle que soit la zone d’insertion distale, sur le squelette axial ou appendiculaire. La stabilite´ du noyau
musculosquelettique est le re´sultat combine´ de l’activation des muscles et de la pression intra-abdominale. Le contrevente-
ment abdominal est, preuve a` l’appui, plus efficace que le creusement abdominal quand il est question d’optimiser la stabi-
lite´ abdominale. Meˆme si l’activation des muscles profonds du tronc et des membres est, dit-on, plus grande quand les
meˆmes exercices sont accomplis en condition d’instabilite´, on peut observer une activation semblable ou meˆme supe´rieure
au moyen d’exercices au sol avec des poids libres comme la leve´e olympique, l’extension des membres infe´rieurs et le
souleve´ de terre. Du fait que l’ajout d’une base instable lors de la re´alisation d’exercices de force suscite une diminution
de la force, de la puissance, de la ve´locite´ et de l’amplitude de mouvement, on ne le recommande pas comme mode prin-
cipal d’entraıˆnement dans les se´ances de conditionnement physique. En revanche, l’importante activation musculaire lors
d’exercices a` faible charge en condition d’instabilite´ souligne l’utilite´ de ces derniers dans la pe´riodisation de l’entraıˆ-
nement, dans les programmes de re´adaptation et aupre`s d’individus non sportifs pre´fe´rant ne pas faire d’exercices avec des
poids libres quand le but est d’ame´liorer la sante´ musculosquelettique.
Mots-cle´s : entraıˆnement a` la force, muscles du tronc, dos, e´quilibre, stabilite´.
[Traduit par la Re´daction]
Received 21 May 2009. Accepted 1 October 2009. Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at apnm.nrc.ca on 22 January 2010.
D.G. Behm.1 School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, NL A1C 5S7, Canada.
E.J. Drinkwater. School of Human Movement Studies, Charles Sturt University, Panorama Avenue, Bathurst, 2795, NSW, Australia.
J.M. Willardson. Kinesiology and Sports Studies Department, Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, IL 61920, USA.
P.M. Cowley. Department of Exercise Science, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13207, USA.
1Corresponding author (e-mail: dbehm@mun.ca).
109
Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 35: 109–112 (2010) doi:10.1139/H09-128 Published by NRC Research Press
2. Rationale
Training of the core musculature is an important facet that
has gained renewed emphasis in the scientific and professio-
nal literature, as well as in the sports training and rehabilita-
tion fields. For the average healthy individual, training the
core musculature is emphasized to maintain musculoskeletal
health, especially related to the prevention of low back pain
(Behm and Anderson 2006). For the injured individual,
training the core musculature is used to treat and rehabilitate
trunk-related musculoskeletal injuries (Caraffa et al. 1996;
Cumps et al. 2007; Forestier and Toschi 2005). For the ath-
letic individual, training the core musculature is not only ad-
vocated for the prevention of injury, it also enhances
performance (Behm and Anderson 2006). According to the
principle of training specificity (Behm 1995; Behm and
Sale 1993), and since motion for some sports may occur on
relatively unstable surfaces (e.g., skiing, snowboarding),
training must attempt to closely address the demands of the
sport. Instability-based exercises are a very popular means
of attempting to address this aspect of sports performance.
A significant body of scientific literature has evaluated the
role of instability in resistance training programs designed
to train the core musculature.
The anatomical core is defined as the axial skeleton and
all soft tissues with a proximal attachment originating on
the axial skeleton, regardless of whether the soft tissue ter-
minates on the axial or appendicular skeleton (Behm et al.
2010). Achieving sufficient spinal stability represents the
complex interaction of passive (i.e., spinal ligaments, inter-
vertebral discs, and facet articulations) and active muscle
and neural subsystems (Panjabi 1992); thus, a single muscle
or structure cannot be identified as the most important spinal
stabilizer. The combination of core muscles recruited is de-
pendent on the task demands (i.e., posture, external forces).
The global axial skeleton stabilizers include the large,
superficial muscles (e.g., rectus abdominis, external oblique
abdominis, erector spinae group) that provide multisegmen-
tal stiffness over a greater range and also act as prime mov-
ers during dynamic activities (Behm et al. 2010). Other core
muscles might be considered axial-appendicular transfer
muscles that connect the trunk (i.e., axial skeleton) to the
upper and lower extremities (i.e., appendicular skeleton) via
the pelvic girdle and shoulder girdle, respectively (Behm et
al. 2010). These core muscles function in transferring tor-
ques and angular momentum during the performance of inte-
grated kinetic chain activities, such as throwing or kicking
(Cresswell and Thorstensson 1994; Kibler et al. 2006; Will-
ardson 2007). Weakness in the core musculature may inter-
rupt the transfer of torques and angular momentum, resulting
in decreased performance.
Spinal stability is dependent on the appropriate combina-
tion and intensity of muscle activation and the generation of
intra-abdominal pressure. Abdominal bracing appears to be
more effective than abdominal hollowing to optimize spinal
stability (Grenier and McGill 2007). Specific training practi-
ces aimed at targeting the spinal stabilizing muscles (core)
are an important consideration for activities of daily living,
athletic performance, and the rehabilitation of low back
pain (Abenhaim et al. 2000).
Instability applied to resistance training provides different
responses than training under stable conditions. Performing
resistance exercises on unstable surfaces is reported to in-
crease activation of the core musculature, compared with
performing the same exercises under stable conditions,
whether the instability is derived from a platform (Anderson
and Behm 2004, 2005; Marshall and Murphy 2006b; San-
tana et al. 2007) or the movement of the limbs (Gaetz et al.
2004; Holtzmann et al. 2004; Marshall and Murphy 2006a).
However, unilateral resisted actions (whether ground-
based or supported on an unstable base) can also provide a
disruptive moment arm (torque) to the body, providing an
additional means of increasing the core musculature (Behm
et al. 2003). Exercises performed on unstable surfaces can
not only increase core muscle activation, but can also in-
crease limb muscle activation (Anderson and Behm 2005;
Marshall and Murphy 2006a, 2006b) and co-contractions
(Behm et al. 2002). However, other research demonstrates
that ground-based lifts, such as squats and dead lifts, provide
even higher core activation than callisthenic-style exercises
performed on unstable surfaces (Hamlyn et al. 2007). Fur-
thermore, unstable resisted actions can result in decreased
force (Anderson and Behm 2004; Behm et al. 2002;
McBride et al. 2006), power (Drinkwater et al. 2007; Kor-
necki and Zschorlich 1994), velocity, and range of motion
(Drinkwater et al. 2007). Resistance trained individuals with
years of experience performing ground-based free-weight
lifts may not respond with higher activation of the core mus-
culature when performing exercises on moderately unstable
bases (Wahl and Behm 2008). Training programs must be
structured so that athletes are prepared for the wide variety
of postures and external forces encountered during sports
participation. This is best accomplished through the per-
formance of a wide variety of exercises that encompass all
planes of movement and varying loads.
Recommendations
Athletes
Athletes training for maximal strength, power, and veloc-
ity of movement should emphasize higher-intensity ground-
based lifts (e.g., Olympic lifts, squats, and dead lifts) and
not limit the training program to instability-based resistance
exercises. Because spinal stability is required for efficient
execution of sports skills, a comprehensive program should
include resistance exercises that involve a destabilizing com-
ponent. The destabilizing component may involve instability
devices, but can also be achieved with ground-based free
weights that provide a destabilizing torque to the centre of
gravity or a transverse stress to the core musculature. Spe-
cific training of the core musculature should be periodized,
just like any other component of athletic development.
From a performance standpoint, unstable devices should not
be utilized when hypertrophy, absolute strength, or power is
the primary training goal, because force generation, power
output, and movement velocity are impaired and may be in-
sufficient to stimulate the desired adaptations, especially in
trained athletes.
Rehabilitation
From a rehabilitation standpoint, the utilization of unsta-
ble devices has been shown to be effective in decreasing
110 Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. Vol. 35, 2010
Published by NRC Research Press
3. the incidence of low back pain and increasing the sensory
efficiency of soft tissues that stabilize the knee and ankle
joints. Such training may promote agonist–antagonist co-
contractions with shorter latency periods, which allow for
rapid stiffening and protection of joint complexes. These
outcomes can provide some protection from injury or en-
hance recovery from an injury to the core or elsewhere,
and, therefore, can be included as part of an overall prehabi-
lative or rehabilitative exercise program.
General population
For fitness and health conscious individuals and athletes
at all levels (i.e., recreational to elite), ground-based free-
weight lifts (e.g., back squats, dead lifts, Olympic lifts, and-
lifts that involve trunk rotation) should form the foundation
of exercises to train the core musculature. Such closed chain
lifts are characterized by moderate levels of instability that
allow for the simultaneous development of upper and lower
extremity strength, thereby addressing all links in the kinetic
chain. Closed chain exercises can also be implemented with
instability devices incorporating lower loads. The instability-
induced high core activation with lower force output can
still provide sufficient stress on the system to induce or
maintain health benefits; however, maximal strength or
power development may be compromised. Open chain isola-
tion exercises for the core musculature (e.g., trunk flexion
supported on either a stable or unstable surface) might be
most useful for localized muscular endurance development
or for aesthetic-related goals (e.g., bodybuilding). Develop-
ment of power, absolute strength, or localized muscular en-
durance can potentially contribute to increased spinal
stability if incorporated through the specific practice of rele-
vant sports skills. Individuals who are training for health-re-
lated fitness, or who cannot access or are less interested in
the training stresses associated with ground-based free-
weight lifts, can also receive beneficial resistance training
adaptations with instability devices and exercises to achieve
functional health benefits.
Conclusion
Ground-based free-weight lifts are highly recommended
for athletic conditioning of the core musculature because
they can provide the moderately unstable environments to
augment core and limb muscle activation while still provid-
ing maximal or near maximal force and power outputs.
However, the concept of periodization illustrates the need to
modulate volumes and intensities of training over time; thus,
during phases involving lower loads, instability training de-
vices and exercises can stimulate high muscle activation.
Based on the relatively high proportion of type I fibers, the
core musculature might respond particularly well to multiple
sets that involve many repetitions (e.g., >15 per set). How-
ever, the characteristics of a given sport may necessitate rep-
etition ranges that emphasize strength and power
development (e.g., <6 per set).
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