The use of stretching in the training programs of recrea- tional and competitive athletes has been historically common- place. The role of stretching in enhancing athletic performance has been debated (49). The purpose of this review was to examine the literature regarding the effect of stretching on performance, without regard to any of the other purported effects of stretching, including improvements in joint range of motion, muscle length, or recovery from or susceptibility to injury.

1. The Effects of Stretching on Performance
Evan Peck, MD1
; Greg Chomko, DPT2
; Dan V. Gaz, MS3
; and Ann M. Farrell, MLS4
Abstract
Stretching long has been commonplace in the training programs of rec-
reational and competitive athletes. Its role in performance enhancement has
been debated. This review discusses the literature concerning the effects of
static, dynamic, and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching on
performance in three categories of sporting activity: strength- and power-
dominant, speed- and agility-dominant, and endurance-dominant activities.
Introduction
The use of stretching in the training programs of recrea-
tional and competitive athletes has been historically common-
place. The role of stretching in enhancing athletic performance
has been debated (49). The purpose of this review was to
examine the literature regarding the effect of stretching on
performance, without regard to any of the other purported
effects of stretching, including improvements in joint range
of motion, muscle length, or recovery from or susceptibility
to injury.
There are three primary types of stretching, although
numerous subtypes exist. For the purposes of this review,
we categorized the type of stretching utilized in a study into
one or more of the following: static stretching, dynamic
stretching, and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation
(PNF) stretching. Static stretching involves lengthening a
muscle and holding it in a mildly uncomfortable position for
a period, usually somewhere between 10 and 30 s. Dynamic
stretching uses momentum and active muscular effort to
lengthen a muscle, but the end position is not held. PNF
stretching typically involves a contraction of the opposing
muscle to stretch the target muscle, followed by an isomet-
ric contraction of the target muscle.
In 2004, Shrier (49) published a review of stretching and
performance. We examined the literature published since
around the time of that review, assessing the effect of
stretching on performance in three
categories of sport: strength and power
dominant, speed and agility dominant,
and endurance dominant. We catego-
rized strength- and power-dominant
activities as those involving a brief and
maximal effort, such as a countermove-
ment jump for maximum height or a
one-repetition maximum (1RM) in re-
sistance exercises such as the bench
press. We categorized speed-and agility-
dominant activities as either cyclical, short-duration, fast
muscular contraction events such as sprinting (100 m or less),
or agility tasks that involved repeated quick and multi-
directional movements. We categorized endurance-dominant
activities as either cyclical, longer-duration (200 m or greater)
tasks such as distance running or cycling or submaximal
muscular endurance performance in resistance exercises such
as the bench press.
This categorization is acknowledged as subjective and
has significant limitations, as many sports involve some
degree of all three components. However the authors be-
lieve that this categorization helped define the results of the
literature better and may assist athletes, coaches, and sports
medicine providers in making decisions regarding the im-
plementation of stretching in a training program.
Methods
The MEDLINE database was searched using the Ovid
interface for relevant original research articles published in
English between 2003 and June 2013. Keywords included
stretching, prestretching, performance, preperformance, ex-
ertion, and exercise. We excluded articles that solely exam-
ined the role of stretching on joint range of motion, muscle
length, injury treatment, or injury prevention. Studies were
excluded if they did not examine the effect of stretching on a
subsequent sporting performance task directly. We excluded
studies that examined the long-term effect of stretching on
performance, as we believed these studies to be measuring a
distinct and potentially more complex process than that in
studies included in this review. We identified 154 potentially
relevant articles. Of these, 62 met the inclusion and exclusion
criteria and were included in this review. These are summa-
rized in Tables 1, 2, and 3, which categorize the primary
study outcomes for each domain of sports performance and
type of stretching.
TRAINING, PREVENTION, AND REHABILITATION
www.acsm-csmr.org Current Sports Medicine Reports 179
1
Sports Health, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Cleveland Clinic
Florida, West Palm Beach, FL; 2
CORA Rehabilitation Services, Palm
Beach Gardens, FL; 3
Sports Medicine Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester,
MN; and 4
Plummer Library, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
Address for correspondence: Evan Peck, MD, Sports Health, Department
of Orthopaedic Surgery, Cleveland Clinic Florida, 525 Okeechobee Blvd
Ste 1400, West Palm Beach, FL 33401; E-mail: pecke@ccf.org.
1537-890X/1303/179Y185
Current Sports Medicine Reports
Copyright * 2014 by the American College of Sports Medicine
Copyright © 2014 by the American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.

2. Static Stretching for Strength- and
Power-Dominant Sports
A considerable body of literature indicates that static
stretching performed prior to strength- and power-dominant
activities results in performance deficits, including such tasks
as countermovement jump height, 1RM in the bench press,
and peak torque output (2Y7,11,13,20,22,28,34,42,44,45,
50,52,59,62). When examining the countermovement jump,
the detrimental effect of static stretching may be pronounced
more at knee angles closer to extension (34). Gergley et al.
(22) showed that passive static stretching during warm-up in
young competitive male golfers caused decreased club head
speed, distance, and accuracy. Little and Williams (35) conversely
found that static stretching did not impair countermovement
Table 1.
Summary of studies examining the effect of stretching on strength- and power-dominant activities.
Strength and Power Performance Effects
Positive Effect Negative Effect No Effect
Static stretching Pacheco et al., 2011 Barroso et al., 2012 Knudson et al., 2004
Behm and Kibele, 2007 Holt and Lambourne, 2008
Behm et al., 2011 Little and Williams, 2006
Bradley et al., 2007 Molacek et al., 2010
Brandenburg, 2006 Taylor et al. 2009
Carvalho et al., 2012 Wallmann et al., 2008
Cramer et al., 2004
Curry et al., 2009
Fletcher and Monte-Colombo, 2010
Gergley, 2009
Herda et al., 2008
La Torre et al., 2010
Pearce et al., 2009
Power et al., 2004
Robbins and Scheuermann, 2008
Sim et al., 2009
Taylor et al., 2009
Winchester et al., 2009
Young and Behm, 2003
Dynamic stretching Behm et al., 2011 Barroso et al., 2012 Dalrymple et al., 2010
Carvalho et al., 2012 Bradley et al., 2007 Little and Williams, 2006
Curry et al., 2009 Christensen and Nordstrom, 2008
Fletcher, 2010 Herda et al., 2008
Fletcher and Monte- Jaggers et al, 2008
Colombo, 2010 Torres et al., 2008
Holt and Lambourne, 2008
Moran et al., 2009
Needham et al., 2009
Pearce et al., 2009
Perrier et al., 2011
Turki et al., 2011
Yamaguchi et al., 2007
PNF stretching Pacheco et al., 2011 Barroso et al., 2012 Christensen and Nordstrom, 2008
Bradley et al., 2007 Molacek et al., 2010
PNF, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation.
180 Volume 13 & Number 3 & May/June 2014 Stretching and Performance
Copyright © 2014 by the American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.

3. jump performance. Moran et al. (38) found that static
stretching did not affect club head or ball speeds in golfers,
while Knudson et al. (33) likewise found that static stretching
had no effect on tennis serving speed and accuracy.
When static stretching is performed prior to a general
warm-up or dynamic stretching, performance deficits may
be reversed partially or completely (29,37,52,57). However
when static stretching was performed after a general warm-up
Table 2.
Summary of studies examining the effect of stretching on speed- and agility-dominant activities.
Speed and Agility Performance Effects
Positive Effect Negative Effect No Effect
Static stretching Favero et al., 2009 Amiri-Khorasani et al., 2010 Amiri-Khorasani et al., 2010
Chaouachi et al., 2010 Chaouachi et al., 2010
Chaouachi et al., 2008 Chaouachi et al., 2008
Fletcher and Jones, 2004 Favero et al., 2009
Fletcher and Anness, 2007 Sim et al., 2009
Fletcher and Monte-Colombo, 2010 Taylor et al., 2009
Kistler et al., 2010
Little and Williams, 2006
Sayers et al., 2008
Sim et al., 2009
Stewart et al., 2007
Taylor et al., 2009
Dynamic stretching Amiri-Khorasani et al., 2010 None Chaouachi et al., 2010
Fletcher and Anness, 2007
Fletcher and Jones, 2004
Fletcher and Monte-Colombo, 2010
Little and Williams, 2006
Needham et al., 2009
Turki et al., 2012
Van Gelder and Bartz, 2011
PNF stretching None None None
PNF, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation.
Table 3.
Summary of studies examining the effect of stretching on endurance-dominant activities.
Endurance Performance Effects
Positive Effect Negative Effect No Effect
Static stretching None Esposito et al., 2012 Esposito et al., 2012
Franco et al., 2008 Gomes et al., 2011
Nelson et al., 2005 Hayes and Walker, 2007
Wilson et al., 2010 Mojock et al., 2011
Wolfe et al., 2011 Samogin Lopes et al., 2010
Dynamic stretching None None Hayes and Walker, 2007
Zourdos et al., 2010
PNF stretching None Barroso et al., 2012 None
Franco et al., 2008
Gomes et al., 2011
PNF, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation.
www.acsm-csmr.org Current Sports Medicine Reports 181
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4. (5 min of treadmill running), Holt and Lambourne (29)
found that increases in countermovement jump perfor-
mance were less than those when performing a general
warm-up alone. Pearce et al. (42) likewise found that with
a warm-up period after a static stretching session, the
strength and power performance deficits created by static
stretching persisted.
Provided that the static stretch is performed for at least
15 s, further increases in duration of stretch do not appear
to alter the effect on performance (6). However Winchester
et al. (59) found that while a single 30-s static stretch
inhibited maximal voluntary strength, additional sets of
30-s static stretching further diminished strength.
Pacheco et al. (41) uniquely found that static stretching
enhanced squat jump, countermovement jump, and drop
jump performance, while other studies have demonstrated
that static stretching prior to activity has no effect on strength
and power (8,12,14,16,24Y26,31,37,46,53). Bradley et al.
(5) found that static stretching induces a decrease in counter-
movement jump performance that persists for 5 min but re-
turns to baseline at 15 min. Gonzalez-Rave et al. (24) found
no differences in countermovement jump performance be-
tween groups performing static stretching alone, heavy-load
exercises alone, and a combination of static stretching and
heavy-load exercises prior to activity.
Although evidence is conflicting, a preponderance of the
evidence suggests that static stretching immediately prior to
strength and power activities diminishes performance.
However it also appears that if static stretching is performed
with adequate time (e.g., 15 min) prior to the event or is
combined with a subsequent general warm-up, it has no
effect on strength and power performance.
Static Stretching for Speed- and Agility-Dominant Sports
Static stretching prior to activity also appears to affect
speed and agility negatively (1,8,9,19,20,32,48,50,51,52).
Kistler et al. (32) found that static stretching decreased
sprint speed, with slowing between 20 and 40 m in both 60-
and 100-m sprints. Static stretching also has been shown to
produce slower 20-, 30-, and 40-m sprint times (19,48,51).
Fletcher and Monte-Colombo (20) found both 20-m sprint
times and Balsom agility tests to be affected negatively by
static stretching prior to activity. However Amiri-Khorasani
et al. (1) found that static stretching had no effect on the
Illinois agility test in professional soccer players.
When static stretching is followed by dynamic stretching
or a general warm-up prior to speed- and agility-dominant
activities, impairments related to static stretching may be
reversed (1,8,9,16,35,50,52). Conversely Fletcher and Anness
(18) found that the combination of static stretching followed
by dynamic stretching decreased sprint performance. Further-
more Chaouachi et al. (8) found that dynamic stretching
followed by static stretching also decreased sprint performance.
The baseline level of flexibility of the athlete may impact
the performance effect of stretching in speed and agility
tasks. Favero et al. (16) showed that subjects with low
baseline flexibility scores had a performance benefit from
static stretching, with an improvement in 40-m sprint time,
whereas those subjects that had higher baseline flexibility
scores were affected adversely by static stretching, with
slower sprint times.
Based on the available literature, static stretching prior to
speed- and agility-dominant activities appears to be detri-
mental to performance. Dynamic stretching or a general
warm-up after static stretching may reverse this effect. It
also appears that static stretching may affect speed and
agility performance differently based on the athlete’s base-
line level of flexibility.
Static Stretching for Endurance-Dominant Sports
In longer-duration activities (200 m or greater) such as
running or cycling, static stretching prior to activity has
been found to be detrimental to performance (15,58,60).
However other data indicate that static stretching has no
effect on endurance performance (27,36,47). Samogin Lopes
et al. (47) found changes in metabolic measures after static
stretching, such as improvement in blood lactate accumula-
tion time and oxygen deficit; however performance im-
provements were not seen.
The effect of static stretching on submaximal muscular
endurance performance is unclear. Nelson et al. (40) found
that static stretching prior to activity decreased the number
of repetitions that could be performed in a knee flexion
exercise with an external resistance of both 40% and 60%
of body mass. Conversely Gomes et al. (23) found that static
stretching prior to activity did not affect the number of
repetitions performed at 40%, 60%, and 80% of 1RM in
the bench press or a knee extension exercise. Franco et al.
(21) found that a static stretch of 40 s prior to activity re-
duced the number of repetitions that could be performed at
85% of 1RM in the bench press, but a static stretch of 20 s
prior to activity did not affect this performance.
A consensus statement regarding the effects of static
stretching on endurance activities is difficult to make from
the current literature. It is unclear whether static stretching
impairs either longer-duration (200 m or greater) cyclic ac-
tivity or submaximal muscular endurance, but it is notable
that no study shows a performance benefit from static stretching
performed prior to these activities.
Dynamic Stretching for Strength- and
Power-Dominant Sports
Dynamic stretching has been shown to enhance perfor-
mance when instituted prior to strength and power activi-
ties (4,7,13,17,20,29,38,39,42,43,55,61). Moran et al. (38)
found that dynamic stretching prior to golf improved club
head speeds and ball speeds. Fletcher (17) found that a dy-
namic stretch performed with faster speed may affect per-
formance more positively. Dynamic stretching in conjunction
with a general warm-up has been shown to improve counter-
movement jump performance further (7,29,43). Needham
et al. (39) also found that athletes combining dynamic
stretching and front squats (using external resistance of
20% of body mass) had higher countermovement jump than
that of athletes performing either dynamic stretching alone
or static stretching alone, while dynamic stretching alone
produced better performances than those produced by static
stretching alone. However Turki et al. (55) found that dy-
namic stretching combined with heavy dead lifts, maxi-
mal isometric squats, tuck jumps, and drop jumps did not
benefit countermovement jump performance versus dynamic
stretching alone.
182 Volume 13 & Number 3 & May/June 2014 Stretching and Performance
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5. Fewer studies have shown either no difference or a det-
rimental effect of dynamic stretching on strength and power
performance (2,5,10,28,30,35,53). Jaggers et al. (30) found
that dynamic stretching did not improve countermovement
jump performance. Dalrymple et al. (14) found that among
collegiate female volleyball players, there were no differ-
ences in countermovement jump performance between
static stretching, dynamic stretching, and no stretching
protocols.
It appears from the preponderance of evidence that dy-
namic stretching improves strength and power performance
when performed immediately prior to the event. Whether a
combination of dynamic stretching and heavy-load exer-
cises prior to an activity such as the countermovement jump
further improves performance is unclear.
Dynamic Stretching for Speed- and
Agility-Dominant Sports
There is literature supporting the benefit of dynamic
stretching on speed- and agility-dominant activities (1,18,
19,20,35,39,54,56). Little and Williams (35) demonstrated
that dynamic stretching during a warm-up for professional
soccer players improved both sprint and agility perfor-
mance. Fletcher and Anness (18) found that dynamic
stretching combined with an 800-m jog led to faster 50-m
sprint times. Needham et al. (39) found, similar to their
findings with the countermovement jump, that athletes
combining dynamic stretching and front squats had im-
proved sprint times versus those of athletes performing dy-
namic stretching alone, and both of these groups sprinted
faster than a static stretching group. Dynamic stretching
also has been shown to improve 20-m sprint times (20), and
one or two sets of dynamic stretching within the warm-up
each improved 20-m sprint times (19). However three or
more sets of dynamic stretching induced fatigue and im-
paired 10- and 20-m sprint times (54). Chaouachi et al. (8)
found that dynamic stretching performed either alone, with
static stretching, or with a general warm-up all had no effect
on sprint performance.
Regarding agility test times, dynamic stretching has been
found to produce faster 505 agility test, Balsom agility test,
and Illinois agility test times (1,20,56). It appears, however,
that more experienced athletes may have less of an im-
provement (1).
The limited available evidence appears to indicate that
speed and agility performance are improved by dynamic
stretching prior to activity. However excessive volume may
induce fatigue and affect speed and agility performance
adversely.
Dynamic Stretching for Endurance-Dominant Sports
There is insufficient evidence either to support or refute
the practice of dynamic stretching prior to endurance ac-
tivity (27,63). Further research is needed in this area.
PNF Stretching for All Sports
There is limited research on PNF stretching within the
scope of this review, so these findings are summarized in
one section. Molacek et al. (37) found that PNF stretching
had no effect on 1RM bench press in highly trained in-
dividuals. Pacheco et al. (41) found that PNF stretching
enhanced squat jump, countermovement jump, and drop
jump performance, whereas Christensen and Nordstrom
(10) found that PNF stretching had no effect on counter-
movement jump performance. Bradley et al. (5) found that
countermovement jump performance was affected nega-
tively by PNF stretching. Barroso et al. (2) found that PNF
stretching negatively affected 1RM leg press performance
and decreased the total number of submaximal repetitions
that could be performed. Franco et al. (21) found that PNF
stretching prior to activity decreased submaximal repeti-
tions in the bench press, and Gomes et al. (23) also found
decreased submaximal bench press and knee extension
performance following PNF stretching.
Discussion
Based on the available evidence, it is reasonable to rec-
ommend against static stretching immediately prior to
strength and power activities (2Y7,11,13,20,22,28,34,42,44,45,
50,52,59,62). However if a general warm-up or dynamic
stretching is performed after static stretching, any negative ef-
fect on strength and power performance may be reversed
(29,37,52,57), although this contention has been disputed
(29,42).
Conversely the preponderance of evidence indicates that
dynamic stretching prior to a strength- and power-dominant
activity is beneficial (4,7,13,17,20,29,38,39,42,43,55,61).
Fewer studies have shown no difference or a detriment to
strength and power performance following dynamic stretching
(2,5,10,28,30,35,53). The limited evidence regarding PNF
stretching prior to strength- and power-dominant activities is
principally neutral or negative (2,5,10,37), with only one
study showing a performance benefit (41).
The bulk of the literature suggests that static stretching
prior to speed- and agility-dominant activities is detrimental
to performance (1,9,19,20,32,48,50,51,52). However as
with strength- and power-dominant activities, an interven-
ing period of a general warm-up or dynamic stretching may
reverse this negative effect (1,8,9,16,35,50,52). Similar with
strength and power, the use of dynamic stretching in the
period prior to speed- and agility-dominant activities ap-
pears to be beneficial (1,18,19,20,35,39,54,56). There is
insufficient evidence to recommend for or against PNF
stretching prior to speed- and agility-dominant activities.
The available evidence shows static stretching to have
either no effect or a detrimental effect on endurance per-
formance (15,21,23,27,36,40,47,58,60). The effects of dy-
namic stretching on endurance performance are unclear
(27,63). No recommendations can be made for or against
PNF stretching prior to longer-duration cyclical endurance
events, but the limited evidence regarding PNF stretching
prior to submaximal muscular endurance activity is gener-
ally negative (2,21,23).
Conclusions
In summary, dynamic stretching generally can be
recommended in the period immediately prior to activity for
most athletes, and static stretching and PNF stretching
probably are reserved best for the period after activity, if
used. If static stretching or PNF are used prior to activity,
they probably should be followed by an intervening suffi-
cient period (e.g., 5 min), dynamic stretching session, or
www.acsm-csmr.org Current Sports Medicine Reports 183
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6. general warm-up prior to the activity to dissipate any po-
tential negative effects on performance.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest and do not
have any financial disclosures.
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