This document discusses corruption as a problem throughout the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) region. It notes that corruption undermines democratic reform, human rights, and economic development. Several OSCE countries ranked low in international surveys of corruption. The document examines how corruption manifests itself in the OSCE's three dimensions of security - the human, economic/environmental, and military/political dimensions - by undermining the rule of law, parliamentary accountability, and public infrastructure development. It argues for a multifaceted approach including anti-corruption laws as well as prevention efforts to address this widespread issue.
This document discusses corruption in Romania. It begins with an introduction to corruption and Romania's corruption profile, noting that Romania ranks low on transparency international's corruption perceptions index. It then examines the most corrupted pillars in Romania: the legislature, political parties, judiciary, and public sector. For each pillar, it identifies specific issues like lack of transparency, political interference, low accountability, and prioritization of patronage networks over qualifications. The document concludes by calling for reforms to address the root causes of corruption nesting within these key institutions.
Perception and the spread of corruption in UkraineRating Pro
This document summarizes the results of surveys on the perception and spread of corruption in Ukraine from 2002-2014. Some key findings include:
- Most Ukrainians believe corruption has significantly increased over the past year. About 30% report giving a bribe to a public servant.
- Two-thirds see corruption as a major problem for Ukraine, and half see it as one of the country's top issues.
- Police, courts, and healthcare are seen as the most corrupt institutions, and this perception reduces trust in these agencies.
- While corruption is widely seen as a societal problem, only one-fifth see it as a personal problem, and justification of corruption varies by region, age, and other factors.
This document summarizes the key findings of research conducted by Transparency International on anti-corruption efforts in six South Asian countries. It finds that while countries have passed some anti-corruption laws, political interference and lack of independence weaken enforcement. Citizens face challenges accessing information and there is little whistleblower protection. As a result, corruption is increasing and accountability is lacking. The report calls for strengthening rights to information, whistleblower protection, and the independence of anti-corruption agencies and judiciaries.
Corruptions and Strategies to reduce corruptions in CambodiaChormvirak Moulsem
1. The document discusses corruption in Cambodia, defining it as the misuse of public power for private gain. It notes corruption is a major problem in Cambodia according to Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index.
2. Both petty and grand corruption are widespread in Cambodia, permeating many sectors of public life. Low salaries and greed for power are cited as main causes. Anti-corruption laws have had little effect so far.
3. The document recommends raising salaries to reduce incentives for corruption, strictly enforcing anti-corruption laws with an independent body, and increasing transparency through measures like publishing budgets and fees. Public awareness campaigns could help address ignorance of corruption's harms.
Institutional Sources of Corruption in the Case of ArmeniaCRRC-Armenia
This document analyzes the relationship between perceptions of corruption in Armenia and three institutional sources: formal rules, informal rules, and enforcement mechanisms. Statistical models show perceptions of enforcement mechanisms and informal rules significantly correlate with perceived corruption, but not formal rules. Higher education levels also correlate with higher perceived corruption. The document recommends reforms like transparency laws and judicial reforms to strengthen enforcement mechanisms to reduce corruption by impacting informal norms.
http://www.u4.no/publications/overview-of-corruption-in-burma-myanmar/
After more than four decades of military rule, political violence and systematic repression of democratic opposition, the country’s political and economic environment has continued to deteriorate in recent years. Myanmar faces major challenges of endemic corruption, consistently ranking at the bottom of TI’S Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI). Little is known on the specific forms and patterns of corruption in the country, but the scale of the informal and illicit economy suggests strong links between the ruling elite and organised crime activities, such as drugs and human trafficking, and illegal logging. In the absence of sound democratic institutions and an effective system of checks and balances, the legal and institutional frameworks against corruption appear rudimentary and likely to be misused by the junta for political reasons. Money laundering is the only area where the country appears to have made some progress in recent years, resulting in its removal from the Financial Acti - See more at: http://www.u4.no/publications/overview-of-corruption-in-burma-myanmar/#sthash.LIAg6ZWP.dpuf
Myanmar/Burma, Cronyism, Human Rights and Corruption, Military Elites, Drug Lords and Crony Companies, and Myanmar People Under Military
This document discusses corruption in Romania. It begins with an introduction to corruption and Romania's corruption profile, noting that Romania ranks low on transparency international's corruption perceptions index. It then examines the most corrupted pillars in Romania: the legislature, political parties, judiciary, and public sector. For each pillar, it identifies specific issues like lack of transparency, political interference, low accountability, and prioritization of patronage networks over qualifications. The document concludes by calling for reforms to address the root causes of corruption nesting within these key institutions.
Perception and the spread of corruption in UkraineRating Pro
This document summarizes the results of surveys on the perception and spread of corruption in Ukraine from 2002-2014. Some key findings include:
- Most Ukrainians believe corruption has significantly increased over the past year. About 30% report giving a bribe to a public servant.
- Two-thirds see corruption as a major problem for Ukraine, and half see it as one of the country's top issues.
- Police, courts, and healthcare are seen as the most corrupt institutions, and this perception reduces trust in these agencies.
- While corruption is widely seen as a societal problem, only one-fifth see it as a personal problem, and justification of corruption varies by region, age, and other factors.
This document summarizes the key findings of research conducted by Transparency International on anti-corruption efforts in six South Asian countries. It finds that while countries have passed some anti-corruption laws, political interference and lack of independence weaken enforcement. Citizens face challenges accessing information and there is little whistleblower protection. As a result, corruption is increasing and accountability is lacking. The report calls for strengthening rights to information, whistleblower protection, and the independence of anti-corruption agencies and judiciaries.
Corruptions and Strategies to reduce corruptions in CambodiaChormvirak Moulsem
1. The document discusses corruption in Cambodia, defining it as the misuse of public power for private gain. It notes corruption is a major problem in Cambodia according to Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index.
2. Both petty and grand corruption are widespread in Cambodia, permeating many sectors of public life. Low salaries and greed for power are cited as main causes. Anti-corruption laws have had little effect so far.
3. The document recommends raising salaries to reduce incentives for corruption, strictly enforcing anti-corruption laws with an independent body, and increasing transparency through measures like publishing budgets and fees. Public awareness campaigns could help address ignorance of corruption's harms.
Institutional Sources of Corruption in the Case of ArmeniaCRRC-Armenia
This document analyzes the relationship between perceptions of corruption in Armenia and three institutional sources: formal rules, informal rules, and enforcement mechanisms. Statistical models show perceptions of enforcement mechanisms and informal rules significantly correlate with perceived corruption, but not formal rules. Higher education levels also correlate with higher perceived corruption. The document recommends reforms like transparency laws and judicial reforms to strengthen enforcement mechanisms to reduce corruption by impacting informal norms.
http://www.u4.no/publications/overview-of-corruption-in-burma-myanmar/
After more than four decades of military rule, political violence and systematic repression of democratic opposition, the country’s political and economic environment has continued to deteriorate in recent years. Myanmar faces major challenges of endemic corruption, consistently ranking at the bottom of TI’S Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI). Little is known on the specific forms and patterns of corruption in the country, but the scale of the informal and illicit economy suggests strong links between the ruling elite and organised crime activities, such as drugs and human trafficking, and illegal logging. In the absence of sound democratic institutions and an effective system of checks and balances, the legal and institutional frameworks against corruption appear rudimentary and likely to be misused by the junta for political reasons. Money laundering is the only area where the country appears to have made some progress in recent years, resulting in its removal from the Financial Acti - See more at: http://www.u4.no/publications/overview-of-corruption-in-burma-myanmar/#sthash.LIAg6ZWP.dpuf
Myanmar/Burma, Cronyism, Human Rights and Corruption, Military Elites, Drug Lords and Crony Companies, and Myanmar People Under Military
CORRUPTION SCANDALS IN MYANMAR THAT SHOOK THE WORLDMYO AUNG Myanmar
CORRUPTION SCANDALS IN MYANMAR THAT SHOOK THE WORLD
https://knowledgehub.transparency.org/helpdesk/myanmar-overview-of-corruption-and-anti-corruption
https://www.transparency.org/country/MMR
https://www.transparency.org/news/feature/25_corruption_scandals
https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/10/corruption-myanmar-jade-trade-151022101916842.html
The corruption of Myanmar's jade trade
New report identifies key players in the industry who have obtained $31bn worth of the precious gem over the last year.
by Philip Heijmans
Corruption in Pakistan, serve as the root cause of all the problems which we are facing now a days, so u can have a look, that what are the causes, effects and solution to corruption, in Pakistan. For complete detail report write me at riazgulsheikh@gmail.com
This document discusses corruption in Trinidad and Tobago and why it seems to be increasing despite codes of ethics. It notes that corruption undermines development in developing countries by creating an uneven distribution of wealth. While Trinidad and Tobago has many codes of ethics for professionals and public officials, corruption has still increased over the past 14 years as measured by Transparency International's Corruption Perception Index. The document analyzes factors contributing to endemic corruption in Trinidad and Tobago such as weaknesses in political systems, lack of accountability, influence of the drug trade, and failure to properly educate citizens on ethics. It concludes that strengthening institutions to prevent corruption and empowering citizens is needed to curb corruption in the long run.
Zambia: Democracy and Political Participation Dr Lendy Spires
This document summarizes the politics of constitutional reform in Zambia. It discusses how Zambia has had four constitutions over 49 years of independence, with the process being highly contested. Previous reform attempts did not meaningfully involve the public. While recent presidents tried to make the process more inclusive, it still fell short of expectations due to opposition demands for more participation and government insistence on control. Constitutional changes have rarely altered power dynamics or reflected public aspirations.
Informal sector and corruption an empirical investigation for indiaDr Lendy Spires
This document analyzes the relationship between corruption and the informal sector in India using data from 20 Indian states. The study finds that higher levels of corruption are positively associated with larger sizes of the informal sector. However, for states with higher levels of past economic growth, the positive impact of corruption on the informal sector is reduced. The informal sector provides an alternative for individuals and businesses seeking to avoid costly regulations, taxes, and bureaucracy that are exacerbated by corruption in the formal sector. However, for states with stronger economic foundations, the influence of corruption on informalization is diminished.
Gender diversity and corporate performance emphasis on sustaiability performancesadafnoor10
This research article examines the impact of gender diversity on corporate boards on financial and sustainability performance in Italian companies after the introduction of gender quotas in 2011. The researchers studied 40 companies on the FTSE MIB index from 2016 to 2018. They found that increased female representation on boards had little impact on financial performance but was significantly associated with improved sustainability performance. Additional analysis confirmed this relationship, showing companies that improved gender diversity also improved their ethics scores. The researchers also found evidence of an optimal level of gender diversity, beyond which sustainability performance could decline.
The document provides an overview of anti-corruption efforts in Italy. It notes that while Italy has traditionally focused on enforcement, a new 2012 law aims to establish a more balanced preventative approach. However, perception surveys still show widespread belief that corruption is common in Italy. The document also discusses issues like the fragmented legal framework and capacity challenges in fully implementing new policies.
RULE OF LAW IN MYANMAR AND CURRENT SITUATION 2018MYO AUNG Myanmar
RULE OF LAW IN MYANMAR AND CURRENT SITUATION
https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/union-attorney-general-revokes-courts-decision-drop-investigation-comedians-killing.html
Union Attorney General Revokes Court’s Decision to Drop Investigation into Comedian’s Killing
https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/court-bans-media-taking-photos-military-officers-wife.html
Court Bans Media from Taking Photos of Military Officer’s Wife
https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/high-profile-arms-case-handed-naypyitaw-court.html
High-Profile Arms Case Handed over To Naypyitaw Court
https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmar-court-hear-arguments-charging-jailed-reuters-reporters.html
Myanmar Court to Hear Arguments on Charging Jailed Reuters Reporters
This document provides a summary of the historical context and proposals for electoral reform in Mauritius. It discusses the origins of the country's electoral system and the seven reports and commissions that have considered reform since independence. While there is general agreement on the need for reform, there are still issues that require discussion. The document outlines the government's modified proposal based on the Sithanen Report, which would subsume the Best Loser System and allocate additional seats according to closed party lists or an alternative formula. It seeks further consultation on outstanding issues to build consensus before introducing legislation.
Eighth session of the Forum on Minority Issues onJhuma Halder
1) Minorities in Bangladesh, especially Hindus, face criminal offenses such as killings, rape, kidnapping, and forceful evictions from their homes with little protection from police.
2) The criminal justice system is plagued by irregularities, corruption, and political interference which prevents minorities from accessing justice.
3) Reforms are needed to strengthen rule of law and protect minorities' human rights as guaranteed by the Bangladeshi constitution but not upheld in reality.
DILI-International Legal Perspective on Political Immunity and Corruption_Hyd...John Hyde
The document discusses parliamentary immunity globally and the different perspectives on it. It begins by explaining that parliamentary immunity is meant to allow legislators to freely express themselves and represent the public without fear of retaliation, but some argue it has allowed corruption. It then discusses two main types of immunity - parliamentary inviolability which provides freedom from arrest, and non-accountability/non-liability which protects freedom of speech. The document provides several examples of how immunity laws are implemented and interpreted differently in countries around the world.
The document discusses several proposed electoral reforms in India to reduce the influence of money and muscle power in politics. It identifies some key problem areas like increasing election costs leading to illegal funding and corruption. It suggests reforms such as improving electoral rolls and voter IDs to prevent rigging, strengthening laws against booth capturing, and establishing institutional mechanisms for political parties to discuss issues and educate members. Overall the document analyzes issues with the current system and proposes options for reforming the electoral process in India.
The document provides the statement of objects and reasons for the Jan Lokpal Bill 2011 in India. It summarizes that corruption has become a major problem in India that existing anti-corruption institutions have failed to address. It aims to establish an independent Lokpal authority, as required by the UN Convention Against Corruption, to investigate and prosecute corruption cases against public officials and ensure transparency, accountability and public participation in its functioning. The bill seeks to provide independence to the anti-corruption machinery from undue influences to effectively tackle the menace of corruption.
The Congress of the People wants to highlight a fundamental matter of national importance and calls for urgent action to be implemented to realise the Freedom Charter vision that "The People Shall Govern".
The problems that were before the establishment of Pakistan and are not cured uptil today.
so view it and leave ur comments about it which will be highly appreciable on ur part. thnx
Governing Agenda 2030: Institution-Building and Good GovernanceSIANI
This document discusses good governance and its importance for achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It outlines Goal 16 of the SDGs which focuses on building effective institutions. The document then examines definitions of governance and good governance, highlighting the importance of impartial institutions. It also explores approaches for promoting good governance, both direct methods like anti-corruption efforts and indirect methods like education initiatives. Key factors for success include political will to address corruption, state capacity building, and use of both soft and hard governance tools tailored to local contexts.
1) Companies are increasing their reliance on in-house legal teams and decreasing spending on outside law firms. They found they can better contain costs with larger internal staffs that handle more work.
2) Survey results found that over 50% of companies increased their total number of legal staff worldwide from 2009-2010 while decreasing outside counsel spending by 3% on average.
3) Companies expect legal needs and regulatory demands to continue growing. Over 40% plan to increase their number of in-house lawyers in the US and abroad in the coming year.
This document provides an overview of the juvenile justice system in Malaysia. It discusses that 60% of Malaysia's population is under 30 years old, and that while perceptions are that juvenile crime is increasing, data is limited and inconsistent. For children accused of crimes, the Child Act of 2001 established specialized procedures and the Court for Children to handle their cases separately from adult procedures. The document outlines the key stages of handling a child in conflict with the law, from arrest to sentencing. It also discusses exceptions for serious crimes and status offenses. Overall, the document presents background on juvenile justice in Malaysia and the legal framework established in the Child Act.
Wim Oscé (Africalia, Belgium) presented this presentation during the Global Youth Anti-Corruption Forum in the Culture & Development Session - Linkages and added value of cultural elements in maximizing the potentials of development projects with a focus on anti-corruption.
A presentation by Mohammed Al-Bous, Global Changemaker on the Global Youth Anti-Corruption Forum in Brussels on 27 May 2010.
Session: Governance and Anti-Corruption (GAC)
Nigeria has a population of 160 million people and a history of political instability including military coups and civil war. It gained independence from Britain in 1960 but experienced periods of military rule between 1966-1979 and 1983-1999. Oil production dominates Nigeria's economy but has also contributed to corruption and underdevelopment. Democracy was restored in 1999 but faith in democratic institutions has declined due to ongoing issues with corruption, violence, and flawed elections.
CORRUPTION SCANDALS IN MYANMAR THAT SHOOK THE WORLDMYO AUNG Myanmar
CORRUPTION SCANDALS IN MYANMAR THAT SHOOK THE WORLD
https://knowledgehub.transparency.org/helpdesk/myanmar-overview-of-corruption-and-anti-corruption
https://www.transparency.org/country/MMR
https://www.transparency.org/news/feature/25_corruption_scandals
https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/10/corruption-myanmar-jade-trade-151022101916842.html
The corruption of Myanmar's jade trade
New report identifies key players in the industry who have obtained $31bn worth of the precious gem over the last year.
by Philip Heijmans
Corruption in Pakistan, serve as the root cause of all the problems which we are facing now a days, so u can have a look, that what are the causes, effects and solution to corruption, in Pakistan. For complete detail report write me at riazgulsheikh@gmail.com
This document discusses corruption in Trinidad and Tobago and why it seems to be increasing despite codes of ethics. It notes that corruption undermines development in developing countries by creating an uneven distribution of wealth. While Trinidad and Tobago has many codes of ethics for professionals and public officials, corruption has still increased over the past 14 years as measured by Transparency International's Corruption Perception Index. The document analyzes factors contributing to endemic corruption in Trinidad and Tobago such as weaknesses in political systems, lack of accountability, influence of the drug trade, and failure to properly educate citizens on ethics. It concludes that strengthening institutions to prevent corruption and empowering citizens is needed to curb corruption in the long run.
Zambia: Democracy and Political Participation Dr Lendy Spires
This document summarizes the politics of constitutional reform in Zambia. It discusses how Zambia has had four constitutions over 49 years of independence, with the process being highly contested. Previous reform attempts did not meaningfully involve the public. While recent presidents tried to make the process more inclusive, it still fell short of expectations due to opposition demands for more participation and government insistence on control. Constitutional changes have rarely altered power dynamics or reflected public aspirations.
Informal sector and corruption an empirical investigation for indiaDr Lendy Spires
This document analyzes the relationship between corruption and the informal sector in India using data from 20 Indian states. The study finds that higher levels of corruption are positively associated with larger sizes of the informal sector. However, for states with higher levels of past economic growth, the positive impact of corruption on the informal sector is reduced. The informal sector provides an alternative for individuals and businesses seeking to avoid costly regulations, taxes, and bureaucracy that are exacerbated by corruption in the formal sector. However, for states with stronger economic foundations, the influence of corruption on informalization is diminished.
Gender diversity and corporate performance emphasis on sustaiability performancesadafnoor10
This research article examines the impact of gender diversity on corporate boards on financial and sustainability performance in Italian companies after the introduction of gender quotas in 2011. The researchers studied 40 companies on the FTSE MIB index from 2016 to 2018. They found that increased female representation on boards had little impact on financial performance but was significantly associated with improved sustainability performance. Additional analysis confirmed this relationship, showing companies that improved gender diversity also improved their ethics scores. The researchers also found evidence of an optimal level of gender diversity, beyond which sustainability performance could decline.
The document provides an overview of anti-corruption efforts in Italy. It notes that while Italy has traditionally focused on enforcement, a new 2012 law aims to establish a more balanced preventative approach. However, perception surveys still show widespread belief that corruption is common in Italy. The document also discusses issues like the fragmented legal framework and capacity challenges in fully implementing new policies.
RULE OF LAW IN MYANMAR AND CURRENT SITUATION 2018MYO AUNG Myanmar
RULE OF LAW IN MYANMAR AND CURRENT SITUATION
https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/union-attorney-general-revokes-courts-decision-drop-investigation-comedians-killing.html
Union Attorney General Revokes Court’s Decision to Drop Investigation into Comedian’s Killing
https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/court-bans-media-taking-photos-military-officers-wife.html
Court Bans Media from Taking Photos of Military Officer’s Wife
https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/high-profile-arms-case-handed-naypyitaw-court.html
High-Profile Arms Case Handed over To Naypyitaw Court
https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmar-court-hear-arguments-charging-jailed-reuters-reporters.html
Myanmar Court to Hear Arguments on Charging Jailed Reuters Reporters
This document provides a summary of the historical context and proposals for electoral reform in Mauritius. It discusses the origins of the country's electoral system and the seven reports and commissions that have considered reform since independence. While there is general agreement on the need for reform, there are still issues that require discussion. The document outlines the government's modified proposal based on the Sithanen Report, which would subsume the Best Loser System and allocate additional seats according to closed party lists or an alternative formula. It seeks further consultation on outstanding issues to build consensus before introducing legislation.
Eighth session of the Forum on Minority Issues onJhuma Halder
1) Minorities in Bangladesh, especially Hindus, face criminal offenses such as killings, rape, kidnapping, and forceful evictions from their homes with little protection from police.
2) The criminal justice system is plagued by irregularities, corruption, and political interference which prevents minorities from accessing justice.
3) Reforms are needed to strengthen rule of law and protect minorities' human rights as guaranteed by the Bangladeshi constitution but not upheld in reality.
DILI-International Legal Perspective on Political Immunity and Corruption_Hyd...John Hyde
The document discusses parliamentary immunity globally and the different perspectives on it. It begins by explaining that parliamentary immunity is meant to allow legislators to freely express themselves and represent the public without fear of retaliation, but some argue it has allowed corruption. It then discusses two main types of immunity - parliamentary inviolability which provides freedom from arrest, and non-accountability/non-liability which protects freedom of speech. The document provides several examples of how immunity laws are implemented and interpreted differently in countries around the world.
The document discusses several proposed electoral reforms in India to reduce the influence of money and muscle power in politics. It identifies some key problem areas like increasing election costs leading to illegal funding and corruption. It suggests reforms such as improving electoral rolls and voter IDs to prevent rigging, strengthening laws against booth capturing, and establishing institutional mechanisms for political parties to discuss issues and educate members. Overall the document analyzes issues with the current system and proposes options for reforming the electoral process in India.
The document provides the statement of objects and reasons for the Jan Lokpal Bill 2011 in India. It summarizes that corruption has become a major problem in India that existing anti-corruption institutions have failed to address. It aims to establish an independent Lokpal authority, as required by the UN Convention Against Corruption, to investigate and prosecute corruption cases against public officials and ensure transparency, accountability and public participation in its functioning. The bill seeks to provide independence to the anti-corruption machinery from undue influences to effectively tackle the menace of corruption.
The Congress of the People wants to highlight a fundamental matter of national importance and calls for urgent action to be implemented to realise the Freedom Charter vision that "The People Shall Govern".
The problems that were before the establishment of Pakistan and are not cured uptil today.
so view it and leave ur comments about it which will be highly appreciable on ur part. thnx
Governing Agenda 2030: Institution-Building and Good GovernanceSIANI
This document discusses good governance and its importance for achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It outlines Goal 16 of the SDGs which focuses on building effective institutions. The document then examines definitions of governance and good governance, highlighting the importance of impartial institutions. It also explores approaches for promoting good governance, both direct methods like anti-corruption efforts and indirect methods like education initiatives. Key factors for success include political will to address corruption, state capacity building, and use of both soft and hard governance tools tailored to local contexts.
1) Companies are increasing their reliance on in-house legal teams and decreasing spending on outside law firms. They found they can better contain costs with larger internal staffs that handle more work.
2) Survey results found that over 50% of companies increased their total number of legal staff worldwide from 2009-2010 while decreasing outside counsel spending by 3% on average.
3) Companies expect legal needs and regulatory demands to continue growing. Over 40% plan to increase their number of in-house lawyers in the US and abroad in the coming year.
This document provides an overview of the juvenile justice system in Malaysia. It discusses that 60% of Malaysia's population is under 30 years old, and that while perceptions are that juvenile crime is increasing, data is limited and inconsistent. For children accused of crimes, the Child Act of 2001 established specialized procedures and the Court for Children to handle their cases separately from adult procedures. The document outlines the key stages of handling a child in conflict with the law, from arrest to sentencing. It also discusses exceptions for serious crimes and status offenses. Overall, the document presents background on juvenile justice in Malaysia and the legal framework established in the Child Act.
Wim Oscé (Africalia, Belgium) presented this presentation during the Global Youth Anti-Corruption Forum in the Culture & Development Session - Linkages and added value of cultural elements in maximizing the potentials of development projects with a focus on anti-corruption.
A presentation by Mohammed Al-Bous, Global Changemaker on the Global Youth Anti-Corruption Forum in Brussels on 27 May 2010.
Session: Governance and Anti-Corruption (GAC)
Nigeria has a population of 160 million people and a history of political instability including military coups and civil war. It gained independence from Britain in 1960 but experienced periods of military rule between 1966-1979 and 1983-1999. Oil production dominates Nigeria's economy but has also contributed to corruption and underdevelopment. Democracy was restored in 1999 but faith in democratic institutions has declined due to ongoing issues with corruption, violence, and flawed elections.
Blue Ocean Strategy: A Panacea to the Menace of Bureaucratic Corruption in Ni...IOSR Journals
The misplacement of official interest for personal benefit that has characterized the Nigeria bureaucratic settings has in no small way curtailed the extent to which national development is achieved. Blue ocean strategy represents an alternative approach to the conduct of public business in such a way it blocks all the major avenues for looting public treasury as well as the enhancement of effective and efficient service delivery. Exploring the current failures in our health institutions it appears that numerous factors have continued to militate against their effective service quality. Despite the huge amount of money voted yearly for the development of the health sector in the national budget, the sector has remained a mere shadow of itself. This paper adopts a stratified sampling technique and use questionnaire to extract response from the respondents. The result of the analysis reveals that the level of corrupt practices in the health sector has led to the diversion of fund from the procurement of medical equipment to private pockets, hence the inadequacies of medical equipment in the various public health institutions.). It is therefore recommended that stewardship function and improved management support system should be incorporated in the activities of the public service.
A "Toy" Model for Corruption Problem (some explanations from Islamic point of...atmotaruno
The document presents a mathematical model for analyzing corruption. It begins by outlining the steps of modeling, including identifying the problem, making assumptions, solving/interpreting the model, and verifying it. It then develops a "toy" model for corruption with assumptions that there are honest and corrupt populations, financial temptation increases corruption, and social connections influence behavior. The model models changes in the corrupt population over time based on these factors and a control parameter representing sanctions. Simulations show how different sanction levels impact the equilibrium corrupt population. The model is extended to include the impact of honest people recommending truth to others. Intensive "recommendation of truth" programs can stabilize society by equalizing the equilibrium points.
Nigeria has high levels of corruption that have negatively impacted its economy and development. Efforts to reduce corruption include establishing anti-corruption agencies and passing laws to criminalize corrupt practices. However, corruption remains a major challenge due to factors like a slow justice system, proceeds of corruption being hidden abroad, and lack of international cooperation. If corruption was reduced, Nigeria could realize greater economic growth and prosperity.
Bortoletti, causes and consequences of corruption, commissione europea, ipa z...Maurizio Bortoletti
Until now, in fact, in terms of the fight against corruption, some interventions designed to impact on this general feeling of distrust proved futile, as well as damaging and worst evil that you wanted to care: Just think about that river in full of circulars, directives, rules of standardization, procedures, protocols, and detailed instructions, they would have to express the goodness with geometric precision of the services offered to users. The only result achieved was, in fact, diametrically opposed to that pursued: rather than get the reassurance of the city was severely impaired the activity of insiders, drowned, at least half of their working day, in the bureaucracy, paradoxically have ended up strengthening the responsibility more towards the auditors in respect of users. A phenomenon that has come to fuel the growth of a number of concretions bureaucratic overlap and duplication of skills that generate irresponsibility and eventually impunity.
One of NIGERIA’S greatest challenges is CORRUPTION – in Public and Private Institutions – which has greatly affected her development as well as how her Citizens are treated in other countries. This analysis takes an in-depth look TI CPI of Nigeria from 1998 till date.
The document discusses how although India gained independence from British rule, corruption has since become a major problem holding the country back from becoming truly developed. It notes that the 2010 Commonwealth Games held in India were the most expensive yet, despite the huge amount of money spent, and questions who is responsible for the corruption issue. The document argues that every Indian citizen shares some blame, as corruption starts with small acts like bribing officials or paying extra fees, and the only solution is for every Indian to decide to eliminate corruption from the country in order to return India to its former glory.
The document discusses several issues related to corruption in India and proposes solutions. It argues that India needs an independent body like the FBI or KGB to investigate corruption cases impartially and punish the guilty without interference from politicians. It also suggests that the judiciary should be independent and not influenced by the government, and that administrators like IAS officers should not be under political control but take orders directly from the judiciary. This will help reduce corruption and improve governance and law enforcement in the country.
Corruption (a holistic solution) dr. shriniwas kashalikarrustomvaccha
Corruption is more than just financial scandals and bribery - it is ubiquitous. [1] Corruption stems from a restricted perspective that becomes narrow and sectarian over time, breeding corrupt thinking and emotions that rationalize unjust actions. [2] True reform requires addressing the roots of corruption by restoring a global perspective and conscience, which the author argues can be achieved through the universal practice of Namasmaran. [3] This solution aims to cure corruption from its roots by treating the disease of a corrupted perspective.
Preventing corruption in Nigeria: The relevance of the Islamic approach and t...Imam-Tamim Esq.
This document discusses approaches to combating corruption in Nigeria from both a legal and Islamic perspective. It summarizes that corruption undermines society by promoting a "national cake mentality" and stunting economic development. Both the Nigerian legal system and Sharia emphasize preventing corruption, with Sharia focusing on institutions like hisbah to correct citizens, zakat to reduce poverty, and mazaalim to address complaints against officials. The author recommends Nigeria fight corruption through a collective action approach and institutionalizing Islamic mechanisms like zakat and waqf funds while removing immunity clauses. The Muslim youth are urged to help enforce righteousness and prohibit corruption through cooperation and peaceful advocacy.
Corruption context in Myanmar and approaches elsewhere in ASEANEthical Sector
On Tuesday, 23 September, MCRB hosted a half-day workshop on “Anti-Corruption Programmes” for Myanmar businesses in Yangon. The workshop, held in collaboration with Spectrum – a Yangon-based sustainable development knowledge network - was the first in a series of events to follow-up on the Transparency in Myanmar Enterprises (TiME) report and build business capacity in the area of anti-corruption and human rights.
Read more: http://www.myanmar-responsiblebusiness.org/news/workshop-anti-corruption-programmes.html
The document discusses the definition and regulation of lobbying in different countries. It begins by tracing the origins of the word "lobbying" back to 1820. Today, lobbying generally refers to efforts to influence public officials' decisions. Countries regulate lobbying to prevent corruption. The US has a long history of lobbying and currently has around 12,000 registered lobbyists concentrated in Washington D.C. Lobbying is also widespread in the European Union, with around 30,000 lobbyists registered in Brussels. In the Czech Republic, lobbying is not clearly defined or regulated, but still takes place through various channels of influence. The document argues that lobbying should aim to influence not just public officials but the general public as well in a democracy.
The document provides the statement of objects and reasons for the Jan Lokpal Bill 2011 in India. It summarizes that corruption has become a major problem in India that has undermined democracy and rule of law. Existing anti-corruption institutions have failed to address the problem. The bill aims to establish an independent Lokpal authority, as recommended by the UN Convention Against Corruption, to investigate and prosecute corruption cases against public officials effectively. It seeks to grant the Lokpal necessary independence and autonomy to curb corruption in India.
The document discusses the need for an independent Lokpal authority in India to effectively investigate and prosecute corruption cases according to the UN Convention Against Corruption (UNCAC). It notes that existing anti-corruption institutions have failed to tackle corruption issues in India. The proposed Lokpal bill aims to establish an independent authority with powers to investigate, prosecute cases of corruption, inquire into misconduct, and oversee vigilance and grievance redressal machinery according to principles of transparency, independence, and accountability outlined in the UNCAC.
14 april transparency londa esadze [compatibility mode]Olga Kozhaeva
The document discusses several key aspects of corruption and transparency based on the United Nations Convention Against Corruption (UNCAC). It summarizes the damage caused by corruption globally in terms of costs. It also discusses transparency measures and systems in the public sector that are mandatory and optional requirements under key articles of UNCAC, such as codes of conduct for public officials, public procurement processes, and declarations of conflicts of interest. Civil society participation in preventing and fighting corruption is also highlighted as a mandatory requirement of UNCAC.
Corruption in public sphere and its impact pptsudarsan prasad
This document defines and discusses corruption. It begins by defining corruption as the abuse of power for personal gain. It then discusses different types of corruption, including government/political corruption. It explores causes of corruption like bureaucracy and inequality. The impacts of corruption discussed include lower economic growth and foreign investment, greater inequality, and distortion of public spending. Corruption is described as having hidden costs like increased transaction costs and as reducing economic efficiency. The document also examines corruption from several sources.
- The document discusses Moldova's ongoing efforts to reform its judiciary and anti-corruption mechanisms to establish an independent justice system and gain public trust.
- Key issues identified include the judiciary's perceived political dependence and corruption, low public confidence, and lack of transparency, independence, and integrity among judicial institutions and actors.
- Suggested solutions focus on strengthening judicial independence, accountability, and transparency, as well as improving anti-corruption legislation, investigations, and protections for whistleblowers.
India is a fast developing country in the world where our systems are weak. So there is always a chance of corruption. Who is responsible for this? What action should be taken? What we must keep in the mind is “Nothing is impossible”. If we join our hands together there can be an end to this deep rooted evil. The only thing is it takes time. A little progress everyday leads to a big result one day ……… may be tomorrow. Be GOOD and DO GOOD
The document discusses the challenges facing Mexico's new National Anti-Corruption System established by a 2015 constitutional reform. It notes that corruption costs Mexico up to 9% of GDP annually and has severely damaged trust in public institutions. The main challenges for the system are coordinating different agencies effectively, overcoming entrenched corrupt practices, simplifying processes to reduce opportunities for graft, promoting accountability, and generating reliable metrics to measure anti-corruption progress over time. Success requires substantive citizen participation and punishment of corruption at all levels without exceptions.
This document summarizes research on the perception of corruption in Slovenia since 2000. It examines how changes in unemployment rates, purchasing power, and GDP affect perception of corruption, as measured by Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index. Using econometric analysis and data from 1999-2013, it studies the impact of these economic indicators on the index as the dependent variable. The research finds that perception of corruption in Slovenia fell after 2008 despite little real change in corruption, suggesting economic factors influenced sensitivity to corruption.
Bureaucratic Leadership and Corruption in the Cameroon Public Service The Cas...ijtsrd
Changes in the organizational environment of the Cameroon public sector are increasingly complex and competitive and as the nature, volume, and severity of crimes investigation increases from time to time among street level bureaucrats, efforts to curb this corruption have been tilted towards police leadership Jones 2014 6 . This study sought to investigate the link between bureaucratic leadership and corruption in the police service in Buea Municipality. Specifically, the study examined the link between the transformational, transactional and laissez faire leadership styles on corruption in the police service in Buea Municipality. Using a descriptive survey research design, the study adopted and modified Bass and Avolios 2000 Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire MLQ, Form 5X . The questionnaires were administered to 197 randomly sampled police officials alongside 5 drivers purposively selected in Buea with whom interviews were conducted. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences SPSS version 25 was used and the hypotheses tested using the Spearmans Rho Correlation Coefficient. This study found a very significant, negative and moderate relationship between transformational leadership style and corruption a significant, positive and moderate relationship between transactional leadership style and corruption and a very significant, positive and strong relationship was established between laissez faire leadership style and corruption. It was concluded that subordinate police officers greatly acknowledge the practice of the transactional leadership style in administration than the others. The laissez faire leadership style characterized by much leniency and much discretion greatly results in fraudulent acts and of criminality than the transformational and transactional leadership styles. It was recommended that police bosses should be strict and very observant institute positive competition and offer intellectual stimulation and appeal to their followers, provide relevant, moral, material and financial means as stated in the text. Loh Yai Ngwe Comfort "Bureaucratic Leadership and Corruption in the Cameroon Public Service: The Case of the Police Service in Buea Municipality, SW Region" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-6 , October 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd47569.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/47569/bureaucratic-leadership-and-corruption-in-the-cameroon-public-service-the-case-of-the-police-service-in-buea-municipality-sw-region/loh-yai-ngwe-comfort
Running head: WHITE COLLAR CRIMES 1
WHITE COLLAR CRIMES 6
White Collar Crimes
Tiara Miller
Dr. Clinton Miller
CRJ 105
Spring Quarter
July 8, 2015
White Collar Crimes
Criminal activities range from bloody violent crimes to crimes that do not present any physical threat or injury to the society. White collar crime is the topic in the heart of my research. White collar crimes can be defined as those crimes that result to financial gain through the use of deceit and persuasion. This type of an offense is very brutal and one offender could affect thousands and millions of people unlike violent crimes. Such crimes are committed by people with access to large amounts of money at their disposal and normally those that commit such crimes are people that one may not suspect, the men in suits and that is why people always fall prey to such fraudsters (Friedrichs, 2009). This research will focus on this topic pointing out why it is of interest, it further focuses on why white collar crime is becoming difficult to eradicate as the research outcomes. A reaction to this is on how best we can eradicate white collar crimes.
The research question is why white collar crime is becoming a challenge to control. The hypothesis in the topic is that white collar crimes gaining popularity and there will be such incidences in the future if something is not done. In addressing the topic, the research shall focus on literature on white collar crimes which will contribute to an in depth knowledge about white collar crimes.
There are so many scams of white collar crimes which range from intellectual property theft, insurance theft, identity fraud, business frauds and even frauds involving government officials. Several factors have contributed to the fact that these crimes have always existed despite efforts to track and hunt down the culprits. Finding out why these crimes have always happened despite their devastating effects like costing investors, wiping out savings and leaving families bankrupt as well destroying multibillion companies is the basis of my research.
To begin with, due to the nature of the crimes where blood may not be shed at all, unlike other crimes like murder, or drug abuse, burglary and gangster crimes, the society has ended up treating fraudsters with a lot of respect. To some extent, the society has even blamed victims for their loses arguing that it was their fate. Such perceptions have affected the way the law enforcement has ended up dealing with such cases making such cases fail to get the attention they should deserve yet they affect millions of people unlike other offenses (Braithwaite, 1982) .
On a different perspective, most of the police resources have been priories for violent crimes. Some cases involving white collar jobs are never priories and the rese.
This paper analyzes the relationship between women empowerment, as measured by the proportion of seats held by women in national parliament, and corruption. It uses data from multiple countries over 2001-2010 and controls for various economic and socio-political variables. Preliminary OLS regressions found women empowerment benefits developed countries more than developing countries. However, instrumental variable regressions concluded women empowerment is beneficial for reducing corruption in both developing and developed countries. The paper is organized into sections on literature review, data/model specification, and conclusions.
This document summarizes 10 problems with elections in Kosovo and provides recommendations to address each problem. The first problem discussed is inaccurate and outdated voter lists, which contain hundreds of thousands of people who are deceased, living abroad, or have moved within Kosovo. An audit found that only around 60% of voters on the list in one municipality actually lived at the registered address. The document recommends improving voter list accuracy to prevent electoral fraud.
The document discusses arguments made by Cambodian government officials for needing an NGO law and examines whether these arguments are justified. It finds the claims around addressing crime, terrorism, and transparency concerns are not valid given existing Cambodian laws. The document determines the true motivation is political control of NGOs, as the law would restrict their lawful activities and criticism of the government through restrictive registration and potential criminalization.
The document outlines the process for establishing an independent Lokpal authority in India to investigate and prosecute corruption cases. It proposes a selection committee to appoint 11 members including the chairperson from a shortlist prepared by a search committee comprising retired judges and others from civil society. The Lokpal would have powers to investigate public officials, review citizen charters, and oversee anti-corruption efforts following principles of transparency and accountability from the UN Convention Against Corruption.
PEOPLE AND CORRUPTION: EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA – GLOBAL CORRUPTION BAROMETERVittorio Pasteris
For this new report, part of a regional series from our Global Corruption Barometer, we spoke to nearly 60.000 people across 42 countries in Europe and Central Asia via face to face and telephone surveys about the current state of public sector graft. Our findings show that few people think that their government has done enought to fight corruption in politics. Over a quarter of citizens see politicians, government officials and business executives as highly corrupt, and nearly three in five citizens think that wealthy individuals have too much influence over government decisions.
RESEARCHING THE EXPERIENCES OF SOME COUNTRIES ON ANTI-CORRUPTION EFFORTS AND ...indexPub
Corruption is a long-standing social issue present in all countries, regardless of their political system or level of development. Corruption involves individuals in positions of power and authority exploiting their positions for personal gain. Common types of corruption include political corruption, administrative corruption, and economic corruption. Economic corruption occurs in economic management activities such as production, business, services, public asset procurement, and asset management, carried out by individuals with authority in state economic management or state-owned enterprises. Manifestations
My engagement at the Second International Conference 2020 on “The Integrity, Transparency and Accountability Policies… Theory and Practice” via zoom platform, of the Palestinian Anti-Corruption Commission was conducted on December 9, 2020.
The following presentation is an integral part of this speech:
https://www.slideshare.net/MohammedMasoudCPACFE/the-ten-principles-of-fighting-corruption-institutionalizing-integrity-transparency-and-accountability
Similar to CSCE Article Corruption A Problem That Spans The OSCE (19)
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👉 Check out our full 'Africa Series - Automation Student Developers (EN)' page to register for the full program:
https://bit.ly/Automation_Student_Kickstart
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UiPath Studio CE Installation and Setup
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The Department of Veteran Affairs (VA) invited Taylor Paschal, Knowledge & Information Management Consultant at Enterprise Knowledge, to speak at a Knowledge Management Lunch and Learn hosted on June 12, 2024. All Office of Administration staff were invited to attend and received professional development credit for participating in the voluntary event.
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Contact us: info@mydbops.com
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CSCE Article Corruption A Problem That Spans The OSCE
1. CSCE :: Article :: Corruption: A Problem that Spans the OSCE Region and Dimensions
Hon. Benjamin L. Cardin, Chairman Hon. Alcee L. Hastings, Co-Chairman
Volume: 41 December 30, 2009
Number: 13 www.csce.gov
CORRUPTION: A PROBLEM THAT SPANS THE OSCE
REGION AND DIMENSIONS
Report by Troy C. Ware, Policy Advisor (CBCF Fellow)
With contributions from Shelly Han, Policy Advisor, and Helsinki Commission staff
In July 2008, Members of the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe (U.S. Helsinki Commission) and other Members of Congress traveled to Astana, Kazakhstan for
the seventeenth Annual Session of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Parliamentary Assembly (OSCE PA). The session’s theme was “Transparency in the
OSCE.” At the outset of the trip, Congressman Alcee L. Hastings, then Chairman of the Commission, remarked that while he supported the candidacy of Kazakhstan for the
Chairmanship of the OSCE it was “imperative that the government undertake concrete reforms on human rights and democratization.” 1 A number of nongovernmental organizations
have cited the high level of corruption in Kazakhstan as one impediment to democratic reform.
Kazakhstan is by no means alone. Recognizing the existence of corruption throughout the OSCE region, Helsinki Commissioners have consistently addressed the problem by raising
it through hearings, legislation, and the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly. Hearings in 2006 identified corruption as a hindrance to fulfilling human rights commitments and economic
development in South-Central Europe (Helsinki Commission June 2006 Hearing). The role of corruption as a force in restricting freedom of the media in Azerbaijan was highlighted
in a 2007 hearing (Helsinki Commission August 2007 Hearing). This report will draw attention to recent initiatives undertaken by the Helsinki Commission that have shown
corruption undermines human rights, fundamental freedoms and overall security.
Wherever found, corruption not only stunts democratic reform, but also weakens the security and economic condition of states. Although corruption manifests itself in various ways,
this report can practically only discuss a few. For example, prominent manifestations within the three OSCE dimensions discussed include parliamentary corruption, diversion of
funding from infrastructure and human trafficking. Understandably, countries will not solve a widespread and pervasive problem with a singular approach. Additionally, this report
will discuss the importance of capacity building initiatives that focus on prevention as a critical element in an anti-corruption campaign. This is an element that must be included
alongside the high profile anti-corruption prosecutions governments may be inclined to conduct.
A number of international governmental and nongovernmental organizations produce regular surveys or reports on corruption. The 2008 survey of corruption by Transparency
International (TI), an international nongovernmental organization that promotes anti-corruption policies worldwide, ranked twelve OSCE participating States in the bottom half of 180
countries surveyed. The least corrupt countries were assigned the highest ranking. Kazakhstan ranked 145, which was still ahead of the OSCE countries of Azerbaijan, Belarus,
Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.2 Experts point out that since TI uses a survey, its findings may lag behind reality, reflecting only perceptions based on
increased reporting resulting from government enforcement of anti-corruption laws. Others point out that surveys place too much emphasis on bribery although forms of corruption
vary greatly from country to country. 3 Nonetheless, other barometers, such as evaluations of the Group of States Against Corruption (GRECO), which measures anti-corruption
policy reform and capacity through a multi-year expert evaluation process, suggest that some OSCE participating States are only partially implementing standards set by the group.
Corruption, which was explicitly highlighted in the Parliamentary Assembly’s concluding document, the Astana Declaration,4 is a multidimensional blight that undermines human,
economic, environmental, and security dimension policy goals throughout the OSCE region.
Human Dimension
Genuine democracy and rule of law cannot exist if the passage, implementation and judgment of the law favor the highest bidder. Moreover, the rule of law requires more than
elections and a neutral and impartial judiciary; it requires that individuals receive the unbiased and dispassionate benefits of the law from all public servants. Larry Diamond wrote in
the March/April 2008 issue of Foreign Affairs that, “[f]or a country to be a democracy, it must have more than regular, multiparty elections under a civilian constitutional order.” He
points out that when regular elections are accompanied by corrupt police and bureaucracies, many people are “citizens only in name” and in their disillusionment gravitate toward
authoritarian leadership. 5
Observers frequently focus attention on removing graft from courts and elections. However, corruption in other spheres of society, such as among lower level public servants,
contributes to the notion of corruption as an acceptable behavior often having the most immediate adverse effect on the average person. Government employees of modest rank are
capable of denying basic fundamental freedoms such as equal protection of the law, enjoyment of property, the right of minorities to exercise human rights and freedoms, and the
independence of legal practitioners.6 Those who advocate for the victims of corruption, even within the judicial systems, often cannot do so without repercussions. Furthermore, when
parliaments become sanctuaries for persons engaged in corruption the protection conveys a message that corruption will be tolerated elsewhere in society.
Parliamentary Immunity
In a 2006 brief, the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) defined parliamentary immunity as “a system in which members of a legislature are granted partial
immunity from prosecution from civil and/or criminal offenses.” USAID further states that parliamentary immunity’s purpose is to “reduce the possibility of pressuring a member to
change his or her official behavior [with] the threat of prosecution.” 7 Unrestrained parliamentary immunity impedes the investigation and prosecution of corruption, makes
parliamentary acquiescence and perpetuation of corruption possible, fosters a culture of corruption among other government officials and security officials, and disproportionately
affects minority populations. According to Development Alternative Incorporated (DAI), a development consulting company, developing democracies tend to favor the broadest
scope of immunity which allows corrupt activities almost with impunity. Although rare, a parliament may vote to lift immunity from one of its members, as was the case in Armenia
in 2006 when immunity was removed for a parliament member who allegedly failed to pay taxes and instigated a gun fight.8
http://csce.gov/...Record_id=469&Region_id=0&Issue_id=0&ContentType=G&ContentRecordType=G&CFID=41320662&CFTOKEN=80869714&IsPrint=1[9/19/2010 12:53:32 PM]
2. CSCE :: Article :: Corruption: A Problem that Spans the OSCE Region and Dimensions
While parliamentary immunity can protect the independence of legislatures, frequently it is a shield for illicit activity. A 2007 USAID report, Corruption Assessment: Ukraine, found
that “legislators have amassed fortunes through business interests and other means . . . with little transparency or accountability.” Moreover the report found that broad immunity
created a powerful incentive to seek public office and introduced “illicit funding” into the political process.9 Even if prosecuting agencies investigate the activities of legislators, the
individuals are rarely prosecuted because the parliament will not lift immunity. ArmeniaNow, an NGO publication, found that in the first fifteen years of Armenian independence,
immunity was waived in only five instances.10 Although democratic attributes exist ostensibly in most OSCE participating States, features such as elections may ironically serve to
conceal the self-serving rule that results from corruption.
Parliamentary corruption can lead to a cycle in which the parliament cannot effectively exercise an oversight role because its members have a personal stake in the illicit activity. The
Bulgarian parliament’s resistance to closing duty-free vendors along its borders is an example of the controlling power of corruption according to Bulgaria’s Center for the Study of
Democracy. Since 1992, duty-free fuel, cigarette and alcohol vendors have operated at Bulgaria’s borders.11 These operations, allegedly tied to organized crime, deprived the state of
significant tax revenue and could undercut prices of competitors subject to duties. As a condition of joining the European Union, Bulgaria was required to raise excise duties up to a
standard set by the EU. Furthermore, in 2003 the Minister of Finance signed a letter of intent with the International Monetary Fund to close all duty-free shops. 12 In response to the
increased tax, the illegal trade in duty-free goods increased. In 2004, the Finance Minister extended a license for the shops to continue until 2009 despite international commitments
to the contrary. In 2006, the Bulgarian Parliament, instead of closing the shops, passed a law that allowed the shops to shift to the non-EU borders with Serbia, Turkey, and
Macedonia. 13 Finally, in early 2008, the Parliament passed a law to close the duty-free shops. 14 Previously, the Center for the Study of Democracy asserted that “national level
illegal proceeds from duty-free trade [had] been deployed to capture the state” and the vendors had used “political corruption to secure perpetual monopoly business positions.”15
Helsinki Commission Chairman Senator Benjamin L. Cardin has raised the issue of unbridled parliamentary immunity on many occasions. In a hearing in June 2006 on Human
Rights, Democracy, and Integration in South Central Europe, Senator Cardin made a commitment to push the Parliamentary Assembly to adopt initiatives calling for changes to
parliamentary immunity laws. At the July 2006 OSCE Annual Session Cardin authored a resolution on parliamentary immunity, which passed, urging the OSCE participating States
to “[p]rovide clear, balanced, transparent, and enforceable procedures for waiving parliamentary immunities in cases of criminal acts or ethical violations.” In 2007, Cardin raised the
issue of how parliamentary immunity can serve as cover for corruption in a Helsinki Commission hearing on Energy and Democracy (Helsinki Commission July 2007 Hearing). He
has also urged nations such as Ukraine to consider changing their parliamentary immunity laws.16
Petty Corruption
Like water flowing downhill, if corruption exists at the higher levels of government and society, it will permeate the performance of public servants at every level. During a 2008
Helsinki Commission hearing on Kazakhstan’s accession to the OSCE Chairmanship, Martha Olcott of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace identified corruption that is
“rampant in daily life” in Kazakhstan and present at all levels of government (Helsinki Commission July 2008 Hearing).17 Endemic corruption within the government bureaucracy
has an immediate effect in terms of confidence in government and cost to the people of any country. A 2009 report stated that among European Union countries, 17 percent of Greeks
and thirty percent of Lithuanians had admitted to paying a bribe to obtain service from a public administrative body.18 In many countries, widespread corruption has led to a level of
acceptance. GfK Research, an international marketing and research company, conducted a study in 2006 which reported that 61 percent of Romanians, 58 percent of Bosnians, and 56
percent of Czechs regarded bribes as a normal part of life.19
Frequently, national health care service is provided only to those willing to pay extra to medical personnel. In Romania, $225 paid by Alina Lungu to her doctor was apparently not
enough to prevent him from leaving the pregnant women alone for an hour during labor and her baby from being born blind, deaf, and with brain damage due to the umbilical cord
being wrapped around him.20 Global Integrity, a nonprofit organization that monitors governance and corruption worldwide, provides an account of a Latvian girl experiencing
stomach pain who was allowed to sit in a hospital for several days without pain-killers or treatment until her father paid money to the doctor. 21 A survey in Bulgaria showed that the
amount of Bulgarians identifying the health sector as the most corrupt in comparison to others such as customs, police, and judiciary increased from 20 percent in 2002 to 39 percent
in 2007.22 According to 2007 reporting, Bulgarians experienced corruption in almost every type of health service including referrals, surgery, birth delivery, and emergency care. The
problem is very widespread in hospital care.23 Some conclude that health workers take extra payments from patients for services already covered by health insurance and
administrators overstate costs in hospital care due to insufficient hospital financing and financing regulations that encourage overspending.24
Officials regularly abuse their authority in the enforcement of traffic laws and in the area of travel. Vladimir Voinovich, a prominent Russian author, points out that to become a
public official or policeman you must pay off your boss and that payment is financed through taking bribes. 25 Even when officials wish to behave honestly, providing “a stream of
payments to patrons” becomes a matter of survival.26 In Uzbekistan, permission from the local government is required to move to another city and according to the 2008 Department
of State Report on Human Rights Practices in Uzbekistan, local authorities commonly issue the required documents only in return for a bribe. The report also states that police
“arbitrarily detained people to extort bribes” on a regular basis.27 The 2008 report on Human Rights Practices in Azerbaijan noted that police officers regularly impose arbitrary fines
on citizens and seek protection money.28 The report on Poland recognized that corruption among police was widespread.29 In many countries, drinking and driving has become
commonplace because police can be bribed to look the other way.
The Effect of Corruption on Minorities
More often than not, police corruption disproportionally affects minority groups. In a Helsinki Commission briefing in 2004, Leonid Raihman of the Open Society Institute described
the plight of Roma in Russia who are trapped in a cycle of poverty exacerbated by bribes extracted by the Russian police (Helsinki Commission September 2004 Briefing). Often
detained on charges of not possessing proper personal documents or a false accusation of committing a crime, Roma will hire an attorney whose sole function is to negotiate the price
of the bribe for their release. According to Raihman, the situation is analogous to that of a hostage whose freedom is being negotiated. This can sometimes lead to families selling
their car, life savings or home. He noted that the worst case scenario results in homelessness. 30
Regulations that require people to register their official place of residence or obtain an internal passport provide fertile soil for minority exploitation through corruption. According to
the 2007 Department of State Report on Human Rights Practices in Russia, “darker skinned persons from the Caucasus or Central Asia” were regularly singled out to see if they
possessed an internal passport and had registered with local authorities.31 Typically, if allowed to register, a person must pay a bribe.
Retaliation against Lawyers
The legal profession, in addition to an independent judiciary, is an essential part of a functioning democracy. Still, government officials have used retaliatory criminal prosecution
and coercive measures to discourage lawyers from representing clients in cases that expose corruption. An example from Russia is that of the attorneys representing Hermitage
Capital and its executives.32 Lawyers from four independent law firms representing Hermitage have apparently been subject to unlawful office searches, illegal summonses
demanding that they testify as witnesses in the same cases where they are representing clients, and that they falsify testimony against clients. Lawyers who failed to comply were
subjected to criminal charges. Several of the lawyers have fled Russia. 33 Sergei Magnitsky, a Russian lawyer with Firestone Duncan, a firm which represented Hermitage Capital,
was arrested in November 2008 in connection with his investigation of government corruption. Magnitsky died in custody this November in a case that highlighted the difficulty of
standing up to corruption and poor Russian prison conditions (Helsinki Commission November 2009 Press Release). As the dismissal of the head of the tax agency which Magnitsky
34
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was investigating suggests, the death is still reverberating at the Kremlin. However, it remains to be seen if long-term actions to protect lawyers exposing corruption will be
undertaken. Persons familiar with the Russian legal system say little importance is placed on the attorney-client privilege.35 Allegedly, companies like the 2X2 television network,
charged with committing crimes against the state by broadcasting content including the Simpsons and South Park encounter difficulties finding legal representation.36
Government attacks on lawyers and their clients who expose corruption represent a serious threat to the rule of law. When lawyers are intimidated and afraid to represent clients,
citizens are defenseless against corruption. A primary reason for this is that courts present many complexities that non-attorneys may find difficult to overcome. The U. S. Supreme
Court in Powell v. Alabama explained the challenge faced by a non-attorney representing himself in saying that the non-attorney often cannot recognize if the “indictment is good or
bad,” is “unfamiliar with the rules of evidence,” and “lacks the skill and knowledge adequately to prepare his defense.”37 It is imperative that lawyers are protected from government
interference and political persecution so that they may effectively represent and protect their clients’ interests.
The Economic Dimension
Studies suggest corruption retards economic development and generally results in a lower standard of living. The OSCE Best-Practice Guide for a Positive Business and Investment
Climate, asserts that “corruption is clearly a major indicator of the health of a business and investment climate” and that the “wealthiest OSCE countries are generally the countries
judged to be least corrupt by international observers.” 38 Corruption adversely affects economic growth by slowing infrastructure development, increasing costs for businesses, and
preventing competitive business outcomes. Moreover, the responsibility of wealthier OSCE participating States cannot be disregarded. Multinational corporations from developed
nations, largely through acquiescent behavior, may promote corruption in countries where it is most prevalent.
Cost to Business and the Overall Economy
Bribes pose a significant cost for businesses in many OSCE countries. The Best Practice Guide notes that in former Soviet countries a higher percentage of business revenue is
dedicated to paying bribes than in Western Europe.39 The guide reported that in some countries businesses pay up to four percent of their total costs in bribes. 40 Whether through
customs, licenses, or permits, the opportunity for graft exists where there are excessive bureaucracies or regulations. The CATO Institute’s report, The Rise of Populist Parties in
Central Europe, identifies building permits as “an especially attractive source of extra income.”41 According to a World Bank report, building a general storage two-story warehouse
in Moscow requires 54 procedures and 704 days.42 This interaction with numerous agencies and government officials increases the opportunity for bribes.
Bribes ultimately distort market outcomes because the most competitive companies are not rewarded for their efforts and therefore some companies choose not to compete at all. For
example, government contracting is one area where bribes undermine competition and the public good. J. Welby Leaman, an advisor to the U.S. Treasury Department wrote in the
Pacific McGeorge Global Business and Development Law Journal, “public officials’ solicitation of their ‘cut’ impoverish government programs.”43 The CATO Institute report cites
the case of Dell Corporation losing a computer contract with the Czech parliament. Dell’s bid reportedly met all technical specifications, was the lowest cost and offered to pay a
penalty fee for late delivery. Nonetheless, the contract was awarded to a Czech firm that asked for twice as much as Dell.44 Leaman also notes that if a firm cannot pass on a bribe’s
cost to the customer, that firm may choose not to compete, which robs the economy of “additional investment and competition.”45
Diversion of Wealth from Natural Resources
While a number of OSCE participating States are fortunate to possess large reserves of oil and natural gas, in many instances the wealth produced by these resources does not benefit
the citizens of the states, but only the few who control the resources. The Helsinki Commission held hearings in 2007 spotlighting this misappropriation and betrayal of public trust.
Simon Taylor of Global Witness identified the problem’s crux in many countries noting that in Turkmenistan, a country of approximately five million people, “[60] percent of [the]
population lives below the poverty line despite two billion dollars in annual gas revenues.”46 Remarkably, in Kazakhstan, the economy grew only 0.3 percent between 2000 and 2005
despite its exportation of 1.2 million barrels of oil a day. Taylor also framed the diversion of profits for personal use as a matter of energy security resulting in unreliable supply and
higher prices (Helsinki Commission July 2007 Hearing).47
Following the hearings, then-Commission Chairman Alcee L. Hastings introduced an amendment to the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (H.R. 3221), which became
law, making it U.S. policy to support the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) and for the U.S. Secretary of State to report annually on U.S. efforts to promote
transparency in extractive industry payments.48 The 2009 report notes United States contributions to the EITI Multi-Donor Trust Fund, senior level State Department encouragement
to developing economies to join EITI, embassy officer engagement with government officials in developing economies, and U.S. Treasury Department collaboration with
development banks.49 In 2008, then-Co-Chairman Cardin sponsored an amendment to the Statement of the July 2008 OSCE Parliamentary Assembly Annual Session that among
other things, “encourages governments from oil and gas producing countries to introduce regulations that require all companies operating in their territories to make public
information relevant to revenue transparency.” The amendment was approved by the OSCE parliamentarians and adopted as part of the Astana Declaration.50 If the economies of oil
and natural gas rich OSCE participating States are to reach their full potential, transparency and accountability must exist between extractive industries and national government.
Infrastructure
In addition to the price of bribes, a business is disadvantaged to compete in a market with less infrastructure due to corruption. Ukraine exemplifies an OSCE country that stands to
gain from economic growth if road projects are funded, efficient and transparent. The World Economic Forum’s Global Competitiveness report on Ukraine notes that the poor state of
Ukraine’s roads is hindered by road construction processes that provide many opportunities for corruption.51 This situation impedes not only new road construction, but also repair of
existing roads and bridge construction. The State Motor Road Service of Ukraine reported that Ukraine loses the equivalent of one billion U.S. dollars annually due to poor road
conditions.52 While new road projects are underway, including a new ring road around Kyiv, current legislation does not allow for a competitive private bidding process, without
which the road system will continue to rank 120th out of 134 countries ranked by the World Economic Forum in quality of roads. Ukraine is not alone, Moldova ranked 133rd out of
134 countries.53 Not surprisingly, business leaders in Moldova ranked corruption as the second most problematic business obstacle in that country behind access to financing. 54
Fraudulent Appropriation of Private Property
A pattern of takeovers of private companies and the government-directed persecution of their executives and lawyers is reportedly becoming the norm in Russia. A prime example
was the illegal takeover of companies belonging to the Hermitage Fund, a joint venture between Hermitage Capital Management and HSBC Bank. The takeover was allegedly
achieved through brazen abuses of power by law enforcement authorities and interference by government officials with Russian courts. William Browder, the founder of Hermitage,
and Jamison Firestone, his attorney, recently met with Helsinki Commission staff to discuss their case. Browder’s visa was revoked in 2005 for what he believes was his work in
exposing corruption in state controlled companies with close links to the Kremlin. He then appealed to high-level Russian officials, Browder said, including an impromptu
conversation with then-First Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev at the Davos annual meeting of the World Economic Forum. After these appeals, Browder alleges he received
a phone call from a senior law enforcement officer apparently offering to restore his visa for a price. When this offer was rejected, the Russian Interior Ministry raided the offices of
Hermitage and Firestone (see Human Dimension – Retaliation against Lawyers). Corporate seals, charters, and certificates of registration for the Hermitage Fund companies as well
as documents belonging to numerous other clients were confiscated during the raids.
Following the raids, the corporate documents taken by the Interior Ministry in the office raids were used to wipe HSBC off the share registry of the Hermitage Fund companies. The
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same documents were used to forge back dated contracts and to file lawsuits against the Hermitage companies alleging significant liabilities. Although Hermitage and HSBC were
not aware of these cases, various judges awarded $973 million in damages in legal proceedings that were concluded in a matter of minutes. These same fraudulent liabilities were
used by the perpetrators to seek a retroactive tax refund of $230 million in profit taxes that Hermitage had paid to the Russian government in 2006. At the time of the refund, HSBC
and Hermitage had already filed six criminal complaints with the heads of Russian law enforcement authorities documenting the involvement of senior government officials in this
fraud. Despite these detailed complaints, the fraudulent tax refund was promptly approved and paid to the perpetrators in a matter of days in sharp contrast to the lengthy process
normally associated with such a refund.
In response to the complaints Russian authorities created an investigative committee staffed by the very officials implicated in the complaints. Moreover, a number of spurious
retaliatory criminal cases have been lodged against Browder, his colleagues, and four lawyers from four separate law firms. In the meantime, Mr. Browder and a senior colleague,
Ivan Cherkasov, have been placed on the Russian Federal Search List and face the possibility of becoming the subjects of an Interpol Red Notice. Because of the coordinated nature
of actions taken by state officials in this scheme together with the official reaction to the Hermitage complaints, Browder suspects high level political interference. 55 A country where
property can be seized without due process is one where investment is likely to be depressed for fear of arbitrary loss.
Regulation of Multinationals
While the OSCE participating States of Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union often receive the most criticism for failing to curtail corruption, West European
countries also face problems with corruption. One notable case is the recent investigation of defense contractor BAE Systems, a British firm, for alleged bribery in arms sales to
Saudi Arabia and separate probes into wrongdoing in arms transactions with Chile, the Czech Republic, Romania, South Africa, Tanzania, and Qatar. The British newspaper, The
Telegraph, reported that an alleged six billion pounds (approximately nine billion dollars) were paid to various Saudi officials. Citing a threat to cease intelligence sharing by Saudi
Arabia, the British government terminated the investigation.56
In response to the termination of the investigation, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), issued a report criticizing the British government for not
considering alternatives to discontinuing the investigation. Moreover, the report criticized the U.K. for not enacting legislation to meet the country’s obligation under the OECD Anti-
Bribery Convention.57 While other companies are under investigation, and some like Siemens A.G. have paid record-setting fines, the case of BAE systems stands out because of the
record of the U.K. in holding its multinationals to account for overseas bribery. Writing in Foreign Affairs in 2006, Ben Heinemann and Fritz Heimann argue that an area of
“emphasis must be the implementation of enforcement and prevention measures by developed nations, where bribery of foreign officials can be more readily exposed and
prosecuted.” Unfortunately, their article points out that as of 2006, only France, South Korea, Spain and the United States have brought more than one prosecution.58 In July 2008,
the House of Lords upheld the decision of the British government to end the investigation of BAE systems and the government of Prime Minister Gordon Brown has taken no steps to
reopen the case.
It should be noted that under the pioneer Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA), which predates the OECD Convention, the United States has steadily increased investigations and
prosecutions.59 The FCPA has three major provisions. Its best known provision prohibits U.S. Corporations and individuals from using an instrumentality of interstate commerce to
bribe a foreign official, political party or candidate.60 The two other primary provisions require corporations to maintain records which accurately reflect transactions and to maintain
“internal accounting controls” to provide assurance transactions 61 are executed with management’s authorization. 62
Observers note that U.S. courts are limiting exceptions to the law and extending its scope while the Department of Justice is joining FCPA charges with charges under other federal
laws.63 Reportedly, as of May 2009, the Department of Justice was pursuing 120 investigations of possible FCPA violations. 64 Recent prosecutions have resulted in favorable court
decisions for authorities. In 2004, in a broad interpretation of the law’s application, a Fifth Circuit Court ruling rejected the claim that Congress meant to limit the FCPA only to
bribes relating to contracts. The court held that the legislative history implies that the law applies broadly even to payments that indirectly assist in obtaining or retaining business. 65
A recent lower court narrowed an exception for lawful payments under the laws of the foreign country. In a situation where a person was relieved of liability after reporting the bribe,
the court wrote there “is no immunity from prosecution under the FCPA . . . because a provision in the foreign law “relieves” a person of criminal responsibility.”66 The aggressive
enforcement environment and the government’s willingness to consider company-implemented compliance programs in deciding whether to prosecute has a positive consequence of
incentivizing other companies to establish such programs.
What remains to be seen is to what extent nations with mature economies will hold multinational corporations to account during times of economic hardship. Although only a
handful of countries have brought prosecutions, it should be noted that many investigations result in settlements which require fines. In the case of Siemens A.G., the company settled
to pay more than $1.6 billion in fines to both German and U.S. authorities. 67 If mature economies do not hold multinational corporations accountable, they are in effect promoting
corrupt behavior and being duplicitous in criticizing corrupt practices elsewhere.
The Security Dimension
One account from the book The Natashas: Inside the New Global Sex Trade is the story of Stefa from Moldova who traveled to Romania looking for work. Stefa met a man who
introduced himself as an agent marketing positions as maids. Regrettably, nothing could have been further from the truth. This man placed Stefa and other girls in a crowded
apartment where they were paraded naked and auctioned like cattle. Natasha was eventually sold and smuggled to Italy where she was sexually assaulted and forced to work as a
prostitute. 68 Stefa’s story is a common one that is usually facilitated by corruption. Heinemann and Heimann write “one ignores corrupt states that are failed or failing at one’s peril,
because they are incubators of terrorism, the narcotics trade, money laundering, human trafficking, and other global crime.”69 In addition to these illicit activities, many recent reports
tie corruption to the proliferation of small arms trafficking and sales.
Terrorism
Many observers believe that terrorists appear to have taken advantage of corruption to conduct attacks. It was reported that one of two female suicide bombers from Chechnya who
brought down two Russian passenger aircrafts in August 2004 paid a $34 bribe to board a plane for which she did not have a ticket. Shortly after, flight 1047 and another flight
boarded by the second suicide bomber, flight 1303, blew up in mid-air after departing Moscow’s Domodedovo International Airport. Prominent Russian author Vladimir Voinovich,
wrote on the Pakistani online newspaper The Daily Times that the terrorists who took control of the Dubrovka theatre in Moscow in 2002 were reportedly stopped fifty times by
authorities while traveling to Moscow, but solely for the purpose of soliciting a bribe.70 An article in Crime & Justice International alleged that officials identified 100 Ministry of
Internal Affairs (MVD) police personnel who were complicit in the travel of the Chechen fighters to Moscow. 71
Corruption facilitates terrorism by decreasing border security and increasing money laundering. Kimberley Thachuk writes in the SAIS Review that “[c]riminal and terrorist groups
depend on unimpeded cross-border movements, and so border guards, customs officers, and immigration personnel are notable targets of corruption.” 72 In the U.S. Department of
State’s Country Reports on Terrorism 2008, corruption among border guards was identified as a risk in the OSCE region, particularly Albania, Armenia, Kosovo, and Moldova. 73 The
targeting of border guards by criminal elements extends even to the United States. Recently, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security reestablished its internal affairs unit amid
increased corruption investigations. It had been disbanded in 2003. In the spring of 2008, there were 200 open cases against U.S. law enforcement officers on the border. This
corruption has involved smuggling of guns, drugs, and people.74 Corruption ultimately undermines the effectiveness of security forces to fight terrorism. Kimberly Thachuk notes that
“such corruption spreads, as does an attendant loss of morale and respect for the command structure.” 75 This deterioration in professionalism and morale could not come at a worse
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time. A July 2008 article in Forbes magazine on European crime claimed a 24 percent increase in terrorist attacks from 2006 to 2007.76
Arms Sales
As evidenced by prior testimony before the Helsinki Commission, corruption is a factor in many illicit arms sales worldwide. In June 2003, Roman Kupchinsky, then a Senior
Analyst with Crime and Corruption Watch of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, pointed out that sales from former Soviet states frequently involve a marriage of security forces and
organized crime (Helsinki Commission June 2003 Hearing).77 This means individuals, not the government, are making the sales. Moreover, although OSCE participating States have
agreed through the Forum for Security Cooperation to not issue export licenses for arms without an authenticated end-user certificate, these certificates are often forged. Accordingly,
the buyer may not be the actual recipient of the weapons.
United Nations arms embargoes notwithstanding, individuals and companies from numerous countries are involved in the manufacture, transit, diversion from legal use, and
fraudulent company registration for illicit arms trafficking to countries or non-state actor groups under embargo according to Control Arms, a group of concerned non-governmental
organizations. The list of countries included Albania, Belgium, Bulgaria, Moldova, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Ukraine and the United Kingdom. 78 These illegal sales, which fuel
conflict in the developing world, are estimated to be worth one billion dollars a year according to Rachel Stohl, an analyst at the World Security Institute’s Center for Defense
Information. She noted in an article published for the SAIS Review that “[a]rms brokers are able to operate because they can circumvent national arms controls and international
embargoes” frequently through corrupt practices.79
Human Trafficking
The United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons defines trafficking as “the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons,
by [involuntary means] for the purpose of exploitation.”80 Victor Malarek, author of The Natashas: Inside the New Global Sex Trade, makes clear that corruption is the lynchpin of
the trade in women and girls. Even when countries enact laws and policies to prevent trafficking, corruption threatens to render them ineffective. Mohamed Mattar writes in the
Loyola and Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review that there are indications that exit requirements such as exit visas for trafficked victims are being obtained
through bribes. 81 Furthermore, Malarek asserts that besides former Soviet states corruption also exists in destination countries in which officials are complicit in allowing the illicit
trade. Specifically, the book draws attention to corruption among border guards and police in Greece that enables the trafficking.82
Human trafficking for sexual and labor exploitation has wreaked havoc on Moldova. Moldova is an extremely susceptible source country because of poverty and associated
corruption. The breadth of the problem is detailed in an article by William Finnegan in the May 2008 issue of The New Yorker. In large measure due to its economic plight, over 25
percent of Moldova’s workforce has migrated out of the country. A third of all children are missing a parent due to migration. Much of the population views emigration as the only
hope to living a better life. Such conditions create a setting abundant with potential victims for traffickers. Finnegan asserts local authorities are generally not helpful unless you are a
trafficker. He quotes a local prosecutor as saying “[t]he most powerful pimps in Moldova are all former cops.” 83
In 2008 the U.S. Department of State initially ranked Moldova as a Tier 3 country meaning that it had failed to comply with minimum standards and failed to make significant efforts
to eliminate human trafficking as outlined in U.S. law. 84 In October 2008, the President upgraded Moldova to Tier 2 status because it had reopened investigations into official
complicity and drafted a code of conduct for public officials. 85 Although less reporting occurs on the breakaway republic of Transnistria than Moldova, the situation there appears
alarming. Finnegan discovered that law enforcement officials are uncooperative with NGOs working on behalf of trafficked victims and corruption deters relatives of trafficked
victims from contacting the police. 86
Finnegan’s article makes clear that destination countries share a significant responsibility for human trafficking.87 Whether through deliberate corruption or turning a blind eye,
doctors, police, border guards, accountants, lawyers, travel agencies or hotels in destination countries enable trafficking and exacerbate the problem in source countries. Every
Western European country and the United States and Canada are destinations for trafficked persons. In its report, the Department of State claims that more than half of commercial
sex workers in France were trafficking victims. The Department also recognizes Turkey as a significant destination country. Trafficked women and girls from Azerbaijan, Belarus,
Bulgaria, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Romania, Russia, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan find themselves in Turkey. The report notes that many police in Turkey are
complicit in trafficking. The United States is not immune, the recent increase in corruption investigations against Customs and Border Protection officers are in part for taking bribes
to allow the passage of human beings. 88
OSCE Field Missions and Prevention Efforts89
While it is necessary to sound the alarm and call attention to corruption’s presence across the three OSCE dimensions, it is equally necessary to assess OSCE and non-OSCE efforts
in the region to counter corruption. The last two decades have seen a consensus at the international level concerning norms and necessary anti-corruption action at the national level.
This consensus is manifested in the United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC). Despite international achievements, some would say that national level progress in
decreasing corruption is at a standstill or being rolled back in some OSCE participating States. Broadly conceived, implementation is stalling. To understand why it is helpful to
think of implementation occurring in two phases. The first phase consists of the passing of national laws implementing international commitments. The second phase, which is just as
important, consists of institutions with independent and trained persons complying with and impartially executing the anti-corruption laws. This second phase has proven most
problematic for many countries because the actions required to build capacity require a long term commitment and the dedication of resources and do not often attract media attention.
Additionally, the notion that the nature of corruption differs from country to country should be embraced. 90
The Office of the Coordinator of OSCE Economic and Environmental Activities (OCEEA) leads OSCE efforts in combating corruption. Through field missions, handbooks, and
coordination with other international organizations, the OCEEA has promoted implementation of international anti-corruption agreements, efficient management of public resources
and implementation of the Arhus Convention allowing greater access to information on the environment. Work to implement the UNCAC has paid off, with only thirteen OSCE
participating States not having ratified the convention; and of those thirteen, only six have not yet signed the convention. However, this underscores the reality that ratification does
not equate to true implementation of and compliance with the convention. This report cites corrupt activities within many OSCE participating States that have ratified the convention.
With respect to this corrupt activity, OSCE field missions can be effective institutions for promoting substantive compliance with the convention.
An official with one international organization stressed that the hard part in decreasing corruption is the taking of preventative measures. OSCE field missions routinely undertake
and promote some of these measures which include identifying and resolving conflicts, training government officials, and engaging civil society. OSCE field missions commonly
provide anti-corruption assistance to local governments. However, in a manner befitting the nature of the problem, field missions conduct distinctive work appropriate to their
assigned country. For example, in Georgia the mission assisted, before being closed down this year, in establishing an Inspector General’s office to review the finances of
government ministries. Advocacy and legal advice centers are operated by the mission in Azerbaijan to provide legal advice on complaints and to educate the public and government
authorities. In 2008, the centers in Azerbaijan provided assistance in response to 2,500 complaints. Additionally, mobile workshops reached 2,360 people with awareness campaigns
and frequently provided on the spot legal advice. 91 Similar centers provide aid in Armenia. The use of existing advocacy and legal advice centers is not high among people in
Kazakhstan. This lower use may exemplify the benefit of an approach that carefully addresses the needs of people and nature of corruption in a given country.
Centers that target audiences other than the general public have been successful. In Tajikistan, Resource Centers for Small and Agribusiness and Centers for Promotion of Cross-
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Border Trade reportedly draw many patrons. It has also been reported that due to these centers, businesspeople have resisted illegal government inspections. Good Governance
Centers in Georgia that assisted municipalities received high marks, and in addition to the government, were sometimes used by the general public. Prevention efforts directed at
government employees at all levels are essential. Second round GRECO evaluation reports released in 2007 and 2008 identified a number of countries - some with field missions,
such as Azerbaijan, and others without, such as Greece - that had not taken appropriate steps to protect government employees who are whistleblowers. In the case of Greece,
sufficient protections for career advancement were not in place and employees typically could only report corruption to their immediate supervisor.92 Because the follow-on
Addendum to the Compliance Reports are not public, it is unclear if adequate protections and measures to assist reporting has improved. Education coupled with preventative
programs that build upon training are initiatives that field missions are well suited to provide through the various types of centers.
The OSCE mission in Ukraine has initiated a public-private dialogue that addresses accountability in local government. Fostering a dialogue between government, private sector, and
civil society is important because in many countries these groups mistrust one another. In Georgia, the OSCE is supporting the efforts of Transparency International to ensure that a
broad range of voices from civil society and the business community are heard by the Task Force on Fighting Corruption as it develops a new Anti-Corruption Strategy and Action
Plan. These initiatives recognize that not only will implementation vary from country to country, but that implementation measures will differ at different levels of government and
require input from all facets of society. Field missions are conducting varying efforts to promote a similar dialogue between government and civil society in Tajikistan, Kazakhstan,
and Azerbaijan.
Recent meetings between Helsinki Commission staff and members of civil society and officials from international organizations suggest it may be misguided to keep a primary focus
on national level authorities prosecuting alleged corrupt acts. One NGO member recently remarked that there are enough national level laws and that what is needed is impartial
enforcement and an unbiased judiciary. In Curbing Corruption: Toward a Model for Building National Integrity, Daniel Kaufmann referred to this as the “Tackling-the-symptom
bias” which “instead of identifying the root cause, involves thinking that the solution is to catch and jail a target number of criminals . . . or to pass another anti-corruption law in the
country.”93 Kaufmann describes what may be the best case scenario. The worst case scenario expressed by both members of the NGO community and international organizations to
the Helsinki Commission is that prosecution is used to target political opposition and journalists.
Amplifying the problem are enforcement agencies that may lack the capacity to conduct an even-handed investigation. An official from Bosnia-Herzegovnia recently said that the
country “has adopted three strategic plans and ratified numerous international conventions on corruption,” but there is no implementation and the commitments go unmet.94 Public
GRECO compliance reports from its second round of evaluations conclude that Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Romania have only partially implemented measures to fully train
investigators, prosecutors and judges to handle corruption cases. 95 Again, because the follow-on addendum to the reports are not public it is unclear if training has improved in these
participating States. In 2005, the President of Kyrgyzstan signed a decree establishing the National Agency of the Kyrgyz Republic for Preventing Corruption. Reportedly, in that first
year, the agency opted not to put into practice a number of recommendations of an outside expert sponsored by an international organization to provide support. Later, the agency
disagreed with international organizations on the use of funds offered by those organizations. Reportedly, $300,000 were made available for capacity building, but the leadership of
the agency was adamant that the money be used to increase salaries. Today the agency has seven computers for 49 staff and no Internet access, Helsinki Commission staff was told.
Concerns also exist that a strong parliamentary immunity is a necessity when many governments are focused on prosecution of political opponents. The NGO member added that this
prosecution is often targeted at politicians in a minority party highlighting the continued need for parliamentary immunity laws even if they allow some offenders and wrongdoers to
evade prosecution. This view of targeted prosecutions has been echoed by workers with international organizations that have communicated with the Helsinki Commission on this
subject. With the above in mind, it should be noted that the resolution authored by Chairman Cardin, and adopted by the Parliamentary Assembly in 2006, incorporates preventative
measures by calling for the publishing of “rigorous standards of ethics and official conduct” and establishing “efficient mechanisms for public disclosure of financial information and
potential conflicts of interest.”96 The goals set out in that resolution constitute a starting point that must be reinforced with other measures that over time build a common ethos of
public integrity and service throughout government.
It should also be noted that the OSCE has worked in tandem with the Global Organization of Parliamentarians Against Corruption (GOPAC) in participating States such as
Kyrgyzstan to train parliamentarians in roles of oversight and budget control. Finally, Chairman Cardin’s resolution recommending that the Office of the Coordinator of OSCE
Economic and Environmental Activities (OCEEA) develop best practices for parliamentarians to use echoed the 2005 OSCE PA’s Washington Declaration. That document praised
the work of GOPAC and recommended that the OSCE “with other parliamentary associations and [GOPAC develop] a programme of peer support, education and anti-corruption
initiatives.”97 The OSCE has also worked with GOPAC in running workshops and supporting local GOPAC chapters particularly in Southeast Europe. This is an effort that should
receive continued support. The importance of capacity building within parliaments cannot be forgotten when confronting corruption.
Conclusion: The Related Nature of Corruption Across the OSCE Dimensions
No account of corruption in any dimension can be viewed in isolation. If corruption thwarts a competitive business environment or is endemic among public servants then the
conditions are set for an underworld of crime to flourish. Once seedlings of graft take root, they grow rapidly. Soon the institutions of democracy that require the nutrients of
transparency and accountability are choked by what people may have once considered the harmless taking of small amounts of money or property. In the aggregate, petty corruption
emboldens grand corruption and vice versa. Eventually, a government cannot perform the basic tasks expected of it. It cannot defend individual rights enshrined in national law,
protect the engagement of commerce, or provide for the security of its people. In many instances, elites restrict political access and limit economic competition. This is what Larry
Diamond refers to as a “predatory state.” Moreover, Diamond asserts when people no longer advance “through productive activity and honest risk taking” but only through operating
outside the law, the predatory state becomes a “predatory society.” 98 While observers may disagree whether some OSCE participating States have reached such an extreme point, all
states are always somewhere on the continuum between a functional electoral democracy and a predatory society.
To combat corruption the OSCE, through existing field mission mandates, should continue to focus adequate attention to building capacity to identify and address corruption and
promotion of a culture of integrity and anti-corruption among civil servants and civil society. All participating States should implement commitments under international treaties such
as the UNCAC. However, ratifying the UNCAC and passing national laws targeting corruption is not enough. While prosecutions serve a deterrence function, they must be balanced
by relatively low profile well-planned prevention programs that are sustained by sufficient resources. In order to identify and address the circumstances that foster corruption,
collaboration must increase between governments, NGOs, corporations and small and medium size enterprises to develop specific strategies. OSCE countries should consider
supporting neighbors by building upon the model of field missions. Corruption is a problem not likely to end soon, but is an area where progress may be made if small successes are
reinforced with adequate resources.
Work is needed to live up to the ideals recorded in the Parliamentary Assembly’s Astana Declaration and the earlier Istanbul Declaration of the 1999 OSCE Summit, in which OSCE
participating States recognized corruption as a threat to “shared values” and pledged “to strengthen their efforts to combat corruption and the conditions that foster it.” The OSCE
countries need to muster the political will, individually and collectively, to conduct a smarter fight against corruption – a threat to security, property, and fundamental freedoms
throughout the expansive OSCE region.
Footnotes
1 Joanna Lillis, “Kazakhstan: Nazarbayev Hints that Democratization will Take Back Seat on OSCE Agenda,” Eurasia Insight, July 9, 2008,
http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav070908.shtml (accessed June 1, 2009)
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22008 Corruption Perceptions Index: Persistently high corruption in low-income countries amounts to an “ongoing humanitarian disaster” (Berlin: Transparency International,
2008).
3
Michael Johnston, Syndromes of Corruption: Wealth, Power, and Democracy (New York: Cambridge, 2005), 19-21.
4 OSCE Parliamentary Assembly, Astana Declaration of the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly and Resolutions Adopted at the Seventeenth Annual Session, 2008, 7, 28, and 45.
5
Larry Diamond, “The Democratic Rollback: The Resurgence of the Predatory State,” Foreign Affairs 87, no. 2 (2008): 39, and 42-44.
6
The participating States committed to support and advance these rights and freedoms, in addition to others, in the 1990 Copenhagen Document. “Document of the Copenhagen
Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension of the CSCE,” June 29, 1990.
7
United States Agency for International Development, Parliamentary Immunity Brief: A Summary of Case Studies of Armenia, Ukraine and Guatemala, August 2006, 1-2.
8
Carmen Lane, Parliamentary Immunity and Democracy Development (Washington D.C.: DAI, 2007) 1-3.
9 United States Agency for International Development, Corruption Assessment Ukraine, Final Report February, 2006, 49
10 Gayane Mkrtchyan, “Not Above the Law?: Parliament Lifts Immunity, MP Hakobyan Must Face Prosecution,” ArmeniaNow.com, October 13, 2006,
http://www.armenianow.com/?action=viewArticle&AID=1768
11 Center for the Study of Democracy, Effective Policies targeting the Corruption – Organized crime Nexus in Bulgaria: Closing Down Duty-Free Outlets, Brief, December 2007, 3.
12
Ibid., 5.
13 Ibid., 3.
14 Elena Koinova, “Changes to Duty-Free Trade Act passed in Parliament,” The Sofia Echo, March 28, 2008, http://sofiaecho.com/2008/03/21/659426_changes-to-duty-free-trade-
act-passed-in-parliament
15 Center for the Study of Democracy, Effective Policies targeting the Corruption, 3.
16 Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, Energy and Democracy: Oil and Water?, 108th Cong., 2nd sess., 2007 (Prepared statement of Senator Benjamin L. Cardin,
not unofficial transcript), http://csce.gov/index.cfm?
FuseAction=ContentRecords.ViewDetail&ContentRecord_id=392&Region_id=0&Issue_id=0&ContentType=H,B&ContentRecordType=H&CFID=13299032&CFTOKEN=93551824
(accessed June 22, 2009)
17
Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, Promises to Keep: Kazakhstan’s 2010 OSCE Chairmanship, 110th Cong., 2nd sess., 2008, (Prepared statement of Martha
Olcott not unofficial transcript), http://csce.gov/index.cfm?
FuseAction=ContentRecords.ViewDetail&ContentRecord_id=434&Region_id=0&Issue_id=0&ContentType=H,B&ContentRecordType=H&CFID=13299032&CFTOKEN=93551824
(accessed June 8, 2009).
18
Transparency International, 2009 Global Corruption Barometer Report, (Berlin: May, 2007) 32.
19 GfK Research, Corruption Climate in Europe, August 9, 2006, available at http://www.gfk.hr/press1_en/corruption2.htm (accessed June 17, 2009).
20
Dan Bilefsky, “Medical Care in Romania Comes at an Extra Cost,” The New York Times, March 9, 2009.
21 Global Integrity, Global Integrity Scorecard: Latvia, 2007, 1-2.
22
Konstantin Pashev, Center for the Study of Democracy, Corruption in the Healthcare Sector in Bulgaria (Sofia, Bulgaria: 2007) 17.
23 Ibid, 17.
24
Ibid, 35.
25
Vladimir Voinovich, “Drunk on Corruption,” Daily Times, January 3, 2003, http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_3-1-2003_pg3_4 (accessed June 18, 2009).
26
Michael Johnston, “Poverty and Corruption,” Forbes, January 22, 2009.
27
U.S. Department of State, 2008 Human Rights Report: Uzbekistan, February 25, 2009, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/sca/119143.htm.
28 U.S. Department of State, 2008 Human Rights Report: Azerbaijan, February 25, 2009, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eur/119068.htm.
29
U.S. Department of State, 2008 Human Rights Report: Poland, February 25, 2009, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eur/119098.htm.
30 Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, The Romani Minority in Russia, 108th Cong., 2nd sess., 2004, 8 (Prepared statement of Leonid Raihman found in official
transcript).
31 U.S. Department of State, 2007 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Russia, March 11, 2008, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2007/100581.htm.
32
The account of how Hermitage Capital was seized corruptly through a series of non-transparent proceedings is told in the section addressing the Economic Dimension.
33 Jamison Firestone, conversation with Helsinki Commission staff, April 14, 2009.
34
Carl Mortished, “Kremlin sacking linked to Sergei Magnitsky case,” TimesOnline, December 16, 2009,
http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/banking_and_finance/article6957931.ece (accessed December 22, 2009).
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35
Lynda Edwards, “Russia Claws at the Rule of Law,” ABA Journal 95 (2009): 41.
36
Ibid., 42.
37 Powell v. Alabama, 287 U.S. 45, 69 (1932).
38 The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Best-Practice Guide for a Positive Business and Investment Climate, 2006, 30.
39
Ibid.
40
OSCE, Best-Practice Guide 30-31.
41
Marian L. Tupy, CATO Institute, The Rise of Populist Parties in Central Europe: Big Government, Corruption, and the Threat to Liberalism, November 8, 2006, 14.
42 The World Bank, Doing Business 2009: Country Profile for Russian Federation, 2008, 12.
43
J. Welby Leaman, “It’s Not Always Nice to Play Nice: Collusion, Competition, and Development,” Pacific McGeorge Global Business and Development Law Journal 20, no. 2
(2007): 291.
44
Tupy, Rise of Populist Parties, 9.
45
Leaman, “It’s Not Always Nice to Play Nice,” 291.
46 CSCE, Energy and Democracy, 108th Cong., 2nd sess., 2007 (Prepared statement of Simon Taylor not unofficial transcript) (accessed June 12, 2009).
47 Ibid.
48 Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, Public Law 110-140, 110th Cong., 1st sess. (December 19, 2007).
49 .S. Department of State, Report on Progress Made in Promoting Transparency in Extractive Industries Resource Payments, June 24, 2009. On file with United States House of
Representatives Committee on Foreign Affairs,
50
Parliamentary Assembly, Astana Declaration, 28.
51 Margareta Drzeniek Hanouz and Thierry Geiger, eds., World Economic Forum, The Ukraine Competitiveness Report: Towards Sustained Growth and Prosperity, 2008, 56.
52
Hanouz and Geiger, eds., The Ukraine Competitiveness Report, 56.
53
Michael Porter and Klaus Schwab eds., World Economic Forum, The Global Competitiveness Report 2008-2009, 385.
54
Ibid., 242.
55
William Browder, conversation with Helsinki Commission staff, April 14, 2009. William Browder did testify at a Helsinki Commission hearing just as this report was being
completed in June 2009. During his testimony he provided a website (http://www.compromat.ru/main/vragi/raderykak.htm) that provided a price list for a range of activities attacking
a corporate entity in Russia from erasing a company’s registration data to a complete takeover.
56 Jon Swaine, “BAE Systems executive ‘questioned over alleged bribery,’” The Telegraph, October 23, 2008,
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/epic/badot/3245563/BAE-Systems-executive-questioned-over-alleged-European-bribery.html (accessed June 15, 2009).
57
Organizations for Economic Co-operating and Development, United Kingdom: Report on the Application of the Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in
International Business Transactions and the 1997 Recommendation on Combating Bribery in International business Transactions, October 17 2008, 4.
58
Ben W. Heineman, Jr., and Fritz Heimann, “The Long War Against Corruption,” Foreign Affairs 85, no. 3 (May/June 2006), 77, 82.
59 Control Risks, Corruption, Compliance and Change: Responding to Greater Scrutiny in Challenging Times (London: 2009) 3.
60
15 U.S.C. §§ 78dd-1.
61 15 U.S.C. § 78m(b)(2)(A).
62 15 U.S.C. § 78m(b)(2)(B).
63
Gail P. Granoff and Brian Mich, 2008 FCPA Review, January 28, 2009 (Presentation at International Quality & Productivity Center FCPA Conference).
64
Dionne Searcey, “U.S. Cracks Down on Corporate Bribes,” The Wall Street Journal, May 26, 2009.
65
United States v. Kay, 359 F.3d 738, 755 (5th Cir. 2004).
66 United States v. Kozeny, 582 F. Supp 2d 535, 539 (S.D.N.Y 2008).
67
Cary O’Reilly and Karin Matussek, “Siemens to Pay $1.6 Billion to Settle Bribery Cases,” The Washington Post, December 16, 2008.
68 Victor Malarek, The Natashas: Inside the New Global Sex Trade (New York: Arcade Publishing, 2003), 112-113.
69
Heineman and Heimann, “The Long War,” 79.
70 Voinovich, “Drunk on Corruption”.
71
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Graham H. Turbiville, Jr., “Corruption, Crime and Murder Undermine Counter-terrorist Efforts,” Crime & Justice International 21, no. 87 (July/August 2005), 8.
72
Kimberly Thachuk, “Corruption and International Security,” SAIS Review XXV, no. 1 (Winter-Spring 2005), 147.
73
U.S. Department of State Country Reports on Terrorism 2008, Europe and Eurasia Overview, April 2009.
74 Randal Archibold and Andrew Becker, “Border Agents, Lured by the Other Side,” The New York Times, May 27, 2008.
75 Thachuk, “Corruption,” 147.
76
Parmy Olson, “Europe’s Crime Capitals,” Forbes, July 15, 2008, http://www.forbes.com/2008/07/15/europe-capitals-crime-forbeslife-cx_po_0715crime.html
77
Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, Arming Rogue Regimes: The Role of OSCE Participating States, 108th Cong., 1st sess., 2003, 40 (Prepared statement of
Roman Kupchinsky found in official transcript).
78 Control Arms, UN Arms Embargoes: An Overview of the Last Ten Years, Briefing Note, March 16, 2006, 2.
79
Rachel Stohl, “Fighting the Illicit Trafficking of Small Arms,” SAIS Review (Winter-Spring 2005), 64.
80
“Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational
Organized Crime,” Article 3 (a), United Nations, (2000).
81
Mohamed Y. Mattar, “State Responsibilities in Combating Trafficking in Persons in Central Asia,” Loyola and Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review 27 (Spring
2005), 161 (see footnote 76).
82
Malarek, The Natashas, 140-141.
83
William Finnegan, “The Counter Traffickers: Rescuing Victims of the Global Sex Trade,” The New Yorker, 2, 6, 7-8,
http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2008/05/05/080505fa_fact_finnegan (accessed June 8, 2009).
84
U.S. Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report, June 2008, 184.
85U.S. Department of State Senior Coordinator for Public Outreach, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, email to author, December 10, 2008; Embassy of the
United States, Moldova, “Moldova Moved up to Tier 2 in Trafficking in Persons,” press release, October 10, 2008, http://moldova.usembassy.gov/pr102908.html.
86 Finnegan, “The Counter Traffickers,” 10.
87
Ibid., 9, 11.
88 Rick Jervis, “Arrests of Border Agents on The Rise,” USA Today, April 23, 2009.
89This section of report is based upon meetings and discussions with a variety of international governmental organizations and nongovernmental organizations who to the extent
possible are not identified. Any opinions expressed or conclusions drawn do not necessarily reflect the official views of any of these organizations.
90 Johnson, Syndromes of Corruption, 186.
91
Office of the Co-ordinator of OSCE Economic and Environmental Activities, March 25, 2009, email to author providing numbers of complaints and people contacted.
92
Group of States against Corruption, Second Evaluation Round: Compliance Report on Greece, February 15, 2008, 9.
93
Daniel Kaufmann, “Anticorruption Strategies: Starting Afresh? Unconventional Lessons from Comparative Analysis,” in Curbing Corruption: Towards a Model for Building
National Integrity, ed. Rick Stapenhurst and Sahr J. Kpundeh (Washington, D.C.: World Bank Publications, 1999), 37.
94
Miroslav Ajder, “Corruption Claims Hold Back Bosnia: Allegations of Fraud in Government Contracts and Privatization are Pitting the Government Against Monitors and Scaring
off Foreign Investors,” BusinessWeek, March 17, 2009.
95
These compliance reports may be found at the GRECO web page, http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/greco/evaluations/round2/reports(round2)_en.asp (accessed June 15, 2009).
96Resolution on Limiting Immunity for Parliamentarians in order to Strengthen Good Governance, Public Integrity and Rule of Law in the OSCE Region, OSCE Parliamentary
Assembly, 15th sess., Brussels Declaration (July 7, 2006).
97 OSCE Parliamentary Assembly, Washington, DC Declaration of the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly and Resolutions Adopted at the Fourteenth Annual Session, 2005, 35.
98
Diamond, “The Democratic Rollback,” 43.
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