Critical thinking involves evaluating ideas through skills like reflection, logic, and consideration of context and bias. It requires understanding elements like valid arguments, misleading patterns, and confirmation bias. Effective communication of ideas requires avoiding fallacies and metaphors that imply unintended meanings. The precautionary principle emphasizes having a clear understanding of risks and benefits when making decisions that impact others.
How to prepare for exams (specially for Ayurvedic students)Sagar Bhinde
This will help students, to improve their zest for the exams and competition and at the same time this will give some pathway for the success in exams and ultimately in practical life.
How to prepare for exams (specially for Ayurvedic students)Sagar Bhinde
This will help students, to improve their zest for the exams and competition and at the same time this will give some pathway for the success in exams and ultimately in practical life.
Standard Form ArgumentsDiscussion TitleThe central tool of.docxwhitneyleman54422
Standard Form Arguments
Discussion Title
The central tool of logic is the argument. Accordingly, constructing good arguments is the central element of this course. Each writing assignment in this course will give you an opportunity to construct and improve upon an argument that you will develop as the course progresses. This discussion post allows you to begin the process of developing your argument by presenting good reasoning on both sides of an issue.
The requirement for this discussion is a minimum of four posts on four separate days, including at least two substantive responses to peers. The total combined word count for all of your posts for this discussion, counted together, should be at least 400 words. Answer all the questions in the prompt, and read any resources that are required to complete the discussion properly. In order to satisfy the posting requirements for the week, complete your initial post by Day 3 (Thursday) and your other posts by Day 7 (Monday). We recommend that you get into the discussion early and spread out your posts over the course of the week. Reply to your classmates and instructor. Attempt to take the conversation further by responding substantively to the replies that others make to you as well. Keep the discussion on target, and analyze things in as much detail as you can.
Prepare: To prepare for this discussion, make sure to read the assigned chapters of the primary text and to review the required resources, including the videos about arguments (in the “Lectures” link on the left). Before responding to the prompt, make sure as well to participate in the interactive scenario at the top of this page titledThe Raise to gain more appreciation of the importance of constructing good arguments in life.
Reflect: Choose a topic from thePHI103 Final Paper Options list. It should be a topic that you find interesting, but also for which you will be able defend a position with careful logical reasoning. Construct the strongest argument that you can on each side of the issue. Strengthen your arguments by contemplating possible objections to each argument, and revise your arguments in light of the objections. Continue this process until you feel that your arguments for each side are as convincing as you can possibly make them.
Write: Present your two arguments (one on each side of the issue) in standard form (with each premise and conclusion on a separate line) on the topic you selected from thePHI103 Final Paper Options list. The two arguments should defend different positions on the topic. For example, if your topic was the existence of Santa Claus, then you would present one argument for the claim that Santa Claus does exist and another argument that Santa Claus does not exist. The premises of each argument will present reasons for thinking that the conclusion is true.
Here is an example of what an argument in standard form looks like:
Premise 1: If Santa Claus exists, then he lives at the North Pole.
Prem.
Business Ethics Rubric—Mid-term Case StudyI will be looking fo.docxRAHUL126667
Business Ethics Rubric—Mid-term Case Study
I will be looking for the following items in your Case Study Analysis.
Case studies that can be used: Lifeboat, Thinking Critically 1.2, Thinking Critically 1.1, Thinking Critically 2.1, Thinking Critically 2.2, Thinking Critically 2.3, Thinking Critically 3.2 and Thinking Critically 3.3
I. Developing a Practical Ethical Viewpoint (Have you clearly picked and stated an Ethical Viewpoint) (You need to choose one for each case study)
A. Utilitarianism
B. Universal Ethics
C. Ethical Relativism
D. Virtue Ethics
II. To help you choose the ethical theory do the following (By looking at the moral situations):
A. Interpret what is right and wrong according to each of the four theories
B. Give an argument that each theory might provide
C. State your own assessment of the strengths of each theory
D. State the weakness of each theory
III. Step 1: Analyze the Consequences.
Who will be helped by what you do? Who will be harmed? What kind of benefits and harm are we talking about? Who will be helped by what you do? Who will be harmed?
Step 2: Analyze the actions
Consider all the options from a different perspective, without thinking about the consequences. How do the actions measure up against moral principles like honesty, fairness, equality, respecting the dignity of others, and people’s rights? (Consider the common good.) Are any of the actions at odds with those standards? If there’s a conflict between principles or between the rights of different people involved, is there a way to see one principle as more important than the others? Which option offers actions that are least problematic?
Step 3: Make a decision
Make a decision. Take both parts of your analysis into account, and make a decision. This strategy at least gives you some basic steps you can follow.
1. What are the facts? Know the facts as best you can. If your facts are wrong, you’re liable to make a bad choice.
2. 2. What can you guess about the facts you don’t know? Since it is impossible to know all the facts, make reasonable assumptions about the missing pieces of information.
3. 3. What do the facts mean? Facts by themselves have no meaning. You need to interpret the information in light of the values that are important to you.
4. 4. What does the problem look like through the eyes of the people involved? The ability to walk in another’s shoes is essential. Understanding the problem through a variety of perspectives increases the possibility that you will choose wisely.
5. 5. What will happen if you choose one thing rather than another? All actions have consequences. Make a reasonable guess as to what will happen if you follow a particular course of action. Decide whether you think more good or harm will come of your action.
6. 6. What do your feelings tell you? Feelings are facts too. Your feelings about ethical issues may give you a clue as to parts of your decision that your rational mind may overlook.
7. 7. What will you ...
Final Project In this two-phased final assignment, students wil.docxAKHIL969626
Final Project:
In this two-phased final assignment, students will select a topic from the Unique Ethical Issues from weeks 3, 5, and 7, research the topic and discuss the ethical dilemma in detail.
Phase 1:
In week 4, students will submit to the Assignment Folder a brief one page paper that identifies the unique ethical issue, the ethical dilemma and the traditional theories that will be used to suggest potential resolution of the dilemmas.
Phase 2:
Required Elements of Final Project:
· Using the information from Phase 1, students will thoroughly research the topic and define the ethical concerns in detail.
· Using two of the traditional theories from week 2, suggest potential resolutions to the dilemma(s)
· In the discussion of the resolution, include the impact that ethical relativism and globalization may have upon the suggested dilemma resolution.
· Select the best resolution and explain in detail why.
Required Formatting of Final Project:
This paper should be double-spaced, 12-point font, and six to eight pages in length excluding the title page and reference page;
Title page;
Introductory paragraph and a summary paragraph;
Use headings to demarcate your discussion;
Write in the third person;
Use APA formatting for in-text citations and a reference page. You are expected to paraphrase and not use quotes. Deductions will be taken when quotes are used and found to be unnecessary;
Submit the paper in the Assignment Folder.
Theories from Week 2
TELEOLOGICAL - This describes an ethical theory which judges the rightness of an action in terms of an external goal or purpose. So, according to a teleological theory, consequences always play some part, be it small or large, in the determination of what one should or should not do. Not all teleological theories are consequentialist. John Rawls' theory of justice is teleological, but not consequentialist because it claims that consequences are only part of what must be considered when determining what policy is morally just. (Rawls)
Benefits - 1. There is room in some theories for good intentions, even if the action didn’t active the desired end. 2. Active attempt to connect morality with the “real” world. 3. By allowing for the consideration of consequences, teleological theories can adapt to different circumstances and situations. (Also see “utilitarianism”)
Problems - Depends on the theory. See “utilitarianism” for an example.
CONSEQUENTIALIST - Under a consequentialist theory, the consequences of an action determine its moral value. A key question in consequentialist theory is how to measure the moral worth of the consequences. Consequences can be good, neutral, or evil. Another relevant question is which consequences count (intended or actual). If only actual consequences count, then do all consequences count? Consequences can be distinguished by direct/indirect, individuals/objects affected, influence of complicating factors, etc.
All of these conside ...
!!Business Ethics Rubric The paper should be 5 - 6 Pages.docxmayank272369
!
!
Business Ethics Rubric
The paper should be 5 - 6 Pages. !
I will be looking for the following items in your Case Study Analysis. !
I. Developing a Practical Ethical Viewpoint (Theories to use to analyze the case study)
A. Utilitarianism
B. Universal Ethics
C. Ethical Relativism
D. Virtue Ethics !
II. To help you choose the ethical theory do the following (By looking at the moral
situations):
A. Interpret what is right and wrong according to each of the four theories
B. Give an argument that each theory might provide
C. State your own assessment of the strengths of each theory
D. State the weakness of each theory !
III. Step 1: Analyze the Consequences.
Who will be helped by what you do? Who will be harmed? What kind of benefits and harm are
we talking about? Who will be helped by what you do? Who will be harmed?
Step 2: Analyze the actions
Consider all the options from a different perspective, without thinking about the consequences.
How do the actions measure up against moral principles like honesty, fairness, equality,
respecting the dignity of others, and people’s rights? (Consider the common good.) Are any of
the actions at odds with those standards? If there’s a conflict between principles or between the
rights of different people involved, is there a way to see one principle as more important than the
others? Which option offers actions that are least problematic? !
Step 3: Make a decision
Make a decision. Take both parts of your analysis into account, and make a
decision. This strategy at least gives you some basic steps you can follow. !
1. What are the facts? Know the facts as best you can. If your facts are wrong, you’re liable
to make a bad choice.
2. 2. What can you guess about the facts you don’t know? Since it is impossible to know all
the facts, make reasonable assumptions about the missing pieces of information.
3. 3. What do the facts mean? Facts by themselves have no meaning. You need to interpret
the information in light of the values that are important to you.
4. 4. What does the problem look like through the eyes of the people involved? The ability to
walk in another’s shoes is essential. Understanding the problem through a variety of
perspectives increases the possibility that you will choose wisely.
5. 5. What will happen if you choose one thing rather than another? All actions have
consequences. Make a reasonable guess as to what will happen if you follow a
particular course of action. Decide whether you think more good or harm will come
of your action.
6. 6. What do your feelings tell you? Feelings are facts too. Your feelings about
ethical issues may give you a clue as to parts of your decision that your
rational mind may overlook.
7. 7. What will you think of yourself if you decide one thing or another? Some
call this your conscience. It is a form of self-appraisal. It helps you decide
whether you are the kind of person you would like to be. It h ...
Informal Fallacies
Enterline Design Services LLC/iStock/Thinkstock
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe the various fallacies of support, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
2. Describe the various fallacies of relevance, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
3. Describe the various fallacies of clarity, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
We can conceive of logic as providing us with the best tools for seeking truth. If our goal is to seek truth, then we must be clear that the task isnot limited to the formation of true beliefs based on a solid logical foundation, for the task also involves learning to avoid forming falsebeliefs. Therefore, just as it is important to learn to employ good reasoning, it is also important to learn to avoid bad reasoning.
Toward this end, this chapter will focus on fallacies. Fallacies are errors in reasoning; more specifically, they are common patterns ofreasoning with a high likelihood of leading to false conclusions. Logical fallacies often seem like good reasoning because they resembleperfectly legitimate argument forms. For example, the following is a perfectly valid argument:
If you live in Paris, then you live in France.
You live in Paris.
Therefore, you live in France.
Assuming that both of the premises are true, it logically follows that the conclusion must be true. The following argument is very similar:
If you live in Paris, then you live in France.
You live in France.
Therefore, you live in Paris.
This second argument, however, is invalid; there are plenty of other places to live in France. This is a common formal fallacy known asaffirming the consequent. Chapter 4 discussed how this fallacy was based on an incorrect logical form. This chapter will focus on informalfallacies, fallacies whose errors are not so much a matter of form but of content. The rest of this chapter will cover some of the most commonand important fallacies, with definitions and examples. Learning about fallacies can be a lot of fun, but be warned: Once you begin noticingfallacies, you may start to see them everywhere.
Before we start, it is worth noting a few things. First, there are many, many fallacies. This chapter will consider only a sampling of some of themost well-known fallacies. Second, there is a lot of overlap between fallacies. Reasonable people can interpret the same errors as differentfallacies. Focus on trying to understand both interpretations rather than on insisting that only one can be right. Third, different philosophersoften have different terminology for the same fallacies and make different distinctions among them. Therefore, you may find that others usedifferent terminology for the fallacies that we will learn about in this chapter. Not to worry—it is the ideas here that are most important: Ourgoal is to learn to identi.
Chapter 1 Introduction to Ethics and Social Responsibility F.docxtidwellveronique
Chapter 1
Introduction to Ethics and Social Responsibility
Five arms linked by fists wrapped around wrists.
Don Klumpp/The Image Bank/Getty Images
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
•Explain why it is important to study ethics and engage in ethical debates.
•Describe the roles of argument and emotion in ethics.
•Describe the function of logic in an argument and characterize an effective ethical argument.
•Explain how ethical theory can be applied to moral questions.
•Discuss how individual decisions can have consequences in the broader society.
•Identify the three dominant ethical theories in Western philosophy: utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics.
•Identify the influential ethical theories that have been proposed as alternatives to classical theories.
People have worried about ethical questions—most simply stated, what is right and wrong—since the earliest of days. From the most basic, everyday concerns to the most important challenges a society can face, we confront these basic ethical questions all the time. In the following pages, we will look at many such moral problems, as well as some of the ethical theories philosophers have offered to solve them.
The study of ethics can be frustrating at times, largely because the problems dealt with rarely lead to a result that satisfies everyone. Hence, the arguments continue, new points are raised, old views are discarded, and we seem to go nowhere. But some of this frustration can be alleviated when we realize that as long as people debate questions of right and wrong, these disagreements will persist. At the same time, however, we will discover that our understanding of those disagreements can be deepened and our abilities to reason about them improved. We may not solve all the ethical problems we confront, but we can make progress by solving some of them, and making clearer what is at stake in the problems themselves.
1.1 Why Study Ethics?
You are standing in line at the movies, and someone cuts in front of you. Your child is sent home from school because what is written on her t-shirt is considered "inappropriate." You discover that your best friend is cheating on his wife. You are forced to pay taxes to support behavior you think is wrong. Your commanding officer punishes you for something you didn't do. Your boss promotes a co-worker who took credit for work that was, in fact, done by you. You have a little extra money and, on your way to play the lottery, pass a homeless woman with her child.
These situations illustrate some of the ethical situations we may confront that would force us to consider what we should do, and whether our response is good or bad, right or wrong, moral or immoral. The study of those problems constitutes the discipline of philosophy known as ethics. The study of ethics is ancient and can be found across all cultures and in all times that humans have lived in social groups. That people consider what is r ...
1 Running head THE ETHICS OF ELEPHANTS IN CIRCUSES .docxhoney725342
1
Running head: THE ETHICS OF ELEPHANTS IN CIRCUSES
The Ethics of Elephants in Circuses
Dr. Christopher Foster
PHI103: Informal Logic
Ashford University
Annotated example for Week One Assignment
2
THE ETHICS OF ELEPHANTS IN CIRCUSES
This is the argument in
Standard Form.
Standard Form means
putting each premise
and conclusion on a
separate line, as
observed here. Labeling
the premises P1, P2, etc.
is also helpful to be able
to refer to them later.
The next four
paragraphs
provide
support for
each premise
of the
argument.
The topic of
each
paragraph is
clear from the
opening
sentence.
It is good to
provide
clarification of
the meaning of
premises as well
(as indicated in
the instructions).
P1: Elephants are highly intelligent animals.
P2: Putting elephants in circuses requires them to live their
lives in extreme confinement.
P3: Anything that requires highly intelligent animals to
live their lives in extreme confinement is wrong unless it serves
a purpose that outweighs the suffering involved.
P4: Putting elephants in circuses does not serve a purpose that
outweighs the suffering involved.
C: Therefore, putting elephants in circuses is wrong.
The first premise has been widely known for decades by those who
have studied elephants. Scientific studies have shown that elephants are
able to independently discover novel methods to figure out how to retrieve
food, and they have recently been shown to be able to enlist the help of
other elephants in situations that require cooperation (Jabr, 2014).
The second premise is justified by looking at how elephants are
treated in circuses. When not performing or being transported, circus
elephants are kept on a short chain that prevents them from being able
to move around or even lie down normally. This is what is meant by
‘extreme confinement’: captivity so severe that the animal is not able
to get proper exercise and stimulation. In addition to the captivity, there
3
THE ETHICS OF ELEPHANTS IN CIRCUSES
have been many reports, and footage, of abuse of circus elephants with bullhooks, electrocution, and
other forms of cruelty (Nelson, 2011).
The third premise makes a strong moral claim. Given the intelligence of elephants, and their
natural use of vast savannahs of space, life spent on a tiny chain will involve a tremendous amount of
suffering. They develop “stereotypic behaviors” such as constant swaying back and forth, indicating
severe psychological distress (Wildlife Advocacy Project, n.d.). President of PAWS, Ed Stewart, expresses
it well:
Elephants should not be in captivity – period … The social structure isn’t correct, the space is not
right, the climate is not right, the food is not right … They are unbelievably intelligent. With all of
that brainpower – to be as limited as they are in captivity – it’s a wonder they cope at all. (Jabr,
2014)
My final premise states ...
Quiz Tip Sheet. A few people have emailed about the last quiz. .docxcatheryncouper
Quiz Tip Sheet.
A few people have emailed about the last quiz. Here are a few tips.
First, some good news. I will start including a bonus question on future exams.
Tips:
1. Quiz questions are reading comprehension questions: The discussion boards are designed to give you a chance to try out your own arguments and to evaluation the arguments in the readings. The quizzes are designed to test reading comprehension. This does not mean the quiz questions will be rote (i.e., what does Herrick say on page 24, paragraph 1). They will require active reading and comprehension of what is written. Key Point: The answers will come from the text.
2. Reading Philosophy may require skills that you haven’t yet mastered. I have two points, here. First, reading comprehension, in any discipline, improves with knowledge of the subject matter. If you have never taken a philosophy course before (or read philosophical essays) then you can expect to find the material more challenging at first than at the end, after you have developed a feel for philosophical writing & reading. Second, reading philosophy may be more challenging that reading other kinds of writing. Philosophy majors consistently outperform other majors on graduate level entrance exams (for law, business, general grad school, and even the MCAT, for medicine). Most likely, this is because of the kinds of skills required to read, write, and understand philosophical writing. Key Point: Give yourself room to grow in your skills. Just because you’ve gotten a 4.0 in your other classes, doesn’t mean that you will get a 4.0 on every quiz in this class. The types of things that are important to notice in a philosophical essay may be different from the types of things you are used to looking for. And the types of logical inferences required in philosophical reading may be different from your typical patterns of inference.
3. What to notice -- Understand Logic: Mastering the material at the end of the first reading will help your reading comprehension (of philosophy) immensely. Here is a brief outline of the different types of arguments/reasoning. Make sure you can define and identify each type. As you encounter new arguments, or argument types, put them on your map. Key Point: As you read, pay close attention to how arguments are characterized. Different types of arguments require different standards of evaluation.
1. Deductive arguments (reasoning): At best, if the premises are true, the conclusion MUST be true.
a. Category Based Arguments: All whales are mammals; all mammals are animals; thus all whales are animals.
2. Inductive Arguments (reasoning): At best if the premises are true, the conclusion is likely to be true.
a. Analogy Arguments: (Like Paley)
b. Best Explanation Arguments (like fine-tuning)
c. Generalizations: most universes are not fine-tuned, thus, probably, none are.
4. What to notice – Your Assumptions:* We read with selective perception. Our brain ...
Standard Form ArgumentsDiscussion TitleThe central tool of.docxwhitneyleman54422
Standard Form Arguments
Discussion Title
The central tool of logic is the argument. Accordingly, constructing good arguments is the central element of this course. Each writing assignment in this course will give you an opportunity to construct and improve upon an argument that you will develop as the course progresses. This discussion post allows you to begin the process of developing your argument by presenting good reasoning on both sides of an issue.
The requirement for this discussion is a minimum of four posts on four separate days, including at least two substantive responses to peers. The total combined word count for all of your posts for this discussion, counted together, should be at least 400 words. Answer all the questions in the prompt, and read any resources that are required to complete the discussion properly. In order to satisfy the posting requirements for the week, complete your initial post by Day 3 (Thursday) and your other posts by Day 7 (Monday). We recommend that you get into the discussion early and spread out your posts over the course of the week. Reply to your classmates and instructor. Attempt to take the conversation further by responding substantively to the replies that others make to you as well. Keep the discussion on target, and analyze things in as much detail as you can.
Prepare: To prepare for this discussion, make sure to read the assigned chapters of the primary text and to review the required resources, including the videos about arguments (in the “Lectures” link on the left). Before responding to the prompt, make sure as well to participate in the interactive scenario at the top of this page titledThe Raise to gain more appreciation of the importance of constructing good arguments in life.
Reflect: Choose a topic from thePHI103 Final Paper Options list. It should be a topic that you find interesting, but also for which you will be able defend a position with careful logical reasoning. Construct the strongest argument that you can on each side of the issue. Strengthen your arguments by contemplating possible objections to each argument, and revise your arguments in light of the objections. Continue this process until you feel that your arguments for each side are as convincing as you can possibly make them.
Write: Present your two arguments (one on each side of the issue) in standard form (with each premise and conclusion on a separate line) on the topic you selected from thePHI103 Final Paper Options list. The two arguments should defend different positions on the topic. For example, if your topic was the existence of Santa Claus, then you would present one argument for the claim that Santa Claus does exist and another argument that Santa Claus does not exist. The premises of each argument will present reasons for thinking that the conclusion is true.
Here is an example of what an argument in standard form looks like:
Premise 1: If Santa Claus exists, then he lives at the North Pole.
Prem.
Business Ethics Rubric—Mid-term Case StudyI will be looking fo.docxRAHUL126667
Business Ethics Rubric—Mid-term Case Study
I will be looking for the following items in your Case Study Analysis.
Case studies that can be used: Lifeboat, Thinking Critically 1.2, Thinking Critically 1.1, Thinking Critically 2.1, Thinking Critically 2.2, Thinking Critically 2.3, Thinking Critically 3.2 and Thinking Critically 3.3
I. Developing a Practical Ethical Viewpoint (Have you clearly picked and stated an Ethical Viewpoint) (You need to choose one for each case study)
A. Utilitarianism
B. Universal Ethics
C. Ethical Relativism
D. Virtue Ethics
II. To help you choose the ethical theory do the following (By looking at the moral situations):
A. Interpret what is right and wrong according to each of the four theories
B. Give an argument that each theory might provide
C. State your own assessment of the strengths of each theory
D. State the weakness of each theory
III. Step 1: Analyze the Consequences.
Who will be helped by what you do? Who will be harmed? What kind of benefits and harm are we talking about? Who will be helped by what you do? Who will be harmed?
Step 2: Analyze the actions
Consider all the options from a different perspective, without thinking about the consequences. How do the actions measure up against moral principles like honesty, fairness, equality, respecting the dignity of others, and people’s rights? (Consider the common good.) Are any of the actions at odds with those standards? If there’s a conflict between principles or between the rights of different people involved, is there a way to see one principle as more important than the others? Which option offers actions that are least problematic?
Step 3: Make a decision
Make a decision. Take both parts of your analysis into account, and make a decision. This strategy at least gives you some basic steps you can follow.
1. What are the facts? Know the facts as best you can. If your facts are wrong, you’re liable to make a bad choice.
2. 2. What can you guess about the facts you don’t know? Since it is impossible to know all the facts, make reasonable assumptions about the missing pieces of information.
3. 3. What do the facts mean? Facts by themselves have no meaning. You need to interpret the information in light of the values that are important to you.
4. 4. What does the problem look like through the eyes of the people involved? The ability to walk in another’s shoes is essential. Understanding the problem through a variety of perspectives increases the possibility that you will choose wisely.
5. 5. What will happen if you choose one thing rather than another? All actions have consequences. Make a reasonable guess as to what will happen if you follow a particular course of action. Decide whether you think more good or harm will come of your action.
6. 6. What do your feelings tell you? Feelings are facts too. Your feelings about ethical issues may give you a clue as to parts of your decision that your rational mind may overlook.
7. 7. What will you ...
Final Project In this two-phased final assignment, students wil.docxAKHIL969626
Final Project:
In this two-phased final assignment, students will select a topic from the Unique Ethical Issues from weeks 3, 5, and 7, research the topic and discuss the ethical dilemma in detail.
Phase 1:
In week 4, students will submit to the Assignment Folder a brief one page paper that identifies the unique ethical issue, the ethical dilemma and the traditional theories that will be used to suggest potential resolution of the dilemmas.
Phase 2:
Required Elements of Final Project:
· Using the information from Phase 1, students will thoroughly research the topic and define the ethical concerns in detail.
· Using two of the traditional theories from week 2, suggest potential resolutions to the dilemma(s)
· In the discussion of the resolution, include the impact that ethical relativism and globalization may have upon the suggested dilemma resolution.
· Select the best resolution and explain in detail why.
Required Formatting of Final Project:
This paper should be double-spaced, 12-point font, and six to eight pages in length excluding the title page and reference page;
Title page;
Introductory paragraph and a summary paragraph;
Use headings to demarcate your discussion;
Write in the third person;
Use APA formatting for in-text citations and a reference page. You are expected to paraphrase and not use quotes. Deductions will be taken when quotes are used and found to be unnecessary;
Submit the paper in the Assignment Folder.
Theories from Week 2
TELEOLOGICAL - This describes an ethical theory which judges the rightness of an action in terms of an external goal or purpose. So, according to a teleological theory, consequences always play some part, be it small or large, in the determination of what one should or should not do. Not all teleological theories are consequentialist. John Rawls' theory of justice is teleological, but not consequentialist because it claims that consequences are only part of what must be considered when determining what policy is morally just. (Rawls)
Benefits - 1. There is room in some theories for good intentions, even if the action didn’t active the desired end. 2. Active attempt to connect morality with the “real” world. 3. By allowing for the consideration of consequences, teleological theories can adapt to different circumstances and situations. (Also see “utilitarianism”)
Problems - Depends on the theory. See “utilitarianism” for an example.
CONSEQUENTIALIST - Under a consequentialist theory, the consequences of an action determine its moral value. A key question in consequentialist theory is how to measure the moral worth of the consequences. Consequences can be good, neutral, or evil. Another relevant question is which consequences count (intended or actual). If only actual consequences count, then do all consequences count? Consequences can be distinguished by direct/indirect, individuals/objects affected, influence of complicating factors, etc.
All of these conside ...
!!Business Ethics Rubric The paper should be 5 - 6 Pages.docxmayank272369
!
!
Business Ethics Rubric
The paper should be 5 - 6 Pages. !
I will be looking for the following items in your Case Study Analysis. !
I. Developing a Practical Ethical Viewpoint (Theories to use to analyze the case study)
A. Utilitarianism
B. Universal Ethics
C. Ethical Relativism
D. Virtue Ethics !
II. To help you choose the ethical theory do the following (By looking at the moral
situations):
A. Interpret what is right and wrong according to each of the four theories
B. Give an argument that each theory might provide
C. State your own assessment of the strengths of each theory
D. State the weakness of each theory !
III. Step 1: Analyze the Consequences.
Who will be helped by what you do? Who will be harmed? What kind of benefits and harm are
we talking about? Who will be helped by what you do? Who will be harmed?
Step 2: Analyze the actions
Consider all the options from a different perspective, without thinking about the consequences.
How do the actions measure up against moral principles like honesty, fairness, equality,
respecting the dignity of others, and people’s rights? (Consider the common good.) Are any of
the actions at odds with those standards? If there’s a conflict between principles or between the
rights of different people involved, is there a way to see one principle as more important than the
others? Which option offers actions that are least problematic? !
Step 3: Make a decision
Make a decision. Take both parts of your analysis into account, and make a
decision. This strategy at least gives you some basic steps you can follow. !
1. What are the facts? Know the facts as best you can. If your facts are wrong, you’re liable
to make a bad choice.
2. 2. What can you guess about the facts you don’t know? Since it is impossible to know all
the facts, make reasonable assumptions about the missing pieces of information.
3. 3. What do the facts mean? Facts by themselves have no meaning. You need to interpret
the information in light of the values that are important to you.
4. 4. What does the problem look like through the eyes of the people involved? The ability to
walk in another’s shoes is essential. Understanding the problem through a variety of
perspectives increases the possibility that you will choose wisely.
5. 5. What will happen if you choose one thing rather than another? All actions have
consequences. Make a reasonable guess as to what will happen if you follow a
particular course of action. Decide whether you think more good or harm will come
of your action.
6. 6. What do your feelings tell you? Feelings are facts too. Your feelings about
ethical issues may give you a clue as to parts of your decision that your
rational mind may overlook.
7. 7. What will you think of yourself if you decide one thing or another? Some
call this your conscience. It is a form of self-appraisal. It helps you decide
whether you are the kind of person you would like to be. It h ...
Informal Fallacies
Enterline Design Services LLC/iStock/Thinkstock
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe the various fallacies of support, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
2. Describe the various fallacies of relevance, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
3. Describe the various fallacies of clarity, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
We can conceive of logic as providing us with the best tools for seeking truth. If our goal is to seek truth, then we must be clear that the task isnot limited to the formation of true beliefs based on a solid logical foundation, for the task also involves learning to avoid forming falsebeliefs. Therefore, just as it is important to learn to employ good reasoning, it is also important to learn to avoid bad reasoning.
Toward this end, this chapter will focus on fallacies. Fallacies are errors in reasoning; more specifically, they are common patterns ofreasoning with a high likelihood of leading to false conclusions. Logical fallacies often seem like good reasoning because they resembleperfectly legitimate argument forms. For example, the following is a perfectly valid argument:
If you live in Paris, then you live in France.
You live in Paris.
Therefore, you live in France.
Assuming that both of the premises are true, it logically follows that the conclusion must be true. The following argument is very similar:
If you live in Paris, then you live in France.
You live in France.
Therefore, you live in Paris.
This second argument, however, is invalid; there are plenty of other places to live in France. This is a common formal fallacy known asaffirming the consequent. Chapter 4 discussed how this fallacy was based on an incorrect logical form. This chapter will focus on informalfallacies, fallacies whose errors are not so much a matter of form but of content. The rest of this chapter will cover some of the most commonand important fallacies, with definitions and examples. Learning about fallacies can be a lot of fun, but be warned: Once you begin noticingfallacies, you may start to see them everywhere.
Before we start, it is worth noting a few things. First, there are many, many fallacies. This chapter will consider only a sampling of some of themost well-known fallacies. Second, there is a lot of overlap between fallacies. Reasonable people can interpret the same errors as differentfallacies. Focus on trying to understand both interpretations rather than on insisting that only one can be right. Third, different philosophersoften have different terminology for the same fallacies and make different distinctions among them. Therefore, you may find that others usedifferent terminology for the fallacies that we will learn about in this chapter. Not to worry—it is the ideas here that are most important: Ourgoal is to learn to identi.
Chapter 1 Introduction to Ethics and Social Responsibility F.docxtidwellveronique
Chapter 1
Introduction to Ethics and Social Responsibility
Five arms linked by fists wrapped around wrists.
Don Klumpp/The Image Bank/Getty Images
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
•Explain why it is important to study ethics and engage in ethical debates.
•Describe the roles of argument and emotion in ethics.
•Describe the function of logic in an argument and characterize an effective ethical argument.
•Explain how ethical theory can be applied to moral questions.
•Discuss how individual decisions can have consequences in the broader society.
•Identify the three dominant ethical theories in Western philosophy: utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics.
•Identify the influential ethical theories that have been proposed as alternatives to classical theories.
People have worried about ethical questions—most simply stated, what is right and wrong—since the earliest of days. From the most basic, everyday concerns to the most important challenges a society can face, we confront these basic ethical questions all the time. In the following pages, we will look at many such moral problems, as well as some of the ethical theories philosophers have offered to solve them.
The study of ethics can be frustrating at times, largely because the problems dealt with rarely lead to a result that satisfies everyone. Hence, the arguments continue, new points are raised, old views are discarded, and we seem to go nowhere. But some of this frustration can be alleviated when we realize that as long as people debate questions of right and wrong, these disagreements will persist. At the same time, however, we will discover that our understanding of those disagreements can be deepened and our abilities to reason about them improved. We may not solve all the ethical problems we confront, but we can make progress by solving some of them, and making clearer what is at stake in the problems themselves.
1.1 Why Study Ethics?
You are standing in line at the movies, and someone cuts in front of you. Your child is sent home from school because what is written on her t-shirt is considered "inappropriate." You discover that your best friend is cheating on his wife. You are forced to pay taxes to support behavior you think is wrong. Your commanding officer punishes you for something you didn't do. Your boss promotes a co-worker who took credit for work that was, in fact, done by you. You have a little extra money and, on your way to play the lottery, pass a homeless woman with her child.
These situations illustrate some of the ethical situations we may confront that would force us to consider what we should do, and whether our response is good or bad, right or wrong, moral or immoral. The study of those problems constitutes the discipline of philosophy known as ethics. The study of ethics is ancient and can be found across all cultures and in all times that humans have lived in social groups. That people consider what is r ...
1 Running head THE ETHICS OF ELEPHANTS IN CIRCUSES .docxhoney725342
1
Running head: THE ETHICS OF ELEPHANTS IN CIRCUSES
The Ethics of Elephants in Circuses
Dr. Christopher Foster
PHI103: Informal Logic
Ashford University
Annotated example for Week One Assignment
2
THE ETHICS OF ELEPHANTS IN CIRCUSES
This is the argument in
Standard Form.
Standard Form means
putting each premise
and conclusion on a
separate line, as
observed here. Labeling
the premises P1, P2, etc.
is also helpful to be able
to refer to them later.
The next four
paragraphs
provide
support for
each premise
of the
argument.
The topic of
each
paragraph is
clear from the
opening
sentence.
It is good to
provide
clarification of
the meaning of
premises as well
(as indicated in
the instructions).
P1: Elephants are highly intelligent animals.
P2: Putting elephants in circuses requires them to live their
lives in extreme confinement.
P3: Anything that requires highly intelligent animals to
live their lives in extreme confinement is wrong unless it serves
a purpose that outweighs the suffering involved.
P4: Putting elephants in circuses does not serve a purpose that
outweighs the suffering involved.
C: Therefore, putting elephants in circuses is wrong.
The first premise has been widely known for decades by those who
have studied elephants. Scientific studies have shown that elephants are
able to independently discover novel methods to figure out how to retrieve
food, and they have recently been shown to be able to enlist the help of
other elephants in situations that require cooperation (Jabr, 2014).
The second premise is justified by looking at how elephants are
treated in circuses. When not performing or being transported, circus
elephants are kept on a short chain that prevents them from being able
to move around or even lie down normally. This is what is meant by
‘extreme confinement’: captivity so severe that the animal is not able
to get proper exercise and stimulation. In addition to the captivity, there
3
THE ETHICS OF ELEPHANTS IN CIRCUSES
have been many reports, and footage, of abuse of circus elephants with bullhooks, electrocution, and
other forms of cruelty (Nelson, 2011).
The third premise makes a strong moral claim. Given the intelligence of elephants, and their
natural use of vast savannahs of space, life spent on a tiny chain will involve a tremendous amount of
suffering. They develop “stereotypic behaviors” such as constant swaying back and forth, indicating
severe psychological distress (Wildlife Advocacy Project, n.d.). President of PAWS, Ed Stewart, expresses
it well:
Elephants should not be in captivity – period … The social structure isn’t correct, the space is not
right, the climate is not right, the food is not right … They are unbelievably intelligent. With all of
that brainpower – to be as limited as they are in captivity – it’s a wonder they cope at all. (Jabr,
2014)
My final premise states ...
Quiz Tip Sheet. A few people have emailed about the last quiz. .docxcatheryncouper
Quiz Tip Sheet.
A few people have emailed about the last quiz. Here are a few tips.
First, some good news. I will start including a bonus question on future exams.
Tips:
1. Quiz questions are reading comprehension questions: The discussion boards are designed to give you a chance to try out your own arguments and to evaluation the arguments in the readings. The quizzes are designed to test reading comprehension. This does not mean the quiz questions will be rote (i.e., what does Herrick say on page 24, paragraph 1). They will require active reading and comprehension of what is written. Key Point: The answers will come from the text.
2. Reading Philosophy may require skills that you haven’t yet mastered. I have two points, here. First, reading comprehension, in any discipline, improves with knowledge of the subject matter. If you have never taken a philosophy course before (or read philosophical essays) then you can expect to find the material more challenging at first than at the end, after you have developed a feel for philosophical writing & reading. Second, reading philosophy may be more challenging that reading other kinds of writing. Philosophy majors consistently outperform other majors on graduate level entrance exams (for law, business, general grad school, and even the MCAT, for medicine). Most likely, this is because of the kinds of skills required to read, write, and understand philosophical writing. Key Point: Give yourself room to grow in your skills. Just because you’ve gotten a 4.0 in your other classes, doesn’t mean that you will get a 4.0 on every quiz in this class. The types of things that are important to notice in a philosophical essay may be different from the types of things you are used to looking for. And the types of logical inferences required in philosophical reading may be different from your typical patterns of inference.
3. What to notice -- Understand Logic: Mastering the material at the end of the first reading will help your reading comprehension (of philosophy) immensely. Here is a brief outline of the different types of arguments/reasoning. Make sure you can define and identify each type. As you encounter new arguments, or argument types, put them on your map. Key Point: As you read, pay close attention to how arguments are characterized. Different types of arguments require different standards of evaluation.
1. Deductive arguments (reasoning): At best, if the premises are true, the conclusion MUST be true.
a. Category Based Arguments: All whales are mammals; all mammals are animals; thus all whales are animals.
2. Inductive Arguments (reasoning): At best if the premises are true, the conclusion is likely to be true.
a. Analogy Arguments: (Like Paley)
b. Best Explanation Arguments (like fine-tuning)
c. Generalizations: most universes are not fine-tuned, thus, probably, none are.
4. What to notice – Your Assumptions:* We read with selective perception. Our brain ...
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
2. Critical thinking is...?
Critical thinking is a way to think about ideas. These
could be ideas you’ve come up with or ideas you’ve
heard or read. It covers a range of values, skills and
knowledge.
What a good idea!
Good ideas are based on accurate information. They can be used
to make decisions that are as predictable as possible.
Bad ideas can be based on information that is misleading or
wrong. Making decisions using a bad idea might end up
causing you to take wrong actions, or cost you more than
you’re willing to pay!
3. Don’t I already think well?
Your brain evolved to take in
information and use it to make
sense of your surroundings.
However, it requires a lot of
energy to do this.
So your brain uses a number of shortcuts to save energy. They work well
most of the time, but on some occasions it makes you more confident in an
idea than you should be.
4. Brain cheats!
Illusions are a result of your brain taking a shortcut.
Do these horizontal parallel lines look straight to you?
5. Elements of critical thinking
Critical thinking involves a variety of skills, values and knowledge.
Skills are thinking processes. They can involve the ability to:
• Reflect analytically
• Imagine broadly
• Relate to other people
• Communicate clearly
• Identify context and bias
• Apply logic effectively and recognise the application of poor logic
6. Elements of critical thinking
Knowledge: describes facts and theories such as:
• The structure of logic
• Measured observations
• Contemporary scientific theories
Values: are concepts you think are important.
They can involve an appreciation of:
• The diversity of ideas people can have
• The right to respectfully be critical of other’s ideas
• That good ideas depend on accurate information
• The usefulness of logic in forming new ideas
• That all people can have confidence in bad ideas
7. Activity 1 & 2: What do we value?
Values are what inform our decision making. Sometimes we might put a
priority on friendship, while other times it might be wealth. We might like
to put a value on thinking reasonably, but sometimes our fear or our
faiths and beliefs might take priority instead.
Knowing how to understand our own values and those of others is
important in making good decisions.
Read the Activity 1 & 2 handout: ‘What do we value?’ and complete the
exercises
Extension: Find a newspaper article or a ‘letter to the editor’ that you
disagree with.
Identify what values differ between you and the article’s author.
9. That’s debatable!
Your parents and teachers might not like you arguing, but in
critical thinking, knowing what makes for a good argument is
important.
An argument is a structured response to an idea that shows why
you should (or shouldn’t) have confidence in it.
It is made of two parts: premises and a conclusion.
• Premises are ideas that are already presumed be true.
• The conclusion is the idea to be accepted as true or false.
10. A valid argument
An argument is valid when:
a) It has a logical structure
b) Its premises are accepted as true
12. A valid argument
An argument is valid when:
a) It has a logical structure
b) Its premises are accepted as true
Example
Premise 1: Magnets attract iron
Premise 2: This object is made of iron
Conclusion: Magnets will attract this object
Both premises are accepted as true, and the relationship between the
premises and the conclusion is logical.
13. Invalid arguments
Arguments can be invalid if the relationship between the premises does
not lead to that conclusion.
Think of mathematical equations; just as 3 + 2 does not equal 1, an
incorrect relationship between premises will make a conclusion incorrect.
14. Invalid arguments
Example
Premise 1: Magnets attract iron
Premise 2: The object in my hand is attracted to a magnet
Conclusion: The object in my hand must be made of iron
While premises 1 and 2 are correct, they don’t combine to produce that
conclusion. In this case, the premises don't exclude the possibility that
other materials are also attracted to magnets.
15. False premises
Arguments can have a good logical structure but have false premises.
True premises come in three varieties:
• Axioms (self-evident truths, such as 'all squares have four sides')
• Observed facts
• Valid conclusions from other arguments
Critical thinking involves the ability to identify how likely it is a premise is
true or false.
16. Activity 3
Read the following four arguments.
Three of them are invalid.
Identify the invalid arguments and state whether the logic is flawed or the
premises are incorrect:
17. Argument 1
Premise 1: Jack started school in June.
Premise 2: Things started going missing from the change rooms
in July.
Conclusion: Jack is a thief.
18. Argument 2
Premise 1: Scientists rubbed nano-particles into the skin of the
mice.
Premise 2: The mice got cancer.
Conclusion: Humans can get cancer from nano-particles.
19. Argument 3
Premise 1: Bacteria are defined as prokaryotes.
Premise 2: Prokaryotes are defined as having no nucleus.
Conclusion: Bacteria do not have a nucleus.
20. Argument 4
Premise 1: All teachers are female.
Premise 2: Bill is a teacher.
Conclusion: Bill is female.
21. Answers
Argument 1
Invalid. Premises might be true, but there are other possible reasons
explaining why things started to go missing in June.
Argument 2
Invalid. Premises might be true, but humans and mice aren’t the same
animals, therefore logically the two premises aren’t comparable.
Argument 3
Valid. Premises are true and the conclusion follows from them.
Argument 4
Invalid. The structure is logical, but premise 1 is false – not all teachers are
female.
22. Video
Watch Video 3:
The man who
was made of
straw
23. Activity 4
Read the following four arguments and counter arguments. Each counter
argument is either off-topic, over simplified, exaggerated or subtly twisted,
identify which and why you think so.
24. Argument 1
Argument: The use of nanotechnology in products comes with benefits
and risks. We should continue research in nanotechnology so we can
understand what is safe and what is not.
Counter-Argument: Nanotechnology comes with risks, and knowing
what those risks are will allow people to misuse the technology.
Research into nanotechnology should be stopped.
25. Argument 2
Argument: We’re pumping more and more carbon dioxide into the air,
these gases trap heat in the atmosphere, and so through our actions
we are heating the planet. We must do something to reduce carbon
dioxide emissions and slow global warming.
Counter-Argument: Carbon dioxide is also absorbed by plants; more
carbon dioxide will just mean more plants. This cancels out any
concerns about global warming because the extra carbon we make
won’t stay in the atmosphere.
26. Argument 3
Argument: While there are ethical concerns regarding the use the
embryonic stem cells, research in this area could help improve the
lives of many people. We should continue with research in this area.
Counter-Argument: The world is over populated as it is. Medical
research just extends lives, leading to more over population. It’s
unnatural that we live so long, research in this area should be
stopped.
27. Argument 4
Argument: In law, a patent protects people’s work by giving them
exclusive rights to it. It costs a lot of money to isolate and identify
genes, and therefore it’s only right that you can patent genes. It
protects your investment.
Counter-Argument: Patenting genes means owning something which is
naturally occurring. Pretty soon only a handful of biotechnology
companies are going to own all our genetic material. Patenting of
genetic material should be stopped.
28. Answers
Argument 1: The counter-argument is overly simple.
Argument 2: The counter-argument twists facts to draw its conclusion.
Argument 3: The counter-argument is off topic. Ignoring the issue of ethics in
embryonic stem cell research to focus on over population issues.
Argument 4: The counter-argument exaggerates the issue at hand.
29. That’s debatable!
Extension: Are there parts of the counter-arguments that you found you
would like to agree with? How do these counter-arguments match
with your values from Activity 1?
Visit education.technyou.edu.au/critical-thinking and follow the links
to Wikipedia articles to find the arguments for and against these
issues. Also view the Discussion page on each issue to follow the
ongoing arguments between the writers of these articles.
Now write better arguments (for or against) the arguments presented
in Activity 3. Discuss with your class.
30. Social thinking
Your brain is a complex organ. However it is an organ nonetheless. It
evolved to work cooperatively with other brains, which means it uses
thinking tools that work well in groups.
The upside is that there is safety in numbers. The downside is that it
produces biases. These help us cooperate with people who share our
values and beliefs. But it also means we are more likely to dismiss the
ideas of people who we don't like or trust, or whose values aren’t the
same as ours.
Unfortunately this can persuade us to overlook invalid arguments, or to
dismiss valid arguments prematurely.
32. Social thinking
What sort of social factors affect our thinking?
Authority: We rely on experts who spend time researching facts to come
to conclusions. Identifying informed experts amongst a range of 'talking
heads' is a vital skill in today's world.
Popularity: Ideas we hear from people we view as friends or celebrities
are more easy to accept as valid.
Exclusivity: Ideas we hear from people we view as bad or our enemy are
more difficult to accept as valid.
Equivalence: Everybody has an equal right to hold an opinion. But not all
opinions are equally likely to prove to be right.
33. Activity 5
Rank from 1 to 10 (1 being least, 10 be most) whose opinions you value.
Business Executive, Government Official, Politician, TV Journalist, Blogger,
Friends, Teacher, Family Members, Environmental Activist, Scientist
Do these people have similar values to you?
Do you consider them experts?
What issues would you approach these different people about?
What additional people would you add to this list?
34. Misleading patterns
Our brains are good at identifying patterns in nature. Sometimes, they are
too good at identifying patterns and can see things that aren’t there.
In the following sequence of coin flips, which face is most likely to come
up next?
HHHHTHTTHHHTTTTTTHHTTTHHHTTTTTTTTT ?
35. Misleading patterns
Which of these three answers matches yours?
C. Either: Heads or tails are equally likely
D. Tails: It is having a good run
E. Heads: It is due to come up
The last two answers is known as the gambler's fallacy. The right answer is A.
It can be difficult to appreciate how probability works. Our difficulty
distinguishing what is probable from what is possible makes us identify
patterns in sequences where there are none.
37. Confirmation bias
Confirmation bias is a tendency we have to subconsciously look for
patterns that confirm ideas we already suspect are true. This means we
will be more likely to see sequences of events or listen to arguments that
support our point of view.
Unfortunately, if our idea is a bad one, it makes it less likely we’ll spot the
flaws in our arguments.
Critical thinking involves challenging our ideas. This often means asking
what the world would look like if our argument was wrong, and looking
for ways to disprove rather than prove our ideas.
38. Effective communication
While jargon, metaphors or even mathematics are
often useful in communicating ideas, they can
sometimes be confusing or misleading.
For example, metaphors are phrases or words that
compare a new idea with one you already know.
However they can sometimes imply unwanted
meaning.
DNA is like a ‘code’ where four base chemicals are
arranged in a sequence.
Codes are messages intentionally written. DNA might
be like a code, but that does not mean somebody
wrote it.
39. Who argues?
When is it important to be able to make a good argument?
Any time you need to persuade somebody that an idea is useful in making
a decision, it needs to be supported by a logically sound argument.
This is called the burden of proof. Even if you need to convince yourself
that your own idea is reliable, you should have a good argument to back it
up.
40. Precautionary principle
Sometimes people have to persuade others to accept the risks that come
from their actions, such as for adopting a new technology like genetic
engineering or nanotechnology. If a decision you make involves other
people, you have the burden of proof to convince them to accept any
risks.
This is no easy task – while our actions often have an effect on others, we
don't all have the same opinion about what risks are worth taking.
41. Precautionary principle
People can sometimes demand certainty that there be zero risk, when
applying the precautionary principle.
This is a misrepresentation of the principle though, and logically it is
impossible, for there will always be some doubt, even if an idea seems
certain. The precautionary principle not be interpreted as being about
100% risk free, but about having a clear understanding of the risks and
benefits of a decision, and knowing when to proceed cautiously .
42. Video
Watch Video 6:
The precautionary
principle
43. Activity 6: Pick your argument
New technology is often viewed with caution until it becomes familiar.
Given the mix of potential risks and benefits science can provide, it’s
important that decisions are made using critical thinking.
Read the handout titled Activity 6: ‘Pick your argument’.
Discuss which arguments are valid and which are invalid.
44. Activity 7: Classroom Discussion
Discuss the following issues with your class.
1. How safe is safe? At what point does something become safe or
unsafe? If it turned out to be the case that GM food was safe and could
save many people from starvation, would it have been an evil act to
delay introducing it?
2. A lot of people claim we should delay action on climate change until
all the science is in and we have absolute proof. Some people say the
same about new technologies, such as genetic engineering, but think
we should act now on climate change without waiting for absolute
certainty. Can these two completely contradictory positions be equally
legitimate?
45. Activity 7: Classroom Discussion
3. If new technologies were developed by a massive philanthropic
organisation, rather than by multinational corporations, would this
affect the merits of the technology or not? Would any philanthropic
organisation be acceptable? What if the philanthropy came with – for
example – religious or political strings?
46. Activity 7: Classroom Discussion
4. Here are three questions we could ask when applying the
precautionary principle to a new technology:
• What are the benefits that the new technology could provide –
what are the risks and uncertainties associated with the
technology?
• What are the risks and uncertainties attached to any current ways
we have of realising the same benefits using existing technologies?
• Do these work? What would you suggest?