This document outlines an introductory chapter on control structures in programming. It discusses various programming concepts like algorithms, pseudocode, control structures including sequence, selection, and repetition structures. Specific control structures covered include if, if/else, while, for, switch, do/while, break and continue. Logical operators and the difference between equality and assignment operators are also mentioned. The chapter provides examples and case studies to explain counter-controlled and sentinel-controlled repetition with while loops. It introduces various C++ keywords and shows how pseudocode can be translated to C++ code. Flowcharts are used to visualize program flow and control structures.
This document outlines the key control structures in programming, including sequence, selection (if/else), and repetition (while, for). It provides examples of algorithms and pseudocode for calculating a class average using counter-controlled and sentinel-controlled repetition. The document also includes the C++ code for a program that calculates the class average based on grades entered by the user, with the option to terminate input by entering a sentinel value.
Metode Perancangan Program #2 Selection and Repetition Control Structure-ITSB...ronistgdr
The document discusses various control structures used in programming, including selection structures like if/else and repetition structures like while and for loops. It provides examples of pseudocode and C++ code to illustrate counter-controlled and sentinel-controlled repetition. Key control structures like if/else and while are explained, along with flowcharts to visualize program logic. Top-down and stepwise refinement techniques are covered for developing algorithms.
This document outlines control structures in programming, including selection structures like if/else and repetition structures like while and for loops. It provides examples of algorithms using pseudocode and C++ code that employ counter-controlled and sentinel-controlled repetition. Key concepts covered include flowcharts, logical operators, and avoiding logic errors. Nested control structures and the switch statement are also discussed.
This document discusses control structures in programming, including sequence, selection, and repetition structures. It provides examples of if/else selection structures and while repetition structures in pseudocode and C++ code. It also covers nested control structures, flowcharts, and different types of repetition structures like counter-controlled and sentinel-controlled loops. Examples are provided to calculate a class average based on grades input by the user using these different looping techniques.
Control structures allow programs to execute code conditionally or repeatedly. There are three basic structures: sequence, selection, and repetition. Selection structures like if/else are used to choose between alternatives. Repetition structures like while loops repeat an action as long as a condition is true. Programs can be represented graphically with flowcharts to show how the structures are combined.
Control structures in C++ include loops like while, do/while and for to repeat actions. Switch, break and continue statements are also covered. The document discusses counter-controlled and sentinel-controlled repetition, and provides examples of calculating a class average using different loop structures. Nested control structures are demonstrated with an example analyzing exam results from 10 students.
Complete C++ programming Language CourseVivek chan
This document provides an overview of topics covered in a C++ programming course, including:
- Introduction to C++ language fundamentals like data types, variables, operators, control structures, functions, and classes
- Memory concepts, arithmetic, decision making, and algorithms
- Structured and object-oriented programming principles
- The basics of the C++ environment like compilers, linkers, and input/output streams
- Common library functions and concepts like headers, prototypes, and enumerations
The document serves as an introductory reference for anyone learning C++ or wanting to understand the basic building blocks of the language.
The document discusses assignment operators and control structures in C#. It defines various assignment operators like +=, -=, etc. and explains their precedence and associativity. It then discusses sequential programming and introduces selection and repetition control structures like if, if/else, switch statements for selection and while, do/while, for statements for repetition. It provides examples of if, if/else and nested if/else statements. It also discusses logical operators, conditional operators and switch statements.
This document outlines the key control structures in programming, including sequence, selection (if/else), and repetition (while, for). It provides examples of algorithms and pseudocode for calculating a class average using counter-controlled and sentinel-controlled repetition. The document also includes the C++ code for a program that calculates the class average based on grades entered by the user, with the option to terminate input by entering a sentinel value.
Metode Perancangan Program #2 Selection and Repetition Control Structure-ITSB...ronistgdr
The document discusses various control structures used in programming, including selection structures like if/else and repetition structures like while and for loops. It provides examples of pseudocode and C++ code to illustrate counter-controlled and sentinel-controlled repetition. Key control structures like if/else and while are explained, along with flowcharts to visualize program logic. Top-down and stepwise refinement techniques are covered for developing algorithms.
This document outlines control structures in programming, including selection structures like if/else and repetition structures like while and for loops. It provides examples of algorithms using pseudocode and C++ code that employ counter-controlled and sentinel-controlled repetition. Key concepts covered include flowcharts, logical operators, and avoiding logic errors. Nested control structures and the switch statement are also discussed.
This document discusses control structures in programming, including sequence, selection, and repetition structures. It provides examples of if/else selection structures and while repetition structures in pseudocode and C++ code. It also covers nested control structures, flowcharts, and different types of repetition structures like counter-controlled and sentinel-controlled loops. Examples are provided to calculate a class average based on grades input by the user using these different looping techniques.
Control structures allow programs to execute code conditionally or repeatedly. There are three basic structures: sequence, selection, and repetition. Selection structures like if/else are used to choose between alternatives. Repetition structures like while loops repeat an action as long as a condition is true. Programs can be represented graphically with flowcharts to show how the structures are combined.
Control structures in C++ include loops like while, do/while and for to repeat actions. Switch, break and continue statements are also covered. The document discusses counter-controlled and sentinel-controlled repetition, and provides examples of calculating a class average using different loop structures. Nested control structures are demonstrated with an example analyzing exam results from 10 students.
Complete C++ programming Language CourseVivek chan
This document provides an overview of topics covered in a C++ programming course, including:
- Introduction to C++ language fundamentals like data types, variables, operators, control structures, functions, and classes
- Memory concepts, arithmetic, decision making, and algorithms
- Structured and object-oriented programming principles
- The basics of the C++ environment like compilers, linkers, and input/output streams
- Common library functions and concepts like headers, prototypes, and enumerations
The document serves as an introductory reference for anyone learning C++ or wanting to understand the basic building blocks of the language.
The document discusses assignment operators and control structures in C#. It defines various assignment operators like +=, -=, etc. and explains their precedence and associativity. It then discusses sequential programming and introduces selection and repetition control structures like if, if/else, switch statements for selection and while, do/while, for statements for repetition. It provides examples of if, if/else and nested if/else statements. It also discusses logical operators, conditional operators and switch statements.
This document discusses control structures in programming, including selection structures like if/else and switch statements. It provides examples of using these structures in C++ to evaluate conditions and choose which code to execute. Pseudocode is used to illustrate algorithms and control flow before translating them into C++ code. Flowcharts are also presented as a way to visually represent program logic and control structures.
The document discusses loops and repetition structures in C++. It explains while loops, their syntax, and how they work. A while loop repeats actions while a condition is true. Each iteration, the condition is evaluated. If true, the loop body executes and control returns to the condition. If false, execution continues after the loop. Pseudocode and C++ code examples are provided to illustrate how a while loop can be used to repeatedly purchase items from a shopping list until it is empty. Flowcharts further demonstrate the flow of control in a while loop.
The document discusses control structures in C++ programming. It describes flow charts and their symbols used to represent algorithms. It then explains different types of control structures like selection structures (if, if/else) and repetition structures (while, for). Key points include:
- Flow charts use shapes like rectangles, diamonds, and arrows to visually depict a program's flow of execution.
- Selection structures like if and if/else allow a program to choose between alternative paths based on a conditional expression being true or false.
- Repetition structures like while and for allow certain operations to be repeated if a condition is met.
1. The document discusses various control structures in C++ including while, do/while, for, switch, break, and continue. It provides examples of how each structure is used.
2. One example calculates the class average of test grades by prompting the user to input 10 grades, summing them, and dividing by 10.
3. Another example analyzes exam results by inputting 10 results, counting passes and failures, and printing a message to raise tuition if passes exceed 8. It uses nested control structures including while, if/else, and if statements.
C programming control structures include sequential, selection, and repetition structures. Selection structures like if/else and switch statements are used for decisions and branching based on evaluating conditions as true or false. Repetition structures like while, do/while, and for loops are used to repeat a block of code. Functions also affect program flow. Any C expression that evaluates to a non-zero value is interpreted as true.
The Three Basic Selection Structures in C++ Programming ConceptsTech
Now check the powerpoint presentation about selection structures in programming. For more visit www.techora.net
Three types of selection structures are available like :
1 - Sequence Structure
2 - Selection Strcuture
3 - Repetition Structure
In this PPT slide, we discuss about the selection structure
1 - if statements
2 - if else statement
3 - switch statement
This document provides an overview of a 5-day Java programming workshop covering operators and conditionals. It discusses arithmetic, assignment, relational and logical operators as well as operator precedence. It also covers conditional statements using if/else and switch/case and provides examples of evaluating grades based on percentages. Additional learning resources on Java programming concepts and documentation are recommended.
The document outlines control structures in programming including algorithms, pseudocode, selection structures like if/else, repetition structures like while loops, and case studies applying these concepts. Key topics are counter-controlled and sentinel-controlled repetition for loops, and nesting control structures with if statements inside loops. Examples in C# demonstrate accumulating values in loops and nested if/else statements.
more loops lecture by Professor Evan korth hammad ali
The document summarizes an upcoming lecture on loops. It provides the schedule, outlines topics to be covered including sentinels, sentinel-controlled loops, and nested control structures. Examples of using sentinels to end a loop based on user input and a case study on analyzing test results are discussed. Key terms like sentinel, initialization, processing, and termination are also introduced.
This document provides an overview of control structures in the C programming language. It discusses selection statements like if, if-else and switch statements that allow conditional execution of code. It also covers iteration statements like for, while and do-while loops that allow repetitive execution. Additionally, it explains jump statements like break, continue, goto and return that change the flow of control.
Shift-Left Testing: QA in a DevOps World by David LaulusaQA or the Highway
Shift-left testing involves injecting quality earlier in the software development process through techniques like unit testing, test-driven development, and regression testing. The presentation discusses principles for effective testing including equivalence partitioning, boundary value analysis, and combinatorial testing. It emphasizes the importance of collaboration between testers and developers through practices like dependency injection and test automation.
This document discusses programming fundamentals and control structures in C++. It covers three main control structures: sequences which execute statements sequentially, repetition (looping) which repeats statements while a condition is met, and selection (branching) which executes instructions depending on conditions. Specific structures covered include if/else, switch, while, do-while, for, and nested loops. Control flow and how these structures direct a program's execution is also explained.
The document provides an introduction to the Java programming language. It discusses Java's history and key editions. It also covers basic Java concepts like compiling and running a simple "Hello World" program, primitive data types, variables, operators, conditional statements like if/else, and iterative structures like the for loop. Examples are provided throughout to demonstrate syntax and output.
The document is a chapter from an introductory C programming textbook. It covers basic C concepts like comments, variables, data types, functions, input/output, arithmetic operators, and conditional statements. It includes examples of simple C programs that print text, get user input, perform addition, and test for equality/relations between numbers. The chapter lays out fundamental building blocks to prepare the reader for more advanced C programming concepts covered later.
This document provides information about a course on Java programming fundamentals taught by Khirulnizam Abd Rahman. It includes details about the lecturer's background and programming experience, the course synopsis and objectives, main textbooks, and topics that will be covered such as control structures, methods, arrays, classes, and file I/O. Sample code is provided to demonstrate if/else and switch statements, including nested if statements. An exercise at the end prompts students to write a program using nested if/else statements to assign grades based on scores.
Core Java Programming Language (JSE) : Chapter IV - Expressions and Flow Cont...WebStackAcademy
Expressions perform operations on data and move data around. Some expressions will be evaluated for their results, some for their side effects, some for both. An expression can have three kinds of result:
a value, such as the result of: (4 * i)
a variable, such as the result of: i = 4
nothing (in the case of an invocation of a method declared as void)
An expression that results in a variable is called an lvalue in C++ and many other languages. A variable expression in Java is the same thing, the Java Language Specification just uses the name variable instead of lvalue. Such an expression can be used on the left hand side of an assignment operator. Side effects come about when an expression includes an assignment, increment, decrement, or method invocation.
In Java language there are several keywords that are used to alter the flow of the program. Statements can be executed multiple times or only under a specific condition. The if, else, and switch statements are used for testing conditions, the while and for statements to create cycles, and the break and continue statements to alter a loop.
When the program is run, the statements are executed from the top of the source file to the bottom. One by one.
The document provides information about various C++ operators and control flow statements:
- It explains assignment operators like +=, -=, *=, /=, %= and the increment/decrement operators ++ and --.
- Conditional statements like if-else are discussed along with logical operators like &&, || and !. Nested if/else, else-if ladder and dangling else issues are covered.
- Flow charts are introduced as a way to visualize algorithms and conditional logic.
- The switch statement provides an alternative way to write multiple conditional checks compared to nested if/else.
- Examples are provided to illustrate concepts like precedence of logical operators, relational operators, and handling division by zero.
This document discusses flow of control in C programming. It covers selection structures like if/else statements that allow a program to make decisions based on boolean expressions. It also covers repetition structures like loops. The key control structures are sequences, selection, and repetition. Selection structures include if/else and switch statements. If/else allows two alternative paths, while switch supports multiple comparisons. Logical and relational operators are used to construct boolean expressions that if/else and switch evaluate. Proper indentation and braces are important for nested conditional statements.
This document discusses control structures in programming, including selection structures like if/else and switch statements. It provides examples of using these structures in C++ to evaluate conditions and choose which code to execute. Pseudocode is used to illustrate algorithms and control flow before translating them into C++ code. Flowcharts are also presented as a way to visually represent program logic and control structures.
The document discusses loops and repetition structures in C++. It explains while loops, their syntax, and how they work. A while loop repeats actions while a condition is true. Each iteration, the condition is evaluated. If true, the loop body executes and control returns to the condition. If false, execution continues after the loop. Pseudocode and C++ code examples are provided to illustrate how a while loop can be used to repeatedly purchase items from a shopping list until it is empty. Flowcharts further demonstrate the flow of control in a while loop.
The document discusses control structures in C++ programming. It describes flow charts and their symbols used to represent algorithms. It then explains different types of control structures like selection structures (if, if/else) and repetition structures (while, for). Key points include:
- Flow charts use shapes like rectangles, diamonds, and arrows to visually depict a program's flow of execution.
- Selection structures like if and if/else allow a program to choose between alternative paths based on a conditional expression being true or false.
- Repetition structures like while and for allow certain operations to be repeated if a condition is met.
1. The document discusses various control structures in C++ including while, do/while, for, switch, break, and continue. It provides examples of how each structure is used.
2. One example calculates the class average of test grades by prompting the user to input 10 grades, summing them, and dividing by 10.
3. Another example analyzes exam results by inputting 10 results, counting passes and failures, and printing a message to raise tuition if passes exceed 8. It uses nested control structures including while, if/else, and if statements.
C programming control structures include sequential, selection, and repetition structures. Selection structures like if/else and switch statements are used for decisions and branching based on evaluating conditions as true or false. Repetition structures like while, do/while, and for loops are used to repeat a block of code. Functions also affect program flow. Any C expression that evaluates to a non-zero value is interpreted as true.
The Three Basic Selection Structures in C++ Programming ConceptsTech
Now check the powerpoint presentation about selection structures in programming. For more visit www.techora.net
Three types of selection structures are available like :
1 - Sequence Structure
2 - Selection Strcuture
3 - Repetition Structure
In this PPT slide, we discuss about the selection structure
1 - if statements
2 - if else statement
3 - switch statement
This document provides an overview of a 5-day Java programming workshop covering operators and conditionals. It discusses arithmetic, assignment, relational and logical operators as well as operator precedence. It also covers conditional statements using if/else and switch/case and provides examples of evaluating grades based on percentages. Additional learning resources on Java programming concepts and documentation are recommended.
The document outlines control structures in programming including algorithms, pseudocode, selection structures like if/else, repetition structures like while loops, and case studies applying these concepts. Key topics are counter-controlled and sentinel-controlled repetition for loops, and nesting control structures with if statements inside loops. Examples in C# demonstrate accumulating values in loops and nested if/else statements.
more loops lecture by Professor Evan korth hammad ali
The document summarizes an upcoming lecture on loops. It provides the schedule, outlines topics to be covered including sentinels, sentinel-controlled loops, and nested control structures. Examples of using sentinels to end a loop based on user input and a case study on analyzing test results are discussed. Key terms like sentinel, initialization, processing, and termination are also introduced.
This document provides an overview of control structures in the C programming language. It discusses selection statements like if, if-else and switch statements that allow conditional execution of code. It also covers iteration statements like for, while and do-while loops that allow repetitive execution. Additionally, it explains jump statements like break, continue, goto and return that change the flow of control.
Shift-Left Testing: QA in a DevOps World by David LaulusaQA or the Highway
Shift-left testing involves injecting quality earlier in the software development process through techniques like unit testing, test-driven development, and regression testing. The presentation discusses principles for effective testing including equivalence partitioning, boundary value analysis, and combinatorial testing. It emphasizes the importance of collaboration between testers and developers through practices like dependency injection and test automation.
This document discusses programming fundamentals and control structures in C++. It covers three main control structures: sequences which execute statements sequentially, repetition (looping) which repeats statements while a condition is met, and selection (branching) which executes instructions depending on conditions. Specific structures covered include if/else, switch, while, do-while, for, and nested loops. Control flow and how these structures direct a program's execution is also explained.
The document provides an introduction to the Java programming language. It discusses Java's history and key editions. It also covers basic Java concepts like compiling and running a simple "Hello World" program, primitive data types, variables, operators, conditional statements like if/else, and iterative structures like the for loop. Examples are provided throughout to demonstrate syntax and output.
The document is a chapter from an introductory C programming textbook. It covers basic C concepts like comments, variables, data types, functions, input/output, arithmetic operators, and conditional statements. It includes examples of simple C programs that print text, get user input, perform addition, and test for equality/relations between numbers. The chapter lays out fundamental building blocks to prepare the reader for more advanced C programming concepts covered later.
This document provides information about a course on Java programming fundamentals taught by Khirulnizam Abd Rahman. It includes details about the lecturer's background and programming experience, the course synopsis and objectives, main textbooks, and topics that will be covered such as control structures, methods, arrays, classes, and file I/O. Sample code is provided to demonstrate if/else and switch statements, including nested if statements. An exercise at the end prompts students to write a program using nested if/else statements to assign grades based on scores.
Core Java Programming Language (JSE) : Chapter IV - Expressions and Flow Cont...WebStackAcademy
Expressions perform operations on data and move data around. Some expressions will be evaluated for their results, some for their side effects, some for both. An expression can have three kinds of result:
a value, such as the result of: (4 * i)
a variable, such as the result of: i = 4
nothing (in the case of an invocation of a method declared as void)
An expression that results in a variable is called an lvalue in C++ and many other languages. A variable expression in Java is the same thing, the Java Language Specification just uses the name variable instead of lvalue. Such an expression can be used on the left hand side of an assignment operator. Side effects come about when an expression includes an assignment, increment, decrement, or method invocation.
In Java language there are several keywords that are used to alter the flow of the program. Statements can be executed multiple times or only under a specific condition. The if, else, and switch statements are used for testing conditions, the while and for statements to create cycles, and the break and continue statements to alter a loop.
When the program is run, the statements are executed from the top of the source file to the bottom. One by one.
The document provides information about various C++ operators and control flow statements:
- It explains assignment operators like +=, -=, *=, /=, %= and the increment/decrement operators ++ and --.
- Conditional statements like if-else are discussed along with logical operators like &&, || and !. Nested if/else, else-if ladder and dangling else issues are covered.
- Flow charts are introduced as a way to visualize algorithms and conditional logic.
- The switch statement provides an alternative way to write multiple conditional checks compared to nested if/else.
- Examples are provided to illustrate concepts like precedence of logical operators, relational operators, and handling division by zero.
This document discusses flow of control in C programming. It covers selection structures like if/else statements that allow a program to make decisions based on boolean expressions. It also covers repetition structures like loops. The key control structures are sequences, selection, and repetition. Selection structures include if/else and switch statements. If/else allows two alternative paths, while switch supports multiple comparisons. Logical and relational operators are used to construct boolean expressions that if/else and switch evaluate. Proper indentation and braces are important for nested conditional statements.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
This presentation was provided by Racquel Jemison, Ph.D., Christina MacLaughlin, Ph.D., and Paulomi Majumder. Ph.D., all of the American Chemical Society, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
1. 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
1
Chapter 2 - Control Structures
Outline
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Algorithms
2.3 Pseudocode
2.4 Control Structures
2.5 if Selection Structure
2.6 if/else Selection Structure
2.7 while Repetition Structure
2.8 Formulating Algorithms: Case Study 1 (Counter-Controlled
Repetition)
2.9 Formulating Algorithms with Top-Down, Stepwise Refinement:
Case Study 2 (Sentinel-Controlled Repetition)
2.10 Formulating Algorithms with Top-Down, Stepwise Refinement:
Case Study 3 (Nested Control Structures)
2.11 Assignment Operators
2.12 Increment and Decrement Operators
2.13 Essentials of Counter-Controlled Repetition
2.14 for Repetition Structure
2.15 Examples Using the for Structure
2. 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
2
Chapter 2 - Control Structures
Outline
2.16 switch Multiple-Selection Structure
2.17 do/while Repetition Structure
2.18 break and continue Statements
2.19 Logical Operators
2.20 Confusing Equality (==) and Assignment (=) Operators
2.21 Structured-Programming Summary
3. 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
3
2.1 Introduction
• Before writing a program
– Have a thorough understanding of problem
– Carefully plan your approach for solving it
• While writing a program
– Know what “building blocks” are available
– Use good programming principles
4. 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
4
2.2 Algorithms
• Computing problems
– Solved by executing a series of actions in a specific order
• Algorithm a procedure determining
– Actions to be executed
– Order to be executed
– Example: recipe
• Program control
– Specifies the order in which statements are executed
5. 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
5
2.3 Pseudocode
• Pseudocode
– Artificial, informal language used to develop algorithms
– Similar to everyday English
• Not executed on computers
– Used to think out program before coding
• Easy to convert into C++ program
– Only executable statements
• No need to declare variables
6. 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
6
2.4 Control Structures
• Sequential execution
– Statements executed in order
• Transfer of control
– Next statement executed not next one in sequence
• 3 control structures (Bohm and Jacopini)
– Sequence structure
• Programs executed sequentially by default
– Selection structures
• if, if/else, switch
– Repetition structures
• while, do/while, for
7. 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
7
2.4 Control Structures
• C++ keywords
– Cannot be used as identifiers or variable names
C++ Keywords
Keywords common to the
C and C++ programming
languages
auto break case char const
continue default do double else
enum extern float for goto
if int long register return
short signed sizeof static struct
switch typedef union unsigned void
volatile while
C++ only keywords
asm bool catch class const_cast
delete dynamic_cast explicit false friend
inline mutable namespace new operator
private protected public reinterpret_cast
static_cast template this throw true
try typeid typename using virtual
wchar_t
8. 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
8
2.4 Control Structures
• Flowchart
– Graphical representation of an algorithm
– Special-purpose symbols connected by arrows (flowlines)
– Rectangle symbol (action symbol)
• Any type of action
– Oval symbol
• Beginning or end of a program, or a section of code (circles)
• Single-entry/single-exit control structures
– Connect exit point of one to entry point of the next
– Control structure stacking
9. 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
9
2.4 Control Structures
10. 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
10
2.5 if Selection Structure
• Selection structure
– Choose among alternative courses of action
– Pseudocode example:
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “Passed”
– If the condition is true
• Print statement executed, program continues to next statement
– If the condition is false
• Print statement ignored, program continues
– Indenting makes programs easier to read
• C++ ignores whitespace characters (tabs, spaces, etc.)
11. 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
11
2.5 if Selection Structure
• Translation into C++
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “Passed”
if ( grade >= 60 )
cout << "Passed";
• Diamond symbol (decision symbol)
– Indicates decision is to be made
– Contains an expression that can be true or false
• Test condition, follow path
• if structure
– Single-entry/single-exit
12. 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
12
2.5 if Selection Structure
• Flowchart of pseudocode statement
A decision can be made on
any expression.
zero - false
nonzero - true
Example:
3 - 4 is true
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2.6 if/else Selection Structure
• if
– Performs action if condition true
• if/else
– Different actions if conditions true or false
• Pseudocode
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
print “Passed”
else
print “Failed”
• C++ code
if ( grade >= 60 )
cout << "Passed";
else
cout << "Failed";
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14
2.6 if/else Selection Structure
• Ternary conditional operator (?:)
– Three arguments (condition, value if true, value if false)
• Code could be written:
cout << ( grade >= 60 ? “Passed” : “Failed” );
Condition Value if true Value if false
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15
2.6 if/else Selection Structure
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2.6 if/else Selection Structure
• Nested if/else structures
– One inside another, test for multiple cases
– Once condition met, other statements skipped
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 90
Print “A”
else
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 80
Print “B”
else
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 70
Print “C”
else
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “D”
else
Print “F”
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2.6 if/else Selection Structure
• Example
if ( grade >= 90 ) // 90 and above
cout << "A";
else if ( grade >= 80 ) // 80-89
cout << "B";
else if ( grade >= 70 ) // 70-79
cout << "C";
else if ( grade >= 60 ) // 60-69
cout << "D";
else // less than 60
cout << "F";
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18
2.6 if/else Selection Structure
• Compound statement
– Set of statements within a pair of braces
if ( grade >= 60 )
cout << "Passed.n";
else {
cout << "Failed.n";
cout << "You must take this course again.n";
}
– Without braces,
cout << "You must take this course again.n";
always executed
• Block
– Set of statements within braces
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2.7 while Repetition Structure
• Repetition structure
– Action repeated while some condition remains true
– Psuedocode
while there are more items on my shopping list
Purchase next item and cross it off my list
– while loop repeated until condition becomes false
• Example
int product = 2;
while ( product <= 1000 )
product = 2 * product;
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20
2.7 The while Repetition Structure
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2.8 Formulating Algorithms (Counter-
Controlled Repetition)
• Counter-controlled repetition
– Loop repeated until counter reaches certain value
• Definite repetition
– Number of repetitions known
• Example
A class of ten students took a quiz. The grades (integers in
the range 0 to 100) for this quiz are available to you.
Determine the class average on the quiz.
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2.8 Formulating Algorithms (Counter-
Controlled Repetition)
• Pseudocode for example:
Set total to zero
Set grade counter to one
While grade counter is less than or equal to ten
Input the next grade
Add the grade into the total
Add one to the grade counter
Set the class average to the total divided by ten
Print the class average
• Next: C++ code for this example
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Outline
23
fig02_07.cpp
(1 of 2)
1 // Fig. 2.7: fig02_07.cpp
2 // Class average program with counter-controlled repetition.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8
9 // function main begins program execution
10 int main()
11 {
12 int total; // sum of grades input by user
13 int gradeCounter; // number of grade to be entered next
14 int grade; // grade value
15 int average; // average of grades
16
17 // initialization phase
18 total = 0; // initialize total
19 gradeCounter = 1; // initialize loop counter
20
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Outline
24
fig02_07.cpp
(2 of 2)
fig02_07.cpp
output (1 of 1)
21 // processing phase
22 while ( gradeCounter <= 10 ) { // loop 10 times
23 cout << "Enter grade: "; // prompt for input
24 cin >> grade; // read grade from user
25 total = total + grade; // add grade to total
26 gradeCounter = gradeCounter + 1; // increment counter
27 }
28
29 // termination phase
30 average = total / 10; // integer division
31
32 // display result
33 cout << "Class average is " << average << endl;
34
35 return 0; // indicate program ended successfully
36
37 } // end function main
Enter grade: 98
Enter grade: 76
Enter grade: 71
Enter grade: 87
Enter grade: 83
Enter grade: 90
Enter grade: 57
Enter grade: 79
Enter grade: 82
Enter grade: 94
Class average is 81
The counter gets incremented each
time the loop executes.
Eventually, the counter causes the
loop to end.
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2.9 Formulating Algorithms (Sentinel-
Controlled Repetition)
• Suppose problem becomes:
Develop a class-averaging program that will process an
arbitrary number of grades each time the program is run
– Unknown number of students
– How will program know when to end?
• Sentinel value
– Indicates “end of data entry”
– Loop ends when sentinel input
– Sentinel chosen so it cannot be confused with regular input
• -1 in this case
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2.9 Formulating Algorithms (Sentinel-
Controlled Repetition)
• Top-down, stepwise refinement
– Begin with pseudocode representation of top
Determine the class average for the quiz
– Divide top into smaller tasks, list in order
Initialize variables
Input, sum and count the quiz grades
Calculate and print the class average
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2.9 Formulating Algorithms (Sentinel-
Controlled Repetition)
• Many programs have three phases
– Initialization
• Initializes the program variables
– Processing
• Input data, adjusts program variables
– Termination
• Calculate and print the final results
– Helps break up programs for top-down refinement
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2.9 Formulating Algorithms (Sentinel-
Controlled Repetition)
• Refine the initialization phase
Initialize variables
goes to
Initialize total to zero
Initialize counter to zero
• Processing
Input, sum and count the quiz grades
goes to
Input the first grade (possibly the sentinel)
While the user has not as yet entered the sentinel
Add this grade into the running total
Add one to the grade counter
Input the next grade (possibly the sentinel)
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2.9 Formulating Algorithms (Sentinel-
Controlled Repetition)
• Termination
Calculate and print the class average
goes to
If the counter is not equal to zero
Set the average to the total divided by the counter
Print the average
Else
Print “No grades were entered”
• Next: C++ program
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Outline
30
fig02_09.cpp
(1 of 3)
1 // Fig. 2.9: fig02_09.cpp
2 // Class average program with sentinel-controlled repetition.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8 using std::fixed;
9
10 #include <iomanip> // parameterized stream manipulators
11
12 using std::setprecision; // sets numeric output precision
13
14 // function main begins program execution
15 int main()
16 {
17 int total; // sum of grades
18 int gradeCounter; // number of grades entered
19 int grade; // grade value
20
21 double average; // number with decimal point for average
22
23 // initialization phase
24 total = 0; // initialize total
25 gradeCounter = 0; // initialize loop counter
Data type double used to represent
decimal numbers.
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Outline
31
fig02_09.cpp
(2 of 3)
26
27 // processing phase
28 // get first grade from user
29 cout << "Enter grade, -1 to end: "; // prompt for input
30 cin >> grade; // read grade from user
31
32 // loop until sentinel value read from user
33 while ( grade != -1 ) {
34 total = total + grade; // add grade to total
35 gradeCounter = gradeCounter + 1; // increment counter
36
37 cout << "Enter grade, -1 to end: "; // prompt for input
38 cin >> grade; // read next grade
39
40 } // end while
41
42 // termination phase
43 // if user entered at least one grade ...
44 if ( gradeCounter != 0 ) {
45
46 // calculate average of all grades entered
47 average = static_cast< double >( total ) / gradeCounter;
48
static_cast<double>() treats total as a
double temporarily (casting).
Required because dividing two integers truncates the
remainder.
gradeCounter is an int, but it gets promoted to
double.
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Outline
32
fig02_09.cpp
(3 of 3)
fig02_09.cpp
output (1 of 1)
49 // display average with two digits of precision
50 cout << "Class average is " << setprecision( 2 )
51 << fixed << average << endl;
52
53 } // end if part of if/else
54
55 else // if no grades were entered, output appropriate message
56 cout << "No grades were entered" << endl;
57
58 return 0; // indicate program ended successfully
59
60 } // end function main
Enter grade, -1 to end: 75
Enter grade, -1 to end: 94
Enter grade, -1 to end: 97
Enter grade, -1 to end: 88
Enter grade, -1 to end: 70
Enter grade, -1 to end: 64
Enter grade, -1 to end: 83
Enter grade, -1 to end: 89
Enter grade, -1 to end: -1
Class average is 82.50
setprecision(2)prints two digits past
decimal point (rounded to fit precision).
Programs that use this must include <iomanip>
fixed forces output to print
in fixed point format (not
scientific notation). Also,
forces trailing zeros and
decimal point to print.
Include <iostream>
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33
2.10 Nested Control Structures
• Problem statement
A college has a list of test results (1 = pass, 2 = fail) for 10
students. Write a program that analyzes the results. If more
than 8 students pass, print "Raise Tuition".
• Notice that
– Program processes 10 results
• Fixed number, use counter-controlled loop
– Two counters can be used
• One counts number that passed
• Another counts number that fail
– Each test result is 1 or 2
• If not 1, assume 2
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2.10 Nested Control Structures
• Top level outline
Analyze exam results and decide if tuition should be raised
• First refinement
Initialize variables
Input the ten quiz grades and count passes and failures
Print a summary of the exam results and decide if tuition
should be raised
• Refine
Initialize variables
to
Initialize passes to zero
Initialize failures to zero
Initialize student counter to one
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35
2.10 Nested Control Structures
• Refine
Input the ten quiz grades and count passes and failures
to
While student counter is less than or equal to ten
Input the next exam result
If the student passed
Add one to passes
Else
Add one to failures
Add one to student counter
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36
2.10 Nested Control Structures
• Refine
Print a summary of the exam results and decide if tuition should
be raised
to
Print the number of passes
Print the number of failures
If more than eight students passed
Print “Raise tuition”
• Program next
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Outline
37
fig02_11.cpp
(1 of 2)
1 // Fig. 2.11: fig02_11.cpp
2 // Analysis of examination results.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8
9 // function main begins program execution
10 int main()
11 {
12 // initialize variables in declarations
13 int passes = 0; // number of passes
14 int failures = 0; // number of failures
15 int studentCounter = 1; // student counter
16 int result; // one exam result
17
18 // process 10 students using counter-controlled loop
19 while ( studentCounter <= 10 ) {
20
21 // prompt user for input and obtain value from user
22 cout << "Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): ";
23 cin >> result;
24
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38
fig02_11.cpp
(2 of 2)
25 // if result 1, increment passes; if/else nested in while
26 if ( result == 1 ) // if/else nested in while
27 passes = passes + 1;
28
29 else // if result not 1, increment failures
30 failures = failures + 1;
31
32 // increment studentCounter so loop eventually terminates
33 studentCounter = studentCounter + 1;
34
35 } // end while
36
37 // termination phase; display number of passes and failures
38 cout << "Passed " << passes << endl;
39 cout << "Failed " << failures << endl;
40
41 // if more than eight students passed, print "raise tuition"
42 if ( passes > 8 )
43 cout << "Raise tuition " << endl;
44
45 return 0; // successful termination
46
47 } // end function main
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Outline
39
fig02_11.cpp
output (1 of 1)
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Passed 6
Failed 4
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Passed 9
Failed 1
Raise tuition
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40
2.11 Assignment Operators
• Assignment expression abbreviations
– Addition assignment operator
c = c + 3; abbreviated to
c += 3;
• Statements of the form
variable = variable operator expression;
can be rewritten as
variable operator= expression;
• Other assignment operators
d -= 4 (d = d - 4)
e *= 5 (e = e * 5)
f /= 3 (f = f / 3)
g %= 9 (g = g % 9)
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2.12 Increment and Decrement Operators
• Increment operator (++) - can be used instead of c
+= 1
• Decrement operator (--) - can be used instead of c -
= 1
– Preincrement
• When the operator is used before the variable (++c or –c)
• Variable is changed, then the expression it is in is evaluated.
– Posincrement
• When the operator is used after the variable (c++ or c--)
• Expression the variable is in executes, then the variable is changed.
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2.12 Increment and Decrement Operators
• Increment operator (++)
– Increment variable by one
– c++
• Same as c += 1
• Decrement operator (--) similar
– Decrement variable by one
– c--
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2.12 Increment and Decrement Operators
• Preincrement
– Variable changed before used in expression
• Operator before variable (++c or --c)
• Postincrement
– Incremented changed after expression
• Operator after variable (c++, c--)
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2.12 Increment and Decrement Operators
• If c = 5, then
– cout << ++c;
• c is changed to 6, then printed out
– cout << c++;
• Prints out 5 (cout is executed before the increment.
• c then becomes 6
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2.12 Increment and Decrement Operators
• When variable not in expression
– Preincrementing and postincrementing have same effect
++c;
cout << c;
and
c++;
cout << c;
are the same
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Outline
46
fig02_14.cpp
(1 of 2)
1 // Fig. 2.14: fig02_14.cpp
2 // Preincrementing and postincrementing.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 int c; // declare variable
12
13 // demonstrate postincrement
14 c = 5; // assign 5 to c
15 cout << c << endl; // print 5
16 cout << c++ << endl; // print 5 then postincrement
17 cout << c << endl << endl; // print 6
18
19 // demonstrate preincrement
20 c = 5; // assign 5 to c
21 cout << c << endl; // print 5
22 cout << ++c << endl; // preincrement then print 6
23 cout << c << endl; // print 6
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Outline
47
fig02_14.cpp
(2 of 2)
fig02_14.cpp
output (1 of 1)
24
25 return 0; // indicate successful termination
26
27 } // end function main
5
5
6
5
6
6
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48
2.13 Essentials of Counter-Controlled
Repetition
• Counter-controlled repetition requires
– Name of control variable/loop counter
– Initial value of control variable
– Condition to test for final value
– Increment/decrement to modify control variable when
looping
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Outline
49
fig02_16.cpp
(1 of 1)
1 // Fig. 2.16: fig02_16.cpp
2 // Counter-controlled repetition.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 int counter = 1; // initialization
12
13 while ( counter <= 10 ) { // repetition condition
14 cout << counter << endl; // display counter
15 ++counter; // increment
16
17 } // end while
18
19 return 0; // indicate successful termination
20
21 } // end function main
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Outline
50
fig02_16.cpp
output (1 of 1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
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51
2.13 Essentials of Counter-Controlled
Repetition
• The declaration
int counter = 1;
– Names counter
– Declares counter to be an integer
– Reserves space for counter in memory
– Sets counter to an initial value of 1
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2.14 for Repetition Structure
• General format when using for loops
for ( initialization; LoopContinuationTest;
increment )
statement
• Example
for( int counter = 1; counter <= 10; counter++ )
cout << counter << endl;
– Prints integers from one to ten
No
semicolon
after last
statement
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Outline
53
fig02_17.cpp
(1 of 1)
1 // Fig. 2.17: fig02_17.cpp
2 // Counter-controlled repetition with the for structure.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 // Initialization, repetition condition and incrementing
12 // are all included in the for structure header.
13
14 for ( int counter = 1; counter <= 10; counter++ )
15 cout << counter << endl;
16
17 return 0; // indicate successful termination
18
19 } // end function main
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Outline
54
fig02_17.cpp
output (1 of 1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
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55
2.14 for Repetition Structure
• for loops can usually be rewritten as while loops
initialization;
while ( loopContinuationTest){
statement
increment;
}
• Initialization and increment
– For multiple variables, use comma-separated lists
for (int i = 0, j = 0; j + i <= 10; j++, i++)
cout << j + i << endl;
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2.14 for Repetition Structure
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Outline
57
fig02_20.cpp
(1 of 1)
fig02_20.cpp
output (1 of 1)
1 // Fig. 2.20: fig02_20.cpp
2 // Summation with for.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 int sum = 0; // initialize sum
12
13 // sum even integers from 2 through 100
14 for ( int number = 2; number <= 100; number += 2 )
15 sum += number; // add number to sum
16
17 cout << "Sum is " << sum << endl; // output sum
18 return 0; // successful termination
19
20 } // end function main
Sum is 2550
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58
2.15 Examples Using the for Structure
• Program to calculate compound interest
• A person invests $1000.00 in a savings account yielding 5 percent
interest. Assuming that all interest is left on deposit in the account,
calculate and print the amount of money in the account at the end of
each year for 10 years. Use the following formula for determining
these amounts:
a = p(1+r)
• p is the original amount invested (i.e., the principal),
r is the annual interest rate,
n is the number of years and
a is the amount on deposit at the end of the nth year
n
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Outline
59
fig02_21.cpp
(1 of 2)
1 // Fig. 2.21: fig02_21.cpp
2 // Calculating compound interest.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7 //using std::ios;
8 using std::fixed;
9
10 #include <iomanip>
11
12 using std::setw;
13 using std::setprecision;
14
15 #include <cmath> // enables program to use function pow
16
17 // function main begins program execution
18 int main()
19 {
20 double amount; // amount on deposit
21 double principal = 1000.0; // starting principal
22 double rate = .05; // interest rate
23
<cmath> header needed for
the pow function (program
will not compile without it).
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Outline
60
fig02_21.cpp
(2 of 2)
24 // output table column heads
25 cout << "Year" << setw( 21 ) << "Amount on deposit" << endl;
26
27 // set floating-point number format
28 cout << fixed << setprecision( 2 );
29
30 // calculate amount on deposit for each of ten years
31 for ( int year = 1; year <= 10; year++ ) {
32
33 // calculate new amount for specified year
34 amount = principal * pow( 1.0 + rate, year );
35
36 // output one table row
37 cout << setw( 4 ) << year
38 << setw( 21 ) << amount << endl;
39
40 } // end for
41
42 return 0; // indicate successful termination
43
44 } // end function main
pow(x,y) = x raised to the
yth power.
Sets the field width to at least
21 characters. If output less
than 21, it is right-justified.
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Outline
61
fig02_21.cpp
output (1 of 1)
Year Amount on deposit
1 1050.00
2 1102.50
3 1157.63
4 1215.51
5 1276.28
6 1340.10
7 1407.10
8 1477.46
9 1551.33
10 1628.89
Numbers are right-justified
due to setw statements (at
positions 4 and 21).
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62
2.16 switch Multiple-Selection Structure
• switch
– Test variable for multiple values
– Series of case labels and optional default case
switch ( variable ) {
case value1: // taken if variable == value1
statements
break; // necessary to exit switch
case value2:
case value3: // taken if variable == value2 or == value3
statements
break;
default: // taken if variable matches no other cases
statements
break;
}
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63
2.16 switch Multiple-Selection Structure
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2.16 switch Multiple-Selection Structure
• Example upcoming
– Program to read grades (A-F)
– Display number of each grade entered
• Details about characters
– Single characters typically stored in a char data type
• char a 1-byte integer, so chars can be stored as ints
– Can treat character as int or char
• 97 is the numerical representation of lowercase ‘a’ (ASCII)
• Use single quotes to get numerical representation of character
cout << "The character (" << 'a' << ") has the value "
<< static_cast< int > ( 'a' ) << endl;
Prints
The character (a) has the value 97
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Outline
65
fig02_22.cpp
(1 of 4)
1 // Fig. 2.22: fig02_22.cpp
2 // Counting letter grades.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8
9 // function main begins program execution
10 int main()
11 {
12 int grade; // one grade
13 int aCount = 0; // number of As
14 int bCount = 0; // number of Bs
15 int cCount = 0; // number of Cs
16 int dCount = 0; // number of Ds
17 int fCount = 0; // number of Fs
18
19 cout << "Enter the letter grades." << endl
20 << "Enter the EOF character to end input." << endl;
21
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Outline
66
fig02_22.cpp
(2 of 4)
22 // loop until user types end-of-file key sequence
23 while ( ( grade = cin.get() ) != EOF ) {
24
25 // determine which grade was input
26 switch ( grade ) { // switch structure nested in while
27
28 case 'A': // grade was uppercase A
29 case 'a': // or lowercase a
30 ++aCount; // increment aCount
31 break; // necessary to exit switch
32
33 case 'B': // grade was uppercase B
34 case 'b': // or lowercase b
35 ++bCount; // increment bCount
36 break; // exit switch
37
38 case 'C': // grade was uppercase C
39 case 'c': // or lowercase c
40 ++cCount; // increment cCount
41 break; // exit switch
42
cin.get() uses dot notation
(explained chapter 6). This
function gets 1 character from the
keyboard (after Enter pressed), and
it is assigned to grade.
cin.get() returns EOF (end-of-
file) after the EOF character is
input, to indicate the end of data.
EOF may be ctrl-d or ctrl-z,
depending on your OS.
Compares grade (an int)
to the numerical
representations of A and a.
break causes switch to end and
the program continues with the first
statement after the switch
structure.
Assignment statements have a
value, which is the same as
the variable on the left of the
=. The value of this statement
is the same as the value
returned by cin.get().
This can also be used to
initialize multiple variables:
a = b = c = 0;
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Outline
67
fig02_22.cpp
(3 of 4)
43 case 'D': // grade was uppercase D
44 case 'd': // or lowercase d
45 ++dCount; // increment dCount
46 break; // exit switch
47
48 case 'F': // grade was uppercase F
49 case 'f': // or lowercase f
50 ++fCount; // increment fCount
51 break; // exit switch
52
53 case 'n': // ignore newlines,
54 case 't': // tabs,
55 case ' ': // and spaces in input
56 break; // exit switch
57
58 default: // catch all other characters
59 cout << "Incorrect letter grade entered."
60 << " Enter a new grade." << endl;
61 break; // optional; will exit switch anyway
62
63 } // end switch
64
65 } // end while
66
Notice the default statement, which
catches all other cases.
This test is necessary because
Enter is pressed after each
letter grade is input. This adds
a newline character that must
be removed. Likewise, we
want to ignore any
whitespace.
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Outline
68
fig02_22.cpp
(4 of 4)
67 // output summary of results
68 cout << "nnTotals for each letter grade are:"
69 << "nA: " << aCount // display number of A grades
70 << "nB: " << bCount // display number of B grades
71 << "nC: " << cCount // display number of C grades
72 << "nD: " << dCount // display number of D grades
73 << "nF: " << fCount // display number of F grades
74 << endl;
75
76 return 0; // indicate successful termination
77
78 } // end function main
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Outline
69
fig02_22.cpp
output (1 of 1)
Enter the letter grades.
Enter the EOF character to end input.
a
B
c
C
A
d
f
C
E
Incorrect letter grade entered. Enter a new grade.
D
A
b
^Z
Totals for each letter grade are:
A: 3
B: 2
C: 3
D: 2
F: 1
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70
2.17 do/while Repetition Structure
• Similar to while structure
– Makes loop continuation test at end, not beginning
– Loop body executes at least once
• Format
do {
statement
} while ( condition );
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71
2.17 do/while Repetition Structure
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Outline
72
fig02_24.cpp
(1 of 1)
fig02_24.cpp
output (1 of 1)
1 // Fig. 2.24: fig02_24.cpp
2 // Using the do/while repetition structure.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 int counter = 1; // initialize counter
12
13 do {
14 cout << counter << " "; // display counter
15 } while ( ++counter <= 10 ); // end do/while
16
17 cout << endl;
18
19 return 0; // indicate successful termination
20
21 } // end function main
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Notice the preincrement in
loop-continuation test.
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73
2.18 break and continue Statements
• break statement
– Immediate exit from while, for, do/while, switch
– Program continues with first statement after structure
• Common uses
– Escape early from a loop
– Skip the remainder of switch
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Outline
74
fig02_26.cpp
(1 of 2)
1 // Fig. 2.26: fig02_26.cpp
2 // Using the break statement in a for structure.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11
12 int x; // x declared here so it can be used after the loop
13
14 // loop 10 times
15 for ( x = 1; x <= 10; x++ ) {
16
17 // if x is 5, terminate loop
18 if ( x == 5 )
19 break; // break loop only if x is 5
20
21 cout << x << " "; // display value of x
22
23 } // end for
24
25 cout << "nBroke out of loop when x became " << x << endl;
Exits for structure when
break executed.
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Outline
75
fig02_26.cpp
(2 of 2)
fig02_26.cpp
output (1 of 1)
26
27 return 0; // indicate successful termination
28
29 } // end function main
1 2 3 4
Broke out of loop when x became 5
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76
2.18 break and continue Statements
• continue statement
– Used in while, for, do/while
– Skips remainder of loop body
– Proceeds with next iteration of loop
• while and do/while structure
– Loop-continuation test evaluated immediately after the
continue statement
• for structure
– Increment expression executed
– Next, loop-continuation test evaluated
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Outline
77
fig02_27.cpp
(1 of 2)
1 // Fig. 2.27: fig02_27.cpp
2 // Using the continue statement in a for structure.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 // loop 10 times
12 for ( int x = 1; x <= 10; x++ ) {
13
14 // if x is 5, continue with next iteration of loop
15 if ( x == 5 )
16 continue; // skip remaining code in loop body
17
18 cout << x << " "; // display value of x
19
20 } // end for structure
21
22 cout << "nUsed continue to skip printing the value 5"
23 << endl;
24
25 return 0; // indicate successful termination
Skips to next iteration of the
loop.
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Outline
78
fig02_27.cpp
(2 of 2)
fig02_27.cpp
output (1 of 1)
26
27 } // end function main
1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10
Used continue to skip printing the value 5
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79
2.19 Logical Operators
• Used as conditions in loops, if statements
• && (logical AND)
– true if both conditions are true
if ( gender == 1 && age >= 65 )
++seniorFemales;
• || (logical OR)
– true if either of condition is true
if ( semesterAverage >= 90 || finalExam >= 90 )
cout << "Student grade is A" << endl;
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80
2.19 Logical Operators
• ! (logical NOT, logical negation)
– Returns true when its condition is false, & vice versa
if ( !( grade == sentinelValue ) )
cout << "The next grade is " << grade << endl;
Alternative:
if ( grade != sentinelValue )
cout << "The next grade is " << grade << endl;
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81
2.20 Confusing Equality (==) and
Assignment (=) Operators
• Common error
– Does not typically cause syntax errors
• Aspects of problem
– Expressions that have a value can be used for decision
• Zero = false, nonzero = true
– Assignment statements produce a value (the value to be
assigned)
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82
2.20 Confusing Equality (==) and
Assignment (=) Operators
• Example
if ( payCode == 4 )
cout << "You get a bonus!" << endl;
– If paycode is 4, bonus given
• If == was replaced with =
if ( payCode = 4 )
cout << "You get a bonus!" << endl;
– Paycode set to 4 (no matter what it was before)
– Statement is true (since 4 is non-zero)
– Bonus given in every case
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83
2.20 Confusing Equality (==) and
Assignment (=) Operators
• Lvalues
– Expressions that can appear on left side of equation
– Can be changed (I.e., variables)
• x = 4;
• Rvalues
– Only appear on right side of equation
– Constants, such as numbers (i.e. cannot write 4 = x;)
• Lvalues can be used as rvalues, but not vice versa
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84
2.21 Structured-Programming Summary
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85
2.21 Structured-Programming Summary
• Structured programming
– Programs easier to understand, test, debug and modify
• Rules for structured programming
– Only use single-entry/single-exit control structures
– Rules
1) Begin with the “simplest flowchart”
2) Any rectangle (action) can be replaced by two rectangles
(actions) in sequence
3) Any rectangle (action) can be replaced by any control
structure (sequence, if, if/else, switch, while, do/while or for)
4) Rules 2 and 3 can be applied in any order and multiple times
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86
2.21 Structured-Programming Summary
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87
2.21 Structured-Programming Summary
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88
2.21 Structured-Programming Summary
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89
2.21 Structured-Programming Summary
• All programs broken down into
– Sequence
– Selection
• if, if/else, or switch
• Any selection can be rewritten as an if statement
– Repetition
• while, do/while or for
• Any repetition structure can be rewritten as a while statement
Editor's Notes
Sentinel means indication. Sentinel value is also called flag, dummy or signal value.