Cosmic Search Vol. 1, No. 1
Little Green Men, White Dwarfs or Pulsars?
By S. Jocelyn Bell Burnell
"We did all the work ourselves and cheerfully sledgehammered all one summer." Burnell and the antenna.
In all the history of radio astronomy the pulsing signals discovered at Cambridge, England, in 1967 were the most suggestive of an extraterrestrial intelligent origin that have ever been detected. In this article, Jocelyn Bell Burnell tells a delightful, personal story of how she first encountered the signals and what ensued.-Eds.
Ladies and Gentlemen: Before you discover for yourselves let me tell you that I am no expert at after dinner speeches. The nearest I have come was writing a Ph.D. thesis; my supervisor kindly read a draft of it and advised me that it read more like an after-dinner speech than a Cambridge University dissertation. He was right, of course, but it has taken me years to see the funny side of his remark.
There has been a lot of interest shown in the discovery of pulsars, and also some misunderstanding. I would like to take this opportunity of setting the record straight. However, it all happened 8 or 9 years ago, and after such a time there is some difficulty in remembering it all accurately.
The story began in the mid-1960's, when the technique of interplanetary scintillation (IPS) was discovered. IPS is the apparent fluctuation in intensity of the radio emission from a compact radio source. It is due to diffraction of the radio waves as they pass through the turbulent solar wind in interplanetary space. Compact radio sources, e.g. quasars, scintillate more than extended radio sources. Professor Tony Hewish realized this technique would be a useful way of picking out quasars, and designed a large radio telescope to do this. I joined him as a Ph.D. student when construction of this telescope was about to start.
The telescope covered an area of 41/2 acres - an area that would accommodate 57 tennis courts. In this area we put up over a thousand posts, and strung more than 2000 dipoles between them. The whole was connected up by 120 miles of wire and cable. We did the work ourselves - about five of us - with the help of several very keen vacation students who cheerfully sledge-hammered all one summer. It took two years to build and cost about E15,000, which was cheap even then. We started operating it in July 1967, although it was several months more before the construction was completely finished.
I had sole responsibility for operating the telescope and analyzing the data, with supervision from Tony Hewish. We operated it with four beams simultaneously, and scanned all the sky between declinations +50' and -10' once every four days. The output appeared on four 3-track pen recorders, and between them they produced 96 feet of chart paper every day. The charts were analyzed by hand by me. We decided initially not to computerize the output because until we were familiar with the behavior of our telescope and receivers we th.
Nobel Prize in Astronomy? Nonsense, you will say, there is no such thing! And you will be right! Today I would like to talk about the Nobel Prizes in Physics awarded for the discoveries directly related to Astronomy. Of course, many scientific advances contributed to the modern understanding of Space. But let’s look at those few that achieved the highest scientific recognition.
The document discusses the Hubble Space Telescope, including:
- It was launched in 1990 from the space shuttle Discovery and has received several servicing missions to upgrade its instruments.
- It orbits Earth at an altitude of 340 miles and travels at 27,300 km/h, taking 95 minutes to complete one orbit.
- The telescope is 13.2 meters long and has a maximum diameter, allowing it to take detailed images of space.
- Sundials use the sun's position to tell time and can only be used outdoors during daylight hours without cloud cover. Ancient examples were placed in prominent locations to indicate solstices and equinoxes.
- Stonehenges were used as celestial calendars, burial sites, sacrificial altars, and defensive structures in ancient times.
- Telescopes allow viewing of distant celestial objects like stars, planets, and galaxies. The Hubble Space Telescope is the most advanced telescope currently in use.
The document provides information about the transits of Venus that will occur on June 8, 2004, including the dates of past and future transits, how observations of previous transits helped establish estimates of the Earth's distance from the Sun, and plans for observing and broadcasting the upcoming 2004 transit globally. Key historical transits discussed are those of 1639, 1761, 1769, 1874 and 1882 which helped refine measurements of the astronomical unit through observations of Venus's changing apparent size.
The document summarizes key developments in understanding planetary motion from Ptolemy to Kepler. It describes how Ptolemy created the geocentric model with epicycles to account for retrograde motion, how Galileo's telescope discoveries like Jupiter's moons supported Copernicus' heliocentric model, and how Kepler analyzed Tycho Brahe's precise observations to determine that planets orbit in ellipses with the Sun at one focus.
Frank Drake organized the first scientific meeting to discuss the possibility of discovering life on other worlds in 1961. He created what became known as the Drake Equation to summarize the key factors needed to estimate the number of detectable civilizations in our galaxy. The equation multiplied terms for the rate of star formation, the fraction of stars with planets, the number of planets that could support life, the fraction where life emerges and develops intelligence, the fraction that develop technologies for communication, and the length of time such civilizations remain detectable. At the meeting, estimates for the factors produced a value close to 1 for the number of civilizations, depending largely on how long they remain detectable. The Drake Equation became widely known and helped focus discussion on the challenges of
This document provides an introduction to great astronomers throughout history, beginning with Hipparchus in ancient times. It describes how Hipparchus made early advances in astronomy, including compiling the first star catalog, developing trigonometry to aid his calculations, and discovering the phenomenon of precession of the equinoxes through careful observation of the positions of the equinoxes over time. The introduction sets the stage for discussing other major astronomers such as Ptolemy, Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Newton, and others who continued advancing the field of astronomy.
The document discusses dark energy, which accounts for about 70% of the mass of the universe but cannot be directly observed. Measurements of type 1a supernovae found that the expansion of the universe is accelerating, rather than slowing down as expected, suggesting the existence of a mysterious force exerting gravitational repulsion. This dark energy corresponds to Einstein's cosmological constant, which he later disregarded as his "biggest blunder" but may have been correct after all. Current theories hold that dark energy is responsible for the accelerating expansion of the universe.
Nobel Prize in Astronomy? Nonsense, you will say, there is no such thing! And you will be right! Today I would like to talk about the Nobel Prizes in Physics awarded for the discoveries directly related to Astronomy. Of course, many scientific advances contributed to the modern understanding of Space. But let’s look at those few that achieved the highest scientific recognition.
The document discusses the Hubble Space Telescope, including:
- It was launched in 1990 from the space shuttle Discovery and has received several servicing missions to upgrade its instruments.
- It orbits Earth at an altitude of 340 miles and travels at 27,300 km/h, taking 95 minutes to complete one orbit.
- The telescope is 13.2 meters long and has a maximum diameter, allowing it to take detailed images of space.
- Sundials use the sun's position to tell time and can only be used outdoors during daylight hours without cloud cover. Ancient examples were placed in prominent locations to indicate solstices and equinoxes.
- Stonehenges were used as celestial calendars, burial sites, sacrificial altars, and defensive structures in ancient times.
- Telescopes allow viewing of distant celestial objects like stars, planets, and galaxies. The Hubble Space Telescope is the most advanced telescope currently in use.
The document provides information about the transits of Venus that will occur on June 8, 2004, including the dates of past and future transits, how observations of previous transits helped establish estimates of the Earth's distance from the Sun, and plans for observing and broadcasting the upcoming 2004 transit globally. Key historical transits discussed are those of 1639, 1761, 1769, 1874 and 1882 which helped refine measurements of the astronomical unit through observations of Venus's changing apparent size.
The document summarizes key developments in understanding planetary motion from Ptolemy to Kepler. It describes how Ptolemy created the geocentric model with epicycles to account for retrograde motion, how Galileo's telescope discoveries like Jupiter's moons supported Copernicus' heliocentric model, and how Kepler analyzed Tycho Brahe's precise observations to determine that planets orbit in ellipses with the Sun at one focus.
Frank Drake organized the first scientific meeting to discuss the possibility of discovering life on other worlds in 1961. He created what became known as the Drake Equation to summarize the key factors needed to estimate the number of detectable civilizations in our galaxy. The equation multiplied terms for the rate of star formation, the fraction of stars with planets, the number of planets that could support life, the fraction where life emerges and develops intelligence, the fraction that develop technologies for communication, and the length of time such civilizations remain detectable. At the meeting, estimates for the factors produced a value close to 1 for the number of civilizations, depending largely on how long they remain detectable. The Drake Equation became widely known and helped focus discussion on the challenges of
This document provides an introduction to great astronomers throughout history, beginning with Hipparchus in ancient times. It describes how Hipparchus made early advances in astronomy, including compiling the first star catalog, developing trigonometry to aid his calculations, and discovering the phenomenon of precession of the equinoxes through careful observation of the positions of the equinoxes over time. The introduction sets the stage for discussing other major astronomers such as Ptolemy, Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Newton, and others who continued advancing the field of astronomy.
The document discusses dark energy, which accounts for about 70% of the mass of the universe but cannot be directly observed. Measurements of type 1a supernovae found that the expansion of the universe is accelerating, rather than slowing down as expected, suggesting the existence of a mysterious force exerting gravitational repulsion. This dark energy corresponds to Einstein's cosmological constant, which he later disregarded as his "biggest blunder" but may have been correct after all. Current theories hold that dark energy is responsible for the accelerating expansion of the universe.
This document provides an overview of astronomy and the scientific method. It discusses:
1) Astronomy as the study of objects beyond Earth and how they interact, with the goal of organizing our understanding of the universe's history.
2) The scientific method as a process of making observations, developing hypotheses, and testing them through experiments or further observations. Hypotheses must be falsifiable to be scientific.
3) Scientific laws as consistent rules that describe natural phenomena, allowing our understanding to be applied universally throughout the universe. Laws are subject to revision with new evidence.
This document provides an overview of exoplanets and their discovery. It discusses how the first exoplanet was discovered in 1995 using the radial velocity method by detecting wobbles in a star's movement. The Kepler Space Telescope, launched in 2009, significantly advanced exoplanet discovery through the transit method of detecting dips in starlight as planets pass in front. To date over 3,000 exoplanets have been confirmed across the galaxy, with an estimated trillion planets in the Milky Way alone, showing that small, Earth-sized planets are very common. Current telescopes continue working to find and characterize more exoplanets and their atmospheres.
CA 10.01 Discovery of CMB (Cosmic Microwave Background)Stephen Kwong
Discovery of Cosmic Microwave Background by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson in the 1960s. Found to be the relic radiation from the beginning of the Universe. One of the greatest discovery in science history so far.
September 2015, the LIGO detectors in the USA saw space vibrate with gravitational waves for the very first time. Although the signal was extremely weak when it reached Earth, it is already promising a revolution in astrophysics.
- Newton united physics and astronomy through his laws of motion and law of gravitation.
- Henrietta Swann Leavitt discovered the relationship between the variable period of stars and their absolute brightness, enabling the determination of distances in the universe.
- Edwin Hubble observed Cepheid variables in the Andromeda Nebula, proving that it was actually another galaxy, demonstrating that the universe is larger than previously believed.
Nikola tesla and the electrical signals of planetary originPublicLeaker
Nikola Tesla detected faint radio signals in 1899 while experimenting in Colorado that he believed came from Mars. He published several accounts over subsequent decades reiterating his conviction that the signals were of planetary origin and not from any known terrestrial source. Researchers Kenneth and James Corum analyzed Tesla's receivers and experiments, finding that under certain conditions there exists an ionospheric window that could allow detection of signals in the lower very low frequency range Tesla's receivers functioned in. They believe Tesla may have made the original pioneering achievement in radio astronomy by detecting the first signals from another planet.
Nikola tesla and the electrical signals of planetary originPublicLeaks
Nikola Tesla detected faint radio signals in 1899 while experimenting in Colorado that he believed came from Mars. He published several accounts over subsequent decades reiterating his conviction that the signals were of planetary origin and not from any known terrestrial source. Researchers Kenneth and James Corum analyzed Tesla's receivers and experiments, finding that under certain conditions there exists an ionospheric window that could allow detection of signals in the lower very low frequency range Tesla's receivers functioned in. They believe Tesla may have made the original pioneering achievement in radio astronomy by detecting the first signals from another planet.
Ancient astronomers originally constructed a model where Earth was at the center of the universe, but this model could not fully explain observations even after adding complex elements. A new model was proposed where the Sun, not Earth, was the center, and this model fit the evidence better. In science, hypotheses must be testable explanations that can be evaluated based on experiments and new observations over time. This process of challenging and refining hypotheses is how scientific understanding progresses.
The document summarizes information about several important figures in the history of astronomy, including their discoveries and contributions. It discusses Aristarchus' proposal of a heliocentric model of the solar system in 310 BC. It also mentions Ptolemy, Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Newton, Halley, and others who helped develop our understanding of the structure of the solar system and laws of motion and gravity. The document provides brief biographies and highlights of discoveries for over 30 astronomers from 310 BC to the 19th century.
The document traces the history and development of telescopes from their invention in the early 1600s to modern space-based observatories. It describes key figures like Hans Lippershey, Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton who developed early refracting and reflecting telescope designs. Later inventors such as William Herschel, William Parsons and Grote Reber expanded telescope technology to observe new wavelengths and make new discoveries. Modern telescopes like Hubble, Chandra and the VLA now observe from space and orbit to bypass atmospheric limitations and provide new views into the universe.
This document discusses the fine-tuned universe theory, which argues that the universe appears carefully designed to support life. It outlines several factors that must be precisely tuned for life, such as the organization of matter into atoms and precise mass relationships between subatomic particles. The document also reviews ideas about the origin of the universe, such as the Big Bang theory and biblical creation account. It provides illustrations of astronomical objects and facts about the immense scale of the universe.
Johannes Kepler was a German mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, and natural philosopher born in 1571 who made several important contributions to astronomy and the scientific revolution. He discovered the laws of planetary motion, including that planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus, that a line joining a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times, and that the square of the orbital period is proportional to the cube of the average distance from the sun. Kepler also invented eyeglasses and log books, and was a key figure of the 17th century scientific revolution, though he faced difficulties due to his beliefs.
Dark side ofthe_universe_public_29_september_2017_nazarbayev_shrtZhaksylyk Kazykenov
1) The document discusses the history of discoveries about the universe, from ancient cosmologies to modern precision cosmology. Key developments include realizing the sun is at the center of the solar system, discovering other galaxies and the expansion of the universe, and detecting the cosmic microwave background and dark matter.
2) Current open questions about the universe include the nature of dark matter and dark energy. Observations show dark energy is accelerating the expansion of the universe, but its underlying cause remains unknown. Precise measurements aim to distinguish between models of dark energy.
3) The standard cosmological model has been very successful in explaining observations but has fine-tuning problems regarding why the present epoch is dominated by both matter and dark energy.
InstructionsYou are to create YOUR OWN example of each of t.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions:
You are to create YOUR OWN example of each of the devices. One example per device. Please underline your example in each sentence.
Example:
1. The girl ran
as
fast
as
a cheetah in the relay race. (Simile)
2.
Ouch!
I hurt my hand moving the chair away from the desk. (Onomatopoeia)
.
InstructionsYou are a research group from BSocialMarketing, LLC.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions:
You are a research group from BSocialMarketing, LLC. -a marketing consulting company that evaluates the effectiveness of clients’ social media activities/ websites.
As a group, you will
select a publicly-traded company
and
analyze the social media
aspects of that company.
Overview:
Over the last several years, more companies have begun to use social media as part of their overall communication and marketing strategies, and you have been asked to investigate…
how successful is their social media campaign,
what are the current trends,
how companies have changed the way they do business,
and what the future looks like in the context of social media use.
Objective of research:
Investigate how your selected company is using social media to enhance communications and business interactions within the company (internal communication: Employee) and externally with partners, vendors, customers, and the community. Social media includes but not limit to: Twitter, LinkedIn, Facebook, YouTube, etc.…
Investigate the individual company by asking…
What specific examples and details is the company using social media?
How are they being implemented? Is there a strategy?
What are their objectives?
Are they successful?
What results have they seen that can specifically be tied to social media? Increase in revenue or customer satisfaction?
What improvements could they make?
.
InstructionsYou are attending an international journalist event.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions:
You are attending an international journalist event and have been chosen to give a presentation of the roles of the media in influencing government and its citizens. Identify and describe the possible roles of the media in influencing government and its citizens using specific descriptive examples.
Please create a PowerPoint presentation to assist you in your presentation. As you complete your presentation, be sure to: Use speaker's notes to expand upon the bullet point main ideas on your slides, making references to research and theory with citation. Proof your work Use visuals (pictures, video, narration, graphs, etc.) to compliment the text in your presentation and to reinforce your content.
Do not just write a paper and copy chunks of it into each slide. Treat this as if you were going to give this presentation live.
Presentation Requirements:
(APA format) Length: 8-10 substantive slides (excluding cover and references slides)
Font should not be smaller than size 16-point Parenthetical in-text citations included and formatted in APA style
References slide (a minimum of 2 outside scholarly sources plus the textbook and/or the weekly lesson for each course outcome)
Title and introduction slide required
.
InstructionsWrite the Organizational section of your project pap.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions
Write the Organizational section of your project paper. This section should be 4 page and include at least 5 APA formatted references one of which may be the company or SBA website depending on your type of project.
This section should include the following:
The organization’s mission and vision (business plan – write a mission statement)
The organization's structure - How does this compare to competitors? Based on the organization's structure - how receptive to change will the organization be?
The management chart showing levels and responsibility. What type of organization is it (matrix, hierarchical or something else?)
A description of employees and/or headcount in the organization:
For the company analysis: How diverse is the company’s workforce? Leadership? Is diversity company-wide or are certain levels or positions more or less diverse than others?
For the business plan: how will you incorporate diversity into your organization?
Discussion of concepts such as leadership, management, and role theories - how they are reflected in the organization?
.
InstructionsWrite a two-page (double spaced, Times New Roman S.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions
Write
a two-page (double spaced, Times New Roman Size 12) response to
one
of the following questions. Cite the week’s readings at least
twice
in your answer from
The Human Condition by
Hannah, Arendt. The University of Chicago Press; 2nd edition
Questions:
Define Labor, Work, and Action from the perspective of Arendt.
Where does politics fall for Arendt; the public or the private?
How are necessity and Action related to one another for Arendt?
.
InstructionsWrite a thesis statement in response to the topi.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions
Write a thesis statement in response to the topic:
Should world leaders use a pandemic crisis brought about by a killer virus to boost their own popularity?
To help you organize your paper, compose a topic sentence for each point in the thesis.
.
InstructionsWhat You will choose a current issue of social.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions:
What:
You will choose a current issue of social justice, research it, and write an analysis of the topic, using support from your research, and including knowledge gained and referenced from your textbook.
How:
should be 4-6 pages in length, double spaced, Times New Roman, 12 point font. Should include a title page and a reference page (these two pages are not included in the required 5-6 pages).
Some questions to consider while researching and writing about your topic:
• Why is this topic controversial?
• What are some of the causes?
• What are some of the effects?
• Who does it affect? (who = social class, race/ethnicity, age range)
• Is it happening all over the U.S., or are there regions where it is more of (or less of) an issue?
• What needs to happen for it to change?
• What is being done about it? What is NOT being done about it?
• Who (person, group or organization) might have the power to improve or fix it?
The Textbook is:
Making a Difference: Using Sociology to Create a Better World, 1st ed.
By: Michael Schwalbe
Please let me know if it is needed and I will try and upload the textbook
.
InstructionsWrite a paper about the International Monetary Syste.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions
Write a paper about the International Monetary System that addresses each of the following issues:
· Define the International Monetary System and outline the history of the system.
· Describe and provide examples of what is meant by “currency regimes,” and define selected types of regimes and form an argument for selecting fixed exchange rate and arguments for selecting flexible exchange rates.
· Describe and define the creation of the Euro and discuss the benefits as well as the problems associated with the creation of this currency.
Support your paper with at least five (5) resources. In addition to these specified resources, other appropriate scholarly resources, including older articles, may be included. Your paper should demonstrate thoughtful consideration of the ideas and concepts that are presented in the course and provide new thoughts and insights relating directly to this topic. Your response should reflect scholarly writing and current APA standards.
Length: 5-7 pages (not including title and reference pages).
Eiteman, D., Stonehill, M., & Moffett, M. (2016). Multinational business finance. Boston, MA: Prentice-Hall.
Read Chapters 1, 2
This is a major resource, however, I think the assignment can be accomplished without it. I can’t seem to be able to download the book.
The global company's challenge.
Authors:
Dewhurst, Martin1
Harris, Jonathan2
Heywood, Suzanne
Aquila, Kate
Source:
McKinsey Quarterly. 2012, Issue 3, p76-80. 5p.
Document Type:
Article
Subject Terms:
*International business enterprises
*Emerging markets
*Economies of scale
*Contracting out
*Risk management in business
*Business models
*Executives
*Financial leverage
*Globalization
*Research & development
Developing countries
Company/Entity:
International Monetary Fund DUNS Number: 069275188
Aditya Birla Management Corp. Pvt. Ltd.
International Business Machines Corp. DUNS Number: 001368083 Ticker: IBM
NAICS/Industry Codes:
919110 International and other extra-territorial public administration
928120 International Affairs
541712 Research and Development in the Physical, Engineering, and Life Sciences (except Biotechnology)
541711 Research and Development in Biotechnology
Abstract:
The article focuses on the management of risks, costs, and strategies by international businesses in emerging markets. It states that the International Monetary Fund reported that the ten fastest-growing economies after 2012 will all be in developing countries. It mentions that technology company International Business Machines expects by 2015 to earn 30 percent of revenues in emerging markets compared to 17 percent in 2009, while Indian multinational conglomerate Aditya Birla Group earns over half of its revenue outside India and has operations in 40 nations. It talks about the benefit of economies of scale in shared services enjoyed by large global companies and comments that the ability to outsource business services and manufacturing is benefiting local busine.
InstructionsWrite a comprehensive medical report on a disease we.docxvanesaburnand
This document provides instructions for a medical student to write a 4-6 page report in APA format on one of several diseases studied, including gastroesophageal reflux disease, appendicitis, hepatitis, cholecystitis, pancreatitis, myocardial infarction, digitalis or hypertension. The report should include relevant medical history, testing/diagnostics, treatment options and a recommended plan of action for the chosen disease. Students are directed to submit their report as a Microsoft Word document to the designated Submissions Area by the assigned due date.
More Related Content
Similar to Cosmic Search Vol. 1, No. 1Little Green Men, White Dwarfs or Pul.docx
This document provides an overview of astronomy and the scientific method. It discusses:
1) Astronomy as the study of objects beyond Earth and how they interact, with the goal of organizing our understanding of the universe's history.
2) The scientific method as a process of making observations, developing hypotheses, and testing them through experiments or further observations. Hypotheses must be falsifiable to be scientific.
3) Scientific laws as consistent rules that describe natural phenomena, allowing our understanding to be applied universally throughout the universe. Laws are subject to revision with new evidence.
This document provides an overview of exoplanets and their discovery. It discusses how the first exoplanet was discovered in 1995 using the radial velocity method by detecting wobbles in a star's movement. The Kepler Space Telescope, launched in 2009, significantly advanced exoplanet discovery through the transit method of detecting dips in starlight as planets pass in front. To date over 3,000 exoplanets have been confirmed across the galaxy, with an estimated trillion planets in the Milky Way alone, showing that small, Earth-sized planets are very common. Current telescopes continue working to find and characterize more exoplanets and their atmospheres.
CA 10.01 Discovery of CMB (Cosmic Microwave Background)Stephen Kwong
Discovery of Cosmic Microwave Background by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson in the 1960s. Found to be the relic radiation from the beginning of the Universe. One of the greatest discovery in science history so far.
September 2015, the LIGO detectors in the USA saw space vibrate with gravitational waves for the very first time. Although the signal was extremely weak when it reached Earth, it is already promising a revolution in astrophysics.
- Newton united physics and astronomy through his laws of motion and law of gravitation.
- Henrietta Swann Leavitt discovered the relationship between the variable period of stars and their absolute brightness, enabling the determination of distances in the universe.
- Edwin Hubble observed Cepheid variables in the Andromeda Nebula, proving that it was actually another galaxy, demonstrating that the universe is larger than previously believed.
Nikola tesla and the electrical signals of planetary originPublicLeaker
Nikola Tesla detected faint radio signals in 1899 while experimenting in Colorado that he believed came from Mars. He published several accounts over subsequent decades reiterating his conviction that the signals were of planetary origin and not from any known terrestrial source. Researchers Kenneth and James Corum analyzed Tesla's receivers and experiments, finding that under certain conditions there exists an ionospheric window that could allow detection of signals in the lower very low frequency range Tesla's receivers functioned in. They believe Tesla may have made the original pioneering achievement in radio astronomy by detecting the first signals from another planet.
Nikola tesla and the electrical signals of planetary originPublicLeaks
Nikola Tesla detected faint radio signals in 1899 while experimenting in Colorado that he believed came from Mars. He published several accounts over subsequent decades reiterating his conviction that the signals were of planetary origin and not from any known terrestrial source. Researchers Kenneth and James Corum analyzed Tesla's receivers and experiments, finding that under certain conditions there exists an ionospheric window that could allow detection of signals in the lower very low frequency range Tesla's receivers functioned in. They believe Tesla may have made the original pioneering achievement in radio astronomy by detecting the first signals from another planet.
Ancient astronomers originally constructed a model where Earth was at the center of the universe, but this model could not fully explain observations even after adding complex elements. A new model was proposed where the Sun, not Earth, was the center, and this model fit the evidence better. In science, hypotheses must be testable explanations that can be evaluated based on experiments and new observations over time. This process of challenging and refining hypotheses is how scientific understanding progresses.
The document summarizes information about several important figures in the history of astronomy, including their discoveries and contributions. It discusses Aristarchus' proposal of a heliocentric model of the solar system in 310 BC. It also mentions Ptolemy, Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Newton, Halley, and others who helped develop our understanding of the structure of the solar system and laws of motion and gravity. The document provides brief biographies and highlights of discoveries for over 30 astronomers from 310 BC to the 19th century.
The document traces the history and development of telescopes from their invention in the early 1600s to modern space-based observatories. It describes key figures like Hans Lippershey, Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton who developed early refracting and reflecting telescope designs. Later inventors such as William Herschel, William Parsons and Grote Reber expanded telescope technology to observe new wavelengths and make new discoveries. Modern telescopes like Hubble, Chandra and the VLA now observe from space and orbit to bypass atmospheric limitations and provide new views into the universe.
This document discusses the fine-tuned universe theory, which argues that the universe appears carefully designed to support life. It outlines several factors that must be precisely tuned for life, such as the organization of matter into atoms and precise mass relationships between subatomic particles. The document also reviews ideas about the origin of the universe, such as the Big Bang theory and biblical creation account. It provides illustrations of astronomical objects and facts about the immense scale of the universe.
Johannes Kepler was a German mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, and natural philosopher born in 1571 who made several important contributions to astronomy and the scientific revolution. He discovered the laws of planetary motion, including that planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus, that a line joining a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times, and that the square of the orbital period is proportional to the cube of the average distance from the sun. Kepler also invented eyeglasses and log books, and was a key figure of the 17th century scientific revolution, though he faced difficulties due to his beliefs.
Dark side ofthe_universe_public_29_september_2017_nazarbayev_shrtZhaksylyk Kazykenov
1) The document discusses the history of discoveries about the universe, from ancient cosmologies to modern precision cosmology. Key developments include realizing the sun is at the center of the solar system, discovering other galaxies and the expansion of the universe, and detecting the cosmic microwave background and dark matter.
2) Current open questions about the universe include the nature of dark matter and dark energy. Observations show dark energy is accelerating the expansion of the universe, but its underlying cause remains unknown. Precise measurements aim to distinguish between models of dark energy.
3) The standard cosmological model has been very successful in explaining observations but has fine-tuning problems regarding why the present epoch is dominated by both matter and dark energy.
Similar to Cosmic Search Vol. 1, No. 1Little Green Men, White Dwarfs or Pul.docx (13)
InstructionsYou are to create YOUR OWN example of each of t.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions:
You are to create YOUR OWN example of each of the devices. One example per device. Please underline your example in each sentence.
Example:
1. The girl ran
as
fast
as
a cheetah in the relay race. (Simile)
2.
Ouch!
I hurt my hand moving the chair away from the desk. (Onomatopoeia)
.
InstructionsYou are a research group from BSocialMarketing, LLC.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions:
You are a research group from BSocialMarketing, LLC. -a marketing consulting company that evaluates the effectiveness of clients’ social media activities/ websites.
As a group, you will
select a publicly-traded company
and
analyze the social media
aspects of that company.
Overview:
Over the last several years, more companies have begun to use social media as part of their overall communication and marketing strategies, and you have been asked to investigate…
how successful is their social media campaign,
what are the current trends,
how companies have changed the way they do business,
and what the future looks like in the context of social media use.
Objective of research:
Investigate how your selected company is using social media to enhance communications and business interactions within the company (internal communication: Employee) and externally with partners, vendors, customers, and the community. Social media includes but not limit to: Twitter, LinkedIn, Facebook, YouTube, etc.…
Investigate the individual company by asking…
What specific examples and details is the company using social media?
How are they being implemented? Is there a strategy?
What are their objectives?
Are they successful?
What results have they seen that can specifically be tied to social media? Increase in revenue or customer satisfaction?
What improvements could they make?
.
InstructionsYou are attending an international journalist event.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions:
You are attending an international journalist event and have been chosen to give a presentation of the roles of the media in influencing government and its citizens. Identify and describe the possible roles of the media in influencing government and its citizens using specific descriptive examples.
Please create a PowerPoint presentation to assist you in your presentation. As you complete your presentation, be sure to: Use speaker's notes to expand upon the bullet point main ideas on your slides, making references to research and theory with citation. Proof your work Use visuals (pictures, video, narration, graphs, etc.) to compliment the text in your presentation and to reinforce your content.
Do not just write a paper and copy chunks of it into each slide. Treat this as if you were going to give this presentation live.
Presentation Requirements:
(APA format) Length: 8-10 substantive slides (excluding cover and references slides)
Font should not be smaller than size 16-point Parenthetical in-text citations included and formatted in APA style
References slide (a minimum of 2 outside scholarly sources plus the textbook and/or the weekly lesson for each course outcome)
Title and introduction slide required
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InstructionsWrite the Organizational section of your project pap.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions
Write the Organizational section of your project paper. This section should be 4 page and include at least 5 APA formatted references one of which may be the company or SBA website depending on your type of project.
This section should include the following:
The organization’s mission and vision (business plan – write a mission statement)
The organization's structure - How does this compare to competitors? Based on the organization's structure - how receptive to change will the organization be?
The management chart showing levels and responsibility. What type of organization is it (matrix, hierarchical or something else?)
A description of employees and/or headcount in the organization:
For the company analysis: How diverse is the company’s workforce? Leadership? Is diversity company-wide or are certain levels or positions more or less diverse than others?
For the business plan: how will you incorporate diversity into your organization?
Discussion of concepts such as leadership, management, and role theories - how they are reflected in the organization?
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InstructionsWrite a two-page (double spaced, Times New Roman S.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions
Write
a two-page (double spaced, Times New Roman Size 12) response to
one
of the following questions. Cite the week’s readings at least
twice
in your answer from
The Human Condition by
Hannah, Arendt. The University of Chicago Press; 2nd edition
Questions:
Define Labor, Work, and Action from the perspective of Arendt.
Where does politics fall for Arendt; the public or the private?
How are necessity and Action related to one another for Arendt?
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InstructionsWrite a thesis statement in response to the topi.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions
Write a thesis statement in response to the topic:
Should world leaders use a pandemic crisis brought about by a killer virus to boost their own popularity?
To help you organize your paper, compose a topic sentence for each point in the thesis.
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InstructionsWhat You will choose a current issue of social.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions:
What:
You will choose a current issue of social justice, research it, and write an analysis of the topic, using support from your research, and including knowledge gained and referenced from your textbook.
How:
should be 4-6 pages in length, double spaced, Times New Roman, 12 point font. Should include a title page and a reference page (these two pages are not included in the required 5-6 pages).
Some questions to consider while researching and writing about your topic:
• Why is this topic controversial?
• What are some of the causes?
• What are some of the effects?
• Who does it affect? (who = social class, race/ethnicity, age range)
• Is it happening all over the U.S., or are there regions where it is more of (or less of) an issue?
• What needs to happen for it to change?
• What is being done about it? What is NOT being done about it?
• Who (person, group or organization) might have the power to improve or fix it?
The Textbook is:
Making a Difference: Using Sociology to Create a Better World, 1st ed.
By: Michael Schwalbe
Please let me know if it is needed and I will try and upload the textbook
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InstructionsWrite a paper about the International Monetary Syste.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions
Write a paper about the International Monetary System that addresses each of the following issues:
· Define the International Monetary System and outline the history of the system.
· Describe and provide examples of what is meant by “currency regimes,” and define selected types of regimes and form an argument for selecting fixed exchange rate and arguments for selecting flexible exchange rates.
· Describe and define the creation of the Euro and discuss the benefits as well as the problems associated with the creation of this currency.
Support your paper with at least five (5) resources. In addition to these specified resources, other appropriate scholarly resources, including older articles, may be included. Your paper should demonstrate thoughtful consideration of the ideas and concepts that are presented in the course and provide new thoughts and insights relating directly to this topic. Your response should reflect scholarly writing and current APA standards.
Length: 5-7 pages (not including title and reference pages).
Eiteman, D., Stonehill, M., & Moffett, M. (2016). Multinational business finance. Boston, MA: Prentice-Hall.
Read Chapters 1, 2
This is a major resource, however, I think the assignment can be accomplished without it. I can’t seem to be able to download the book.
The global company's challenge.
Authors:
Dewhurst, Martin1
Harris, Jonathan2
Heywood, Suzanne
Aquila, Kate
Source:
McKinsey Quarterly. 2012, Issue 3, p76-80. 5p.
Document Type:
Article
Subject Terms:
*International business enterprises
*Emerging markets
*Economies of scale
*Contracting out
*Risk management in business
*Business models
*Executives
*Financial leverage
*Globalization
*Research & development
Developing countries
Company/Entity:
International Monetary Fund DUNS Number: 069275188
Aditya Birla Management Corp. Pvt. Ltd.
International Business Machines Corp. DUNS Number: 001368083 Ticker: IBM
NAICS/Industry Codes:
919110 International and other extra-territorial public administration
928120 International Affairs
541712 Research and Development in the Physical, Engineering, and Life Sciences (except Biotechnology)
541711 Research and Development in Biotechnology
Abstract:
The article focuses on the management of risks, costs, and strategies by international businesses in emerging markets. It states that the International Monetary Fund reported that the ten fastest-growing economies after 2012 will all be in developing countries. It mentions that technology company International Business Machines expects by 2015 to earn 30 percent of revenues in emerging markets compared to 17 percent in 2009, while Indian multinational conglomerate Aditya Birla Group earns over half of its revenue outside India and has operations in 40 nations. It talks about the benefit of economies of scale in shared services enjoyed by large global companies and comments that the ability to outsource business services and manufacturing is benefiting local busine.
InstructionsWrite a comprehensive medical report on a disease we.docxvanesaburnand
This document provides instructions for a medical student to write a 4-6 page report in APA format on one of several diseases studied, including gastroesophageal reflux disease, appendicitis, hepatitis, cholecystitis, pancreatitis, myocardial infarction, digitalis or hypertension. The report should include relevant medical history, testing/diagnostics, treatment options and a recommended plan of action for the chosen disease. Students are directed to submit their report as a Microsoft Word document to the designated Submissions Area by the assigned due date.
InstructionsWhether you believe” in evolution or not, why is it.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions
Whether you “believe” in evolution or not, why is it important to be knowledgeable about Darwin's theory? How might genetics and evolution apply to our modern society when we consider the differences between people? Should we stratify people based on intelligence or other specific qualities? Have you observed traits in your parents that you do not like and see them in yourself? (You do not have to be specific about personal issues but can write about issues in a general sense.)Your journal entry must be at least 200 words in length. No references or citations are necessary.
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InstructionsWe have been looking at different psychological .docxvanesaburnand
This document provides instructions to analyze Michelle Obama's social media accounts using various psychological theories including schema/script theory, cultivation theory, agenda-setting theory, social learning theory, and uses and gratifications theory. The analysis should include an introduction of Michelle Obama and her social media use, examples of how each theory applies to her social media accounts, and conclusions.
InstructionsThis written assignment requires the student to inve.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions
This written assignment requires the student to investigate his/her local, state and federal legislators and explore their assigned committees and legislative commitments. The student is expected to investigate current and actual legislative initiatives that have either passed or pending approval by the house, senate or Governor’s office. The student will draft a letter to a specific legislator and offer support or constructive argument against pending policy or legislation. The letter must be supported with a minimum of 3 evidence based primary citations. (See Rubric)
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InstructionsThe Art Form Most Meaningful to MePick the form .docxvanesaburnand
Instructions
The Art Form Most Meaningful to Me
Pick the form of cultural expression most important to you. It could be music, theater, dance, visual arts—whatever excites and/or inspires you most. Describe:
Its most significant characteristics (e.g., visual, audio, etc.)
Your favorite artists in this art, and why.
The one example of this art that inspires you most.
500 words
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InstructionsThink of a specific topic and two specific kin.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions
Think of a specific topic and two specific kinds of audiences.
Then write a short example (150–200 words) of how this topic might be presented to each of the two audiences.
How does the intended audience influence the choice of words and use of language in a document?
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InstructionsThere are different approaches to gathering risk da.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions:
There are different approaches to gathering risk data which include qualitative and quantitative data collection.
Select three limitations to traditional cost risk analysis. Explain in 250 words how qualitative and quantitative data collection are different. Also, discuss how the risk driver approach can be useful in minimizing the limitation to traditional cost risk analysis.
Please be sure to validate your opinions and ideas with citations and references in APA format.
.
InstructionsThe Public Archaeology Presentation invites you.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions
The Public Archaeology Presentation invites you to evaluate the public archaeology outreach of a site such as an archaeological excavation that is open to the public, an outdoor museum that is hosting or has hosted archaeological excavations, a museum with archaeological collections, etc.* Using the insight you have gained in this course about important topics in archaeology such as archaeological method and theory, subsistence, cultural patterns in prehistory, and environmental interaction, evaluate the ways in which, at the site you have chosen, the knowledge gained from archaeological excavations is being used, or is not being used, to highlight and address issues in the local, regional, or global communities. For example, current issues often addressed in public archaeology include historic preservation, economic growth, environmental degradation, looting, STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Math) education, volunteer opportunities, and more. You will present your findings to your classmates in the Week 8 Public Archaeology discussion in the form of a multimedia presentation.
Any of the sites listed above are ideal for this project. If you are considering a site and are unsure whether it would be suitable for the Public Archaeology Presentation, discuss the site with your instructor. If you are having trouble locating archaeological excavations or museums in your area, check with your local Chamber of Commerce or Tourism Bureau or the Anthropology department/professor at the nearest college or university. Some small sites have limited funding and are not able to advertise extensively.
Guidelines
Your assignment will take the form of a multimedia presentation, such as a YouTube video, blog, PowerPoint presentation, etc. Ideally, your presentation will include audio, but if this is not possible, your presentation must include sufficient text to explain your findings and conclusions.
By Wednesday of Week 8, you will submit a short introduction and a link to your presentation in a designated discussion area AND in the Assignments Folder (this allows me to provide you with private feedback and a grade). Your presentation must be shared online, but you may choose how to do so. There are many free tools out there. Check out the following website for some ideas:
http://blog.crazyegg.com/2013/05/28/online-presentation-tools/
.
Speak and/or write professionally using standard English. If speaking, pay attention to correct grammar and enunciation. If writing, check your spelling and grammar carefully. Poor grammar, spelling, and/or enunciation may affect your grade.
Your presentation must include a written References section in proper citation format detailing the sources you used.
Initial Research
Once you have chosen a site and your instructor has approved it, conduct research using the UMUC Library databases, the internet, and other sources (nearby public librarie.
InstructionsThe tools of formal analysis are the starting point .docxvanesaburnand
Instructions
The tools of formal analysis are the starting point for understanding any work of art; these tools help you realize how a work of art was made and develop a deeper appreciation of it.
Step 1: Examine
Choose a work of art (1.3.6 (Caravaggio p. 79);
or
2.2.27 (Baca p. 224);
or
4.1.13 (Rivera p. 576)).
Start your formal analysis by taking a long look at the artwork using Part I of this book, the elements and principles of art as they relate to your chosen work.
Step 2: Write
Work of Art information:
State the title, artist, date, dimensions, and medium (what it is made of).
State the name of the exhibition in which the work was displayed/ where the artwork is located
Draft a thorough, detailed description of the work of art you chose.
Be sure to:
Write your
formal analysis
. Visually analyze and describe the contents of the work of art. Apply a minimum of 5 elements
and
5 principles of art vocabulary words as you discuss the art.
Include an additional
method of analysis
that is discussed in chapter 1.10 (Learning Module 2.5) to guide your research in order to understand why the artwork was made and what its message is.
Investigate the artist’s life when the work was created. Delve into the time and place in which he or she lived.
What symbols did the artist use, and what was his or her state of mind? Recognize that some artworks are meant to convey distinct messages, which were clear to their contemporary audiences.
Step 3:
Organize your findings into a combined analysis paper
using MLA format
. Your analysis should be a minimum of 800 words.
Use reliable sources. Include your research, as well as your own opinions, to form your interpretation of the artwork.
Before you submit... make sure that you have the following:
Formal analysis of the work of art selected
Identify and discuss one additional mode of analysis
The analysis length should be 3 - 5 pages
Use MLA format (Times New Roman 12 point size font, double-spaced, appropriate in-text citations, Works Cited page, etc...)
Cite external sources
Similarity Report must within 0-10%
.
InstructionsThe Homeland Security (DHS) agency is intended t.docxvanesaburnand
The document provides instructions for a 10-12 page paper on the Department of Homeland Security's (DHS) structure, capabilities, areas for improvement regarding counter-terrorism efforts, and how it works with intelligence agencies. It asks the writer to analyze DHS capabilities to determine the most likely types of attacks, identify DHS strengths and weaknesses, examine inter-agency cooperation, and summarize findings and recommendations in a 2-page executive brief. It also prompts drafting a thesis statement on the topic of increasing threats in cyberspace.
InstructionsThe student should describe how learning abou.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions:
The student should describe how learning about entrepreneurship would help them (a) know more about themselves, (b) identify their purpose in life, and (c) identify how they could positively transform the world.
To answer, the student must:
to. Use a maximum of 150 words
b. Choose font size 12 points Times New Roman or Arial
c. Separate lines to space and a half (1.5)
d. Validate your answer using at least two references
and. Include bibliography of references at the end of the forum
.
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
This presentation was provided by Racquel Jemison, Ph.D., Christina MacLaughlin, Ph.D., and Paulomi Majumder. Ph.D., all of the American Chemical Society, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
spot a liar (Haiqa 146).pptx Technical writhing and presentation skills
Cosmic Search Vol. 1, No. 1Little Green Men, White Dwarfs or Pul.docx
1. Cosmic Search Vol. 1, No. 1
Little Green Men, White Dwarfs or Pulsars?
By S. Jocelyn Bell Burnell
"We did all the work ourselves and cheerfully sledgehammered
all one summer." Burnell and the antenna.
In all the history of radio astronomy the pulsing signals
discovered at Cambridge, England, in 1967 were the most
suggestive of an extraterrestrial intelligent origin that have ever
been detected. In this article, Jocelyn Bell Burnell tells a
delightful, personal story of how she first encountered the
signals and what ensued.-Eds.
Ladies and Gentlemen: Before you discover for yourselves let
me tell you that I am no expert at after dinner speeches. The
nearest I have come was writing a Ph.D. thesis; my supervisor
kindly read a draft of it and advised me that it read more like an
after-dinner speech than a Cambridge University dissertation.
He was right, of course, but it has taken me years to see the
funny side of his remark.
There has been a lot of interest shown in the discovery of
pulsars, and also some misunderstanding. I would like to take
this opportunity of setting the record straight. However, it all
happened 8 or 9 years ago, and after such a time there is some
difficulty in remembering it all accurately.
The story began in the mid-1960's, when the technique of
interplanetary scintillation (IPS) was discovered. IPS is the
apparent fluctuation in intensity of the radio emission from a
compact radio source. It is due to diffraction of the radio waves
as they pass through the turbulent solar wind in interplanetary
space. Compact radio sources, e.g. quasars, scintillate more than
extended radio sources. Professor Tony Hewish realized this
technique would be a useful way of picking out quasars, and
designed a large radio telescope to do this. I joined him as a
2. Ph.D. student when construction of this telescope was about to
start.
The telescope covered an area of 41/2 acres - an area that would
accommodate 57 tennis courts. In this area we put up over a
thousand posts, and strung more than 2000 dipoles between
them. The whole was connected up by 120 miles of wire and
cable. We did the work ourselves - about five of us - with the
help of several very keen vacation students who cheerfully
sledge-hammered all one summer. It took two years to build and
cost about E15,000, which was cheap even then. We started
operating it in July 1967, although it was several months more
before the construction was completely finished.
I had sole responsibility for operating the telescope and
analyzing the data, with supervision from Tony Hewish. We
operated it with four beams simultaneously, and scanned all the
sky between declinations +50' and -10' once every four days.
The output appeared on four 3-track pen recorders, and between
them they produced 96 feet of chart paper every day. The charts
were analyzed by hand by me. We decided initially not to
computerize the output because until we were familiar with the
behavior of our telescope and receivers we thought it better to
inspect the data visually, and because a human can recognize
signals of different character whereas it is difficult to program a
computer to do so.
After the first few hundred feet of chart analysis I could
recognize the scintillating sources, and I could recognize
interference. (Radio telescopes are very sensitive instruments,
and it takes little radio interference from nearby on earth to
swamp the cosmic signals; unfortunately, this is a feature of all
radio astronomy.) Six or eight weeks after starting the survey I
became aware that on occasions there was a bit of "scruff' on
the records, which did not look exactly like a scintillating
source, and yet did not look exactly like man-made interference
either. Furthermore I realized that this scruff had been seen
before on the same part of the records - from the same patch of
sky (right ascension 1919).
3. The source was transiting during the night - a time when
interplanetary scintillation should be at a minimum, and one
idea we had was that it was a point source. Whatever it was, we
decided that it deserved closer inspection, and that this would
involve making faster chart recordings as it transited. Towards
the end of October when we had finished doing some special
test on 3C273, and when we had at last our full complement of
receivers and recorders, I started going out to the observatory
each day to make the fast recordings. They were useless. For
weeks I recorded nothing but receiver noise. The "source" had
apparently gone. Then one day I skipped the observations to go
to a lecture, and next day on my normal recording I saw the
scruff had been there. A few days after that at the end of
November '67 I got it on the fast recording. As the chart flowed
under the pen I could see that the signal was a series of pulses,
and my suspicion that they were equally spaced was confirmed
as soon as I got the chart off the recorder. They were 11/3
seconds apart. I contacted Tony Hewish who was teaching in an
undergraduate laboratory in Cambridge, and his first reaction
was that they must be manmade. This was a very sensible
response in the circumstances, but due to a truly remarkable
depth of ignorance I did not see why they could not be from a
star. However he was interested enough to come out to the
observatory at transit-time the next day and fortunately
(because pulsarsrarely perform to order)the pulses appeared
again. This is where our problems really started. Tony checked
back through the recordings and established that this thing,
whatever it was, kept accurately to sidereal time. But pulses
11/3 seconds apart seemed suspiciously manmade. Besides 11/3
seconds was far too fast a pulsation rate for anything as large as
a star. It could not be anything earth-bound because it kept
sidereal time (unless it was other astronomers). We considered
and eliminated radar reflected off the moon into our telescope,
satellites in peculiar orbits, and anomalous effects caused by a
large, corrugated metal building just to the south of the 41/2
acre telescope.
4. "Were these pulsations man-made, but by man from another
civilization?"
Then Scott and Collins observed the pulsations with another
telescope with its own receivers, which eliminated instrumental
effects. John Pilkington measured the dispersion of the signal
which established that the source was well outside the solar
system but inside the galaxy. So were these pulsations man-
made, but made by man from another civilization? If this were
the case then the pulses should show Doppler shifts as the little
green men on their planet orbited their sun. Tony Hewish
started accurate measurements of the pulse period to investigate
this; all they showed was that the earth was in orbital motion
about the sun.
Meanwhile I was continuing with routine chart analysis, which
was falling even further behind because of all the special pulsar
observations. Just before Christmas I went to see Tony Hewish
about something and walked into a high-level conference about
how to present these results. We did not really believe that we
had picked up signals from another civilization, but obviously
the idea had crossed our minds and we had no proof that it was
an entirely natural radio emission. It is an interesting problem -
if one thinks one may have detected life elsewhere in the
universe how does one announce the results responsibly? Who
does one tell first? We did not solve the problem that afternoon,
and I went home that evening very cross here was I trying to get
a Ph.D. out of a new technique, and some silly lot of little green
men had to choose my aerial and my frequency to communicate
with us. However, fortified by some supper I returned to the lab
that evening to do some more chart analysis. Shortly before the
lab closed for the night I was analyzing a recording of a
completely different part of the sky, and in amongst a strong,
heavily modulated signal from Cassiopea A at lower
culmination (at 1133) 1 thought I saw some scruff. I rapidly
checked through previous recordings of that part of the sky, and
5. on occasions there was scruff there. I had to get out of the lab
before it locked for the night, knowing that the scruff would
transit in the early hours of the morning.
So a few hours later I went out to the observatory. It was very
cold, and something in our telescope-receiver system suffered
drastic loss of gain in cold weather. Of course this was how it
was! But by flicking switches, swearing at it, breathing on it I
got it to work properly for 5 minutes - the right 5 minutes on
the right beam setting. This scruff too then showed itself to be a
series of pulses, this time 1.2 seconds apart. I left the recording
on Tony's desk and went off, much happier, for Christmas. It
was very unlikely that two lots of little green men would both
choose the same, improbable frequency, and the same time, to
try signalling to the same planet Earth.
Over Christmas Tony Hewish kindly kept the survey running for
me, put fresh paper in the chart recorders, ink in the ink wells,
and piled the charts, unanalyzed, on my desk. When I returned
after the holiday I could not immediately find him, so settled
down to do some chart analysis. Soon, on the one piece of chart,
an hour or so apart in right ascension I saw two more lots of
scruff, 0834 and 0950. It was another fortnight or so before
1133 was confirmed, and soon after that the third and fourth,
0834 and 0950 were also. Meanwhile I had checked back
through all my previous records (amounting to several miles) to
see if there were any other bits of scruff that I had missed. This
turned up a number of faintly possible candidates, but nothing
as definite as the first four.
"It is an interesting problem..... if one thinks one may have
detected life elsewhere..... how does one announce the results
responsibly?"
At the end of January the paper announcing the first pulsar was
submitted to Nature. This was based on a total of only 3 hours'
observation of the source, which was little enough. I feel that
comments that we kept the discovery secret too long are wide of
6. the mark. At about the same time I stopped making observations
and handed over to the next generation of research students, so
that I could concentrate on chart analysis, studying the
scintillations and writing up my thesis.
A few days before the paper was published Tony Hewish gave a
seminar in Cambridge to announce the results. Every
astronomer in Cambridge, so it seemed, came to that seminar,
and their interest and excitement gave me a first appreciation of
the revolution we had started. Professor Hoyle was there and I
remember his comments at the end. He started by saying that
this was the first he had heard of these stars, and therefore he
had not thought about it a lot, but that he thought these must be
supernova remnants rather than white dwarfs. Considering the
hydrodynamics and neutrino opacity calculations he must have
done in his head, that is a remarkable observation!
In the paper to NATURE we mentioned that at one stage we had
thought the signals might be from another civilization. When
the paper was published the press descended, and when they
discovered a woman was involved they descended even faster. I
had my photograph taken standing on a bank, sitting on a bank,
standing on a bank examining bogus records, sitting on a bank
examining bogus records: one of them even had me running
down the bank waving my arms in the air - Look happy dear,
you've just made a Discovery! (Archimedes doesn't know what
he missed!) Meanwhile the journalists were asking relevant
questions like was I taller than or not quite as tall as Princess
Margaret (we have quaint units of measurement in Britain) and
how many boyfriends did I have at a time?
"Look happy dear, you've just made a Discovery."
That was how my part in the proceedings ended. I finally
finished the chart analysis, measured the angular diameters of a
number of radio sources, and wrote my thesis. (The pulsars went
in an appendix.) Then I moved out of the field to another part of
the country, to get married. It has been suggested that I should
7. have had a part in the Nobel Prize awarded to Tony Hewish for
the discovery of pulsars. There are several comments that I
would like to make on this: First, demarcation disputes between
supervisor and student are always difficult, probably impossible
to resolve. Secondly, it is the supervisor who has the final
responsibility for the success or failure of the project. We hear
of cases where a supervisor blames his student for a failure, but
we know that it is largely the fault of the supervisor. It seems
only fair to me that he should benefit from the successes, too.
Thirdly, I believe it would demean Nobel Prizes if they were
awarded to research students, except in very exceptional cases,
and I do not believe this is one of them. Finally, I am not
myself upset about it - after all, I am in good company, am I
not!
All this happened 8 or 9 years ago, and to show that I operate in
real time I would like to end by telling you what it is like to be
on the inside in x-ray astronomy at the moment.
When I left radio astronomy and went into gamma-ray
astronomy I told myself firmly that I had already had more than
a lifetime's share of excitement and good luck and that I must
settle down now and do some reliable and solid, undramatic
science, though hopefully it would be interesting science. And
certainly gamma-ray astronomy was suitably unspectacular
(although I cannot help noticing how it has improved since I left
the field three years ago). Then I went to MSSL and into x-ray
astronomy, still telling myself that I had already had more than
a lifetime's share . . . . . . . I had not appreciated that x-ray
astronomy was about to boom, and had not reckoned on the
excitement of participating in a satellite project in those sorts of
circumstances. Life with a satellite is hectic: it never stops, nor
takes holidays or weekends off - it keeps going, day in, day out.
If you are not careful it runs you instead of you running it. If
somebody could invent a Lord's Day Observance satellite, I
would be pleased to work on it. I mentioned earlier the 31/2
miles of chart recordings from the radio telescope that I
analyzed. The data from our experiments on Ariel V now cover
8. 12 miles of computer printout, and the bird is still flying.
One hears about information explosions, but it is only when one
happens all around you that you appreciate what it is. Within
the lifetime of Ariel V - the last two years new, dramatic results
have been rolling in thick and fast. X-ray transients have come
to stay; many x-ray sources are found to be highly variable;
periodicities on a time-scale of minutes have been discovered;
more recently still x-ray bursts have opened our eyes to yet
another type of phenomenon; and x-ray emission from galaxies
and clusters of galaxies is now well established. What will the
Universe throw at us next? There is now a thirteenth
commandment "Thou shalt not make predictions in x-ray
astronomy, lest the Lord thy God reveal the folly of thy ways
unto all."
This article was presented as an after-dinner speech with the
title of "Petit Four" at the Eighth Texas Symposium on
Relativistic Astrophysics and appeared in the Annals of the New
York Academy of Science, vol. 302, pages 685-689, Dec., 1977.
Reproduced by permission.
S. Jocelyn Bell Burnell was born in northern Ireland in 1943.
After receiving a B.S. degree in physics from Glasgow
University, Scotland, she went to Cambridge University,
England, where she earned her doctorate in radio astronomy in
1969. Since then she has done research in the newest branches
of astronomy involving gamma-rays and x-rays. In 1978 she
received the American Tentative Society Award for her pulsar
research. Currently she is a research scientist at the Mullard
Space Science Laboratory of the University College London.
Co Armagh raised Jocelyn Bell Burnell was unfairly ignored for
a Nobel Prize in 1974 when the Prize for her discovery of
9. pulsars was awarded to a more senior colleague
Jocelyn Bell Burnell, pictured on the right, who grew up and
was educated in Lurgan, discovered pulsars, a new family of
incredibly compact tiny stars back in 1968. It was a discovery
that many astronomers believed merited a Nobel Prize. The
Nobel Committee agreed and a Prize was duly awarded for the
discovery in 1974. The problem was the Prize went not to
Jocelyn, but to her supervisor.
At the time she made the discovery, 67-year-old Jocelyn (who is
still an active researcher) was a 24-year old post-graduate
student. She was also a woman. Those things still mattered in
science in the 1960s, and might have helped explain why the
1974 Nobel Prize for Physics, awarded for the pulsar discovery,
went to Jocelyn’s male supervisor, Antony Hewish and his
senior colleague Martin Ryle. Many astronomers are still
unhappy about this decision and have openly suggested that
Jocelyn should, at the very least, been a co-recipient of the
Prize. That the two prize winners never felt the need to
recognise Jocelyn’s work, is a scientific scandal.
Obstacles
It was far from certain that Jocelyn would attain the heights she
has attained in science, and she had to overcome many obstacles
in her path. She was born inBelfast, but spent most of her first
13 years in Lurgan. She failed the ’11 plus’ exam, the test that
children take inBritainandNorthern Irelandbefore entering
secondary school. This exam is crucial as it usually determines
whether a child is admitted to a ‘grammar school’ where the
focus is on getting students to university. Her failure at the 11
plus wasn’t fatal, as she had been attending the Grammar
School in Lurgan, and the school agreed to keep her on for a
few years before she went off to a boarding school inEngland.
However, she did admit much later that the failure ‘shook her’,
and she didn’t chose to mention it until she attained the status
of Professor.
Looking back today, Jocelyn believes that the 11 plus
curriculum at the time didn’t suit her, as she said there wasn’t
10. any science in it. Her scientific ability was certainly obvious
when she came top of her class in her first term in secondary
school at Lurgan Grammar. However, before that, there was
another hurdle to cross. That came when the girls and boys were
segregated into two groups in her first year of secondary school.
Jocelyn thought that the separation might have ‘something to do
with sport’, but was horrified when she realised that the boys
were being brought to the science lab, while the girls were
being packed off to learn about domestic science. It was
the1950s and girls in Lurgan, and all overIreland, north and
south, weren’t given any encouragement to do science.
Jocelyn’s parents decided to ‘kick up a fuss’ and, as a result she
was permitted to join the boys doing science, along with the
daughter of a local doctor, and one other girl. It was a close
call, andIrelandalmost lost perhaps its most accomplished ever
female scientist before she even had a chance to show what she
could do.
She finished out her two remaining years in Lurgan Grammar
and then it was off toEngland. Jocelyn’s family were Quakers,
and there was a family tradition of sending the children to
Quaker schools inEngland. Jocelyn attendedMountSchool,
inYork. She recalls that it was good to get away from home,
though traumatic to begin with. In England, in the Fifties, girls
were not discouraged from doing science, so it was a different
atmosphere to Ireland. Jocelyn did very well in her studies,
despite what she recalls as a mixed standard of science
teaching.
She made it through the roller-coaster of her primary and
secondary school education to get accepted into Glasgow
University to study science. There she did well enough to be
accepted to do a PhD in the University of Cambridge, a truly
world-class university, choc-a-block with Nobel prize winning
scientists, then and now. She began her PhD in 1965, working
under the supervision of the aforementioned Hewish. The aim of
the research project she was involved with was to find quasars.
Jocelyn describes quasars as being “big, big things like
11. galaxies, but they are incredibly bright and they send out a lot
of radio waves”. The idea was to search for quasars by looking
at natural sources of radio waves in the cosmos using a
telescope array.
An array is a group of linked telescopes, and a special array was
constructed for the project at a four-acre site at the Mullard
Astronomy Observatory near Cambridge. Jocelyn got stuck into
the nitty-gritty of getting the project up and running, and spent
her time initially banging stakes into the ground and connecting
miles of copper wire. Finally, in July 1967, the array was ready.
Accidental
Jocelyn began the job of monitoring the sky for rapid
fluctuations in radio waves that might indicate the presence of a
quasar at a particular location. She had to read through literally
miles of paper, and wade through mountains of data, searching
for tell-tale signs of a quasar.
On the 6th August 1967, a few weeks after the array came
online, Jocelyn noticed something. She described the discovery
that would change her life to this reporter in an interview in
2010:
“It was totally accidental. I was doing the research project I had
been set very conscientiously and happened across something
unexpected. The analogy I use is imagine you are at some nice
viewpoint making a video of the sunset and along comes another
car and parks in the foreground and it’s got its hazard warning
lights, its blinkers on, and it spoils your video. Well my project
was looking at quasars, which are some of the most distant
things in the universe. [quasars] are big, big things like
galaxies, but they are incredibly bright and they send out a lot
of radio waves, which is what I was picking up. [I was]
studying these distant quasars and something in the foreground
sort of went ‘yo-hoo’! – not very loudly shall we say it was a
pretty faint signal, but it turned out after a lot of checking up,
and a lot of persistence to be an incredible kind of new star,
which we have called a pulsar – pulsating radio star.”
“They are tiny as stars go, they are only about 10 miles across,
12. but they weigh the same as a typical star so they are very, very
compact. The radio waves were coming naturally from some
kind of star. We picked up these pulses and they were so
unexpected that the first thing you have to do is suspect is that
there is something wrong with the equipment, then suspect there
is interference and then suspect something else, gradually force
yourself to believe that it is something astronomical and it’s out
there in the galaxy. The excitement came when I found the
second one, because that really then begins to look like this is a
new population we’ve discovered and we’ve just got the tip of
the iceberg.”
Inside a few weeks Jocelyn had discovered three more radio
wave sources that were behaving in the same way. This proved
beyond doubt that here was a new, real and probably entirely
natural phenomenon, though there was some talk – only partly
in jest – about the possibility that these pulsating radio waves
were being sent across the Universe by an alien intelligence.
A paper in Nature, the renowned scientific journal followed and
it was published on the 24th February 1968. The press interest
was huge after the paper came out, and Jocelyn and other people
in the lab did a series of newspaper, radio and television
interviews. Somehow she managed to get back to finishing her
PhD, which she did in September 1968. But her life had
changed, and she had become an overnight scientific celebrity,
still only in her mid twenties.
Jocelyn said that the practical importance of her new found
fame was that she never found it difficult to pick up a job when
she was travelling around Britain with her husband, Martin Bell.
He was a civil servant that regularly moved from city to city.
Jocelyn followed him and worked part time for many years
raising their son Gavin, who was born in 1973, and is also a
physicist.
The down-side of achieving fame and success at an early stage
was – as Jocelyn said to this reporter – that people expected her
to come up with amazing discoveries all the time. A discovery
such as finding pulsars comes only about once per decade in the
13. astronomical community as a whole, and so it is a bit hard, she
suggested, to live up to such expectations.
These days she continues to work as a Visiting Professor of
Astrophysics at Oxford University where she is free to conduct
research without too many other duties being imposed on her.
Whatever she might do before she retires, her scientific legacy
is secure. In 2010, a pulsar conference was held in Sardinia to
honour her 45 years in science and to ‘christen’ a new radio
telescope. A long-time colleague Australian pulsar researcher,
Dick Manchester, was asked to deliver a speech at the
conference, detailing Jocelyn’s contribution to science.
He said:
“I think Jocelyn’s fame is greater because she didn’t receive the
Nobel Prize in 1974 than it would have been if she had. I
believe that the furore that her lack of recognition caused
resulted in a change of attitude by the Nobel Committee and I’m
sure more widely as well, with a heightened awareness of the
role of students in projects and the role of women in science.”
This Month in Physics History:
February 1968: The Discovery of Pulsars Announced
Jocelyn Bell ca. 1970
In 1967, when Jocelyn Bell, then a graduate student in
astronomy, noticed a strange “bit of scruff” in the data coming
from her radio telescope, she and her advisor Anthony Hewish
initially thought they might have detected a signal from an
extraterrestrial civilization. It turned out not be aliens, but it
was still quite exciting: they had discovered the first pulsar.
They announced their discovery in February 1968.
Bell, who was born in Ireland in 1943, was inspired by her high
school physics teacher to study science, and went to Cambridge
to pursue her PhD in astronomy. Bell’s project, with advisor
Anthony Hewish, involved using a new technique,
14. interplanetary scintillation, to observe quasars. Because quasars
scintillate more than other objects, Hewish thought the
technique would be a good way to study them, and he designed
a radio telescope to do so.
Working at the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory, near
Cambridge, starting in 1965 Bell spent about two years building
the new telescope, with the help of several other students.
Together they hammered over 1000 posts, strung over 2000
dipole antennas between them, and connected it all up with 120
miles of wire and cable. The finished telescope covered an area
of about four and a half acres.
They started operating the telescope in July 1967, while
construction was still going on. Bell had responsibility for
operating the telescope and analyzing the data–nearly 100 feet
of paper every day–by hand. She soon learned to recognize
scintillating sources and interference.
Within a few weeks Bell noticed something odd in the data,
what she called a bit of “scruff.” The signal didn’t look quite
like a scintillating source or like manmade interference. She
soon realized it was a regular signal, consistently coming from
the same patch of sky.
No known natural sources would produce such a signal. Bell
and Hewish began to rule out various sources of human
interference, including other radio astronomers, radar reflected
off the moon, television signals, orbiting satellites, and even
possible effects from a large corrugated metal building near the
telescope. None of those could explain the strange signal.
The signal, a series of sharp pulses that came every 1.3 seconds,
seemed too fast to be coming from anything like a star. Bell and
Hewish jokingly called the new source LGM-1, for “Little
Green Men.” (It was later renamed.)
But soon they managed to rule out extraterrestrial life as the
source of the signal, when Bell noticed another similar signal,
this time a series of pulses arriving 1.2 seconds apart, coming
from an entirely different area of the sky. It seemed quite
unlikely that two separate groups of aliens were trying to
15. communicate with them at the same time, from completely
different locations. Over Christmas 1967, Bell noticed two more
such bits of scruff, bringing the total to four.
By the end of January, Bell and Hewish submitted a paper to
Nature describing the first pulsar. In February, a few days
before the paper was published, Hewish gave a seminar in
Cambridge to announce the discovery, though they still had not
determined the nature of the source.
The announcement caused quite a stir. The press jumped on the
story–the possible finding of extraterrestrial life was too hard to
resist. They became even more excited when they learned that a
woman was involved in the discovery. Bell later recalled the
media attention in a speech about the discovery: “I had my
photograph taken standing on a bank, sitting on a bank, standing
on a bank examining bogus records, sitting on a bank examining
bogus records. Meanwhile the journalists were asking relevant
questions like was I taller than or not quite as tall as Princess
Margaret, and how many boyfriends did I have at a time?”
Artist's rendering of a pulsar
Other astronomers were also energized by the finding, and
joined in a race to discover more pulsars and to figure out what
these strange sources were. By the end of 1968, dozens of
pulsars had been detected. Soon Thomas Gold showed that
pulsars are actually rapidly rotating neutron stars. Neutron stars
were predicted in 1933, but not detected until the discovery of
pulsars. These extremely dense stars, which form from the
collapsed remnants of massive stars after a supernova, have
strong magnetic fields that are not aligned with the star’s
rotation axis. The strong field and rapid rotation produces a
beam of radiation that sweeps around as the star spins. On
Earth, we see this as a series of pulses as the neutron star
rotates, like a beam of light from a lighthouse.
After discovering the first pulsars, Jocelyn Bell finished her
analysis of radio sources, completed her PhD, got married and
changed her name to Burnell. She left radio astronomy for
16. gamma ray astronomy and then x-ray astronomy, though her
career was hindered by her husband’s frequent moves and her
decision to work part time while raising her son. Anthony
Hewish won the Nobel Prize in 1974 for the discovery of the
first pulsars. Over 1000 pulsars are now known.
As for little green men, they haven’t been found yet, but
projects such as the Search for Extra Terrestrial Intelligence
(SETI) are still looking for them.