Presented by Kristina Roesel and Delia Grace at “Microsporidia in the Animal to Human Food Chain: An International Symposium to Address Chronic Epizootic Disease”, Vancouver, Canada, 9-13 August 2015.
COVID-19: The Day Before | Lessons from SARS, Ebola, Nipah – how our relation...El día después será...
This document summarizes a webinar discussing zoonotic diseases like SARS, Ebola, and Nipah. It notes that over 60% of human infectious diseases come from animals. Diseases emerge at the human-livestock-ecosystem interface and are transmitted through direct or indirect contact with infected animals or disease vectors. Viruses often become more severe as they move between host species. For diseases like Ebola and Nipah, bats are typically the original host and intermediate hosts like pigs or non-human primates can transmit the diseases to humans. SARS-CoV-2 is closely related to coronaviruses found in bats and may have passed through intermediate hosts like pangolins before infect
This document provides an introduction to medical parasitology. It outlines the learning outcomes which are to provide knowledge on principles of medical parasitology, the role of parasites in health and disease, clinical manifestations of infectious diseases, laboratory diagnosis of parasites and treatment. It then discusses various aspects of parasitology including types of parasites, hosts, sources of infection, portals of entry, life cycles, immunity, and laboratory diagnosis. Key points covered are microparasites vs macroparasites, types of hosts, sources of contamination, common portals of entry, life cycles with varying numbers of intermediate hosts, immune response mechanisms, and clinical specimens and diagnostic methods for parasitic infections.
This document provides an introduction to parasitology, defining key terms like host, parasite, vector, and different types of parasite-host relationships. It describes the lifecycles and classifications of major parasite groups like helminths and protozoa. Risk factors, routes of transmission, clinical signs, diagnosis, and control of parasitic diseases are discussed. Parasites can damage hosts through trauma, tissue reactions, and providing access to secondary infections. Diagnosis involves clinical history and laboratory examination of specimens like stool. Treatment requires considering the infection severity and available pharmacological or surgical options.
The document provides an introduction to medical parasitology. It defines parasites and the relationships between parasites and their hosts. It discusses the classification of parasites according to their habitat, life cycle dependence on the host, and pathogenicity. It also covers the transmission, diagnosis, and importance of human parasites. The key parasites discussed include protozoa that infect the intestines, blood, and tissues, as well as helminthic worms including nematodes, cestodes, and trematodes.
This article discusses the work and theories of evolutionary biologist Paul Ewald. Ewald argues that many chronic diseases like some forms of heart disease, cancer, and mental illness are caused by infections, contrary to prevailing medical views. He believes evolutionary principles dictate that pathogens evolve to become more or less virulent depending on factors like their mode of transmission. His work studying cholera outbreaks in Latin America provides evidence that virulence can be influenced by public health interventions like water sanitation. Ewald's "Germ Theory, Part II" proposes that infectious agents are likely causes of common illnesses that have significant negative impacts on fitness and have persisted in human populations for generations. His theories have influenced the field of evolutionary medicine but have also faced some
This document discusses heartworm and intestinal parasite prevention for pets and their owners. It defines zoonosis as a disease that can be transmitted from animals to humans. It discusses guidelines from the Companion Animal Parasites Council (CAPC) for preventing parasites like hookworms, roundworms, fleas and ticks. It notes that hookworms pose a public health concern as their larvae can penetrate human skin and cause infection.
MERS has to be tackled more practically ,its nothing to scare unless you find and suspicious case around you.The contributing factors are ,weather ,closed homes ,shisha culture ,and the anatomy of Arabs nostrils play a aggressive role in spread of this new disease.The virus mutated recently in a more more cases in humans appeared in hospitals in Jeddah, which may indicate increased virus transmission from man to man due to mutation in the genome leading to virus adaptation. This event may be associated with loss of some virulence elements in the virus.”to survive, viruses adapt or evolve, changing its surface proteins enough to trick the host cell into allowing it to attach.
Presented by Kristina Roesel and Delia Grace at “Microsporidia in the Animal to Human Food Chain: An International Symposium to Address Chronic Epizootic Disease”, Vancouver, Canada, 9-13 August 2015.
COVID-19: The Day Before | Lessons from SARS, Ebola, Nipah – how our relation...El día después será...
This document summarizes a webinar discussing zoonotic diseases like SARS, Ebola, and Nipah. It notes that over 60% of human infectious diseases come from animals. Diseases emerge at the human-livestock-ecosystem interface and are transmitted through direct or indirect contact with infected animals or disease vectors. Viruses often become more severe as they move between host species. For diseases like Ebola and Nipah, bats are typically the original host and intermediate hosts like pigs or non-human primates can transmit the diseases to humans. SARS-CoV-2 is closely related to coronaviruses found in bats and may have passed through intermediate hosts like pangolins before infect
This document provides an introduction to medical parasitology. It outlines the learning outcomes which are to provide knowledge on principles of medical parasitology, the role of parasites in health and disease, clinical manifestations of infectious diseases, laboratory diagnosis of parasites and treatment. It then discusses various aspects of parasitology including types of parasites, hosts, sources of infection, portals of entry, life cycles, immunity, and laboratory diagnosis. Key points covered are microparasites vs macroparasites, types of hosts, sources of contamination, common portals of entry, life cycles with varying numbers of intermediate hosts, immune response mechanisms, and clinical specimens and diagnostic methods for parasitic infections.
This document provides an introduction to parasitology, defining key terms like host, parasite, vector, and different types of parasite-host relationships. It describes the lifecycles and classifications of major parasite groups like helminths and protozoa. Risk factors, routes of transmission, clinical signs, diagnosis, and control of parasitic diseases are discussed. Parasites can damage hosts through trauma, tissue reactions, and providing access to secondary infections. Diagnosis involves clinical history and laboratory examination of specimens like stool. Treatment requires considering the infection severity and available pharmacological or surgical options.
The document provides an introduction to medical parasitology. It defines parasites and the relationships between parasites and their hosts. It discusses the classification of parasites according to their habitat, life cycle dependence on the host, and pathogenicity. It also covers the transmission, diagnosis, and importance of human parasites. The key parasites discussed include protozoa that infect the intestines, blood, and tissues, as well as helminthic worms including nematodes, cestodes, and trematodes.
This article discusses the work and theories of evolutionary biologist Paul Ewald. Ewald argues that many chronic diseases like some forms of heart disease, cancer, and mental illness are caused by infections, contrary to prevailing medical views. He believes evolutionary principles dictate that pathogens evolve to become more or less virulent depending on factors like their mode of transmission. His work studying cholera outbreaks in Latin America provides evidence that virulence can be influenced by public health interventions like water sanitation. Ewald's "Germ Theory, Part II" proposes that infectious agents are likely causes of common illnesses that have significant negative impacts on fitness and have persisted in human populations for generations. His theories have influenced the field of evolutionary medicine but have also faced some
This document discusses heartworm and intestinal parasite prevention for pets and their owners. It defines zoonosis as a disease that can be transmitted from animals to humans. It discusses guidelines from the Companion Animal Parasites Council (CAPC) for preventing parasites like hookworms, roundworms, fleas and ticks. It notes that hookworms pose a public health concern as their larvae can penetrate human skin and cause infection.
MERS has to be tackled more practically ,its nothing to scare unless you find and suspicious case around you.The contributing factors are ,weather ,closed homes ,shisha culture ,and the anatomy of Arabs nostrils play a aggressive role in spread of this new disease.The virus mutated recently in a more more cases in humans appeared in hospitals in Jeddah, which may indicate increased virus transmission from man to man due to mutation in the genome leading to virus adaptation. This event may be associated with loss of some virulence elements in the virus.”to survive, viruses adapt or evolve, changing its surface proteins enough to trick the host cell into allowing it to attach.
This document discusses different types of relationships between organisms: mutualism provides benefits to both organisms, symbiosis requires both organisms to survive, commensalism benefits one organism without affecting the other, and parasitism harms the host organism. It also defines types of hosts and provides a basic classification of medically important parasites, including helminths (flatworms and roundworms), protozoa, and arthropods.
This document provides an introductory overview of parasitology including:
1. Definitions of key terms like parasite, host, symbiosis, and vectors.
2. Classifications of parasites by cellular organization, habitat, duration of infection, and more.
3. Explanations of parasite life cycles, modes of transmission, common sites of infection in the body, and examples of parasitic diseases.
4. The learning objectives cover parasite and host taxonomy, host-parasite interactions, laboratory diagnosis of parasitic diseases, and major parasites that infect people in Bangladesh.
A new study suggests that some mosquitoes that transmit diseases like dengue and yellow fever evolved to prefer human body odor after originally biting animals. Researchers examined genes in mosquitoes in Kenya and found that human-loving mosquitoes are attracted to human scent. One odor receptor gene called Or4 was particularly linked to this attraction to humans. The study suggests these mosquitoes acquired a preference for human body odor that helped them specialize in biting humans.
This document provides an introduction to parasitology, defining parasites as organisms that infect other living beings by living in or on their bodies and obtaining nourishment. It discusses different types of parasites like micro and macro parasites. It describes the relationships between parasites and hosts, the classes of parasites like ecto and endoparasites, types of hosts, life cycles of parasites like Ascaris, modes of infection, symptoms, immunity, and methods for laboratory diagnosis of parasitic infections. The main groups of parasites are identified as protozoa, platyhelminthes, and nemathelminthes.
Patches, Tsetse and Livelihoods in the Zambezi Valley, ZimbabweNaomi Marks
Presentation by Professor Vupenyu Dzingirai of the University of Zimbabwe at the One Health for the Real World: zoonoses, ecosystems and wellbeing symposium, London 17-18 March 2016
This document provides an overview of the ecology of parasites. It discusses parasites' host environments and adaptations to exploit host resources. Parasites are site-specific within hosts, inhabiting different internal and external microenvironments. Parasite populations are described using quantitative terms like density, prevalence, and aggregation. Macroparasites are large parasites that do not multiply within hosts, while microparasites are small parasites that do multiply. Population structure graphs show how parasites are distributed among host individuals. Epidemiology studies disease transmission and distribution at both the macro and micro levels.
The document summarizes how Ebola virus disease is transmitted between humans. It states that Ebola virus is transmitted through direct contact with body fluids like blood, vomit and feces of infected individuals. After recovering from Ebola, the virus can still be present in semen for at least 3 months, so recovered individuals should abstain from sex or always use condoms to avoid spreading the virus. Ebola is not transmitted through air, water or food.
Combating cummunicable diseases at the farm - wildlife interfaceH. (Harry) Rozendaal
This document discusses the risks of communicable diseases spreading between domesticated animals and wildlife. It provides examples of diseases that have spread in this way, such as avian influenza between poultry and wild birds, bovine tuberculosis between cattle and wildlife like possums and deer, and African swine fever between domestic pigs and wild boar. The author argues that minimizing contact between domestic and wild animals, quickly controlling outbreaks in domestic populations, and avoiding disturbing, gathering or feeding wild animals can help curb the cycle of infection at the wildlife-domestic animal interface.
Malaria is caused by a parasite transmitted through mosquito bites. When the parasite enters the bloodstream, it travels to the liver and then infects red blood cells. The parasites multiply within the cells, causing them to burst and release more parasites. This cycle causes symptoms like fever and chills that occur every two to three days. There are four types of malaria parasites that can infect humans, with one type in particular causing a more severe form of the disease. Preventive measures include medications, insect repellent, limiting outdoor activities at dusk/dawn, and sleeping under bed nets. A blood test can detect the parasite and treatment is available to cure the illness if diagnosed early.
Parasitology is the study of parasites, which can live internally or externally on a host. Parasites include parasitic protists, worms, fungi, and arthropod vectors of disease. Parasites have complex life cycles involving different host organisms. Definitive hosts support the sexual reproduction of a parasite, intermediate hosts allow asexual replication but not sex, and reservoir hosts maintain parasite populations when not infecting other species. Common parasitic protists include Plasmodium, which causes malaria, and protozoans like Giardia. Major parasitic helminths are flatworms, tapeworms, and roundworms such as hookworms and pinworms.
HIV can be transmitted through unprotected sex, sharing needles, or from mother to child during birth. It was likely first transmitted to humans from chimpanzees in West Africa when their infected blood came into contact with humans during hunting. There is no cure for HIV, but antiretroviral therapy can control the virus and help those infected live longer. Proper safety protocols should be followed by healthcare workers when dealing with patients' bodily fluids to prevent transmission. Regular testing and treatment are important given that HIV symptoms may not appear for years.
This document provides an overview of parasitology and parasitic diseases. It discusses different types of parasites including protozoa like Plasmodium and helminths like nematodes. Key points covered include the life cycles of important parasites, how they infect and damage hosts, methods of diagnosis and important treatment options. Diseases discussed in depth include malaria, amebiasis, giardiasis and various helminth infections.
Anthrax is a potentially fatal bacterial infection that can occur in three forms: pulmonary, gastrointestinal, and cutaneous. The disease is rare in humans but more common in grazing animals. While difficult to contract, anthrax can be transmitted through skin contact, eating contaminated food, or breathing spores. Louis Pasteur's pioneering work in the 1870s developing an anthrax vaccine helped launch further research. Modern controversies around anthrax vaccines focus on their safety and side effects. Overall, anthrax research aims to understand the disease and develop effective countermeasures.
Parasitology is the scientific study of parasites and the relationship between parasites and their hosts. It includes areas like the biology, physiology, ecology and pathology of parasites as well as the host's response. The scope of parasitology includes academic study, its role in public health, animal husbandry, medicine, and agriculture. It aims to understand parasite survival and transmission as well as develop prevention and treatment of parasitic diseases.
This document discusses key concepts in veterinary parasitology including definitions of parasitism, symbiosis, transmission routes, host specificity, typical parasite characteristics and impacts on domestic and wild animals. It also covers parasitic zoonoses, where parasites normally found in animals can be transmitted to humans.
This document discusses vectors and disease transmission. It begins by introducing important concepts regarding vectors, including definitions of vector and vectorial capacity. It then discusses arthropods as common disease vectors, focusing on mosquitoes transmitting diseases like dengue, malaria, and filariasis. The document outlines criteria for identifying vectors, including their contact with hosts, biological association with disease occurrence, ability to transmit disease experimentally, and extrinsic and intrinsic incubation periods. It also covers vector competence, types of transmission (mechanical, biological), and factors influencing a vector's ability to transmit pathogens.
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms including bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Medical microbiology focuses on pathogens that cause disease in humans. Key terms include bacteriology, virology, and parasitology which are the study of bacteria, viruses, and parasites respectively. A reservoir describes where a pathogen lives and reproduces, often in animals. Zoonoses are diseases that pass from animals to humans. The document discusses eight common pathogens including bacteria, viruses, and parasites that cause diseases like hepatitis, diarrhea, and vomiting. These pathogens are transmitted through various methods like contaminated food, water, person-to-person contact, and animals.
Segun la Teoria Integral, la conciencia ha venido evolucionando y las diferentes etapas de la conciencia tienen todo que ver con los profesiones y supuestos que vivimos. Esta actualmente en el ingles.
Online-1 Online Chapter NandaWarms, Cultural Anthropo.docxhopeaustin33688
Online-1
Online Chapter: Nanda/Warms, Cultural Anthropology 11e
Human Evolution
Learning Objectives
After you have read this chapter, you will be able to:
• Describe the relationship between culture and evolution for human beings.
• Explain the basic principles of Darwin’s theory of natural selection.
• List some traits that humans have in common with our closest animal relations.
• Describe social relations among nonhuman primate species.
Online-2
• Describe australopithecines, and tell when and where they lived and what their social
lives might have been like.
• Describe Homo habilis, and tell when and where they lived and what their social lives
might have been like.
• Describe Homo erectus, and tell when and where they lived and what their social lives
might have been like.
• Tell where and when Homo sapiens evolved, and describe their early material culture.
• Compare variation among humans to that found among other species.
• Explain some of the sources of human variation, particularly variation in skin color.
In its broadest sense, evolution refers to directional change. Biological evolution, however, is
something more specific. For biologists, evolution is descent with modification from a single
common ancestor or ancestral population. Evolution is a characteristic of populations, not
individual organisms. As individuals, we may grow and learn. We may create inventions or alter
our lifestyles. But, for a change to be evolutionary in a biological sense, it must affect the genes
we pass along to the next generation. Evolution is the primary way we understand the biological
history of humanity and, indeed, of all life.
In this chapter, we provide a brief overview of human evolution. We start with a discussion of
Darwin and the theory of natural selection, move on to talk about primates, their social lives, and
tool usage, before turning to a summary of what we know about human evolution. We talk about
the ways that remains are found, and then survey the major fossil finds, including the
australopithecines, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Homo sapiens. We end with a discussion of
human variation. Along the way, we describe some of the experiences of fossil hunters Raymond
Dart and Mary Leakey, discuss forensic anthropology, and consider the fate of primates in the
world today.
Speculation about human history and the natural world plays an important role in most societies.
For example, the notion that human beings came from earlier life forms was well developed
among ancient European philosophers. In the 6th century BCE, the Greek thinker Anaximander
of Miletus speculated that humans arose from fish. A century later, his disciple, Xenophanes of
Colophon, used evidence of fossil fish from numerous places around the Mediterranean to
support Anaximander’s theory.
We are often asked why, in a text on cultural anthropology, there should be an extensive chapter
on human evolution.
Microorganisms that are too small to see with the naked eye surround us and can have both beneficial and harmful effects. While some are used to produce foods and medicines, others can cause dangerous diseases. Microbiology studies these microscopic organisms, which exist virtually everywhere and can remain dormant in hosts for years before causing illness. Important early discoveries included bacteria and the role of microbes in fermentation. Though tiny, microbes can spread severe infectious diseases in plants and animals, sometimes causing large epidemics with high mortality. The invention of vaccines has helped prevent diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi and other microorganisms such as cholera, tetanus, hepatitis and some cancers. Over time, continued study and discovery of new
This document presents a call for unity among believers of different faiths against threats to religious values. It argues that Muslims, Christians and Jews share common beliefs and should work together against ideologies like Darwinism and radicalism. The document outlines areas of shared belief and emphasizes the importance of cooperation over past disputes. It asserts that united, people of faith can counter dangerous indoctrination and build a moral society of peace, security and well-being.
This document discusses different types of relationships between organisms: mutualism provides benefits to both organisms, symbiosis requires both organisms to survive, commensalism benefits one organism without affecting the other, and parasitism harms the host organism. It also defines types of hosts and provides a basic classification of medically important parasites, including helminths (flatworms and roundworms), protozoa, and arthropods.
This document provides an introductory overview of parasitology including:
1. Definitions of key terms like parasite, host, symbiosis, and vectors.
2. Classifications of parasites by cellular organization, habitat, duration of infection, and more.
3. Explanations of parasite life cycles, modes of transmission, common sites of infection in the body, and examples of parasitic diseases.
4. The learning objectives cover parasite and host taxonomy, host-parasite interactions, laboratory diagnosis of parasitic diseases, and major parasites that infect people in Bangladesh.
A new study suggests that some mosquitoes that transmit diseases like dengue and yellow fever evolved to prefer human body odor after originally biting animals. Researchers examined genes in mosquitoes in Kenya and found that human-loving mosquitoes are attracted to human scent. One odor receptor gene called Or4 was particularly linked to this attraction to humans. The study suggests these mosquitoes acquired a preference for human body odor that helped them specialize in biting humans.
This document provides an introduction to parasitology, defining parasites as organisms that infect other living beings by living in or on their bodies and obtaining nourishment. It discusses different types of parasites like micro and macro parasites. It describes the relationships between parasites and hosts, the classes of parasites like ecto and endoparasites, types of hosts, life cycles of parasites like Ascaris, modes of infection, symptoms, immunity, and methods for laboratory diagnosis of parasitic infections. The main groups of parasites are identified as protozoa, platyhelminthes, and nemathelminthes.
Patches, Tsetse and Livelihoods in the Zambezi Valley, ZimbabweNaomi Marks
Presentation by Professor Vupenyu Dzingirai of the University of Zimbabwe at the One Health for the Real World: zoonoses, ecosystems and wellbeing symposium, London 17-18 March 2016
This document provides an overview of the ecology of parasites. It discusses parasites' host environments and adaptations to exploit host resources. Parasites are site-specific within hosts, inhabiting different internal and external microenvironments. Parasite populations are described using quantitative terms like density, prevalence, and aggregation. Macroparasites are large parasites that do not multiply within hosts, while microparasites are small parasites that do multiply. Population structure graphs show how parasites are distributed among host individuals. Epidemiology studies disease transmission and distribution at both the macro and micro levels.
The document summarizes how Ebola virus disease is transmitted between humans. It states that Ebola virus is transmitted through direct contact with body fluids like blood, vomit and feces of infected individuals. After recovering from Ebola, the virus can still be present in semen for at least 3 months, so recovered individuals should abstain from sex or always use condoms to avoid spreading the virus. Ebola is not transmitted through air, water or food.
Combating cummunicable diseases at the farm - wildlife interfaceH. (Harry) Rozendaal
This document discusses the risks of communicable diseases spreading between domesticated animals and wildlife. It provides examples of diseases that have spread in this way, such as avian influenza between poultry and wild birds, bovine tuberculosis between cattle and wildlife like possums and deer, and African swine fever between domestic pigs and wild boar. The author argues that minimizing contact between domestic and wild animals, quickly controlling outbreaks in domestic populations, and avoiding disturbing, gathering or feeding wild animals can help curb the cycle of infection at the wildlife-domestic animal interface.
Malaria is caused by a parasite transmitted through mosquito bites. When the parasite enters the bloodstream, it travels to the liver and then infects red blood cells. The parasites multiply within the cells, causing them to burst and release more parasites. This cycle causes symptoms like fever and chills that occur every two to three days. There are four types of malaria parasites that can infect humans, with one type in particular causing a more severe form of the disease. Preventive measures include medications, insect repellent, limiting outdoor activities at dusk/dawn, and sleeping under bed nets. A blood test can detect the parasite and treatment is available to cure the illness if diagnosed early.
Parasitology is the study of parasites, which can live internally or externally on a host. Parasites include parasitic protists, worms, fungi, and arthropod vectors of disease. Parasites have complex life cycles involving different host organisms. Definitive hosts support the sexual reproduction of a parasite, intermediate hosts allow asexual replication but not sex, and reservoir hosts maintain parasite populations when not infecting other species. Common parasitic protists include Plasmodium, which causes malaria, and protozoans like Giardia. Major parasitic helminths are flatworms, tapeworms, and roundworms such as hookworms and pinworms.
HIV can be transmitted through unprotected sex, sharing needles, or from mother to child during birth. It was likely first transmitted to humans from chimpanzees in West Africa when their infected blood came into contact with humans during hunting. There is no cure for HIV, but antiretroviral therapy can control the virus and help those infected live longer. Proper safety protocols should be followed by healthcare workers when dealing with patients' bodily fluids to prevent transmission. Regular testing and treatment are important given that HIV symptoms may not appear for years.
This document provides an overview of parasitology and parasitic diseases. It discusses different types of parasites including protozoa like Plasmodium and helminths like nematodes. Key points covered include the life cycles of important parasites, how they infect and damage hosts, methods of diagnosis and important treatment options. Diseases discussed in depth include malaria, amebiasis, giardiasis and various helminth infections.
Anthrax is a potentially fatal bacterial infection that can occur in three forms: pulmonary, gastrointestinal, and cutaneous. The disease is rare in humans but more common in grazing animals. While difficult to contract, anthrax can be transmitted through skin contact, eating contaminated food, or breathing spores. Louis Pasteur's pioneering work in the 1870s developing an anthrax vaccine helped launch further research. Modern controversies around anthrax vaccines focus on their safety and side effects. Overall, anthrax research aims to understand the disease and develop effective countermeasures.
Parasitology is the scientific study of parasites and the relationship between parasites and their hosts. It includes areas like the biology, physiology, ecology and pathology of parasites as well as the host's response. The scope of parasitology includes academic study, its role in public health, animal husbandry, medicine, and agriculture. It aims to understand parasite survival and transmission as well as develop prevention and treatment of parasitic diseases.
This document discusses key concepts in veterinary parasitology including definitions of parasitism, symbiosis, transmission routes, host specificity, typical parasite characteristics and impacts on domestic and wild animals. It also covers parasitic zoonoses, where parasites normally found in animals can be transmitted to humans.
This document discusses vectors and disease transmission. It begins by introducing important concepts regarding vectors, including definitions of vector and vectorial capacity. It then discusses arthropods as common disease vectors, focusing on mosquitoes transmitting diseases like dengue, malaria, and filariasis. The document outlines criteria for identifying vectors, including their contact with hosts, biological association with disease occurrence, ability to transmit disease experimentally, and extrinsic and intrinsic incubation periods. It also covers vector competence, types of transmission (mechanical, biological), and factors influencing a vector's ability to transmit pathogens.
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms including bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Medical microbiology focuses on pathogens that cause disease in humans. Key terms include bacteriology, virology, and parasitology which are the study of bacteria, viruses, and parasites respectively. A reservoir describes where a pathogen lives and reproduces, often in animals. Zoonoses are diseases that pass from animals to humans. The document discusses eight common pathogens including bacteria, viruses, and parasites that cause diseases like hepatitis, diarrhea, and vomiting. These pathogens are transmitted through various methods like contaminated food, water, person-to-person contact, and animals.
Segun la Teoria Integral, la conciencia ha venido evolucionando y las diferentes etapas de la conciencia tienen todo que ver con los profesiones y supuestos que vivimos. Esta actualmente en el ingles.
Online-1 Online Chapter NandaWarms, Cultural Anthropo.docxhopeaustin33688
Online-1
Online Chapter: Nanda/Warms, Cultural Anthropology 11e
Human Evolution
Learning Objectives
After you have read this chapter, you will be able to:
• Describe the relationship between culture and evolution for human beings.
• Explain the basic principles of Darwin’s theory of natural selection.
• List some traits that humans have in common with our closest animal relations.
• Describe social relations among nonhuman primate species.
Online-2
• Describe australopithecines, and tell when and where they lived and what their social
lives might have been like.
• Describe Homo habilis, and tell when and where they lived and what their social lives
might have been like.
• Describe Homo erectus, and tell when and where they lived and what their social lives
might have been like.
• Tell where and when Homo sapiens evolved, and describe their early material culture.
• Compare variation among humans to that found among other species.
• Explain some of the sources of human variation, particularly variation in skin color.
In its broadest sense, evolution refers to directional change. Biological evolution, however, is
something more specific. For biologists, evolution is descent with modification from a single
common ancestor or ancestral population. Evolution is a characteristic of populations, not
individual organisms. As individuals, we may grow and learn. We may create inventions or alter
our lifestyles. But, for a change to be evolutionary in a biological sense, it must affect the genes
we pass along to the next generation. Evolution is the primary way we understand the biological
history of humanity and, indeed, of all life.
In this chapter, we provide a brief overview of human evolution. We start with a discussion of
Darwin and the theory of natural selection, move on to talk about primates, their social lives, and
tool usage, before turning to a summary of what we know about human evolution. We talk about
the ways that remains are found, and then survey the major fossil finds, including the
australopithecines, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Homo sapiens. We end with a discussion of
human variation. Along the way, we describe some of the experiences of fossil hunters Raymond
Dart and Mary Leakey, discuss forensic anthropology, and consider the fate of primates in the
world today.
Speculation about human history and the natural world plays an important role in most societies.
For example, the notion that human beings came from earlier life forms was well developed
among ancient European philosophers. In the 6th century BCE, the Greek thinker Anaximander
of Miletus speculated that humans arose from fish. A century later, his disciple, Xenophanes of
Colophon, used evidence of fossil fish from numerous places around the Mediterranean to
support Anaximander’s theory.
We are often asked why, in a text on cultural anthropology, there should be an extensive chapter
on human evolution.
Microorganisms that are too small to see with the naked eye surround us and can have both beneficial and harmful effects. While some are used to produce foods and medicines, others can cause dangerous diseases. Microbiology studies these microscopic organisms, which exist virtually everywhere and can remain dormant in hosts for years before causing illness. Important early discoveries included bacteria and the role of microbes in fermentation. Though tiny, microbes can spread severe infectious diseases in plants and animals, sometimes causing large epidemics with high mortality. The invention of vaccines has helped prevent diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi and other microorganisms such as cholera, tetanus, hepatitis and some cancers. Over time, continued study and discovery of new
This document presents a call for unity among believers of different faiths against threats to religious values. It argues that Muslims, Christians and Jews share common beliefs and should work together against ideologies like Darwinism and radicalism. The document outlines areas of shared belief and emphasizes the importance of cooperation over past disputes. It asserts that united, people of faith can counter dangerous indoctrination and build a moral society of peace, security and well-being.
Viruses are those biological entities which are intermediate between.pdfaniyathikitchen
Viruses are those biological entities which are intermediate between living and non-living.
Outside the host, they are non-living. Even in non-living state they can survive for millions of
years. So, there is no strategy in the world which will prove fatal to virus\' future in the world.
Second, viruses have a protein capsid and genetic material. There is no machinery like mitosis,
proofreading etc. in their body which will maintain their capsid and genetic material as it is. In
fact, their genetic material is highly subject to mutation depending on the host they infect. So, no
matter what immune mechanisms human evolve, there is no immune mechanism which will
combat these unknown parasites. Humans can only prevent the spread of some viruses, most of
which are those that had previously attacked humans; but for new viruses, humans will not be
able to develop immune system. So, complete protection is impossible.
Third, disease does not confer any kind of protection or survival to the virus. In fact the virus has
to leave this host and infect a new healthy host.
So, it is true that viruses cause disease accidently, but this does not mean that viruses\' future is at
stake because of this. Viruses will survive till the date biological world will survive.
Solution
Viruses are those biological entities which are intermediate between living and non-living.
Outside the host, they are non-living. Even in non-living state they can survive for millions of
years. So, there is no strategy in the world which will prove fatal to virus\' future in the world.
Second, viruses have a protein capsid and genetic material. There is no machinery like mitosis,
proofreading etc. in their body which will maintain their capsid and genetic material as it is. In
fact, their genetic material is highly subject to mutation depending on the host they infect. So, no
matter what immune mechanisms human evolve, there is no immune mechanism which will
combat these unknown parasites. Humans can only prevent the spread of some viruses, most of
which are those that had previously attacked humans; but for new viruses, humans will not be
able to develop immune system. So, complete protection is impossible.
Third, disease does not confer any kind of protection or survival to the virus. In fact the virus has
to leave this host and infect a new healthy host.
So, it is true that viruses cause disease accidently, but this does not mean that viruses\' future is at
stake because of this. Viruses will survive till the date biological world will survive..
The document discusses enterovirus 68 (EV-D68) which causes respiratory illness and was first isolated in 1962 in California. EV-D68 is one of over 100 known enteroviruses and unlike other enteroviruses, it displays acid liability and grows best at lower temperatures. The document also notes that while EV-D68 causes respiratory illness, both droplet and standard precautions should be used to prevent its spread in healthcare settings.
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Why do viruses mutate so frequently?
Like all other living forms, viruses also go through mutations throughout their lifespan. However, their genetic structure especially of RNA viruses lacks proofreading skills, which makes them undergo random “copying errors” (i.e., genetic mutations) during replication. This also makes them prone to high mutation rates. That’s why most pandemic infections are usually viral in origin. The more it circulates, the more it can change. However, the more virulent virus may be less transmissible, because it reduces the chances of transmission by killing the host. Viruses usually mutate in immunocompromised individuals. If viruses don’t get host cells, their population in the environment may decrease or remain stable.
Viruses may swap genetic material with the host to make a new “mixed” virus with unique properties. This may lead to horizontal gene transfer from a host to a virus or from a virus to a host, which plays an important role in the mutation and evolution of all organisms. All living forms including humans, plants, and animals are evolved from/by micro-organisms; however, micro-organisms are evolved to keep control of macroorganisms.
Why viruses are more dangerous?
Viruses are more unstable like an ion because they lack their own structure to reproduce. They must need a host to grow and replicate. Viruses enter the host cell by camouflaging and tricking it. They first incorporate their genome with the host genome and then multiply by “commandeering” and “hijacking” the host cell to produce more viruses. The infected cell doesn’t know that the commandeering is by the virus, and thus unknowingly becomes a virus factory. New viruses then burst out of a host cell and enter into new cells to repeat the process. This makes a host helpless, functionless, and even defenseless. You felt sick because your body is
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1. 1
Coronavirus - a moral event that will define our uniqueness
By Professor Zvi Sever
The writer is an Israeli, an associate professor of biology at University of Indianapolis,
and he currently leads a project to integrate a document he prepared ("An Ethical Code
for Space Activity") into UN resolutions.
Due to human population which subsists on animal flesh in nature, the coronavirus was
given the opportunity for transmission into human bodies. This originated in the wet
markets in China, where many species of wildlife are sold. Once people became
infected, its spread was catalyzed by the rapid mass transit system that was developed by
the technological population. Before long, the virus reached every continent where
humans have settled on the planet. Thus, within a few weeks, the first feature of the
coronavirus appeared - it is the first disease in history to attack all of humanity
simultaneously.
At the time of this writing, there is already a substantial sample of infected, sick, dead,
and recovering victims of the coronavirus pandemic. This informs us that, generally
speaking, this virus does not jeopardize embryos developing in the womb, nor does it
affect girls and boys who have not yet reached puberty, those who about 12 or 13 years
old. That is, this virus does not threaten the next generation, those who are destined to
grow, develop, and get married. This is the second characteristic of the coronavirus –
except for a small minority of cases, it spares the next generation, whose role it is to
ensure the continuity of the human race.
In the next stage, another unique facet of the virus is revealed, its third feature - it does
not debilitate the age groups responsible for settling down and forming families, those
whom the human population depends upon to sustain its economy. Despite the fact that
the virus can enter and remain in the bodies of young adults, they do not feel ill and they
function properly. Maybe in thirty years from now, we will discover that the virus which
has been latent for decades will attack them violently as they grow older.
The fourth characteristic of coronavirus is that it is mostly fatal to victims in the final
decades of their lives, those who have already fulfilled their reproductive duties. Among
the very elderly, the virus affects the sexes differently, thus it is less deadly to women.
That is, it is less harmful to those who normally help to maintain the survival of infants
and children. In this way, the virus guarantees the long-lasting existence of our species, in
other words, the habitat in which the virus lives, develops, and reproduces.
2. 2
A new type of virus evolved, biologically adapted to live in in its niche, our body, and
more broadly, within humanity. But then something unexpected happened that the
evolutionary mechanism was not prepared for. Man, the one who appointed himself as
the crown jewel of all Creation, “altered” the unfolding plot of this virus. This species
created a moral code by which he refuses to neglect the elderly. On the contrary, he
educates younger generations to obediently comply with the biblical phrase: "Honor thy
father and mother."
The moral character of the entire human population on Earth has interfered in the process
that the coronavirus meant to inflict on us, causing us to seek safe refuge in our private
dwellings: in caves, in tents, in makeshift shelters, in huts, in houses, in apartments, and
in high-rise buildings. Due to our moral strength, we insist on "leaving no one behind".
We are proud of this fact and vow that as a society, all humanity will triumphantly endure
this initial phase of the coronavirus pandemic. This time, it is not the viruses that will
determine our fate, but we will control it, as our unity is our strength.
This is the fifth and most important feature of the coronavirus situation. Since life began
approximately four and a half billion years ago, it is the first time that one species joins
together in solidarity, the entire world population of humanity unites, while keeping a
distance of two meters from one another. We are collaborating as never before to defeat a
common enemy, to eliminate a virus with the ultimate weapon - cooperation.
In all of recorded human history there has not been a single case in which the entire
human population was joined, and together faced a natural disaster. Thanks to the
currently open channels of communication, representatives of the medical professions
exchange information, and international leaders deliberate together, trying their best to
treat the citizens of the entire planet. No other species of plant or animal work together in
such way. The international cooperation now underway is an important experience. It has
led us to a position that, as a result of global warming, when we will encounter even
greater catastrophes/disasters, we will have an orderly protocol to deal with them,
especially pandemics. This is the silver lining of a difficult event that is now attacking all
of humanity, one that involves a great deal of grief over loss of life.
The coronavirus is an organism that is smaller than a single cell, and so the struggle that
is now taking place between it and man is a struggle for our place in the phenomenon of
life, for our place in the universe. We extend life as a phenomenon of multiplication of
genes in time and space. We introduced into the processes of life new concepts such as
meaning and morality. And now we struggle with the forces of nature to highlight our
characteristics, namely multiplying genes but according to the "Ethical Code for Human
Life". We are willing to pay with our flesh and blood to anchor this code within the
phenomenon of life, on Earth, and later when we set out to settle in space, even in the
entire universe. It is a struggle between the inception of life, the virus, and the zenith of
3. 3
the phenomenon of life - man, the one who introduced morality to the equation of
existence, and therefore to the universe.
We are now fighting for our survival as human beings. We are struggling not only for our
physical existence, but also to retain our morality, which we seek to impose on nature.
We will not allow the coronavirus to regulate the sequence of events, we will determine
them. This will prove that you can not only survive, but you can also live with a clear
conscience, to pursue a life of happiness that comes from the realization of its meaning.
The virus "intends" to reach equilibrium with man through the elimination of the world’s
elderly population. Humanity intends to reach with it a balance, but without abandoning
the elderly. So we must win this battle, and it will be the macro victory over the micro,
morality over biology, the code of ethics over animal urges.
It is a formative event, a battle within the phenomenon of life which will determine
whether man changes some of the rules of nature, and if he has embarked on a new path,
with morality at the apex, as the ultimate guide to his existence.
Due to the coronavirus event, Man is struggling against the very foundation of life, that
is, the genetic code, and he insists on combining this with the ethical code.
Perhaps this virus will compel us to discuss whether we should change our scientific
name to "the moral man" (Homo moralis) at the end of this health event which has
stricken us. But first, let's beat the coronavirus, while the elderly population is still with
us.