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!['1 If "POR ~ LlNl l ''I 't ,
.1.2
language
standardization
Dr Johnson's
dictionary
Grammars
---------------------------
----
The French and /lalian, hau alreuuy confrollled, a fc ccnturies before, the
arp=m prnt>lem vf linguistic" decline by setting up language acadcmit's. The
Italian ,keeuklllia ddt" Cru.f("(l was tilunded in 1582 anu the IC
"delltie
lrallrai1t'in 1635,These acauemit's proided !he mood hich Swi ft urgeti the
English '" emulate whcn he proposed the estahlishment. of a sOeiet) to
·a.<e-ena",' (i.e.. standardi/e) the English langu3ge anti slOP It from changing
hy prt'sait>"'g and pn>s,rihing usage,
Although thc call for an <lc3dem) I 'l never taken up hy the state. ccnain
concerned l'itilcns took it upon thcmseh·es [( safeguarti the purity of the
language. Before th,' cigh'ecmh ,emury Ias out, the English language was
codilied and ,tandurdi/eu hy /cicographer.; and grammarians.
The most notable of IhL'Sl' siandunJilers was Dr Samuel Johnson who, in
1755, puhlish,'dl DiCliOllllrt' oj rlt" i:.ilglish Lal/gllagl'. In the prcfucc, he
made the purpose of IllSdiclionury Cl) clear:
Tongu"-,, like govenlinenlS, have" nutural lendene), to degenemtion: we have long
p.....'ervN our consWllt"'", lei us mnl.t' some "ruggle for our language.
~Iearly, !he dietionary Wll' nOI mtentied by Dr Johnson to serve merely ns a
/rsU,ngofEnghsh v(lCabulUl")~ Rather. It Ias meant 10 he a vital weapon in the
uefenceot Ihe language agalllst decay As he pUI n. 'every language has Its
IInpropncues and absurtilllCs, hich it is the duty of !he Icxicog· h'
comel or proscnhc'. . rap cr to
~!r~:m~an~ t~o set ~bOUl the t<ls,," of preserving the purity nf the Ian U<I e
~ual dCkITIUII~UI(}1I anti enlhusiasm In 176') R h" L g g
who later becam(' Bishllp )1' L ti . . - 0 el( oWlh. a scholur
t on 011 j1ubhsheti h'·· ' 11 .
("ntltled A Short IlIlroell/cli", I F r ' · IS very tn lIelll,," lIanual
prdat'c that 'Ih' E
· /··h ''.. " .lIg /.III Gral/ll//ar Lowlh cOlTlplainec.J In Ihe
. c ng IS L.lInguagc as 1 . k b .. .
IMUon allti as It st'md, ',tl tho< I 't' . .'" spo en y Iht! pohtesl pull (.)1 Iht'
. " ' , TI lOgs 01 Our t
"gamst ne.... nan of Gr. . , . mos approvcc.J alilhors, o/lcnds
,. . , Ulllnl.lr. lie sho . d h
"lIIg James Bible allti thc 11l l ' '1: .' Ie. 0. even cht"tcs like tht'
('('11 In IUm'ell· II' " IsO cnllilent lInters like Dryden Pnpt' 'Inti
.. , ere lontamlOatcd b ' , ' . ' , '
L,, th cplallls Ihal '11' tl ] error For tnsIUl1CC. 1111 palle II ()
te SCntellcc bc c al' I e o ,
g 1 e. t 1e Advcrh 1101 IS plat'cd
4
BIOLOGICAL
SPECIALIZATION
FOR LANGUAGE
t ""'I.Uo., ""w Vllw l
aitl!f the ulhary u~"1t (lid IIal tou,:h h ," ..
then chtdes Dryul'n tur 'llll" '.1l1nrUIHI"I" '"n. lit. 1 10Ilt,,,.-(, hln no," II
' 'rh" ' I h o· , ,,, I' ''''''Kille ,,< C
t.: 11 .upe, 1l'~' I.unl. "ialll he, I 'j", (~/Jt'tltr (l.), vcrh 11m before the
Many ot the prCl:rI{l1VC nl"~' ul kn Ita... . t)'~ cn. I·uhl"f).
down over th.c la....' 2~O "C(f' l'" .. )J k.h ~ralllnMr that have been han"~'"
J 0 :.", ue. lr~.:cd hac.:... 1 A;U
hUll, SUccesSive gC'.ncratmlls ul nup,l' h l.... (' .I)wh lh.tn&.., Ul
' W . 0' 'liVe "cen laughl r
hen the Quallt,e, of lhllerenl Ih,n", . r' . ' on exampl", ,h.,
e>' . C I..:l'ImparcU Ih.
g.o'c:rncd~ not hy the C011JUn(.:lmn tJiw, 'r (I' . I.: aUl"r Nuun ,
. lI., or a ('no" .
govcrnmenl 01 ClS~',) hUI hy Ihe vern or lh p . Illelum II. nl!
I · . e n:p<lSllllln exp' I
lIlle ~rst()od. lienee. accon.ling tll 1.owth. one should sa 'Yn~' • rcs!-.Ct (lr
us I (nm *y()U lIro! not so u,lI as ""'). So he crilic,·,
...., sYI . are ""l "" tall
, ~. , w, I ur Wnlm" 'Y
are a much greater loser Ihun III,' by hIS death' (Swifl l p Q llU
P ,. • .. , . , . . . 11 ope, I..."", 1>1)
rescm-day us,lgc sh()ws Ih,1l the ertlln, 01 the PUWI, Ill' lh I
• . .., . ...ave C angu"ge
from such 'errors havc nm becn pnmcularly >,ucce"ful. .
.Lin.guiSis.rcjeci the view lhal languages altain a stalC <If perfectilln al llmc
POUlt In their hlSlory and thai suhsequcUl changes lead tll detenoratmn and
comlpl1o~. As noted :lbtlVe, there are simply no ground, for claiming lhal one
system 01 grammar IS somehow superior lO another. There IS therdore no
reason to lhink thal language change ca~ or will undennine the adequac) of
English (or an) olher language) as a medium of eommUnlCa110n.
As far as can be determined, the languages spoken in the world today cannOl
be traced to a common source. Rather. they seem to belong to a nlmrer of
distinct families hose histories can be traced back no more than a fe
thousand years. Archaeological eidence suggest· that language e,isted prior
to !hat time for perhaps as long as 100,000 years. bUl Yirtually nothing is
known about thb period of linguistic prehisto!) or aboul ho language
originaled in the fiN place.
one!heless, !here is every reason to believe that huma", have a special
capacity for language !hat is ~Ol shared by o!her creatures. The evolutionary
adaptation of certain physiological mechanisms for linguistic ends has
tlCcurred onlv in humans The so-called speech organs (the lungs, luryn..
tongue. tceth, lips. soft palate. and nasal passages) were and ,till are -
directh concerned with ensuring the survival of the organism. Table I J
t'ompares the linguistit: uses of the major speech organs ith their prim.u·y
survival functions in humans and llther mammals.
1n humans, these llrgam, have all become highly spedaliled for linguistic
ends. The vocal folds: for example. are more muscular and k" fatty tn
human than in non human primales such a:; chimpanlccs anti gllrill."
Because of a ven Ilighly tieveloped netork of neural patl1ays, thC) "btl
resl"lnd more pre~i,el) 10 eommanJ., from the brain, The same c,en'I1.' 'ct
of nl.'uml pathays allo" a high tiegR't' of controltwcr llther ~ech organ"
such m, !he tl'ngue. palatc, anJ Itps. ueh control eceeds lln)thlng fl)und In
even our c10scst pmnale relati e..](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-17-2048.jpg)
![Phonetics: the sounds of
language
lichaelDobro~ JI:-f.; v andFrancis Katamba
HeJlerlv b/Ji.:J/517 3 "ori:/01 gull<rJb.
• "-3Iace 5/ee1lS
. d ~.~ need 10 p.:ak in order 10 use Janguage. Language can be "riUCh
e o.~ od ed b • t ' J' . ..,
.._.. ....am·-aJh and even pr uc } compu ers In Imlled "a' b I
teL~rucu ma::u t.. , ' . . J I U
Ot!ertbele. . peech remain the pnmary way "e encode II. Our pe.:ie
poke long before "e beg~ 10 "nI~ lan~uage down. and. a we a", in the
tiN cbapter of this book, thl Ion? hl~tory of 'poken language I reflected In
our analOmica/ ,pecializalJon for JI~ Humans also appear to have pecia/i/ed
neural mecbanism, for the pefcepllon of s~ch sounds. Becau'e language
and peecb are so closely hnked. we begin our study of language by
e~amjn/Og the inventory and structure of the sounds of language. This branch
ofIino uisti" is called phonetics.
Hu~an languages display a wide variety of sounds. called phon~ or
speech sounds. There are a great many speech sounds. but not an infinite
number of them - the c1a~, of possible ~peech sounds is finite. and a POnlon
ofthe total set will be found in the inventory' of any human language. Cenaln
sounds thai humans are capable of producing with the vocal tract do not OCcur
in peech. such as the sound made by inhaling through one comer of the
mouth. or the 'ra~pberry" produced by stiCking out the tongue and blo" 100
hard across it. Nonetheless. a 'ef)' wide range of sound!> is found in huma~
language. inc/udingsuch sounds a.. the click made bydra'ol.ing the tongue hard
away Jrom the upper molars on one side of the mouth. or the sound made by
constricting the insides of the throat a., you breathe out. The class of po sible
~peech sounds is also universal. Any human, child or adult. can learn how to
pronounce these sounds.
There are two way_ of upproaching phonetics. One approach studies the
phy~iological mechanisms of speech production. This is known as articu.
latory phonetics. The other, known as acoustic phonetics, deals with peech
ound 10 terms of how we hear them. To this end. it is concerned with
measunng und analysing the physical properties of sound waves we produce
hen we ~pe~. Both approaches are indispensable to an undef!>tanding of
pbonetlc . ThIs chapter focuses on articulatory phonetics. but also make
1
PHD ETIC
TRA~ CR IPTID
1.1
Units of
representation
f"H I I
. Ince the "~Ieemh centll£). elf ru have hec:n made to de",
,);,tcm lor Iran cnhlnllthe IInd f peech Ihe helot"
i nternatiOnal Phonetic tphuht!t til· ) h hec:n deve,lI<N.n
This 'Y'lc.·m "I tran'Cnp"un 31lempi I" reprelen! e:I
ch
"PUlg de'
h n~~~
'pe.:c . "Ith a "ngle 'ymhot. These ymbol. are en~lmed In brae
to ind,cale thai the tra'henp""n " phunetic IUId Jf. n represen I I
'pelling sy'tem of ,I pan,,:ul.r language. Fur cumple, 1M IOUnd t I~
Ih in Engli,h !Eis is t.....n"'nhcd a 1"1 (pr nounccd eli!. ao In ..::"U)
IPA u,cs th" symbol to repre'cn! the sound In "hleh"'er langu ge It
heard hec Table 2.). "hether I' I~ Engli h. Spani h. TllIkmen (a Turkic
language poken In Central ASIa and wnllen "ilb the ynlhc alphabet).
or any other.
fabtc 2.1 U", of 1')1 in me Internationat Phone"c Alphabel
Lunguulle Spell",/( IN I1tlVUng
Engh h !hi, It)1 J 'mis'
panish 1x$ (b:>claj '''eddlOg'
Turkmen llilak [aoak] "clOt
The use of a standardized phonetic alphabet enable linguist to Iran nbe
languages con,istentiy and accurately. In •'onh American u age. however.
some phonetic symbols differ from tho-.e employed by IPA tran cription F<>r
example. the sound heard at the beginning of the Engli h ord ~ark .
transcribed as If] in IPA. but usually as [ J in •'orth America. Thi book
employ IPA varianll>. but note .'orth Ame~can sym,bo! "here re~evant
If you wish to start practising the phonenc transcnpnon of Engli. h. turn to
Tables 2.16 and 2.17. page 42 to 43. for eltamples.
Am'one who heaT!> a language. poken for the fIrst lime fInd II hard to break
up ;he flow of speech into individual unill> of pr~uction: Ewn II. hen hearmg
our own languagepoken. we do nOl focus attenuon on mdlldual, und :l!
much as we do on the meanings of words. phrase . and entl!nce. Man~
alphabets. mcluding the IPA. repreent speech in the fonn ot segment!> or
individual peech sound!> like [a]. [01. [p1. or [mJ. l'.ing 'Cgment •howecr.
i. only one wa) to repre. ent peech. The ~llable. prccDted in Chapter 3. I
abo represented in ome writing ·)tem see Chapter 15. eClJons 1.2 32.
and 42). In one fonn of Japan.:,e writing. for example, Igu u h iJ'](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-20-2048.jpg)
![grid for ..top
II ";'T-~
,..:xU- Ii-red ID 131>1' ~ ~ ~ lie Ih~1 101 .1,><" n,lI ,,,,cur "'r..r-inlllall~ lQ
Eogli-
[pI
Ibl
!!.1311
1011
..~un
III
!l<"
(dl
El"l(
(nl
r
(ll
',~ :.. ,~11
lli..~ PI'
eg)
,"-...! l!!£
101
V'.., belo" ) (7)
Table 2A pre.ent> a phonetic grid on which the -.rap con, onanL~ of Engli,h
are ranged horizontaJl~ accordtng (0 place of arnculatJOn, A, ) ou can 'ee
each >£oP, wim one exception, has "oiced and 'oicele s counlerpan" Th~
gloo.11 ;!OP j' .11'3)' "oicebs, It is produced with the! vocal fold drawn
f1ITl11y lOgemer. 3nd since no :ur can pa" through the glottis. the ocal fold,
C3DDot be set mmotion,
T8ble!.~ Engh;h ,to(" and !beir tnlIlscripuon
Bilabial A/,rolar I,,-Iar G/olla/
d: [PJ [tJ [I.] [7j
iced [b) Id) [g]
'", I ;m) [nJ [Q1
rricathes are con.onant produced ," ith a continuow' airllo through the
mouth. ~e belong [0 nlarge ~Ia, 01 ound! called continuants (a <:1,1, that
aJ mclude ocl; and glide ). all of which 'hare thIS pmp.:n} The
: 8me- fann a ~laI. la ofcontinuant: during their produclton. the) arc
prodmpam d b) a nbnu u audtbk nohe ~auc the :ur u cd in 'ihctr
UCbon p ~ through a eI) narm" opening lTallIe 2.~. t>clo).
Engl; h frkati~es
Agrid for fricatives
tHO (1,
Glolttll'ifort' "'«In" oj tirrit-"lurulfl TYllflScrlpnj'lI1
u,hiotlt'nfc,l
oicet!~~ fal III
ok~d tat !
Intr:'rUt'I1Ctd
·l"Ii~ele~~ mm lSI
Voiced lhl'....e !3
AI'eolar
'ol~ele~~ .:-In£, lsI
Voiced !lP 11.1
PalalO-llh·t'vlar
Voicele,s ;;hlp U1
Voiced 3!ure 131
Glortal
oiceless hal {hI
pecial note must be t3ken of the al"eolar fricari,'es ls1 and (z1. There are
twO wa) that English speake£'> commonly produce these sound" orne
speaken; raise the tongue tip to the al"eolar ridge tor to Jll;t behind the upper
front teeth) and allo the air to pa, through a grooved channel in the tongue
Other :peaker> form thi. "arne channel uing the blade of the tongue: the lip
b placed behind the lower front teeth.
Tahle ~.6 pre ents a grid on which the fricative consonant of English are
r.lnged according to place of articulation_ As in Table ~.s_ dental> are n<'t
&,tingui 'hed from aeol=. ,mee mO.t language h3e sound Ith eIther
one or the other place of articulation. but not both, .'ate that IP. mand [:,
corre,p'-'nd re,pecli'el~ It' 'orth merican [~l and [il.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-25-2048.jpg)
![.5.4
{(r;cates
Pala,.,.a/,-rola, ~
UJ [i;J---.-
1.31
'ben a ,top.lflJcuJarion i, relea...ed. me lOngue moves mpidly a"a~
I - I t" Some non-continuant consonanrs show a slo" relea
p ace at anteu a I<m, • E r h Of
th" c/ qJre; th"''' sound, are called affricates ng" h"" _
only 1'40
affricar",. buth of" hi.:h are palara-alveolar. The} are heard ,,:ord-Jnllia/ly III
h h J . anJ "'" transcribed as [tD and [d31., respeCll vel} (The r"
Lurr: an J."mp, " J < " h - r,
tran....TiplJon of an affricate US109 a .symbo ,or a srop. sUc as [rl Or [dj,
foUo"d b} a s}mbol for a fricative Ilke en or (3) " meant ~o reflect the fact
that an affricate Is n ,top that is released graduall} so thar In It>. final Phase
it is a fricari,'e.)
A grid for affricates Table 2.7 presents a gnd showing the .two English .affricates: Note thai IPA
[rD and [d3J correspond 10 NOM Amencan [el and [J I rc:~peCtlve ly,
Sfridents and
sibilants
Table 2.7 English affricares
Voiceless
~oiced
Palato·alreo/ar
At the beginning of thjs chapter. it was noted that acoustic as well as
articulata!)' criteria are sometimes used in de cribing speech sounds, An
acoustic critenon comes into play to describe fricalives and affricates. These
sounds are subdivided into two types, some of which are distinctly lOUder Iltm
others, These noisier fricatives and affricates are called stridents (Table 2,8).
Th.eir quieter counterparts. which have the same or nearly same place of
artJculalJon, are conSidered non-strident. Slridents are also known as
sibilants,
Table 2,8 Strident fricatives and affricates in English
Place ofArticu/atiml iliceieJs Voiced
Alveolar
Is] [7J
Pa/alo-alveolar
III [31
Itn [d3J
5.5
:-____
Voice lag and
a piration
NU1Nl11
111 (ll
After.th~ rclc.tU" 01 l"l~n.HI1 "h.;.cl" h.lps tn , ngh h l
percCIC a lag Jr nnel del.,) hcture the fl~lIg <I I '11) lU ,
h I h ' 11 Q ""',"P I <
t c: ag t
.n t c nn'CI 01 (l.:,Ih-.: "Oh.:m~. I a":"()n .1 L.. C I,,,,, '-~nc
. eo ... 'p.mICu u) the fet r
the trathuonat tcnn hlf thh phcnoln~nt)n I ~pi~,t' 1 !!ale 0 .Ur
II " . 'Q 'on 'I I'.n fit"", h
a ~ma nlt....e
. tl h uher the- U'Ptf.lll!tl ..:un,on"tnt 1 Ll_ 1 t ,,"
1 . - . ~ , • . iJ,1l C , J pr '''"k; nne
~. ,amp es nl a~plr~lkt' lmd Ulli.hplralcd I,;'ununant tn l' .I h
bol . ... .nl! ,... I ~Um ~o'W
S) m s arc mtnx!ul:cd here "... well). Nnlu.:c.' that the f,( u d L h
. • 'd ' d ' '.. " > n I.... ave n.1lh
~S~lfah.:: 'll~ urM~~lr.uct.l llncth! an.! all "Diede....... :-.lnp . In Hhcr Ian u
olcelcs::, fncul1;t!s ant.! atlnl..."<lte, may al.....) he a'pu;!lcd I)r unw {Hrclll!d.g g ,
Table 2.9 · ..pmu~d und un."pmttc:d f.:1.)n,nnanl... in En~h'h
p;rtllt:'d U,w.P"dll"d
Ip"",,]
I,",bl
[k",ul
pm
lub
kJu
--- - ---
bp.cl]
[ I.'h]
Isk.u]
Figure 2.5 shows how a"piralion of a voiceless con'onant lakes place,
using the aspirated consonant [phI as an e)lample. Though the se4ucnce of
articulalions takes places continuously. the tjgure illustrate, only certain
moments.
a
Lips cJ""ed for Ipl
b
Lip' open for
,o",el ill
Vocal fold, 'prend Vocal folds , till spread:
for voicelcs!;ness voicelc!'>!<.nes:-' continues during
inItial phose of vowel
articulation (a."pirntion)
Lip:, remain open
for 'owel
Voicing of ,,'owel
now begins
d
up n:nwn open
for III
Voicing contmuc:-. during:
artll.:ulatll.1n of til
----------------------------- TIme
'--------------------______-.
figure 2.5 Aspirated consonant production (EnglishpJfI.
a) As articulation of the voiceIe . consonant is begun, the gll'lIi, "open.
b) The closure for the consonant is released and the vowel articulation
begjns; however. the glottis i, nm yet closed enough to pennil oicing to](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-26-2048.jpg)
![2 STirS
begin Becau of lht>. the m,eI is bnetly oicele '. glVlO
imp Ion ofan xlra release ofJllf thaI we call asprmllon. g Iht
cl Afla a shot! dela). mea urable '" miUI..econd . voicing of lhe '0
be!!"~ .
dJ 1bc IJps r"malO open and "Oleing continue; during the arllculal"'n of
final ..onsonanl of the ..ord. Iht
Fi
---c- '6 an·' , 7 sho" lhe relalion belween aniculalion and VOl· ..
;;~ > _. U _ . Clng r
allll' pJrarcd and vOl cd consonants. The unasplrated consonant. 'uth ~ Or
[PJ 01 Engli h ~pilJ hows "oieing of the vowel slarting very ()( lht
release of the con onanl articulation. The voiced initial [bJ of Engl'af~r
hov.s oicmg starting ju I before the release of the bilabial artiCUlillo~~ bia
• b
c d
Upo opeD foc 1.1 up' clmcd for Ipl lip' opro fo.-IIJ L'P'rrnwnopen
arucula""" 0( lJl
ffl
~ ~
~<?
r V-
I../>
bcal fold .preod VocaJ fold, n:maJO '-'>Cal fold, In P'"Ilion Voklng COflltnUC1
(or vmccleunc 'IKad (oICcleunc ((lr (J'I(,:lRg
Tunc
Figurt 2.6 lJnasporJIL..tconsonant pro<Ldion rEngish spill.
D h
i..p> OflCn (or [I)
VOIcing conUliun
C
LIps rrmam OJlCn dunnl
Anl<ul.lIon o( III
~
-
--
"".''''''
'J.
~
( T"
It!
....
- - - - - - - - - - - lime - - - - - - - - - -_
flgur~ 27 trJc(1f wnSOOJnt d
5.6
Liquids
laterals
English rsounds
PH Nl It( H
Among lhe sound. c,'mmonl; found In lhe: ,. -:
the" numeroo, varianl . The) lorm <KId Lmgua -I and r and
liquid!. II pcual tl of <.onsonant:;. noo..11 ..
VanCI;C' of I are called latcral~ A I' I' I· .
01 I.:nl. S. <lfe artlculat.td.
Ihrough Ihe mouth along Ihe loll.ered .d., of Ih . . au e ape.
.. . d e longue When the:
Up "ral'" 0 Iile dental or a"'eolar l""II"n I..·· d 1. longue
. '''' enla or alveol I
are produced. BOlh may be U'dn,cnbed a.. Ill, at aleta!!.
Becau.", lateral" are generally "llIced the lenn lar l· -> I
t . • • • era u~ .... one u'5Ual
?,ean, , olced laleral . Sull. Ihere are in'lance of voiceless laterah m ~
rhe vOlcele" denIal or alveolar laleral i wnllen with an add aI t>=:b.
bol II d d
· .. I · . 1110n Phoncuc
,y.m : ca e .a lacntlc. n thIS case. lbe dIacritic IS a circle benealh be
,>mbol.lll- VOIceIe" laterals can be heard In Ihe pronunciation of the E Ii.t
",ord, please and clear and also in the Wehh pronunciauon of '1/" ;~gOCR
name. a~ Uandaff
umerous varieties of r are abo heard in the world·, languages. Thi. !.<:Cuon
describes some of the types found in Engli. h.
In received pronunciation (RP for shon). Iile generall, accepted VarlelY
of spoken standard southern British English. r is a post-aheolar appro ·-
iman!. The tenn approximant lor frictionJess continuant describes a
consonant with a manner of articulation that involVe> bnnging Iile articulator;
quite close togeliler while at theame time leaving a sufficientl) large gap
between them for air to e cape ",ithout causing audible turbulence. T~plcal1).
in the RP articulation of rCa!> in reed and raw). the tip of the toogue IS brought
close 10 the area just past the alveolar ridge Ihence the label po I-alveolar)
without making finn contact with the roof of the mouth. The tPA ~mbol f r
this ,ound is [J]. but for conenience the ~mbol [r] is oormall~ u....
'1. A
voiceless appro)llmam can be heard in the pronunciation of ord like pra,.
free.
- The r of Englih as it i, 'poken in Canada and the Coited State· a.' well
a' In southwe. t England is alo an approximant. But its place of articulatton
is slightly farther back.This r (ymbolized b~ [-Ll in IPA) is made by curling the
lip of the tongue back sO that a narrow apcnmc is left bel",een the undc"lde of
the tongue and the back of the aheolar riuge. (The same effect can be obtained
b) bun:hing the tongue upwards and ba~k In the mouth.) It is kno" n a., a
relrone, r and i' heard in rid.. and car. It i aho often tran,cribed as trl
l1'0110 ing a common com e~tion of uSIng non-Roman alphabet Ymhol like
I.ll sparingly I.
Another ound commonl} identified "'1th r I. the flap The !lap IS produced
"'hen the tongue tip. trike the aleolar ridge as il pa"c' aCfO" IL III beard
111 the. ·orth American English pronunciation of bi!.!er and burter•and 111 orne
Brili h pronunciations of n'!y (a' in . couse. the dialect of Lherpool). It i
commonly transcribed as [r] and i. generally VOICed Table ~.IO presen the
latcrab. r. and flap In diftcrcnt ,andlc of Englbh.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-27-2048.jpg)
![LI C. •TIC.
Tab~c.10
r- ndo
Approx=1 [J j
Po l.ah , o/Qr~
" Okc/e ~
~
~
~____~t~
~__________________
____
-
------~~~~~~~;:~~~~~~~~~~~
, . ,;ai, are more sonorous dian odler conSOnants and in
S lJabicJiquids and LIquId, snd na, . I. dian are the other COlbonanls. In f~l. thev
.~ more like Ole, . I . H"- th . art
nasals f"'peeI ~. e' rna,. function as ) Dab,c Due el. n lien ey do '0, ~
conorous thaI ~" 'ds snd ~Dabic nasals. SyllabIc liquid, and
are ctlltXI S)llablc :;:w rnam' of the world's language. including Eng
lTable 2 1IJ. are ~ ar~nlI>uali,marked widl a hon "eruealline Underne
5.8
GliOt-
~~i:=~Ie. ~ ,~ll:ilijc'lal the:nd of l:.mle ~fAel!)) i tran"qj~
- I - beginning hn!!IJI, D" ruden~.. orthAmenC'.t1I
I!]. Vn1o~e Ylor j·.tenlhere. The )Uabic rsound heard in "ord likeb,
D0fI1Snot ..... 3) . cons . [ ] Th I •
. ...-~ as a olel-r sequence. ~r . ( e Owe )rnbol
and MT I' transcn,,,,,-, hoI' tIu .
:~: . 6 'oftlu chapter.)TbeIP.-S)m lor ,oundl [~]
pre;,enlcu III secDon ._
Table 2.11 Syllab!c liquids and 1l.1>.lI. III English
S"llolllc Xon·Sllolnc
bonIe [boo I lift 111ft)
funnel [fADI) pill IpII)
sudden r dn) ~I r~IJ
DIlIIOO (b.In} lem {lenl]
RecaJ] that a glide 15 a 'er; rapldl. arucuJaled DOn- yllabic segment. The 111;0
RP English !!iides are the )-glide b) or u]of~es and I.el/. and the IIo-glide [wI
of ~~l, and-~mg. The [j) of IPA transcnption corre ponds to b) in • 'O!1h
Amencan transcriptioD. (In British InlnSCripUon 100, [yj i sometime used
1DSlead ofuJto represem thi sound.)
Tne {jj I a palatal glide (often iled '" palato-alveolar a "ell) lhost
aru,;ulauon i.' VU1uall~ ldenucal to thaI of the vowel/i] of ~ee, You can enfy
tlu OJ pronouncing a Ulin an extended manner; il "ill ound vel) lose 0
an [Il The glJde [w] IS made I ith the longue raised and pulled back near !he
velum and ",;th the li Protruding. or rounded For tbi reaWll. It
sometunes called a lahio t lar The ('" Jcorre pond closely In am la1l0n 10
the el (uJ of .../w 11us can be enfied by eluending the pronunci uon
a / e III co Ider [ ) a rounded 'elar glide for purposes of descripo
Some er; of Enghsh' h;le a OIceles Iabioelar glide, lr11 bed
6
VOW El S
)"I, ,n the word "'~n, "I, rr lid whICh (00 nr~ In '''!chI
pronunClaltOJ1 ISo common to oc.land and
msl) rare el",,, here (excep In conte where W}I preceded by a OOCe
lop"" in Tahle 2 17 on p'
..ge 43 below). In on! Inlt,al POO' ,
from a hi'lOti""l)hw l co", manl (u'>Ier whICh ~ ba:n IfnphfJed 10
dropping [hI in m("1 dialect! ITable 2.12)
Table 2.12 Engli h <on"'nan'" pbc.. and IlIanneTs ofhruculat1oa
PluceJ %nu:wlauon
taltners of
P I It
voiced b
'..aJ , <>iced m
d &
n Q
Fm",--aue ....oiceles II J
olced v 0 z 3
Affricate oicele II
Oleed d3
Uquld .. oiced
laIeraJ
Oleed
1""'1-
alveolar
approximant!
retroflex
Glide voiced
oiceles,
b
,.
I",
d made , th the ocal 1r3i.'t more open
'0e1 are ..onocou.. ) llabl SO':uculatioru.. Different ~Oe1 sounds (also
than it i, for con oo.ant
and glide ed b varvin!! the placement of th ~ of
called 0 el qua/Illes are produc h' 'f th-e ~,itv - an be further altered
th I lbe, ape 0 .~. ' . !um
the 10D!!ue and .haplOg e lh. vowels or by 10lloenn" the e
bv pro~ding th.e lip to pr~ualcle rounded
el
. rnay be'len<e orIa" dependlO= on
. al 1 Fm ~ VO . . •
10 produ-e a n Olio C • •: d nm:!hell ani_ulan n
th de= of vocal LraCt con metlon
b
U "are introdu ed to most 0 the
In the followmg tlon n o.e }ou . ned that will be 10 ed 10
I f En Ii h me phoneuc detaill' 0l0l
~O . 0 _
tb foUoiog cbapler.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-28-2048.jpg)
![---- ----. .
- - - - - - -
..
-.-1.ue diide<i 1010 1(' major type'. Imple 'o"el~ faJ
pie vowel, and Engh,h 0 ,." r mODopb!boDI:~ I and diphthongs (Taole , 13 so calltQ
d h h Pure o"e~ .., h uaI' Th -.) S·
. t ong< ...~ noti.: able.: ange In q II)'. e oel of' 11IlPie
o"el d, fI()I "IV . II PII. ~I
and !he fil"[ onc/ 01 sl!Ppose are a 'Imple 0"d D- _. c!!l,
dl!g. b!!.I,P
1
~;,., cdubll 3 c'hange in quali!) "ithin a ingle 'I~hlel"'::~
are one < u~ ..... th d • L.lJ •
D. she" ('haDge' 10 q~Jly al are ue 10 longue movement
diphtho, u.ll ond aru,ulauon 10wards another vo"el ~ LJ a"ay
frOID the 101 .j qualil I' clearl) perceptible in "ord, ~uch a~ sa.' ho
n
. lb;l
h31lf'e IR -oVtc, . . ,. U' .
c ". and bit. In ,ome language, (1Ocluding English) Ihe fu..1 ~. '''''.
Ia. ~7:" /!. mu -h-'oneer and perceptually more salient than Ihe <_. pan ofa
diphuoon£ I' C ,_ • -~Ond
In RP.'there are mne di~hlhhong, andlthey f.1al
l
d
l 1O,tO ~wo c~as e: Cen;rin.
. bth gs and closin,g dipht ongs ca, so ca e c osmg dIphthong ....
dip . ond'phthOn~ dunng lhe final phase of the vowel articulation lh~I'hln a
centnn~ I " . kl ds th . e 19b-
. '1 of the IOneue move. qUlc' ) towar e centre of the mouth
elpotn. . ' f ' -!he
lpicaJ po,ition il 3 ume for the artlculauon ° sch"a I(OIJ). Ihe O"el at the
~innjng of the ord gddrefS. Thlerie ~ four centnng dIphthong _namel~
(Ia). as in dear. cheer. and clear. ea as to r;re- wea;. and aIr. [0;» as boo;
SIlrt!. and dour. and [:-a) as in QflL. shQLe. an ~oar. ~O"ad~)o,. [;)a) and [U~·
are dbappeanng from ~ and man) other ,llI~~lJe~ O.f Bnu,h Engli h. The;
are being replaced b~ [J.J. A< a re ult. "ord like pal<. pore. and poor rhv
~Ith each oIher. The) all come OUt a. [pJ:J. .llIe
In closing diphlhong·. lhe tongue ,!arb in a relatively low po ition and
ends up in a hIgh po JUon euher In the palatal area at the front of the mouth'
lhe regIon where the glide [j] is aniculated. or at the back of the mouth in ~
'elararea where lhe glide [wJ is produced. There are three clo. ing diphthono
lhat end in /I}. They are [elJ which is found in ...ay. l<'t!igJrI. and lail; [all Whi~h
I, found tn lie. buy. and m)~ and [::II} which is found in oil. boy. and COin
There are only tO diphthong.. in ~hich the LOngue move up to [oj. nameh
lauJ as in no. go. and rIo,," and {<lUJ which occur<; in proud. lo;n, and round.
Table 2.13 Some
Smrpie ,'"",d Diphllumg
I'll [I) bile [all
pel leI sa} lei.
pon )~;J aIr I~j
po! [oj beer [I~)
pal 1a:1 lOY I I)
polt 'A) oar 1'J~)
pan (n) poor [')~J
now ,ooJ
grow [;)OJ
O~ The colon UJdicate ee seclion 6.3 below.)
In all ClI
lov.e' I
• !he diphthongs are SOmCv.hal longer than the hon Imple
6.2
Basic parameters for
describing "o",els
PHU lK
0 eI anu..:u1auons are not ~y to feel con
IIlce Ihe "ocal (r3<,t .. lOI nanov.cd """"'" ,
much T" bcc~
0/0 e anIL-U alJOn. ahernaJcy pronounce lhe ds --- 1Icd
feel the: longue mme from a hi!h fmnl "I,,,. '-k" /uo and poe YOlt
liu longue mmement. ahem:lIe be'ttn the: v Is POS·.on you ree
feel the longue mm Ing fr m the: I"" hac" (._.~~ "'~ p<:'1 and pal Y U II
. ' r ~"' uoc ........ II be --·'d
arne lime) 10 10" ronl posItiOn ("lib the: L. unrounded ._OU< "'be
be!ween Ibe '0 cis of h.... ~nu .. h". You w.1I notICe that' ~'nall~. Iana1c
mOement between the high lront and high hack ~ I In • on to longue
your lips for the [u:. Y"'."OQ. yoo are" In&
Figure 2.8 h"" s " mid agma vie... oj the lonoue """ition' ....
["J [J d [ . b' d X . .c ,..-- .0< UK' vov.el
I •• a •an u. ,iL<e on. ·ray, ludle of C:.nadlan Engli h.lbese ('
vowe" are V~f) "mllarto Ihe Bmi,h RP f:nglilh 'o.... els~ribed alx!
~
onl~. o"elln lhefigure Ibat needs~pec1a1 comment is [01 Thl • Itt..: the:
~ntl h vowel [0) tnPOI: The ?nly Ignificanl difference 1 that Canadian {ul
" fo~ed "'lib the hp' "'. a falfly neutral po itton ....hile RP {ol" made ""ib
the hp' pur<ed. The po tUon of the tongue IS 'irtually!he same
I
Figure 2.8 Tongue po5l!Xln and tra!lSCJllIion for tIYee ~ vowel<..
'owel for v.hlch the t n!!ue I' neither r:nsed nor lowered are called mid
oweL. In some ea--e. the ~latt,e height of the tongue ID the general mid
zone reo ul~ in ov.eL th t are perceptiblY different. SQ It ma~ be nec saIJ
to dl. tin!!lli.h betwL-en mid. mid·high and mid·low oweb. Thu ID RP.(el
the ITOm'I·ov.cl (If Sfl I. aid to be mid-high. front. and umounded v.hile lJ:}
lhe 1 ov. el of 'IOnIl,i mid-low, ba.:k. and rounded. Sctl.....a ([:Ill. th f1f'ot and
the' IloeL-of ladonna i a mid. central lowel imilar to hwa i the
I O!: unmunded cen.rnl ,o;el [3:) found tn v.ord like b!!d. d II ~ ( ee
ti n 0.3 b.:lo ~ r funher discus ion
l!nfoltunat ly. there are no lear -ulon pomt' l>et n van t ngue
hClght po IlIon Hence It i not alw ). ob ;tOll> v.hetha a uod ould be](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-29-2048.jpg)
!["I
"ha
p~1
.~Iadonn~
hlrd
pOI
High
Mid-high
Mid
Mid-low
Low
11·1
leI
lu'l
1",1
lal
1,,1
1
':(
In/
Fronl
h.gh fronl unrounde vo....e
mld.h.~ fronl unrounded vo....el
high back rounded vo...d
low fronl unrounded
ccnrral mid unrounded
long cemrdl mid unrounded
m.d-Iow back rounded
I()w back rounded
Central Back
A
:J;
&.3
Tense and lax vowels
Roundcu
All Ihe v(lweb li,led 10 F.g.ur02.'J. excepl leI lao and Int. are 10.h.; Ihe;.,.
produced with a placement ut thl.: tllngw! that rt!~uh.~ in gr!al~r 'JllC. lfad
cnn~triction than that of nOn~l(!the vowt!b~ in addiuon. ten~ vowd$ lire
longer Ihan non-len,. vnweb. Some voweb of English arc made ",.Ih roughly
the same longue po!-.itlon ~L' the lcn~e vowels. but with a c ... Clln tr.,;ls!O
amculalion; lhc~ arc called lax vowe"- Tahle 2.15 pro,ide example hom
RP comparing lense and lax simple vowels. Qle lhat nOI alilhe ,,,we" cmne
ill lenseflax pai".
Tuble 2.15 Ten" and I" vowel<In RP
T ell.fIt.' Lax
a) Pure "owels
[!! 1.1
rn~ leI
f~l li:
mel l:e
P!!II lu
bilrd 10:1
pQQI [u:l
Cll 101
c~hl 1':1
wlrd [3:1 cobr;! lal
b) Diphthongs
milke [e.l
bike [a.l
hIlil [al]
nlle raul
shaul lau]
r!!re [eo]
dill [tal
bllQI [ual
roar [Ja] (marginal)
The difference betwccn two of the vowels illustrated in Table 2.15 .i ~ft~~
_ hear at first The vowel [Al in cwo dgd. p/gck. and 'gil" ac
not easy to .1 . 1 ',1 I . nd lax while the vowel [;:)1 of bgTlw11l. IlbOlll.
central. unrounueu. mlu- 0 a](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-30-2048.jpg)
![40 Air" lIN{...lJI!'IIll S
.. ral. u"n1unJcd. an<l la,:, Th.., <1",j 1'1
I
""d ."fll " "".1. "nt 'hJll"e "r [ul (0 1,,1 alkelcd 'orne I
I ,m I "".~. • I I I h,' , " I I lrd
( .'- .1 h I II"' '~llh _11'111 U Ihl'rs like {Jull. pus t. "1IlIche,.. ''In,1 b '
J 'nl..·U I' l I,. ~ "ul Ihll (l . . u Ifl/
L lu1 1'"11
.(. .mJ nJII. FUI1hermorc. the change the nUl all
h~,-" .t~'~;;li;t~d chI..' Ivl pnlll~nl:l~~l:~~:England tiinlech do nUl have the 'o~~l
~I ~CI'l/" ;1.,,1 ,,,,,ak"r' ~'lr~~;ll /U/IO [.1 J'~ nOI take place. So. nonhc~
I .- Ihl' an'3 Ihe "hJn)!', I pnlOunciallon of C/Il. d/lli. and plUck
.1
/ 1< ha'''' reIJln"J til<' (lnJ!,n,1 11',bdled schwa ("hieh, is unclcrhn'd a,
w (."1,; ....' 1/ rhe O.c! ~ ... III
I I IJlIII. J,,<l Iplll, ' . ) i, called a reduced vo"cI.
I,lIl . ,I; ',nJ ,,>j" th . I
C'fll
UI
<lIf"',,,,I.ltIIII<j l<'II ' I 1,-n'J 1
0 be longer than elf ax COUnterp,~.,
C'L " -;, ,",owe ~ ,.. • d h - ..
I
n Ench'h the, 1<"'< ',' s refer to them as ong an Sort vow I'
_ , phonelltIlln. th . I e ,
For this re;l,,1I1. som< " diphthongs are longer an slInp e vowels I
'. saw aoo'~, . I I . n
~sno>cli'e1)'. As ,. , • t>ehaviour as tense s.mp e vowe s. So th
,•. r- d' luy Ihe sumo . th . cy
man) case. th"e} "P , I d..d in some d.alects, e same vOwel may c,
Ii d
. lense n Co . . d' "" UI!
.~. also cI",•••e as . I or as a diphthong m 111erent contexts F
~.. " kW~ . ·W
realiLed as a lense Sllnp , [..] and [u:1 occur at the end of a word they
. RP. "hen tense I. . hth [..] ate
inswnce. Ifl· . vowels. but as the dIp ongs IJ and [uw].
. unced not as pure I d' I . 'd
often prono . ' rd, bird. I/!!D·e. c"~rr: I. an jQ!!.rna. ,s m. . central
The vowel [3./ of "_
1
0 the-r words, it is just like schwa tn all things bu'
d
d and tense. 0 0 . .. 1 t
unrollll e . Th' 'pclling gives a clue to .IS ongms. n most ca,~
lenseness (or length). "'cl I'ollowed by [rl. In most varieties of Brill' 'h'
'd'cdfrom avow . ' S
[3:] ~S ~~~rl following a vowel was lost.leavmg behind a lengthened, ten~
Engb>h North America, the southweSI of England, and parts of Lancashire
voel. In f Eogl:Ifld Ihe [r] was not eOllIely losI. There is still a
Ifl the northwest 0 . I Th ' I .
. , ] h"h "olours' Ihe precedlOg vowe . e I-CO ounng of a VOwel
reSidual [r w.e c , . d h .
. r d as rhotacization. A rhOlaClze sc wa IS repre ented by the
.s re,crre to . . . ' d'h h .
symbol [a'J in TPA. (Sec also the diSCUSSion of centnng Ip tongs In section
6.1 above.) . h th I
There is a simple tesl Ihnt helps detemll~e w ~ er vowe s ar.e tense or lax.
In English. monosyllabic words spoken 10 Isolallon do not end In lax VOwels.
We find see [si:]. sar [se./. Sue [su:J, so [S;lOJ. and saw [s:>:J. but not *[SIJ.
[seJ. '[sre], *[su]. or *[SA]. Schwa. however, frequently appears In
unstressed position in polysyllabic words like sofT;!J and Canad[;!J. It should
be pointed out _ especl3l1y for those who thi~ their ears are deceiving them
_ Ihat many speakers produce the final vowel 10 the last two examples not as
[:ll but as [AJ.
The representation tlfl'ocb and their articulatory positions <Figure 2.9) is
expanded in Figure 2.10 to include more tense and lax vowels.
This rather formidable crowd of vowels should not intimidate you. If you
arc a nalive speaker of RP. you have been using these vowels (and others,
somc of which you will be introduced to in Ihe next chapter) most of your life.
Learning to heM them consciously and transcribe them is nol a difticulllllsk.
Thc next section provides more examples of the lranscription of English
consonants and vowels.
PHONETIC
TRANSCRIPTION
Of RP VOWelS
AND
CONSO NANTS
8
SUPRASEGMENTAlS
8.1
------
Pitch: tone and
intonation
!'IIIJNI 1C 'l Itt! SCIIINI)
en 'AH(.UI It 4,
High
Mid-H,gh
Mid
Mid-low
Low
i :
e
figure 2.10 Basic po,itions for RP.
H.u.:k
'
.ll
A
U '
----
o
0:
Tables 2.16 and 2.17 (shown overleaf on pages 42 and 43) 'how the phoneuc
symbols for vowels and consonanLS commonly used to transcribe RP. To show
how each symbol is used, one word is transcribed completely. and then other
words in which the same sound is found are given.Notice thaL in the example
words, the spelling of the sound may vary. Be careful of this when you
transcribe words phonetically - the souod of a word. Dot its spelling. is what
is transcribed!
All phones have certain irtherent suprasegmental or prosodic properties that
fonn part of their makeup no matter what their place or manner of aniculation.
These properties are pitch, loudness. and length.
Pitch is the auditory propeny of a sound that enables us to place it on a scale
that ranges from low 10 high. All sounds give us a ubjective impresionofbeing
relatively higher or lower in pitch. Pitch is e pecially noticeable in sonorous
ounds like vowels. glide'. liquids. and nasals, Even top and fricatie
con onanlS com'e) different pitches. Thi. is particularly noticeable among the
fricatives. as you can hear by extending the pronunciation oflsJ and then of Ul:
the [s1 is learl) higher pitched. All sounds have ome degree of intrinsic
loudness as well or they could not be heard. Moreover. all ounds QCcupy a
certain streIch oftime - they give the subjective impressionoflength.
pcaken; of any language ha'e the ability to control ~e level of pitch ~ey
speak on. Thi' is accomplished by controlling the tern IOn of the vocallold,.
ami the amount of air that pa:sc, through the glottis, The cOI~t-lna~ltln ot
tensed vocal folds and greater air pre sure result in higher VOice pilch on](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-31-2048.jpg)
![fir
f o~
[,,/
(0 /
,.
." IPlfTHo, 'GS
(IE ~£ DiJIC 11
<lf/
"
1>1/
/'1
..../
".1
r"./
10~J
(~1
<""'"
cb;ur
poor
oar
(r:Jr>J
fb>r
n>Ofl
/l.r3od.
Ilfl.1
(ff e.)
(po')
(,.)
LAX VOWELS
(II fif IfIll
reI leI Ilel)
lorl bal (b"'I,
:01 cod lkoo,
101 pol lpol
/_) >hul IfAlj
I.j le~ Ilela)
--
~. ~ tte~'e. m:£!,e. rene
~'4 - .
10. j;"o, 1QQ>e, m-..., 4!!.!L
'>e Luc, th
p;,!! - - .' rl!!!&b.
C!¢. guard. 1l1!!>= . l;!!!gh. ]!!!nl. ~
~e""l
~ pref~. H!!!d err. h~d. w!Lon.
connOIS~. ffi}rrb. cQ!onel
C!1!!!'. c~1. PQ!:f. w!!k. decQ!:. dlllO...
u,
~ckland ~
rh~. d!!l. gr,lln. g;!!!ge. ~"'i!Jle, "a
engJ!ge. gr~ sleiclt ~.
!.~. ml· Ill· lide. th!)1h. b,tte. b!!y. d~ die
Qiee. bQ!1. I~. ~a1 -
nQ. IQ!;. sumQ. thrlaL thQ!!.gh. sl~. oaf
ToronlQ. Q'Connor -
Q!!t. hQ!!se. plQ!!.gh. I~n. n~. gl!!jcOtna,
Fau~t
c1;-ar. ide.J!. criteri~ '" einf. he:e. mere
fli!!!'. flair. Pi!Il'nt. where. herr. ~
s.!:!!!. m.QQ!. [Our. ,"elour. paramour
dQ2!. Q!!:. roar. shore. mQ!!:. PQur
h!1. income, definition. pili:. (for 50me
speakers)
I~d. h~d. S;!yS. '~d. ~ver. g!!£ I. fri!:nd.
"'~I
p~ic. '!!'!. JII!!ITY. ~ckel. g!!S. pl!!nel. pl!!stK
dgg. rQCk. bQlly. y~hl. "!!Im. "'h!!l. c~b
b!! h. hook. fool, book. hood. "'Qman. "olf
,!!t. p.!!ll. Qlher. .!!dder, l.!!cky•• QO. 1Q!!.gh,-
llQ!!<!. '!!pper
i!boUI. abbQt. ",om!!,!. plendQ,[, C~nberra.
c!!,!al). !!pport. colour - -
Yo"els and ~onorant consonants. while less tense vocal fold~ and lower aIr
pre ure fesUl1in lower mice pilch. Two kind.. of controlled pit.:h lOOVcmcOl
fiJund lfl human language dre called tone and intonation.
Tone
ta ble- 2.17
11"'1
Ipl
1'1
Itl
Ik"1
kl
I'II
Id31
Ibl
lui
I'll
Uti
(11
[v)
[Il]
[()]
hI
[LI
[II
[hI
lil
[wI
[M]
[II
[r]
[m]
[Ill
[0]
[nl
[D]
pl'
pll
lid,.
tu..::~
keep
.I.IP
chIp
judge
bib
d.p
atlas
get
lit
vat
thick
though
sip
zap
ship
azure
hat
yet
witch
twit
huddle
reef
moat
bouom
note
huno D
sing
PUU l"
IP"n1
I pill
11'11.
I t,1.l
Il..h"pl
Il.lpl
(t.l"lp]
(d3,d3
(bIb]
Idlpl
(."ltI~'1
[get!
fit!
vret!
[91kl
[Il",,]
ISlp]
lz.a:p]
Vlpl
[bretl
liet]
[" nIl
[w.n]
[h.,dl]
[ri:f]
[m;Klt]
[bo~
[n:>ot]
[b .to]
["Dl
1ttl 0 b
paln. "('<.... &pIIn
[c , ul! '!fl' burn
n IiUtre. ~ tutu ~
icln.. hunt ~. ~)'
£(IW. kernel, baOt.
an«. Hl£.ll! hlai:kli ~ likely
lln~. 'tl.;.~r. d,~_ tkkh-
gcrm·loumal ,bU~le. ~~e
~~t. h~rnte. r~. bla~t
lIu". bell. lral. -
"'i~nes .lO2. n£h (gloua.l fetnfUfXtnall
ol a fol1ootng top or aHncat.t:)
gape. mUa!er. ''Irig. Iteam
n", h. couE.!!mg. PTOOt. E!!legmouc.
gO~l.!r. offiCI!
YOle. oyen. pro~e
!hough. e!heT. tee!!!-l!!rec. batlu-oom
then. bomer. teethe. b~ -
E;yehol~gy. f~;n. fan;'.~.~.
~leO£e
~ro". sc~rs. ~. !o'pper. flJ!!Y
~ock. nation. m~10n. vigous, w!;h.
~ivalry -
m~ure. rouge. vi~uaL garag,e (for ~ome
speakers). Tai Mahal
wbo. ahoy. forehead. behind
~. f~. ~e!t
~aI. ~etrd. ....ben
t~elve. sqJ!eak. 'l!!'1
bottle. needle. med&
prod. arrive
!!!indohll!!lOUf. shimmer. ,u!!!. thumb,
lamb
atom. rnndom. Adam. rbyth!!!- anthem
!lOw, ",inner. angel. si~. i!!d
cotton. mutton. happe..Q. sudtl~
"!!lrer. o!!!ler. b"!!k- f f!!IJe
language is 'aid to have tone or be a tone language""hen difference, in
word meaning are Ignalled by difference, in pitch. Pitch on form Itt tone
languages function, vet) differentl) from the mO'ement of pitch In a non-
tllOe language. When apeaker of Englih say a car~ with a n, ing plh:b, the
I lrd eelr doe: not mean an) thing different from the arne form pronoun ed](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-32-2048.jpg)
![H
I
Im14] 'moth'
.'>,
I
[mil) ',nare'
L
I
[mii) 'sleep'
f~- 2. f I 5.lrcee JeK>j rones.
Tlu. pe of notation is knon as 3utosegmentaJ nOlation.
Le'~?tone" that ,ignal meaning differences are called register lone.. I
,"_ teenster IOnes are the norm 10 most of [he world', re" ",
or u..ee .... , ~I ler [n....
I
eua"e,. though four have been reported lor Mazatec. a language pok ~..<
w_ a ~~
~fe.~co. . . t h
A single lOne may be assocIated WI more than one syllahlc clern
Mende. a language spoken in West Africa (Table 2.18), [here arc ~~n
polysyllabic forms th~[ show the same t~ne .on each syllabIc (here, t~
diacritic' indicates a hIgh rone and the d,acnUc LDdlcates a low tone).
Table 2.18 High-lone and low·lone words in Mende
pili
h;iwama
.:pilifi
'house
'waistline
'tnpod chair'
-
Autosegmental notation allows ~s to repres~n.t the tone as characteri~tic of
an enure form. The smgle underlymg tone umt 15 assocIated with all VOwel
(Figure 2.12).
H H L
~ ;1 ~
pele hawama kpakali
Figur~ 2.12 Tone as a Iool fCJture.
II
I
It-un .. 1
tma) ·n'lotht."r~ tush "me
Mil
~
[mal 'hemp' mid ri'e
lLH
Imal 'horse'
HI.
~
Imal 'scold' high fall
Figure 2.13 Regist'" and contour 1011<'5 "' Mandarin.
In Figure 2.13. there is one (high) register tone. The other tones arc all
contour tones.
In other languages, tone can have an evcn rnore extended function. In Bini.
a language spoken in Nigeria. tone can "ignal differences in the len«e 0 a verb
(such as past versus present). as Figure 2.1 ~ shows.
LL
Timeless Ima ' show'
HL
~
Continuous ima . am ,howing'
L H
Pa t ima '1 showed'
Figure 2.14 T
..nse and tone in Bini.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-33-2048.jpg)
![, . ''''~'l'd ii' high If It " high rdal,w to the p,tt"-
rdatlc pih:hl.~'" IUIll.: 1:"0 fl: . .rtJ··.......~ncc IS mallllUIIlC'u th, 'oq
h rdalle u, ," , C PitCh
around it. ", lung ,b I I' . ,.• Fi"ure 2.19 shows th" graphIcal!
II I ~ muonIJIII<U. e o . y. It
Jislin..:-tllln... 1 d "l f' lk~laruti'e selHcncc 10 Igbo. u We! "'fn
represent' tho" 'Herall p'l~h '.' ;' 'h'"'' an IgOO speakcrdcarly Olalnt,un,~
h . 'f' t JO~, ute v . . . . . ' . ~~
lan'!Ilace II reg" a l . "ven as the Oernll pItch ,,' the Uttcflan
eo - h' 'I'h reg"I~" - ' . c.
di,linctl"n anlllng t 1'" .. ' I ocr than Ihe precedong hIgh tone. but high.
fal"- Ea,'h high h'n~ "aIWJ);.~' Iy precedes it. This phenomenon,s knu:r
than the 10 tunc thai Jlnm~ Jil e n
,b downdrift.
~8~.2~----------------~----~~~::,~~'~.~a:rr~etb~0~th~V~o~w~e~l~s~a~ndd~c~o~n~s~o~n~"~n~ts~·~W~h~o~s~c~a~n~,k·C~u~n
length In many languages there hat of other vowels and consonants. Thl
8.:1
Stress
. d I • relative to I . I . I '
IS hel onger .,. I th is widespread on the wor d s anguagcs. 1,
pheno.m~non. know n aSh ~ng dicalcd in phonetic transcriplion by the usc of
d ahove lengt IS III
mentlone . I d after the long segment.
a colon [:J (lPA [;J) P acoe, an Cree. and Finntsh arc a few of the manv
I r Hunganan crm • .
ta Ian. w I~n and shon segments. Yap, a language spoken on the
languages Iha'. sho W g'm Pacific, shows shon and long vowels 10 pairs of
island of Yap 10 the CSlc. ?
"ords, such as those shown 10 Table _.19.
Table 2.19 Short and long vowels in Yap
[9i5) ''.0 '.opple' [9i:s) '(a) post'
I II 'moon'
[pul) ''.0 ga'.her' pu:
[7erl 'nenr you' pc:rl 'part of a lagoon'
Italian shows shon and long consonants in pairs of words, ..uch as those
shown in Table 2.20.
Table 2.20 Short and long consonants in ItalIan
fato [fatJI .fate' fatto IfatJI 'fact'
fano IfanJ1 'grove fanno [ran:~1 'they do'
casa [kasaJ 'house ca~sa [kas:aJ 'box'
Long and short consonants are also found In many other languages,
including Finnish, Turkish, and Hungarian.
In any uilerance, some vowels arc perceived as more prominent than others.
In a word such as telegraphic Ithelogrref'.k], the two vowel nuclei that are
more prominent than the others arc [eJ and [.eJ. Syllabic segments perceived
a.s relatively more prominent arc stressed.
Stress is a cover tenn for the combined effects of pilch, loudness, and
length - the rcw/t of "hieh i.. syllabic segment prominence. In each 1
,lOgungc,
the clYect of these proslJdic features varies. In general, English lres..ed
9
PROCESSES
"I, JM lit
VUt'l, iUl" hlgh"'1 In pHd, hm' I md In" t I
~f I l' ian un tr t
I nu ~t way~ the l:.l<te. I he e ~UHP'c hi 1 ,,.It" tru I'"~ ~ Of
prnnUlInc.:eu wtth th" ltCS cd I1al.' It)! r ,;".1 hC lt')U
. h· J ,"on I Un 1 d
nl1!')un,ilnt I m 1 "that they h prlln1l11 nl WU" I 1 t tohe h
them. ,lI1d lh" I'" U It.,Uy L(·umph u:d hy h Tctalw ' ) ruund
h t y I,nle ,flln _ I
tlr dl ul the 1 rCl' pamlHl'tcr nlfllh.h.llIlu11 ,nil length Ii
In ....Omc lanf!ltilgc" the IIlPll' "Hill 1,1 !lYlel p'".nl'
. . lell fe.H t from
tnll:fCU.:taon 01 lhl~ pn~,ouIl' pitlame-h'. In;I' I (lItter!:lll hlllll th.11 ftttnd n
Lngl"h, In Mudem (>reck, 111 examrl.- "ltahk Icn'III "-I t I
' - - . - . ' I I'C. 1 t!~I" chgth
~trcss. therefore. I'" ~nallh:"'Il'd hy it l'hanp.t: only til pll:h .ml (H.lln fll nm
In syllublc length. lone langllu)lC's. dn lUll dmngu Ihl' ph:h ,,",Vt' 01 lh1l1t),u 0
tones 10 mark. ...tress. In many ot lhc'c IlIlgui.gcs. rtli,tlve prlllnimn
murked by exaggerating Ihe v"wcllcnglh '" rlleh CIInlll"!.
There arc varinu wnys to mark ...tlC.S!oi In phonetll.! Han cnptitm. A.
commonly u",cu convcnltnn i.... 10 l'mploy an ;tCUlc ac(';cnl rlactft liver the
vowel nuclcu in qucMinn h.l mark 1he l11u..., prominent nr primary Mrcs. and
a grav! accent I" I to murk the '"elm" mll prllminent IIr 'OCcnnd<lf) 'Ueu Or
stre"",. (This ..huuld nm he cnnlus"d with the u"! of thc same d,3I;rtU" In
mark lune In LUne languages, I Stre.., can aI,,, ~ marked hy placlOg num
above Ihe ,lreSed vowels, usually' Inr a primary "re 'and l'"r aliCCondary
..Iress. The word ,t'le!{rtlJlio;(' is tnlOscribed as either of Ihe toll""'10 '.
2)
Ilhelagneflk I or
~ I
Ithel~gr;eflk
The examples In Table 2.21 ..how some differences in English slrc,.
placement.
Tublc2.21
(an) export
(a) present
telegraph
telegraphy
tclegr.iphic
Differing Slress placemenl in English
lekspJ:tl (to) cxp6rt
[prel~nt (10) prescnt
Ilhel,gr.c1l
Ith,legrJIt I
[thclogr;d'kl
Id,'pJ:t)
Ipmont]
f ur exam les in the lahle, you can ahoce thaI the ljUahlY nf
In the last 0 , ; , ' . n whether they are slressed or unslres<;ed.
cenam vowels van.e.. dependm.g °E I'h Russian, Palauan, and many other
This phenomenon IS common ItI ng IS ,
languages, but is not universal.
. . . . es of isolated events The procc of
Speech productton IS not a sen, , I, organs are operating inckpcnd
articulation is a c(lmplex (lne, T~e arUcu alOl) . canied OUI vel) rapIdly as
enlly of each other. and man) hne adju,tnlent' are](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-35-2048.jpg)
![t.u ll"'rt,~ R IINl,l)IS llc
.1
o'arti( ulcJtion
Flgur~ 2.20
we Spc·,~
. . I 4 • • a l'un t,.'('llIl'ncc. ...pc:ct:h pnxlucliun Uhl'lI r"'UII
anlcu almll Or.'r1 • .• . ' ,
< '''unu alkdlng Ihal or anolher. In !he
The ,1':Cllll1ll1odallon I>elwc~n ",crJapprng <U1i.:ufalory ge,turc
prodll lIIJn ot .ldjacCnl ,clintents " referred to a. co-articulation ~.~ed In lilt
In 2 7 sh""cd h"" "sprralinn r"sufb fro~ co-articulalion. Figure 2.1~~tc 205
'I'm... more l'I1mplc. a'f'<'ct'. 01 cO-<U1rcul~tJ(ln..11 pre.~cnt.. 'Orne 'h,,"
.tnllOula!o,) ,lfgan, ",v"lved III the produclIon 01 Ihe word po . Ilf tilt
, . " . R d· f· n In N
"menc'an "ngh.,h IJr In Cockn.:y. ca mg rom lOp 10 bOllom the h~h
" . aClt
the lips. tongue. wlulll. and larynx are shown. The bold bl'lck line i nih Of
represcrlls the .,Jate of articulalion lisled to the righl of the box. n each n..1~
, ~
LIps L-_______________
c /
.~ Tongue
:; ; - - - - - -
<J
.~
'"
"
0pcn
BcxJy lowcrcu
al [
§ t-r----~"" 1 Raised (oral)
j Velum 1 "" I
'--------_1Lowered (nasal)
/GIOllis
/
[
ph it: n
-------Timc----___
~
(oarticulilticm tHll011g l,C'V(ll,Jl,lrlindatory parameterc;,
VOIced
Voiceless
(open)
fhe raisl·d line in the up cr b)x . d'· .
anic-ulatinn or Ihe Il1Itial IPI rI 10 leates !.hal (he lips arc dlll~d for Ihe
arc npened _ rcprcsenll'U ~y ~h:~~~~ncorder (0 anlculatc the vuwel. Ihe lip,
stav opcn uurin" th.. un·. I ' f g In the posJlJlIJI 01 Ihe 1111<" - and they
• <> ' lUI aBun II Ihe [nl. .
longue
Velum
Glottis
Consonant
co_articulation
with vowels
9.2
Processes and
efficiency
1nc- h..mgul.!' hudy I I
I
. uwtr:d In I 1
artlCli atum ut the wur I I
t " l llIlI.tl C n
ungue tlP,~ r;lICd hl,tnli;Ul.llc th
1"'1 OUNh
Yuu have ~t!cn h()1 mbU C~1OS"tn1
allow air to pass hroll~h th." .'. die 11l
tKuced wuh the 'J I
. '1 co c nit .1' l..t~lll T"'- c Un, o~c ed
c um 1'.. nul i.lW<1)':-' prc:id' C , IU;:: "''''ing hn( '...... r 0
aCl1vuy. Speaker... nltc.n 'tnh' Y. CO·lhHhn:tcd wllh tither NO..... } enng {the
d
I I..:lp.tlc nWCfll1' lh. I j'''''- 1 pt'(MUCIOtl
all.• consequent}!, pnllhu.:c '1 n. I co l:: VI.! 1m lnr na CI
IN' . J • ,"" vnw~ hchm..:" 'In )hat
o OIlh Amcncun l'.llvl'..h 'I' w'll' anUa COICll.tn, ~ l-
e k . e- ~ ... C I'~ !pcakcl' 1 ,"IPC~...c:
_
oc m:y UO th1" con)tstcnl1y in fluel'l ".1 'Ii () M.nnt: 41th 'r tlal!4;l hL.-
I kc I h- spccc, when Ih ""
I pall p;enI or /"",k Ih,el]kI (lh' lId _ e)' p'"n"unce "',"
na~lllily). This is renccled In hgllre ~.2(". ~n~ I. ,,~er. Ihe '''wei In,h
closure changes 10 Ihe open Iinwercdi .. . Ime representing Ih velllm
I b I
· h pO"",,n <lunnu Ih . aru I
"owe. core 1 C longue lip i! ni"cd l(.. rt· . I 0 l: (:1 atum of he
, )a leu ale Ihe word-finalln.
You bave llln:ad~ ,cen 111 seclinn 5.S how a'pnallo I
.. f hi · . n resu " lrom a llel
VOIClI1g a Icr t c re case 01 a vOIced 'top A ... . ay In
b
. . . . . splrauon" shu",n In I· ., ,
y Ihc black 1ll1c rcmulI1l11g in Ihe voiceless pOS·III·on c I h Igure ••11
d
.. . 'cn a ler I e lip h
openc and Ihe vowel articulation is in place. ' ave
All speech is characlerilcd by Ihe kind of complex co arti·cul .
. . . . - a Ion amung Ihe
artlculalory organs Illustraled 111 Figure 2.20. Anolher Iypical co-articulalion
phcnomc.non occurs when we pronounce Ihe sound lkl beforc the v . 1..
. E 1 h . owe I.
III ng 15 In words such as key.~ and keel. The [kl wc articulate bcfnre li: IS
pronounced .wlth the bac.. 01 Ihe tongue so far forward il ncarly touches Ihe
palale (and IS transcnbed a, I~I). It is scarcely a velar articulallon al all tor
many speakers. The [kl we pronounce before the vowel!> In] and l~:] In words
.uch as COl and couglrt is articulaled further back. and is a lrue velar. The~
adjusnnenlS arc made in anticipation of the tongue posillon thai WIll be
needed for the vowel in qucsllon: fron! for the [i:1 and back for Ihe [0] and
I:>:], The IkJ pronounced before the vowel [u:1 in a word such as cool abo
shows lip rounding in anticipation or the following (back) [<mnded Hlwd and
"transcribed as [k"].
Articulatory aujuslmcnts that occur during the production of speech arc called
processes. Their cumulative effect often result. in making words casicr 10
articulate. and in thb sense they are saiuto make ~peech more em~lenl. When
speaker> of NOrTh American English nasalize the vowel of h(/Ilk they do nnl
uclay lowering the yeluJl1 until the exaci moment Ihe na,al CIlnSllOanl
articulation is rcacrll:u, Mosl Nonh American English 'peak.crs be.to
lowering the ,·dum for a nasal con"lOant almost as soun a he~ articulate the
vowel that preccucs il](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-36-2048.jpg)
![9.J
Prot I.'SSI.'S ,lnd
clMit~
In I P.u·tll-I nmnncr. hl'a 'Jl.·.Ik.l'" PUlfhHllh.'c.· I~I .1' 11111' p"'.II.ll
nt
'onl lIC'h l. , th Ire s~ .lklJl' HH'I "111"'11."111) '111111 th,,· 1'01111 01 1"",
ofunl<.'U!alh,lll ""illl ·Ihc.~ In: 111.1"-111 ~.l h,"-' ,h.I,LI,," .,td,U:llHl'nt II1IlH)' lUg fflft}
Ih rtl ul I"n ,.f II nhlrc p:!l.'taIIH hI Ihal "f., IlIgh 1""11 ''''','1 th,", tn
"oul" IIlJlc 111 m""n1! Inlll1 " ,d,tr Iklln " h'gh ""nl "",,'1 hen 'll)'>
d ll~]II. tl .th'r nt I n~h,h Ill1 ,a '. Ipn.'ldl tor .')(/rf/dt· h 1111~lng a
111J.,,,'r l.1ju"n1I."lIllh.t( rt',uh~ 111.1 Ulllrl..' dtU':I~II( .u1l1:ul.IlHHI Ih"'I1 "'Yllahle:
of . .. n....,ul pnulullcl.lllun uJ porlld,' .tn.' n:lh't:t..'d h) on~ h) drOPPing InC'
un'tn",.'d "'H'I tf Illl' JII ,r " ~ lIahl~: thl' t~lfl~lIC pll'I1HlII IUJ Irl 1.....111 he
'nll"p,lIl'J "uring 1''''IIIII"'/.II,,,n oflh~ 11'1; lonall), IhL' '",cdc"nc" "' the
1I111,al ,t"l' ",,,nTl"" nn Ihwu!!h Ihc [rl
's"IHl' rnl(,'c~~~, dPIX'.lf (n 11l;lkt' urlll,.'ulalioll k''',
''it lHlt IIlUh.' l..'nkiL'lll, r'ur
e ,1I11pk. Fn~I,'h 'pc'ale.., ulkn lenglhen enn"",an" and ""we.', "hen the)
Ire ,,,h'" 10 R'IX'al a "n,,1 Ihal ,(lmeone ha, nol he,ltd dead), 1hc 101/1", IlIg
kind "I" c (h,IIl!!e" I) P'("/.
.I,
'Ie-Fred.'
'Did) uu sa}. "(I" ","".,'
'No. l'aiJ. "Fltlw,'d""
L,'n/:lhening "'/:II1,'n" resllits in a greater "n'l'ulalnl,) clhlrt, bUI the proc,'"
,,'sulls 'n a /(>rrll hl'ing 1110r(' distmci and Iherefore c:"il'llo pe..cl'i~c.
"nnlher PI'O('",,, lilul rl'sults in more l'astly percclvithk Sp,','(h udds a
segll1cnt under (ertuin wndilions. When sp"aking sluwly and l,rdul/ in u
noISY l'!1'Jrnnl11cnl. rur c'ample, English '~akl'rs orten It1wrl it ~o c/
belween £nlUpS of consonants, Tim breaks up the scqu,'nl'" "l" consonullls
11110 sep:,rall' syllabb. 'Th judge from Ihe usc pc"plc uftcn muke of Ihis
pmccss when Ihcy II ish 10 bc clearl) undc"lnod, il ma) well make wnrds
easier 10 pcrcl'iw
-I)
'SlOp ""c:uning!
'Wh,t!'i'
'( .,uid, "Slnp sc I~I rcamlllg.'"
These cxaJllples show thai Iherc arc IWO basic rCasons for Ihc cxis(encc of
:trtlculall1ry I'nlces,,-s SI'ltl' 11r) . " -, I ' " . .
, . , ",. , l' (tcsses rcsu t In a mOl'c elllclcllt urlll'ulntlllll
01 a Sl'fles 01 sounds In Ihal precisc liming and l'o -urdinallOn of speech is
r'l'/;IXed to val/OUs dc"rl'l's ()III' " I .
h· . .. . , cr processes rcsu I 111 a lI10re UISIIIl"1 nulput.
I ICIt " l'aster In 11l'P'''" - lit 11, .
' " C lin ucnl or rapId cVl'rytlay 'pel'l'lt Allhough
Iltl"C IWll r~llCs 01 pm 'l',S - 'h Ii. '
'. l ,c, lIug I al IrSI appC<lr In hc cOlllradlllllry c'"h
'crves a partll'tllar,'nu in s/X'cdt productIOn. .' •
"A
rtll ul'ltory
prot't''''''
1 H 1111 _j(
It ,~ '"
I, lnly ~I t1I11ll! IHItIlI I 01 l'hK:c
1I1~1.1'l: 1111ill"1 I
" til pH"hll-~ It gn'.11 II "al ul IIII.I , ~., l1I1U" Ih If
. ",UI" h V.n IlIhll,,), t h
'01111,.' 01 'h~' Ilhl....t lllIHIH1l11 H' Itll'~l' pltK:' C 11 1 1 ICl"
". 1I11mhl''. 01 tlllkrl,'ni pint',,' ,",c ,.'utll'LIIVdy "no...... n.1 . ' .
Irrtm Lh,.' 1I11111l'lIl"' ul CHW "'"·~III.·1I un n tl. . ""mU,uum r ul
f· ,. I 1 - ,I ) In. J MllHatltHl IIw.ty r lilt
1011 II ~uum ll·l..'nlnlll~ I1H1I'l' like IIn()llu.:r Ilcarhy OUlld
Inon.! )1,1 ... phlIll'lu.: ,:hllr..u:tl'n"'ll.:~ II h l11H~ Cli nll<: 111
NusalilutlOIl ul iJ vUl' llwhul' 'In'l"nt 1.;011011'11 I C' ' I
. II - - " . " ,1, H '1~ltC12'tl lOt
"caW"Cl ,y pl.·a~cr... UUIU':lputlllg the:. lowering (II Ih ~ v _I '. , Ile)
, 1 ~, • 1'1 I 1 . &.: C um III .(lv~l1r,;e ul ,
lI~l~U '(.;gmll1t )t.' Il''ll I I" I lut the plcl't:dIlW c:.lmclH t, I· -. 1
I I I II ... '" ,I"e "" t" ",. ,lot"
n 11C n OlIIg l.·nn~OI1Itn1 'I h.... Iype 01 u,Mmihlit It I. ' . ~
• . . . . . .) IS ...nnwn·1 n')l,r ,i",'
uSMuulution. 1I1(.;t.' I hI..' Ihl' atll~llIon ..... In enC!.:1, tnno"Hl /J"ck"rmls 1
pl'~~l!dll1g ~cgll1cnt h a
rhe nasall/~ltHln of V(,"t.'ch fOllowmg n;hal con""ollant~ In Sl.lIt (jachc 1
an exampic III pru.:re..,,,'c a"imitation. "nee Ihe n"',IIoty moves fom"rd
Irom the nilsal l'UnSOnalll nntn the vowcl (Tablc 2.22. "rcM,1t Imllt not
'I11m~d'[Hcly ralSlIl!, Ihc velum aller the pmJuelion of a ,;,,,,1 top l!'<n
nasuitJ:allnn I~ tnullo where a vuwel 1 preceded by an ural t.:un nnant Ie n
glt' ,!r"i/wIJl"lklc h~Ii,lcl 'vcry pll!J,cd'.) , I
'Illblc 2.22
Imi:rl
Inil
ImljI
Ine:11
Progr..!!-;ivc nUl-,all/utinn ul voweh in S";OIS Gachl:
'b,g'
'clittle'
'~lboUl'
'doud'
Voicin!! as~imilatiul1 is also iuesprcad. For many speaker, III !englJsh,
voiceless hquid, and glrucs (l~cur aflcr V{lII;cl.:" stup' ,n "nrJ, su,h as 1'1.""
[plt..:J. proll<l [p aud[. allll I'ur.. [pju:>1.These ,oUI1<b are ,,"d tll be de'lllCCJ
in Ihis en inlOment. Dcoicinl( IS a kind of a"imil.ltilln. lIere, the "..:al fllld,
arc nOI sel in mntion IIl1mcuiatdy afler Ihe release Ullhc v{)kclcs~ con"lIlam
closure.
Thl' opposile {ll' ucvuicll1g is voicing, In DUlch. fricallvcs a'''llnlate 10 Ihe
v<.il'lllg of Ihe SlOps that folluw them. 111 anll~lpat'Ull or Ihe votced con" mant.
For e~'lIl1pk.lhc wort/artun 'orr. {lVCr' is pronoullccd wllh a Ivl in the words
a/1><,I..,1 'w nng (.Il', and a/dl'km '10 cOYer over'
,",imilau{ln for place of aruculalilln is also widespread Itl tlte ",)('/d
language, '1a,al ~l1ns(lnan" Me' cl)' likely tn undcrgo lhl' I)pe 01
a'''lndaU''Il. as shown in Tabk 2,2.1 011 Ihe nexI page
The I1l'I:!;U,C limn of cach ullhesc wurds I.' tl13d~ IIh euher IIIlur /tI In
h{llh <:a,cs, the f<lfllI ,h{I' a nas I «,",ooanl Ih.11 ha' Ihe SlImc place 01
articulation a... the' slOp con <manlthal fo/lnw it: htOI.II]1I Ihe ca e uf I>() "bI..](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-37-2048.jpg)
![1'1 r ~u til n
. .
"Ul111ol I· ""I"lIul
h' mOl ( ''''1,,11
Ih (I' III Ikllktll
r.JlI II on·I Irrllll·1
('mh (trnOJ 1,'nlllJ
--------~~--------~--------------
----
'll1 '~lu,'r.l1tt. h.tt' Ih' ',II HI.." pL,,,-.-,· llf,.trth'uL,Hl(I ,i' thl" Sllhlrlll l'onllll'lJlt
h' th ',r I'"'n.•lIhf ,III h.t .. Ih' ~..mh..· tlll..'in!! .b th" 11lfl Mll1lllU l" 'nlll.lnt to
Ih,'lf n -hi
'" ," m,lI , hI' "', 'J '1IIh,'.ill'd hI TlJf~"h, ,1 ,'nllll,l Ilnl ""):IlIJlh 1
~ 'n' I.'naUh hl"n ",11 f:-. .U" '" m l 'd inh.l rui"k,t,h, .m l'Jl(."tlIhl..,til' h1el"
tn," I tx'I 'Il. l.·rtrulh""yl1l."n.·l.'~ ,)fl 11uill,II .'tlllSlO'lIl.h, ",or', lIn~.l n '
I 'mil "t-I', 11"'11 ',' (1;11'1 _,::7), (Ill<' n', ,,'n f,'r Ill' Jlf~'~II"C' ,lIn"n~ ~
, "d, 11 'l"d n If ."'(11., ..'nl u' h(', ': IHl k'.lh'Uf!h. (h.lt lhl" ll'~ c:1 t~ .11, .1), high;
" '"'111 It~ 1 f, r /unh r 11" 'nl,lIl"1I "e lUI] .lUd ,)(h 'r lIlII,lImh,1I ') IIlt'llh
tr.un 11n."'11
dllt> I.ubl'
~l 111 'UlJ 'I
pre,( rll'tioll ,I' 1','£, rib, ,md
Fngli h, h<f" , i, plwHlun,'cd
10
l11tllK OWll"
I)
to ..ONNl"
(ll' (Ell)
10,1 _ _
Vocls
t,,, ~O t
IJf
This 1..'!10ptcf h~'~ ~nn~idc.:-r~ll onl) lhe 0 c,,", nnu t..:ln~Onanh ot Engh~h. m n'
nl hu,:h are t(mnd 11) other ang.uagl.:, Thl!rc arc aho many "'pcl! h !it)und
roulld in the" nrlo', languages lhal are no heard 10 Englbh. Smee I'h"nelle
lk~cnpllon~ ~lrc.:- unlcr. at') all1. .'nc~ the ba!->lC anKU1ll")1) p~'nUClC~ ha:'lie
ht:'c-ll m.l:-.h:red. It IS not lOU uiHk:ult to lh!~(ribc and e..en to prunounc
lamiliar ,ounJ,. Thi, se"Il'1l presenb a number 01 sllCcch nund found II
l)ther langtlag~"
fronl 'oweb. whkh in English arc alwa) , unrounded, can al,,' be rounded_
A hIgh from lell,e rounJed ''''wi is heard in French p,!r 'pure', Gennan
Biid"'r 'bool..,·, anJ Turl..i. h di'i!IlI<' 'bullon', It is lran"nbed a, ly in IP,-,
hut as lil!11l ,)fth Amerkan transcription- a difference that ',)melime, lead,
10 confusion A roundeJ high front la, vowel. Ironscribed'h IOlPA l'-I(am!
as Iii] in Nonh America) is heard in Canadian French l!!ne 'm,,,m' nd d,!c
'dul..e' . A rounded mid-high fn'm lense owd, ollen Lr.mscnbed 101 1"1 In
lPA), is found ill French pell 'lew' and Gennan .<"hi!-" 'bealllifu', A rounded
mid-It'" front la' ,m el. !r,lIl..:ribed IreI. is heard in French Q!:!if 'egg' :md
p.'ur 'fear', Gemlan Qnlil'il 'local'. and Turkish ~Ql 'lake' Finall). bac
n) eb nlJ.~ be unround.:d. For m'tan.:e, a hIgh hack u~rounded w,e!.
!rJ.n~crilved;)., lUI, l ' heard m RlI' ian "oro,. lil..e b~1 "and Rumaman
",fn,j 'hand' Th's> O~!., a:, ~11 a. oilier 'C'otlc' on', are found m man~
oth'r lano:ual!c, Ci' wlL Tahle :'..:'., iUuqrale'the et- rre,entcd ill ilih
,hapter l'R-;" unfl,unJed: R = fl)und.:d ,
f ''''II lOll"';
LR R UR R l'R R
High ill ut~n
ltd ' n.-JWl.'.i)
f
l](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-39-2048.jpg)
![Y 11"I(,lIl, IIC ~
cl"wlI ,,,,.I Illward ,,1,,1!lICI<"U al ""'~ place
O1nl C.IVII> like Ih c. hclI Ih I.lryn, I, pu h In lhe
Ihe If traPI 'U In Ih moUlh IS ""mpre ~d It I Ihen rcleu'ed /llId <~: up
C,utard on C Ihe forn. nl 10 ure I r~lIIl1,'cd. ('nn,,,n.lnl pnxJulcd Will "'"
....r . . ' N IIhlS
.... ~ ,Ir mntr III me,hulIl 111 .Irc "ailed eJectI,,!,. orllwlly. Ihey
H)le I s. II cumpl IIf /Ill cJcdl'l! IS Ihe alveolar WP 11'1 III Ihe lire
I
· 'I ' ' K' k h wOrd
11>411" 'tll 11m)'.' (I 111>4o~1 '10 break) to eel, II langUage 1
(,1I.11 mal:! (rhe ,h,l rlill ' .11t.:r a con.,onun! symbol Inc.ll<:alc Ihal II I )(
an
CJ"I,;II'C.)
1her' is illl .11t mallve Yoay of prodllcing glullaitc consonant,. If Ihe "OCal
cnt,,, .Ire hlUughl Ingeiller IIghlly and the IHrynx " pullec.l dnwn whllt
maint.linillg atl nnstrm:IIOI1 made al S()~C pJace .h~Jward In the mu.uth. the ;,ur
Icapp d belweell Ihe pl,t<'1! where Ihe a~L1culator' lurm Ihe oh,trucilon and Ihe
I;Iryll~ I rardkd When Ihe oh,trucllon IS relcH,ed. the air nnw, InWards
makmg Ihe vl><:al ClIf(I vlhrale. Con,clllanis produced with Ih" in~res'iv'
alNream me,h'lll! 01 arC eall~d impJo,sives, Examples include 101 and lUi a:
in HJII."I (Nigeria) l"a:fie:1 '111 eslrange' ("05. fba:bel 'type of IllCust') t1l1d
[liIlfal'lJuarrcl' (1'..lfa:da:1'chief's residence' J.
Stop, can als" he produced using the velaric airstream mechanism, To do
Ihl'. Ihe hack of Ihe lOngue is brought firmly ag.un,1 the velum, effectIng a
eotnrlele dosure. ,Sirnullaneously, another closure I~ made at a point In the
fronl "I Ihal dosure, say al Ihe lip' or the alvcolar ndge. The air trapped in
Ihe muulh IS Ihen rarefied when Ihe longue moves backward' and down Ii
al Ihe sullle lime, Ilw forward closure is rdca.scd, air IS sucked in with ~
popping nolS". 'slOP' produced using the vclark ingrcs,sivc ulNrcam
mechanislll urc culled dkks. An example of a dick is Ihe denial click III (not
10 he coni used wllh III) found inlhe Lulu word Iiaia I 'dil11h'
I'ric:alives olhel Ihan Ih",!! of EnglJsh arc found in lhe world languages. A
hilahial fril,.lIiw, produced hy drawing the lip, all11o,l together and lorclng
Ihe airstream Ihrough Ihe lIarrow opening, is found in many 1.lOguages. The
vellede" bilahial iticalive 1<11/ i, heard word·inltially in the Japanese word
Fuji (lhe moulllUlII). The voiced htlabial fricative r~1 is found in Spanish
words Itke d"iIl'I' 'In owe' 1 VOIceless palatal fricative 1<;1 is found in
'sland,lrd (;erm.ul. the word il'/t •I' wntain, thi' sound. Velar fricatives arc not
lotlnd ill 1',lIglish hUI i1l't Widespread in the world's languages. The voiccles,
wlur Inl'allvc Ix I is COll11110n III German and Russian The cump",er Bach';
lIanll'. prollount·t'd in Gt'nnlln, has a lim" VOiceless velar fril;utlvc. A voiced
vdal Iric(llive 11(1 is cUllllllonly heard in Spallish wurds like IIRt/a ·walcr'.
'nlhle') II pn'st'lIls (I grltl 011 which some COl11mOIl fricati vc l'onSOlluns ar~
r.lIJg,'d 'K'COldll1!' to poilll and manner ul articulation A, 111 Tahle ').~O, dcntil"
:",' 11111 u"linglli,lwd lrolll alvcolars, as 1110st languages have sOIiIHI, with
<llhl'I olle 01 lite IIllter pOlnl 01 articulation, but nol hOlh. Sound, lound In
Fnglish arc ','1 of! ill h()co"
Affricates
liquids
I'lte 11'041 fll!t
'III ,. )
(II v, C
1C ."
Itllt·,
A/ro-
,/uaul
llilahwl tlt'III'"
Vlllcck.., 14>1
VUlced IIlI
rill
LtVI
Ahrular I'Walul "dtal"' V~lar f,lon,,,
1111 II If!
Inl III
I~I 1'1 IhI
hlJ ttl hI
Affncates arc found at 010'1 puinl I' '
I b
' ..• . . s () anlculatll>n I G
a lC",ental alfncate, transcribed us I 'I ' h . n «man.• ""Ctl
. . . p . I' eard at the be' ,
pfud horse. Many dlalect, of CanadIan r h h gmnlllll III Ihe "nl
d I ( I I
· cene ave voo·el· .
cnta or a vco ar) affncHte, It I and 11I' ' . c c, and .IIICcd
say'. . • • In word, hke fu 'y("lU' and t,Jfrt! "I)
Table 2.32 prescnts a grid including the tw E I' h '
tl
• ' I f d . 0 ng" af(ncales and
o lers common y oun tn nther languages Th E r h !I'me
off in a box. ' . e ng" ,"und, arc agam!iet
Table 2.32 Affricales
Palaro·
L.aIJlodental AII'eolar alveolar Velar
Voicele;,s Ip'l II I
~
Ik'l
Voiced Ib' WI Id31 Ig'
As with the stopS, laterals may be dental as well as alveolar. Laterah can also
be made with the tongue body raised to the palate. Such a sound is called a
palatal lateral. and is transcribed with the symbol ["I· It is heard in some
pronunciations of the Spanish words caba!jp 'horse' and ca!J.e 'strcet'. and in
the Serbo-Croatian word, da1J.e 'farther' and !judi ·people·. The palatal lateral
may also be voiceless. in which case it is transcribed as LA].
Lateral fricatives are produced when a lateral is made with a narrow
enough clo.ure to be classified as a fricative. This sound is transcribed U'i [5
when voiced and [~l when voiceless. Lateral fricatives can be heard in many
American Indian languages. in Zulu. in Welsh. and in the languages spoken
in the Cauc~u,. Table 2.33 shows some examples of voiceIe,s alveolar lateral
fncatives from Welsh.
Table 2,33 Voiceless lateml fricatives in Wclsh
Jlun
ambell
lbnl
lambril
'clan'
'some'
Other r-Iike sounds an! wideI) heard in the world' , languages. A cummun
one IS the trill which is made b) plL"ing air over the r.ll,eu tongue tip and
alluwing it to vibratc, Trills arc commonly transcribed as [i'l (IP [rl), They](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-41-2048.jpg)
![Glides
Summing up
can be heJrJ in th~ Spanish "ord, pep' ·d~)g·. and [Ii, 'riv,,~', unu the hali.
~)fds ""!:!:I' 'y,agon' and I>,rra 'beer', slllllia. tnlhngelk~t can he Ill:
tth the u ula. and, called., U ular urill. Its IPA ,} mbullS IRI,
A U 1I1.,r r made llhout trilling is Olure commonly heard, however ih
is the ,),~cd r 01 Siandard French. and IS abo ~klcspread ~n Gemla". IP"
tr.lIlscripunn d.,,,,fi,,, Ihis ,ound along w,th the Ineall' es. It IS Iran eribed ~
[xl "h~n lHc'd"" .lIld U' IK] hen n)lced. ' .
Tabk' ~.J~ pres~nl. the liquids. As before. sounds found In English are e,
off in !xlcs.
Table 2.3-1 L.yuids
DenTal/ail'eo/ar Palmal u
;;;;;;-
ill] IAI
-
ullI,'ral... Voi~cd
[!I [hI
Voict'le!'o.'i
Lfllt!ralfricalil't'. VoicetJ [BI
Voicl'les~ Ii I
,'s Rcrmtlel leI
Approxlman[ [JI
Flap [f]
Trill Ii] IRI
Flaps and urills can be voiceles,. as well. Voicelessness for thes: s(Jund, "
usually indicaled by a small open CIrcle beneath the symbol. as In (rl or (RI.
Other glides lIrc found in the worid's languages. A commonly h~ard one is
made with the tongue position or(j I but with the lips rounded. It is tmnscribcd
as [4J and can be heard in Frencb words such as [qilj Ill/it 'eight', [4ilJ IlUile
'oil', and (4itx]llUilre ·oyster'.
A complete lisl of all JPA symbols and diacritics can be seen in Table 2.35.
The study of Ihe sound, of human language is called phonetics, These ~ounds
are widely tmnscribed by means of the International Phonetic Alphabet.
The sounds of language arc commonly dc~cribed III articulatory and
acoustic terms. and rail into two major types: syllabic sounds (vowels,
syllabic liquids, and nasals) and non-syllabic sounds (consonants and
glides). Sounds llIay be YOiced or voiceless, and oral or nasal. Consonants
are produced at various places of articulation: labial, dental, alveolar,
palata-alveolar. palatal. velar, uvular, glottal. and pharyngeul. At the
places of articulation, the airstream is modified by different manners or
urticulation and Ihe resulting sounds arc stops, fricatives, or affriclllcs
Vowels arc produced with less drastic closure ami arc dcscnbed with
rderence 10 tongue position (high, low, back. and front), tension (tense or
la,), and lip roundin)! (rounded or unrounded), I.anguage also ,hl~'
supraw/:llIcntal phenomena such as tone, intonation. and ~trcs,.
The international Phonetic
CONSONANTS (NOS·PULMONIC) VOWElS
Chcb Votoed tmplOlim
~'=79
...... <
...",
0 fti!.tul 81bbia1
c-... i
I -'
- p .......
''''''- ~ t' DrtwIoI~ c-........
== ........- k' v,.
II AI...,.. .... s' ...........~
""".....
OTHmt SYMBOI..5
M f11klt1$ .....¥tiafnal:I~ C Z ....'-*"'pdal traJ_
"""
W fOlWl1t.btlll~l8r~ 1 An.a. IMcnI n.
4 Vol..wJ.blliI'pa1aW~ fj SJ".~J .. x
H Vultekll cpiJlolaal frian'Y'e
~
AfYriaIet_doIobk~_
Volcedqrlilonillfrieanw: cu lit ~DtaI '" twa l,mboII
~
jaI:_bJlltilblrlf~
EpI,1acW ploUYI!
OlACR111CS OillCitics m:ay beplM:cd above alymbol ...un. ckla:OOa, C.I.I)
I. v_ I} Q I,. -- p. ~ " ......
y-- i ' li - W · U
e
t d
lY U
q;- :,.6- Y o O
e:
;)
O! 3 . 13 A . :l
re 'B
a <E....l 0.. 0
I'n""""""
I Secondary IIR11
,foott:)'III~n
Lon, e:
""f..... e'
" ...,.._ e
S~Uabk bruk Ji.zkt
Unkm&(.ma.cc01_ brW.1
TONES .......owato "l~
LEVa. """""'..
e l::; e. A -
e1 .... e~ ......
e
e
e
~
t
- M~
-I"'"
Jl;':
""'-
--
e -1 ~
e A ~
e 1 =-
I' .......
.... --..
'ruble 2.35 Th~ Imemauonal Phln~tic Alphalet I re'"ed tl> 1993, corrected 1996)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-42-2048.jpg)
![-------------------------------~
OCKC~
Ii c~ntkdre
WO<!ll3tl 00 !be In=Ioo:tI Pboodi.: Alr/J.3bet """ be OOwned from tb<
In!= l'boo<:oc~l'nleNI) CoI1~.Gov.er treet..Loodon. WCIE
6BT Enzland -=d.:![3 are 13k"" fn:ro E-O. Coot. ·ov.el,;md ton.!> In ,<e'.
f.mtguu: ~ ~- 16-1-- Gaelic d3!3 "'" L·c.......esy of J~ Galbraith. BIDJ dau are
ad3pfed from !.add< ~ elled "")0... ). More detailed ~3ding on the phoneu , 0(
E'l-lish and other 13n~ ~ IS ~port.,a. beJov. 1be -"rundi dal:l are irom A.E.
1~'1. )959 Eu", tk Gramrn.nrr RunJi, Ann,*" du ~I"-<&' Ru)aJ du Con.
lkll!e. Ten-urm. - fie DIllIltro 1eDCe$ de I'Homme: Lingw tiqoe. 'olume 2J ;-
Some ~Ij m thl cb3pIer ...-ere prepared b) Joyce Htldebrand.
Calion! J C )9 - fJlTl<fam~1f1I.1I Probkms In Pi>oNncJ Edinburgh Edinburgh
l m-.rim Pr=
fUlJlCJI>=. Aim. )
• A cd I
G~HJ I~ En
G
Ot=nO:"lJ
'PIIWlC1ar.,," ofEn Iilh London Arnold 151b edn, ~viscl b)
l.ade~ eel. P 199~ A (fl/J r u Phcn~' rd edn ew York Hucoun Brace
po (i 1<1."
PHO ( S tHE
2. Hov. man~ ""gmenb are Ihere In th.! folo"'lnl:! "'O(lh'
al :11 e ) P'.cholog) -
b) malh I) knov.ledge
c) cure g) mailbo,-
d) hopping h) a"e ome
3. l. the fu5I >OUndlneach of th.!~ UOv.mgv.oflh cedo<
though zoom hu~e "hen
thought
fonn
i e
pan
choo",
judge
buns
gheno
pneuma!1-
'ioced
~. t:. In!! the ",-onh pre..ented in <fUe'U n 3, 'Ute ... ~ the I _I
each;'ord i 01 ed O<'''Olcele .
5. For each of the f Ilo...in<o r= of~. :tate
same or different pI ce o t :uuculauon. Then
articul:IIioDfor each .ound.
3) [5] : [11
b ) L
1;.] : [I)}
c) [PI : {g]
d) (I) r1
e [ml L
nl
f {d:; m
If] :[hI
h I 1v.l' ']
(I) : {t]
fl [} [ ]
[tfl'm
m]: [I)]
"
h
he!her
identiry
empu -
of](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-43-2048.jpg)
![(,
T£ IPO 'AR lINl,lJI5T1CS
g) high Ilad.. rll1nJ~J la vu"d
h) 1,, !"mnt ullfuun,kd ",we!
" . 'nJS sho Ihe same vowel 4Ualit 1
8 Whkh of thc h)II(lIn~ pal'" of 0 -n'bc each word Y
. - liffc t Then trans" .
. larl. ,,:tch p.lir s ,/llIe or (I ('rfll, hide height
al bad.. s.ll h) heed
b) cot caughl iI least cook
0) biJ kc) j) drug fil
dl luck llio:k k) ,ink own
eI ,"'Ze deuce 01
1
» oak pOri
t,;UUf[ pour
t) cot nJ mouse cow
g) fell fad , ' . . , ,
. ' h -lic lerms like Sibilant. fncat,ve, and so on,
9. Using dcscnptlvC P o~~c characteristic (hat all the segments in each
provide a Single phone'd bvious answers such as 'consonant' Or
group share, Try to avo, over-o
'vowel', ,
£ I '[b d g re my] are all VOIced,
'Camp e, [h?]
a) [p I k 0 ?] f)
b) [iee;] g) [uoe]
c) [tf3fd3J h) [ztfd3J:J
d) I bmfv] I) nrmnOJ J
[p ] J') ItdlrnszJ
e) A ~ U a
10. Transcribe Ihe following sets of words, You may use these words to
prnctise transcribing aspiration,
a) lUg i) peel q) spell
b) kid j) SLUn r) cord
c) attain k) Oscar s) accord
d) despise I) cooler t) astound
e) elbow 01) sigh u) pure
f) haul n) hulk v) wheeze
g) jUice 0) explode w) remove
h) thimble p) tube x) clinical
11, Using H. L, and asscx:iation lines, transcribe the intonation o f the
following English phrases, Compare your results With the ~nscnptlons
of several classmates, Arc they the same? If they are not, dISCUSS what
aspects of intonation (such as emotion or speech context) might account
for the differ~nccs in transcription,
al 'Hi, Alice.'
b) 'Allen got a trumpet and a tlute for Christmas.'
cJ 'Soccer aJld swimming are Judy's favourite sports,'
12, Mark pnmary and secondary (where present) stresses on the following
words. It is not ncccss:tf) to transcribe them.
a) sunny f) arrive k) secret
bl hanana g) uefy I) exceed
,) b)ackhoarJ h) summary m) summery
t3.
14.
d) C mada
d (10) reJecl
I)
II
'·IIU .....111( ) 111
• tn.lI.h.m
('l)rl'i"
/"
1 I Canalhanlle
01 ""h~uh
I·intl a, fluent ~pc~t.;,cr uf a a"UU~,"c hlhcr Ih'n ' I' h
e e • _ng, and lrall' he:
ph(lOClIcally len W('I'l" "I thaI tanpu,,~c, tn Iho unhle'l n
,. ' . d ' . C Y ~tnt I)f YOUr
t;ncoun~enng ,,~y ~Oun tOf :h".:h '»' l1b4.1o;, Me not lHund in thl tha ter
(including secwlO 10 anothe tp, chan un page M). allom!,1 III <I ~~
them III phoneltc lcnns and then lOVcnt UIUl..:nllcs 0 help you tran nne
Ihem,
Using Figure 2.:!O us your model, provide co-,lniculahon .hag.ram... ror Ihe
following words. Be sure Ihal your diagrams capture the mllvomen) 11 tho
lips, tongue, velum, and glOltis as in Ihe model
a) had b) snap ~l please d) dome
15. Compare the folowing careful speech and rapid speech pronunc;allltn, or
tbe following English words antI phrases. Then, name the pmCess or
processes that make the rapid speech pronunciation different frllm the
careful speech. (Stress is omitted here.)
a) in my room
b) I see him
cl shall we
d) balloons
once
c)
f) my ad vice
g) best book
h)
i)
j)
protection
hand me that
Pam will miss you
Care!ul speed, Rupid ' peech
llO rna, ru:m] [,m ma, ru:m]
lal si' hlln] a, si: jlml
[J~l w'l U""1
[balu:nzl [blu:nz1
IWAns] [wAnls]
Ima, advals] [rna, :1va',1
[bcst bukj [bes buk1
Ipr;)tckJ:1n] [p;>rtekJ:1nj
[hrend mi: oret] [hremi: oretl
[prem wII mts ju:] lpa:mjmIJj:11](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-44-2048.jpg)
![II IIMI 'J~A Y IIN'oIl,1I1
1
le.MINIS IN
( liN III
I I
Mlnl"",1 p.lir,
.Ikclh lllll llIdl t' 'Ill III, 01 thllf I,UI)!U ,llo!l' (·unfn.,t. Sc.'glllC'rtb,
I "'.
,1111 h t1f1tr,1 I (til III he flllirlt'lh,o,u h. If' O'.fw,ltlcm) V h,:l1lh"'11 pl')I('lIl'l'
11111 III I III 1111 III II IHIfIlIt 1111 (hlh'-ll·I1II1I·;tnlll~'·· lIum "·'I(..'h nthc.·l lh .
l 'III nl'li I~I lIullll COIlIt. lilllllhl· wunh ,11
'
ulld -'I', ,I ... du IIIl" u.'l·l~ 01 h'~
/lIIf•• u1I1 h" '
~ hoi It h''''' 1111 II MUIIUJ .. d,,,IIIU: II'l'IU',"" 1.0,,; .'illh:<I a IIIllIhllUI ,
pulr I~"I A
IIIlnllll'" 1',,10'....,",,1<"II"," I""". w,l" ""Ii'1<'1 '""'"'"'!!' 111,11 ",II," hy llllly
nIH' t' '1IIl'II1 111111111 III Ilu' "',Hllt' 1111.,11011 IIIl',ldl 1111111 I Ill' l·'.lII1IPIt.~, i,pl,'I"
,111.1 11,pl.I/' gll'1I PI,'IPII,lv IClIm illllllllll;11 pall lind ,how Ihallhc.' 'it1unll,
I 1,,,"11/1,",,",,,1 ,,'IIIV I""
1IIIlIIh," 01 1111111111,11 f1.1I1~ IlliIt d~'nHH1'fI,ltl' l'o"sonallt .:onlra'l, lor
I 111,11 II IIIl' '1l'1I III J.!hlt" .1 h'lIll'!IIhl:l II " on Ih,l" hOlM' 01 sOUl1d "nu flOt
pdllll' 11,.11 1111111111.11 p.1I! flrl' l"t;.hll,hl~d In lh'pl.IIIl' .'ontw'I" the
r '","11111 llId ,II('1II'Ic'l1p',ln'd .lInn· lIll' hOll/e'l1I;11 al.., 1111 1.·'Pl'~,:tlo thl'lr
,,1.ll'l III .lIlilUl.llltlll ,,'wlin t 11"111 h,,'1 .II} lI~hl (1,lill.tI, ••IH'olal, and '0 unl,
II"llfll".,1I 11111 ""P"lIIO 111:1IIIll" ,.1 .UI,"II.IIIIlIl, 1111ll'dn III shllll h"h
1'1.1 '~'S ,II111111,IIl11l'IS (,1 tllltnll.I'lun ,11' ' p)oit'" h Ih.' 1'lflgUil~.' in 4Ul.,'SIIun,I
."fH"~ IIIH' lI'II'It'lIh'" (1IfuH:(Jnflnllilnt~1
1.'1' /1'1 1',11111 ...." ' 11/1
",1'1"1 I',II11dl I" 1".11
CUllfhwlIflh.
'III 'Ii, "'111
I,ll III ,III Ii 11'1 "I I I
1.1111 I III 1,'1 'I' 11
;'M""I..
"""/111/ UIIII1
I i",,"1 1111" ~Ihh,
III ." r U'I
IIlt.1 III I I
"r1/," ~Ii Ii
I 'III
,,'.11 1,1
'U 111 I' urn Ih "" " '1I1~1lI, I Illr lsI II
dar
I"'~ I~ I
,"'1'1
""'1111
h'l'lhl
110 1l1l111111.,lp~'
nlllllll1Jlpiur "
Vowel contrasts in
English
1.2
language-specific
contrasts
1')U)N(Jlf)[,y Till II.Nt
• . IIf IN A~IJ "Alii RN1N(, rJl ')() 'Nt,)
minimal p".lr hus ncen c 1.11 71
. .... a) '....hct!. It
1111 thSlanctlvc ,ound.., in i.lll cnvlTC., '~ In tact fare te) find m,
evulutlOn of every hngu" I nm~lls. 11 a lanl:r,uage ,,: nUnil} p'lI' lot
frl'{IUcntly than ()thc~, ,,'rg:- .'"'' lcd 10 nlnt: Hund, 'L._"I'n'cc the. h'''lllflCal
• IlClng chmo
. uc; g Ul1 d
exumple. you will hnd no 11linimal ,.'n;~'cd tnnn ~tlme en'£'ml~·e more
Ilr wor"-hnal POSition in English ~'" '~Vl'IVIng lhland (1)1 in ""~r~ . PIli
I'J I or end In Ih I. It " ul,,, Ihfl'icUh·IU,clilhere are no word, that he. IOlI'al
'n
.volye the sound 1:11, Which OCCU,., I· t"h Ind mln'mal p:"" 'n F.nggl,·',nh"'h"h
h or I c mu..,t part· . at
"'rene stich as azure and mirage. 10 word!o. burrowed fnHn
('Ol1lra'ls among Engli'h Vowel, c h .
• b . un c establIShed '" th .
examples (1 a Ie 3.2). ror now we w,·11 a h .' a lew Cl, 0
. • sSume t at Eng' h
II Iand /u
.:1. allll d'phthongs like c'l /'01 I I ." tens.evllwehhke
[ . h" ' a . ~U, and so on arc I
'rom I IS perspective, we can say that the vowels Ii' 'lng e voweh.
Sl) nn. contra,1, ·1 and Ill. lell and leI. and
Tohle 3.2 Vowel contra....'" in Engh'oh
beet [bnl li:1
hil Iblll 1'1
ball /1>0:111 ClI
hel [hell [el
h:lI Iba,q 1"'1
cooed Ik"u:d] lu·1
could [khuJl luI
cod.' [~";>Udl 1001
"o0 [k"""1 Inf
cu" Ilb,dl 1,1
lewd Ilu:til [u:1
loud II lid) [au]
lied [laId] [all
Lloyd (bId] l~'
C,'ntr.,," .11~ langu3!.!...·,~cific: c'und, rnal are di. tincu'e m lln.: langUa2C
ill m't n','",' ,ml) t-.: di,un,tie III ;lfllllher. For e~ample Ihe diff;ren-e
1><'1~"'1l Ih.: 1,' , '1- [el and [a~l" CnKtallll Engli.h. a, c '-an'~ from
1llli1l1,ll p,tir. Ii .... /{<11 It-.:nl and /><111 [;:nl. But in Turl.i.h. this difference
in l'r"IIlIll,'IJII,>n I. n"1 dt,III":II" A Turl.l.h '~aker ma~ pronounce Ihe
1 I f"f T ,I' (t-.:u1 "f lh~(nl ITable 3.3. 1wflea . and 1 "ill make n
,Iit1 't '1 'c'" Ih(' l1" m!;
C 'n 'f ,'j,. ,'und tho I d 'n I ntra 1m Engli.h. -uch
• d.-Ill U ... 1U th f lanrua!!c There are n
I} r (Il lllu: 1m E;".h'h. But in Japan
~ pk in Tabl H on the n I](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-46-2048.jpg)
![2
PHO'IETICALlY
CONDITIONED
VAIIIATIO~:
PHO,,",EMfS A D
AllOPHONES
1.1
Complementary
distribution
Gt. T C
Table3.J
Eng/uk
[ben)
[bm)
Ibm)
(born,
---
---
-
Table 3.4 Shon!Ion= ,,,,"cl cootr"-'l> ID lapane<e and Finm h
~----------~------------~-----------------------
Ja
[ton) 'bml' (tori:! '"hrine gate
(boo) '''-"'lIe' (kibo:j 'hope'
Fuuush
I~-"hj 'fIre [,u:!i '"ind'
[bortr) ·di. treSS' Ih",:tr:j "roencC
Establishing the conua: ung segments in d language i a fj"" . tep In
pbonologll:aJ anaJ~,j.'. But in any language. there are man) ound. that ne'er
conlJaSL The foHm'ing secuon deals wi!h !hi. major ,uhje~1 01 phonological
anaJ~ IS.
E'e~'da)' speech comains a greal deal of phoneuc ,ariallon. Some of it i due
[0 variation in articulation thai arises from extralinguistic fa~ton. uch ~
orthodontic work. fatigue. excitement. gum chewing. and the like Such
"anation is nOl part of the domain of phonology. ~luch phonetIC 'mation
however. i. systematic. It occun. mo,t often among phoneticall) Similar
segments and is conditioned hy the phonetic conte~t (environment) in v. hich
the -.egmenrs are found, This ,'ariation OCCllI> because segments are affected
and altered by the phonelie chamcteristics of neighbouring elements or the
larger phonological comext in which they occur. Every ,peaker ha~ the abllit
to factor out this varialJon lD order to focus attention on only the relev~t
contrast, of the language.
When first learning phonelic lmnscriplion. English speakers are often
surpnsed that all lhe Is they pronounce are not identical. In Table 3.5. !he Is
10 column A are voiced. whIle those in column B are voiceless (indicated here
by a '~bscnPlol.. ,fany. spea~ers of English are unav.are thai the) routinely
produce lhl dltlercncc 10 articulation. which can be heard clearlv hcn Lhe
v.ords in column B arc pronounced slowly, •
The '()Icdc sne, 01 lhe I d' lB' ,
. soun s 10 co umn IS an aUlomallc cun cquen.:c
of their phonclJc.environment. Voiced and VOiceless Is 'aT) sy'tcmatically In
that all of the '(11 clc sis flCcur pn:diclably after the cia. 01, oiedc" slUps.
2.2
Phonemes and
allophones
p~m"()tOGV tt1[ H ( IIU
Tobie 35 7'l
~
I>lu< Il>lu:1 I'tough
gleam 19liml 11'1....1
dafl • 1a.1'1
:-.lip I,hpl t.:h.-.u
Hog Illogl pta)
I 11>1
kat lliof]
11'1011
in~c no voiced [11 eyer ''Ccur-, in the "'me ho _
VOiceless one (and "i(:c 'Cf'U). we ...a) mat;c nl!llc enlnnnlCnt J
complementar~ distribution. t"" vanam of I are In
Tnble 3.6 Complementa') ~"tnbullnn ,,( III and III m EngJi"
AIt!r oiC'ele~:-. '!top...
El",,, here
(II III
no
The Lerm elsewhere i. u~o in Table, 6 to indicate the .. .•. 'b .
.. . . . , _. luer ubtn UUon
(OCcurrence m a greater.number ofdlflerent phonetic emlronmcnt )ohm,cd
(I). y occurs after VOIced ,tOps. 'oicele" fricatiws. and in v.ord-imtial
posmon.
In 'piLe of these phonelJc differences. native speaken. conSIder the tO
En8,lish Is to be, i""tances of the sarne sound. since they arc phon~tlcall~
Similar and the dIfferences between them are s)'stemati~ and preoiclable This
perception of sameness is ,upponed by the fact thaL the tO h ncer contra! t
in Engli~h. ~ere are no minimal paif', like [pieI] and [pletl We can ,urn up
the relauonship that the tv.o Is bear LO each other b} stating that. for speaker-,
of English. the two I are piwllerical/' different but in the ,ound ',stem of
Engli h, gien their phonetic .·inularit~, predictable diqributlon, ~d nl'n-
contrastiwnes_. the} are phollologically the same.
The ability to group phoncticall} different sound: together Into one c1~, is
:hared by all speakef', of all language . This phonological knll edge i
repre.ented fomully on a leYe! of phonological repreentatil1n thai is di tin.:t
from phonetic n:presentation. Prediclable ounds that are phonetically, imilar.
and that do not conlrast with each ()ther. are grouped together into a
phunological unit called a phoneme. These v:manb. hich are referred 10 a,
:Il1ophones_ arc in complementary distribution A represcntatinn or thiS
relationship I, shown in Figure 3.2 overleaf.The phonemic sy mbol fl1rthe c ,
general" thcamc,mool as the el.ewhere ananL- i pi ~ed hetv.een
I;.hes. and the ,y mtx)b-for alloph()nes are cndo,ed in phoneu bracket.
Allophonic arialton is found throughout language In fact. eWr) peech
()und ,e' uller L an all('phonc of orne ph()neme and 'an he grou~-d tl "ether
ith other ph()nellcall) smular oun<.i uno a c1~ , which I represented b a](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-47-2048.jpg)
![8 (II
I MI'l)~",~~ IINI, 'I> II<
" IIH' .1I1d I. M'I,
~)
ICIIl,'1 a'ik .11/1
l'puT ,tn"bl
II:>nll", ,'I' h""il'",', IU,kll'llIl
111111:> I""1;l'JII:>' ,,,. nil I
II. lIIIHI g""",:>n "<'1.1
I"kru r:>n da'ku :I
'Fl11nUlAlki ll ~'
'sJll! annex
'vanllla and hunan:! i cc··l· r~nlll'
'Mr Yamashita and me'
'She vi"lcd (inu lind Delhi'
'Accra :U1d Dakar'
/I 'H' """111'" '" w,' haH' dOIlC ill Ihi, hook, Ihlll Ihe I,,~"()n full' incrt, a
1i"~I11~ I 10 Ihl' apl'wl'rI"ll' ,'nvironnll'nl, (slaled hcl(l~I. In 6)). all cases Ilf
h'"''';1 .lIvolvlIIg 1.1 <,'"I Ol' Irealed ,imply and III a Ul1llurn~ W,IY, rcgilrdlc ,
01 wlll'lh"f I/,,'rl' was alllllllk'd}lIlg wonJ,flllal Irl al "line pUlnt IlIlhe pa,..
/I
h,
Whl'lI IWIl I'IIw<'l.
' afl' "dl<ll'cnl, il Ihe 1i,,1 is high II is predielllhl)' linked
10 Ihe VIlW'" Ihal follow. II h} an epenlhclic glide Ihat IHI' Ihe '<lIIIC
hal'kne,,, iII.d HlUlIlll'dlll'S, So, IIftcr Ii; I anti rII We lind II I and ultcr III:I
or IIlI IV<' r.nd I"I,
III slIlIlia. l'onleXls, nun Iligh vowei.- '"l' lin"ed hy Irll<> the followlIlg
vow'" (Thi, II'I lIlay eltlll'f hI' a vcslige of the Imlorll'al Irl which h",
,urvi"l'd .n Ihe ,pl'lhng lung <l/kr bcing dropped In I:ngl"h ael:ent, Iikc
RP wh,'n thl')' Inlrodut"l'd a rule thai deletes f"I.II-I'owlll" r as in Tahle 3 10
Dr an lII/nI.'"'I" a, 1115),)
Th,' d"la III 'i) "nd in 'r,.hk 1.10 whlt'h we have hc.'en examining ,how
pillalld, wilh Ihl' allllphu/lic dilrihution Ihat we han; nmsldcrcd so I'<lr:
l'I'lt"ill ekmellts all'pfl'dll'lahk under cena/n sysil:l11illl<:ally 'tatahlc phonellC
<'olldilioll,', lien:, hOWl'WI, in,tl'ad of II llul11hl'r of variants of a phollellle, v.c
hd"c -'Oullds II h"'l' di,lnhuI/IIII '-, 'tillahle In a 'pcd"l: cnvironll1cnt ollce we
kllOIl they Iwlnn!' to a I'ntuill tla" of s"ulld, We l'an th"s draw frnl1llhc dala
IIInlhlc .1 10 the' gl'1l1'!ilir/alinll' Slated ill fJ) ahovc whidl apply equally 10 ~
1II11l1l1l'hlholll' " Ild tn Ihl'dns"I!' part of a dlphthollg
Wl' I, ill "'lldude 11lL' di'l'u"io" nf "hllllolollll',,1 l'lassc' Wllh ,I bill'I
,'''''IIIII,lI/nll "I It'llse alld In 1'1111'1" A, II'C ,all' 111 Wl'llolllt..l 01 Chaptn 2,
I"!!h'h IlIwl'l, I'an h" da,,,ltl'd as lell'C III lax, Vllwl'ls Iwlonginglll thc,,'
"'0 sets shll' dl/k"'''t I) 1"' of pholloillgi<:al di,tnhuliun. nlllugh th"} I"UI
h" shl"'" III hI' "'1""ai,' phlll1elllC' ,illl',' Ihey 1'01111 ast 111 '111111' l'll' ""I1I1ll'Il",
Figure 3,3
2,6
language-specific
patterns
Language-specific
variation in
allophonic
nasalization
"IU'NOlfJ(,'V 111t fINf lf)N'&'N .
n II 11111kNINL rJf
(U Nil
IHlIwthclc"",, their d,..,lrlhutlhll I pIC'I-t.lhC' In Ct'n~,," COnIC'll
umo.. up the c..h...,nhul1t1I;,l ""nl'ln III lh{" "~IWC tI' L" . '¥:ur
'ylluhll" and lhc....c puttern me IU" tralt,'" 11 hgmc".4 tll~l'~~~ m r
tound 111 cn,co rcsiioCd y;.,hlc.5
Ten,",!.! vowels / InUlldl1l """II 'Irc,,,,d .yUahle
Lax vowels
excluded Irmn ~yU.hles cl"'>Cu hy 10
loun,lln clOsed ,'ressed syllahlcs
L exclulled frum open "rcs,,,d syllahl.,
lound in syllables closed by II)I
rhe ,hslnbulion of I('IN' and I,," IIOWI,I"
7'1
'
d
Firsl, whereas any killd of vowel except scbwa hee section 63 "f Chaplcr
2) can occur in a slressed closed syllable, i,e.. one Ihal end, III a con,unant.
only lense vowels arc alluwed in ,tres,ed open syllables, I.C" ones thaI end
in a vowe. Thus, whereas minimal pairs showing tbe COnlra't between ten",
, d lax vowels can he found III the tbird column of Figure 3.4 (,werleaf)
::'hich has closed syllable" no minimal pairs can be li,ted 11 the fourth
column which contains open syllables, There only tense lIowe" nccur. .
Second. as seen in the fifth column, any lax vowel c~eept [~ canoecur III
a syllabic closed by 11)], But tense v(l~els are excluded trom thiS enlilronment
and, as a result. there is no POSSllllhty of contrast between tense dnd I,IX
vowels in this Cl)nleXl.
AI h h the phenomenon of allophonic variation is uoivc",aL the patterning.
oftp~~;emes and allophonc~ is language-speciftc, What ....e d"cll'~r tor on~
language ma) not hold true lor another,
Im,;:rl
11111
111~11
111111]
In'"l
'hlg'
'e.lltlc'
'.:!llUlI'
'.I'<'U'
',c:n:t'](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-50-2048.jpg)
![(,
I
Lax
, Is
e
<r
D
~
;)
mg
T~ru
Is
a:
3:
,.
~
el
1
::>1
;)iJ
.w
1.1.:
bel
I
guard
';00
!:UI
~arl
rd
could
rool
l.ill
u
101
tont"
10n
baroo
~lTd
gourd
0, "
srrr. SM
Sl/abl~.'
"""
'p3
fur
Ta
00
bs)
bu}
oo~
00
(and arroW)
00", (bend)
d
deer
dour
door
5
l'flaM"
doud b) [{II
nng
length
lanl.:
TOOg
bunk
lung
(in the nonh
oiEngland)
0'" 1:1 allophone: . Here e can talC Ibc:
Gadl "'~n preceded or full ",ro b) n
language:specific
>'<Iriation tn
allophonic
distribution
PHONOlOCoY un fU (110
Tabl. 3,12
(roc~iihl
In'''janl
1m3nh1
[o!k;7)
(m~IaraJ)1
Im.lkanl
Irum3h)
""'tal
';cold'
• 'end'
'fortlld'
'eat"
'OOu>e'
'car'
1 0 PAt lUC
III
Here, all vowe" and, ghde, ["l1m'tng a na.,al are predi tabl na.<al1Zed
until an ob,truem, hqulIL or glollal ([hI, PH i' reached. For' I he:
generalization is as follow,
d
In ~Iala~, all ,ovo.ei: and glide, folJo...mg a nasal consonam and not ~p;Ir.lIed
from II b) a non·n:h31 con'onanl are na.salized.
A" was ,oo...n to '<ction 1 ~,a pnonemic ct>ntra>l in one language rna
prove to be a phonemic contrast in another. TIlls Ille3Ib th:u the re •
of phonemes to allophones ma~ ''3I1, < COmparisOll of the COIltraSl. g
,lOps in EngJi;h and Khmer (CamboWan) illllilr.l.tes this point lIab e ',1"1)
In both language>, :hpirated and una.:,pirated phone-; can be beard
Table 3.13 Stop phone<; m Engltsh and Khmer
English
Lp] (P] [P"l
[t, [~l
1](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-51-2048.jpg)
![4
0111 [f1~Ii,h 011,<'1, l'J ' .., ampl', ,.f III '" ,,11:>1' . 11,11:>1 ' hllll, I ,'on., n; nl
' ''111'0" , ,.f fngh,h Ih,ll , 01.10 H,i' 'I'. 1,'1' '·"ll· ,'nalll In
,,', I " , ,I ••111 Ilh"Ir.lI',j III "n!-lIuII:tl1 .ili"ll I,' 11 'Ih 'Ill CJ,j"r I"
r" 'III I In'" m,lf IIi!. hi ph,'"{·I".' d 'l,lIb ' lI,h ,I, 'hlllid ghJ' 1, 'I,'IU
II Iu 'h .IT' 111'1 fl:ln ,mt tl' Ill<' r " III .II' 'U" I"lI ,1' "tntU t h '.)
(I'll r (III
rrl d (ttl
II''' II" I
I'll lJ
'pi I HI
nl,! ('Irl
!-til
" HII
III T.lhl' l I
IT
"In
Inp
'f,,~
r 1] I Il
:~TI , ;un
'Ill '0
, UI
, n ' I'
, r. I'
' 'lul'Jk
l (Or
hr. I , gill 'nt "I .1 II ,'rll tnllia!
n' th
'll
~
• 1 ku
, . NU r 1" TUl , • _,
II](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-53-2048.jpg)
![OlllTrMf>( ,
JRARY II"lGUIST/CS
]o.J
+syllabic
-consonantal
+Sonoranl
-high
+10'"
+back
-round
Hense
J
J
These features define the egment as COn
vowel. or glide (here, a Vowel) sonanl,
Thee features define the placement
of the tongue (here. a low back Vowel)
ThIS feature defines lip rounding (here, Unro
ThIS feature defines lensenessllaxness (he unded)
Figure 3.16 Fealure malri, for Ihe English vowel la'/.
re,lenSC)
Feature~ and natural
cau~es
A second reason fnr viewing segmenls as composed of features is lh
feature. may rcpresent a phonolog
.ically relevant characteristic of seg· at each
d d h · b h' f i ' . ments t
un erslan w at IS meant y I IS, we Irst exarrune how fealures e . bl . 0
distinguish among classes of sounds ",ilh many members. For cxr:::n ~ Us 10
sel of sounds Ipl, It!, IlJl. and Is! can be readily distinguished from th p e, the
Id!, Id31 and Id by the feature] voice] alone, In phonological terms ~sCIIbI,
capture natural classes. which are classes of sound thaI share a i eature,
tCaturcs, such as voice":ss Sl.opS, glides, high ·owels. nasal conson~~~~re Or
so on. Any natural class reqUires fewer features to define il than to d Ii ,and
f . e Inc any
one 0 :ts members. In Tab.lc 3,25, for example, more features are needed I
define a.ny of the segments III the class of Enahsh front vowels than t 0
o • 0 captu
the enllre clas..: il takes ..even features to characterize the vOwellrel b rc
,. ,. /".. .fy , ut only
our ealUres su ICC to speci the nalural class of front vowels.
li1bJe 3.25 Two nalural cla'~e' : fronl and back vowels in English
!
",omOlWnl"'j
+'yllabic
+sollorant
back
h:1
ill
[
o-{;on,unanlalj
+S) lIahic
+sciflorant
+hack
lu:1
1,,1
--<:onsona11lal
+syllabic
Honora",
- back
h.gh
+Iow
round
leI /oJ
lei 111 1a;1
lal 1,,:/
lIl'l,llI<'c 'l,.lIl1IC~ dl'iIJ1' llalllr<Ji da',es, we can Ill)W CC Illc illl'icvlliln' II)
phll.Hllogllal .lIwly" . II IS IH,I Ind/Vldual pitollClllCS lIl:h ii' Ipl Ih/,/k/. and
IglllI.1 C(1I1III11 III I'n 'il II: ,alher, Ille enllre class 01 vIII~l'd ~Iop mlllrN!
"'1111 lit .1,15 III VIII ell's IlIp', II " Iltt' kalUlc IHII~cllllal IS '·'J11I1,ISlfc,
11<>1 III 10U/ldu,11 C 'III 'III , SlIIlt' Ie CUll "('/tile Ihe CIIIlII.,,1 hl'l""1l c.l,h
I' "01 ('11'111 11111 <llhel1 (' HllIliral IItIUJi.III<111 I' I.' ,,1111' III Ihl
f, lurl /('1 cl III 1111 IlIgh I .11111' 1 ('1111'10) d III II 11" ,," ,,,,,·d.'
ay IIWI [Ill· J IS U di,lInflht f"alul' III In 'il II
features, pro~esses,
and allophOniC
variation
PHONOLOGY THE rUN( liON ANI) PAllfR
NINe {Jf Cj,( )..lNlJ~ ()7
Other features provide for other contra!o,l!' F
be I
. s. Or exampte
contmsl tween li and Is! in English w·lh th ' . we Can caplure lh.
d I I ' I - I e leature lco li
an s are vOIce ess and have an alve()lar po. f ' n nuantl· BOlh IV
" , wn_~~ ~
lhe longue up IS used In the production uf one d n. , •..c faCltnal
d ' th th ' SQUn and the tong bl
use In eo er lS not relevant to lhi~ phonologic d" .. _ . ue. ade i~
h ~ be' d a !Stmcoon In Engl n
can t. ere ore Ignore.J By viewing the relevanl distinctive f ,1. ,and
lconllnuanl], we can use lne same fealure to distin ·h be ealure a,
Ibl and lvi, and Id! and Id, . gUlS tween Ipl and IfI,
Table 3.26 Slop-fricative ContraMs as a feature
l-continuanl]
p
l+conlmuanlj
f
b v
I
d z
By systematically examining the phonemic contrasts of a language. we can
extract the phonologically distinctive features and Slate the phonemiC
inventory in lerms of these irreducible linguistic elements.
Reference to features also enables us lO understand the nature of allophonic
variation more exactly_ Viewed from the perspective of feature<;_allophonic
variation is not simply the substitution of one sound for another. but rather the
environmentall) conditioned change or specification of a fe~ture or features.
Processes like those presented in Chapter 2 are the primary factors in the
changing of feature . Liquid-glide devoicing in Engli h, for example, is the
change of the value of the feature [voice] from [+voice] to [-voice1 after
voiceless consonant>. Vowel na"alization in Malay is the change of the value
of the nasal feature from [-na: al]to l+na;al] under just the conditions taled
in 8) on page I.
Ceruin features capture.:l .', of .l)Und! that are 001 all a~ _ ret1ected In
traditional dc"cnptie tenmnQlog) hut lhieh are al'o rele:ll1t I phuna-
logkal paltemmg. The feature [c ronal], for e:..ample, refel'" to the cIa" of
",untb made lth the I ngue tip (lr blade mi ed. It tum, out that Ju,t thl
t,';!ture i, requm.'! tl' -tat.: the c n_tramt on the ,elecuon of con'Qnant
'~<.lll.:n,e~ III ~....-.Ja {'V-jul'n (I.e.. fl,lIO'Ing a vowel in the arnc) lshlel 10
rllgli~h pre. entl'! IOlhapt.:r I: ",hen a oel i, len'e and f('llNet! tlO
,'O''',)I.lOt" (pmt), l'l '" hen H,,el j, la'( ant! follo cd h) three con, nalll
lll' Itl. Ih' final ,.'11 ,'n nl IllU" al"'ay' be +coronalllt. d. ,z. 9, '. J, ~ tJ
, I d, I. F 'atun: .Ift'111U nl< rc th.lO ph netic' de"riptwn . ma differenl gUI e
• -ll<.' f'llture, con ,d-rct! to be the ulumatc building I
ph,'n, I, , lin 'W t h c tkmptcd to t all po Ihl ph nolo I aI f c
,h,]tll I ngua 11th th fc I Dumber f fe ture po hie II 11 hunted
num r l'f fe tun: - WTCntl around t nt -four - h
1 'n lllut n tmportant p.u1 thear)
In th ph n 10 bell :lOur f WI](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-59-2048.jpg)
![INC.ul'irl( S
" I I
.c
~ +
i< + I
+
... + ..
.. ..
C" + + I
j.l:1-
:/:;
:I:I'
:I: I
~:I: '
-'" + J
-'" +
.." + ,
-"
- ..
J +
+ ,
+
+ I
+ I
+ I
+
+
I
+
I +
I +
:/'
, +
.. +
.. ,
,I' .. .. J
.. .. ,
, .. ,
.. .. ,
+ I I + I
.. , +
, 1' +
I + t +
+ , +
, + ..
+ +
! + + +
I + + +
+ +,
+ I + I
I
I .. +
1 ++
+ ,
.r; .. ,
.e'c.., + t
Co. + I
+ I +
.. + I
..
e ~
"
ij
~
~
.g
e
..
.. f?
~ C
I ." ::!
+ ..
+
~
~
]
Il.
+ I
.. I
;;;
~
+ +
+ +
+ ,
.. +
:!I
.. ..
..
t:
~
, +
, + ,
+ ,
I .. ,
, + ,
+ ,
+ ,
+ ,
+ ,
+
, +
, + ,
, + ,
+
+
I +
, + I
+ I
+
~--
Thefeatures of
English
MUJordau IClin (,"""wll
jrtllllh"l tltlflfJr"nll .. + ..
byll"hlcl + + + + ..
+ + ... +
.. +
---- + + + + ... .. + ..
1
.
.,llnlljlfal {ealtlrl'S I:IIlcel + ... + + .. .. + ..
Plan' [nltrlfe, lroulldl
+ + +
I )onal!t'U/ure. Ihlghl ...
Iuw l +
+
ib"ckl + + + + + +
ilcnsei +
+ + + +
Ireduced I +
+
,.,ftJI1lleffeature.'; [continuanl} + + + + + + + + + ... + +
The next section pre en! the feature, of Engli,h. Tahle 3.27 and '1 28
prescnt the con,>"nant and vowel cgmenL of English along with the feaw
needed to represcntlhem in matrix form. It b a g(>Od idea to I"..k th c tah:
over before gOIOg on to rcad ahout individual features.
Most features have label ~ that renect traditional aniculatory terms uch a.,
[voicel, [con,onantall. and [nasal/. These features require Httle funhcr
description. A few features have less familiar labels. such as [coronal and
[antcrior]. From this point on, features Will be used to de cribc cia cs of
sounds. At the same time. We will continue throughout the book to usc IIme-
honoured terms such as ((JlHOnam. glide, and obHruenl (a lricatilc, attnc:tte,
or non-naal LOp) in phonetic de cription.The tradltionaltcnnlnology ,.,11 be
maintained because it is till,. iddy u cd In phonetic d~cription.
Feature. are not mngcd haph;vardly In a maim.. Rather, they arc organilcd
into group. that retlcct natural classes. The follo1iing he'..dlngs Indicate whal
the'l! c1a.,scs are and ho,. the features represent them.
Jajor c~ featUre!> (Tat>le :1.:!9) Fell/lire, Ihal Tt-p,t'Sl'nI Ihe dtUlef
,'ol/ otrllnl, Ob l/rt/elIl, (Uld OllorQIII (nasal. liquid. RIIlIt· and WI,e/I.
[cononuntal] Produccu ,. ith a major obstruction in the vocal tracI All
nOll ,onorant wnWllanh ure [+consonantal]. £OlI/rll'l , [p h I I 3 tI
d31
[s)lIullicl VOllel and syllat>lc hquld, and DOle als. E:mmple . It: c u. I r
'11 1)1
0 el • ghde • UQU1 and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-60-2048.jpg)
![Ihhl,' ,~,2'1
U cor l11al,}l liJ" h.-atun:...
( )f,lru,-nl Uu't'I. t...ilitlt'.'j Liquid, --v---
1('llt"un.ull~IJI
____ " a'(li
s
+ + -:---
I ) 113hl~1 + +
I~llfhlfdnrl + + +
+
/. eWI/,lt" ph z H 1:0.' JW I I'
n, n
---
l.ar)lIIlCIII fenlurcs F"lIlIm'" Ilwl repr<!Selll larYl/g",,1 SllI/.W.
I,"iet') ·11 nll~~d sounds arc I+voice]; all voiceless sounth nrc l-voiceJ.
l'pn'lId Illoltisl (ISG]) ThIs feature distinguishes unaspiraled frOm
'''pinned wnsonanh. splraled consonams arc [+SGI.
[Clln,lriclcd Illllltisl (leG]) Milde with Ihe glotlis dosed. In English
ollly Ihe gloll;!1 lOp I?I is I+CGI· .
• Plncl' ft'lIlUres (rail!.: 1. ~O) Ft'1I11lrt'S IlulI r""r".I'I'1II plan' of UnfW/u.
l;(m
[Illbinl) on) s"und articulal<!d with onc or both lips is [+laoiaIJ. In
Englosh: Ipllhlll'J 1llwl, S<!c [round].
[round I ROllIHkd 'oll'l'Is and Ihe rounded labiovt:lul' glode I" I ound,
Ihal aJ't'l+rollndl arc made by protruding the lips; Iherefore. all [+roundl
sOUlH.Is ;In' also 1+lahiaJi Sounds thm nrc 1+lnl'1ial]. however. arc nOI
nl'l"'""nly I+rountll. 'liKe sounds Iokc [p) or If] can l'1e prndueed ilhoUi
nccl',,:uily rounding Iht' lips
Icorona" n) M)und arti<:ulatcd with Ihe tongue tip or blade raised"
r won"ll. f.'tII1/j1/n·ltJ Id]IOI [d] lsI [zl [tn [d:;J [n] [I] [rl.
Illotcriorl ,n) sound artll:ulalcd III fronl of the palato-alveolar regIon"
<'(1ll1d",cd Il' Ix'l+anlerillrl. £wfllj1les : [pI fbI [t) [dllsJ [i] [e] I()].
[strident] rhl' '1Illis) . fn,ali,,~, and affricates only. In Engli'h.lsI ll] In
13111J1 il1d Id:;1 an: 1+'lIid':I1I].
IIbl,·.UO ll,,' "I pl.Il·,' I,f uni,'ulUlion fealures
Dc'lI/a/." Pdlato ~ I'ah",,/.";
/'lIhi</I., dhto!arJ a('l'fJ/t'''l 't,'lan
/lIll<'fll" J +
( ,'ron.JI + +
f. ""'1,1 , 1'''01 Itl,lhl J31J.l3 kg I)
III I'
;.3
Representation and
the feature
hierarchy
Reading the feature
hierarch : node
and tier
I'tI()NOUH.Y t HI I J
N( 11('N A.Nt, 1'''I1fkNIN<' 0 ,
DUNU
0
Dorsal features I t
.t'll IIre. tlUII rt>prt',t'tU pi .
/(IIIRtU'. tUt"nlt'm oJ IIw hudV pi Ih...
[high] Sounds pmduced Wilh Ihe IImgut! 1x1( ,
1+highJ. This applies III Ix'lh Vowels and Y ra"ed arc (I>II hlO!Ti!<I
1jlkj [gj. ' CIIOs"nan,s. barnpl.. " '1
[low] Vow,cls made with Ihe longuo hody d" I
central position on Ihe ornl cavity are I+Iowl ~slmci/ Inwered lrom "
lind [71 are 1101 [+Iowl smce Ihey are not mad'e i~~~'P fY
I
· ["'llu'; hm [h
COra cavlly.
[back] Any sound arliculaled hehind the palatal region in the llI" I ..
£mmp/I!s: [u:] [mIl [0:1 Ikllgj. a CaVlly.
[tense] Caplures Ihe tense-lax distinctions among vowels.
[reduced] Only the schwa (lal) is l+reduced1.
Manner features Feurures IIwl represell/ mDllller ofQrliclliario".
[nasal] Any sound made with the velum lowered is l+na:;al].
[continuant] Free or nearly free airflow though the oral cavity: vowels,
fricatives. glides. and liquids. £~"mp/es: Ie] [s] [j1 [r].
[lateral] All and only varieties of / are [+lateral). (See page 33.)
[delayed release] All and only affncate consonants such a, ltIl and ld3
are [+delayed release].
Feature notation does not provide a convenient way to distinguish diphthongs
like [al]. [au). and [:)1] from the other vowels. These diphthongs may be
treated as vowel-'owel 'equence when using features. For example. [al] can
be regarded as [al] ([a] + [I]). [au] a:; [au) ([a] + [uj). and so on.
We have seen thai e!!:menl!> are composed of maller e1emenl!> called feature.,.
We have also 'een -that features are organized into groupmgs that reflect
natural cla:; e . Figure 3.17 (oerleaf) presents the grouping of features into
a feature hierarch). which i a representation of how features are related to
each other.
E~lch feature grouping in the feature hierarch~ i' represented by a lal1el called
,I cia node or simpl~ node (the nooe symbol is a mall circle: 0). Benl.'llth
t'a.:h node arc grouped the feature or feature that make up thai subela '.
,'ode and feature are mnked on lewL- or tiers that reflecI their rclauon
to ca -h other. For e'ample. all major cia:, feature are grouped together at the
hl!!lJcsl node, called the root node. The root node thu define whether a
,-gmen! is a VOcl. con. onant. or glide.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-61-2048.jpg)
![6
' U ",
IlMPORARY llNGUI TIf ~
r
l'on onumal I
onorunl
~)lIabic )
o
4
'V1ajur da",~ feature
~______ Root node
u 1laryngeal] "[place) - - - - 0 [mannerl
'''''~:/,
() Ilabiall () Icoronall
Iround1 'anlwo,' I ",denlJ Ih.ghJ IJowllhackJ Ilen«1 Ina.~11 fcununuanlJ (litteral) DkJ
Figure 3.17 The feature hierarchy
On the first lier under lhe rOOI node are placed the nodes and features th;'
specify all the rem;tining amculatory properties of a segment frUIn tilt.
laryngeal node branch out the features that capture VOicing ,lates. The placf
node branches out into lhe major place features. The manner node branchc
out into fcalUres that relatc 10 general manner of articulaJlon
Nodes scrve a dual purpose in the hierarchy. First. lhey function as luhel>
for natural classcs of fealUre, - hence label~ like laryngeal J/ode. place /lode
and manlier /lode, Atthc same lime, nodes. like features themselves. may be
referred to direclly when making sialements about procc,ses.
While feature representation may at first look more complex and clumsy
than sLrictly segmental reprc,cntation. it is in !he long run vt!f)' "dvantageous.
Instead of Ii,ting individual ,cIS of contrastive phoneme". we can caplure
contrasts aL the level of the feature as in English. where we can say thai the
feature [voice] IS contrastive. Much allophonic variation can now be
represented as the addIlion. loss. or change of a fel. fealUres. The innuence
of the conditioning environment is also made more obvious with this type of
representation. as shown in scction 7 of this chapter.4
IH JlI VA TJ()N~ A ND At this pomt. wc have established the existence of thn:c hierarchically related
RUII OIOH RINC levels of phollological structure. In this modeL phonological clements from
a lower level arc organi/ed and grouped inlo higher· level clement,. Thus.
}i·alll/'('.1 an~ grouped inlO (segmental) phollemes, which In tllrn arc org<lllllcd
lOW .1'11/"",1'., We have abo seen how general stalement, Ihal refer to natufJI
c1ass!:s null ,yllanlc struetun: aCCOUnl for the presence of non Cllnlm,slic
.'tHH-.I{J(){.V 1Ht tUN(
llC. ~ "Nt' P'hTlt1l:N1NC. Of 0
Il 11
dement.... Current hn~U1 lJ.,; "!!ol I pru"t u.1
phonC:1H: rcpn!!-.emalmn.-. tn h h'lmulltann r wuy 0 1m. rhunt:,' g 'and
Tht! relallon...hlp hctwcen phtmuuglc.ll arlll l'hnnt!ulo;.
turmah7ed b} as...ummg that the unnred'tluhlp t· . Ttprc:senbtlCm 1
. t · . . . . eatUf::~ lit the hi
...cgmcnt are bu'm; ur undt r'yinj!.. l'hr our "re..... p .m.emu,;
. .' .- n purl'''''' the'-
pJum~nllc and untlerlvtn1.' mC~tn lh(" ~unc thin' Ph'.n • _.m
. ' t:lc representauo
lhen denved hy the u," ot phonolul!,ical rul"" Ifor n I Ill> are
IW We , fl:{er '"'-
general '.lal~men' ,uch 'l' Xi nn page 1 1 and 9) Ull pao.e 91... I. . I
II h
~ ~ ru n. III tum
7 we WI ,ee ow lhe,e 'lalemen" arc furmahLed I In r"- ~__
. . , . . n ut=r to ~p the.
presenlallon Simple. underlYIIlg and den,cd repre,entaU""s are ~iv~n In
segmenlal cran,cnpllon. nevcnhcle" keep In mmd that al ~gment are
understood 10 he compo,ed 01 lealures
Figure 3.18
Phonelic forms arc derived by selling up the underlying rep~()n~
called an underlyill[{ form) and then allowing the rule or rule~ in 4U.,II"n ~l
operate in those contexh where Ihey are relevanl.
The derivation of lhree phonelic representations (PRs) from underlYing
representations (URs) is presented in Figure 3.18. Here. the underlymg
representation is on the top line (the cross hatch l#l symboli/es a wurd
boundary); reading downward. each rule appbes if the appropriate input i
pre,enl, and the underlying representation is adjusted ~ required. V>1tere a
rule faib to apply. the form remains unchanged: this information IS conveyed
by dashes. The resulting output then serves as the input to the following rule.
Finally. when all rules relevant to the derivalion in question have applied. a
phonetic representation is provided. The two rules pres~nted ~n the following
example are aspirallon and vowellengthemng (see section 4.~).
UR #sleep# 'slap' #teep# 'tap #peed# 'pad'
Aspiration #theep# #phred#
V-length #phred#
PR [sleep} [theep] [p"redl
The phonological derivalion 01 three Engli"" wrds.
In !his e>,ample. 10 rules are applied (since the word~ being derived ~e
all monosvl1ahic. the ') liable boundaries are equivalent to word boundaric
and so ~ not indicalcd herel. The first accoun~ for. asplral10n. S~nce ~e
inilial con.onanl of !he URs #1a!P# and #pa:d# are vOicele., ,tOp> found 1
onsel position, !he) fllllil the conditions lID?er.which Enghs~ stops. bec1~e
aspir.led. We therefore indicate that asplratlOn occu" b) prm tdtng an
inlemlediate fonn on a new Itne. .
We ha c aho secn Ihat. in Eng.lish. vowel. are predJClahl~ long y, h.:n ~he~.
. 11 bl 1 F' I th' lrefs ot
()<xur hefore a oiccd stop tn the same sy a e. n tgure • • c
1,,1' and 1<11' occur hcfon~ Oicele" ,top, and 0 are DOl kng!hcned. The](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-62-2048.jpg)
![3) hh n
b) han:>
) 1umago-.
'lx, '
'I.:ing'
V
hJ tl., .
d) ?an
e) ka'hm
f) humaglh
'prupert '
'to !etch',
'to P"'nt'
..uloph <, of.) gllen ph,meme are lbua!l~ phonetically similar. ~
, und, th t are phoncucall~ s,m,lar, and ched, to ee" hether the ~
, rupleffi<'nt:lr) distrihution. The he,t "ay to do this is to ii are
<'nlronmenb. In th<' f,,!loing data, also from Tagalog, [d] and [r] t lhe
"{,- d 3h"",lars. ,hould he con,idered as po",ble allophones L: bt:.tb
. .. lSI",
em in: nment. 10 hkh Ihe.. sounds are lound. Are they in ...,
rleffi<'nt3f) distribution? eun.
a) dati!) 'Ill 31The
h duni 'amount
,) dumi 'din'
J) d.Jrnti[1 ' ill a1T"''-
d manduruJ..ol 'pickpocket'
t)
g) marumi
hI marami
i) da?iI)
j) mandukol
'''ill COmplain'
'di~'
'many'
'10 eompl:l.ln'
'to go pickPOCketin
e
_', If ( 0 potential allophone. of one phoneme are in complemetna.
...
distribution, you can he rea. nably mre they are a1loph?ne: 01 the ~
ph, neme. Tr: to m3l..e a gener:!l statement about the,r dbtribUtion 10
t<'Illb of 'orne n [ural pbonologJ.:a1 cl3". For e"ampJe-
Ta::II,; [d] and [r) are in complement.>r: di,lribu!ion and are :Il1"Phoo.. at
one ~me, 1"1Ie rulophone [r) (XC11/" be(V.""n O".b: [dJ ocellI'> eI ..
- here, ,.md-mitiall~, .b in Hems 3 ), /», c), fl, and 0 on, and after
:"l..m.."-Ofl!lDt,. ... in items e) MId J).
-+. Select one allophone a; ha,ie, This ;,. u.'ually the al1,'ph ne WIth the
ide,[ di>lITbulion (the el.,., here mant ' I[ may be helpful to set up a
tradiuon I phoneme-allophone dIagram, See Figure 3.3.)
(I;
Ir] Id)
Between El where
""el
Wnre poonol ~i.:aJ rule Of" pronde repre,.entallon thai accounts for the
predietJ Je feature of the other allophone, , Your rule (Of representation
I. probably corr t If II de cnbe. a ('()IIlIllOIl hngul lie proce in tenns
of n ;ur:!l d e of ound, interauing ith neighbouring egment and!
or ,) II hIe -tructure,
FOf"e 'ampl • ~ rthe J.ooe: d -r l ' _
Here, the pron", th t lead 10 aJlopoon) I a form of ~ imdauon, In
th:u an under!, iD~ top con nan[ become a contlDuaul "hen found
bet I 0 UnU<Ulb (the oe! J,
• menL are pooneffil if th ), nOi be shoWII
.ffi ,Th data HnpJ) dtd not prm Jd ffilntmal
PHCJNOLO 'I THl f UNC lIC.JN "Nil '>A1 lUt
1N(" c f 4!.(" Nl)
1"
.1"
pairs, (For m"ance 'hough IfI nd I" " ,
, . .,. fl- I ~ ;y .ro par..te pho
II I~ ul l~U t to Ilnd rmnunal I)alr nro ncrna m En
'"' vmg 11(:" phonenllc
A ...."ume phoneuc rran,(.;ripllon of the d.iJ.ta In all cxerCl'5.e'!i.
l. Inukrirur (Ea,lem) (:-;.IIC Canad,an)
a) iglumUl 'to a hou",' hI pmna 'h
bl ukiaq 'Iale fall' I) am f atoneuptberc'
c) aiviq 'walru,' emale"lJrother'
d) amgu"It 'if you leave' J~I i~~na (nc,"')boo5e
e) aglu 'seal' b h' hI' '!hal p1ac< up there
.- 'real 109 () e I) UIVtJq • he go<:> OOllle
n i!!.lumit 'from a hou,e' . ,
-. "be' ,m) 10, 'place, spot
g) anlgaH cau,e you leave nJ uluuq .....inter'
i) List all the minimal pair,; in the... data, Based on the minimal patr~
you hal e found, Itst all the contra'lIve pairs of ","'el.,
ii) U<ing the ....owel chans in Figures :!.9 and :!,IO as your model; make
a chan of Inuktitut vo"el phonemes. '
iii) ,'ow c.on~ide~ the data again: here they are transcnbed 10 roo",
phoneuc det31i. In the data there are phonetically similar ~l!.1llents
that are in complemenLar) distribution, Look for them and ans~ er the
que,lion thai follow the data,
aa) iglumut 'to a hou",,'
bb) ukiaq 'late falr
cc) ainq ''''a1111:;
dd) aniguYit 'if you leave'
hh, pinna 'that one up the",'
ii) ani 'female'. imxber'
iJ) iglu '(,now)house'
klq panna 'that place up
there'
ee aglu 'sears breathi.ng hole' il) ai"llCl 'she goe, home'
m iglumit 'from a hau;,e' mm) int 'place, !.pOl'
ggl anigavil 'becau"e )OU leae' nol ukiuq 'winter'
i") List the phoneucally . unllar segments that are in complementar)
disuibution, Swt.e their ditribution in words,
2, Gascon tGascon i poken in .,outhwe,t France) The phones [b], Ull, {dl.
[3], [g], and [v} are all found in Gascon. as the follov.'ing examples sbo...
a) bren 'endanger' n) gat 'c '
b) bako 'ro ' 0) liiJ]g 'long'
e) iimbro ',hado' p) 53liBo ',ali, '
d) IJ:imbo 'room' q) ~i 'hlMand
e ) dil)s 'Monda)' n * '10 ha e"
f) diilJo 'until' s) Ji~ 'horse'
g) du,o ',weet' t) b)oct '!!1l1'
-'de - 'leftoer read' 11 eJa30 'hoe'
~») ~:n~an 'to 13) eg" ' ) lI.f 'mosquIlo'
j) dudze 'tvoehe' ) nlIt 'he laughed'
k) ;ute:- 'f! xl a ro
I) elJ~ in 'th!, , ear' ~ I ~ rt 'be pla:~'
m ) pOOe 'to be be'
I. "1Uc-h paID • phone [y are](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-73-2048.jpg)
![1
l -~STlC:
Ii)
II )
1)
H)
I I) ,umlor" -upport ~ our daim '" lib
de =pt1 , of!he i (nJ.M pail'- Pboo.t;.,
;' t!he conronment., In whi~h!he phone:> [~J. [Ill. [dl. [()). [.
I fouod. '100 rna) Ignore wonl-lmal po Ilion ;;1.
COIl,idennoo.
f there an) e,;de1l..-e for grouping these pail'- of '0UQd
phoneme.' lale!he e,idence for each p.11r.
• I . e" ,;eneral ;13lemenl arout th" p3n~ng of the phoneme-
h:n e e-t3bh. hal. . on
FolIO1ng ) our :mal~ ;is. write the following forms in phone .
rr:llbCTIplion. tnI.:
al [puy01 b) [de(lall c) [fiJ3aw] d I [kriimbo)
L ,ing Figure 3.19.IS )oor model. pro"ide compleledematlon, of
;orm, for J) [dudzeJ m) [puOeI p) [salijloJ and ,) [bl;u-I. IJl.:,
3. Hindi I Hindi i. a language of the Indo-European famil) 'polien in India
Coruider the segments (bl and [1) m ~e data belo and an. "or IJl.:,
que>lloll> that follow. The segme~1 tran.",,-nbed,f!?] " a murmured 'Olced
SlOp: It was presented mChapler _. secuon 10._.
al [barn] 'Iarge' f) f!?cdJ 'disagreement'
b) [bariJ 'hea,)' gl [bais] 'lent~-[o'
c) [bina) 'without' h) f!?as] 'buffalo'
d) [birJ 'crowd' I) [bap] .father'
e) [bori] .sackcloth· j) [!?ag] 'pan
Are the segments [b] and [IJJallophones ofthe same phoneme or do the,
belong to separate phoneme,' If you belle,e the) belong [0 separ;ll~
phonemes. g[,'e endence from the data 10 suppon your anal)'is, It You
believe they are allophone, of the same phoneme. Ii. [ the condlli(l~in.
en,ironment. , <
-'. :ame the ,ingle fealUre that distingui..hes the follo ing pair. of ound>.
a) [9]: [iI] e) IbJ ' [mJ i) [,,]: la]
b) [pJ: If] f) [.]: UI j) [s]: [Il]
cl [u] lu] g) [IJ: [il k) [I]: [r]
d) [iJ. le] h) [1.:1: [xJ I) [uJ: [oj
5. There are a number of natural cla.. es in the vowel and consonant data
below. Circle three natural classe, in each set of data. Indicate which
feature or features define the class. as in the example.
Example: [+voice} b d tS I.: h {-continuant]
a) u b) P tf
e o
a f f
m lJ
Of 0,,- D
d) [Sll-Sl~oran1
+stndent
+corona
7. Ellglish
Ian) speakers of EnglIsh haw ~wo t)~, of til. One. c lied d ..ar I. I'
transc~bed a..s [I) 10 the tolO 109 data. The other. called dark I. I
rranscnbed WIth [11· E amme the data.. and 3OSer the ,uc,ti,>n' that
1'010 .
a) ll:lltl life g) [phtl] ptll
b) [Ii:p] eap h) [ii:l] feel
c) [Iu: z] lose i) [help] help
d) [I1aup] elope Jl [b.lk] bulk
e) [dllan} delight k) [s<>old} sold
n [sli:p] leep ) [ful} ful
Do [I] and [I} belong to separate phonemes or are they allophones of the
same phoneme'~ If you belieye they belong to separate phonemes. JJSer
question il. If you believe they are allophone_ of the 'JJue phoneme.
an wer question ii).
i) List the e,idence that make' your C31'e for considering [Il and [II"
_eparate phonemes.
iil State the distribution of [11 and [tl in oros.
• llich ari:mt makes the best underlying repre>entation" hy'~
• Can you make reference to SYllable structure 10 your distribuuon
stat<~~lent'~ If) OU can. do sO in ~le foml. .
8. TlIrkish
As you saw in section ,t4. Turki..h syllables have the f"lo 109 structure'
•
•
•
ma...imum number of consonant,; in an onset: I
ma..imum number ~)fowes in a nudeu,. I
ma.imulll number of l'onsonants in a coda: ~. of hll'h the fiN i, a
meati e or sc)nor.m!.
With these stipUlations in mind. S) Habif) the iollLm ing h mb:
.1) l.:ul1u:n b) keh:ptJr c), emenJ d) kenu:nJr
In the,... funher data fmm Tur i,h. the phl)ne i) an {t' 'U](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-74-2048.jpg)
![compl':Il1<'nt:l,) d"tnl:>uth'n ,mJ lorm on~ phoneme, and the ph
anJ [e[ :Ire aI,,, m complemental") ul,tnvuUo" anu lorm an(lth~"I.J
ralt') phonellk' Treat th~ kl" It'l a' su!,ge,reu for Sculllh E cr("ql;,.
page 101 ) E,amlne the UJta anu an",,,r the questions that inTI" hOn
a) gclJlk '''<' urn'eu' I) IIitIcic '!lower' 1..) hman 'h:~'"
1:» II '"orl..' !p tJ11t 'plough' I) emln ',u' Ur
~) chm '}ollr h,mu' h) cI 'hand' m) !lidlk "hr~dded'
uJ Ip 'thread' iI memer 'passage' n) bll 'Iou""
e) scs ',okc' J} seksen 'eighty' 0) silah 'weaPon'
i) Provide a stalem"nt of the d"uibution of [i] and [IJ and Ie] and
m "oru, lake) our statement as generaJ as pOSSible, but be pr Ie
.. f eCI~1
ii) Write a rule thaI derives the allophones 0 both phonemes fro .
, . U f' -, R be - III the
unuerlymg form. se eatures. emem r to give your rul
mnemonic name; use this name in the answer to question iiiJ. e a
iii) Provide derivations for the following underlying form.,.
UR # # 'cord' # # 'lasso'
--~------------=
PR I [sid31mJ [kemcndJ
9. Stale each of the fOllowingdrules in Pllain ordinary English, making
reference to natural classes an common IIlgUlstlC processes.
Ewmple: [-SYllabiC ~ ~ 0/ __ # (an nbsfmefll i.~ deleted
+con onantal
-sonorant lI'ordfillllUv)
a)0~ +syllabic
-consonantal
+sonorant
-high
-low
-round
-back
+tense
[
-syllabic ~
1# __ +consonantal
- sonorant [
-syllabiC ]
+consonantal
- sonorant
b) [+SYllabiC j
-consonantal
+sonorant
-round
~ [+roundjl +consonantal _ +consonantal
[
-syllabic ] [-SYllabiC 1
+antenor +antenor
-coronal -coronal
10, Change the following statements into rule notation. Give a name to the
process in question in each case.
a) Voiceless stops become corresponding fricatives between vowels.
b) A schwa is inserted after a voiced stop word-finally.
c) Low unrounded vowels become rounded before m.
II. Tumil (Tamil is a Dravidian language spoken in South India and Sri
Lanka)
a'tiL 11'1
In lhl! r~)lO lUg TanHt lh".I. unle ou,d. hegtl l.Hh
do nol. fhc s)Tnbu11lti rqucsc01S It 111 . @u h.lC! (Jhef
I 1indicate:-. dcnt~h nt n:lut I!J. Hlp lithe d, nu,,;.
ITlititll j·glide Jllili(ll gild.'
No Iflllud !dlflt
al jeli 't<lI' fl '''...li '1'"".•1.' I.
n . ) anvu 'w'no""edur
b) Jt: . > gl wu:h'l ',,,,tm teat' t) 3Ir4u .It,c' ~
c) jilaj 'lear' hl wlI:si 'neeule' ml a. aj '11 ",,'
dl jel)ge: 'where' il "ujlr Iile' nl ant 'ri'<,'
e) ji<,uppu 'waist' j) wo:ram 'eJgc' III a:1I1 'ungm'
i) T~e occurrence or these gltdes is rrculclahlc, mg yllur I,n""'led 'C
01 natural classes, mal.e n general slalement abOUllhe III t 'h g
the glides. ,n Uhun .,t
ii) ~ssllming the glides arc not present in the underlying rcrrescnta.
!!ons. name Ihe process that accounLs ror their pre><:nce in Ihe
phone!!c rorms.
iii) Using fealures, write a rule usmg alpha notation that rOnnahlOS th"
process. Show the derivation of the fonns for fly and break.
12, Mellde (Mende is spoken in Liberia and Sierra Leone)
In Mende. the fonns thai mean 'on' (nul) and 'in' (hu) are sunixe, (Ihey
arc attached to a preceding word; sec Chapter 4. section 1.31. :-.lotlce in
the dnta below that suffix.es all bear tone, but that the tone varies on
different words. In the ex.amples,' indicates a high lone.• a low tone. and
" a falling (high-to-low) tone.
a) k5 'war' k5ma 'on war kOhu 'in war
b) pele 'house' pelcma 'on (the) house' pclchu 'in (the) house'
c) bi:l!: 'trousers' bi:li:ma 'on trousers' bcli:hu 'in trouser,'
d) ngila 'dog' ngilama 'on (the) dog' ngilahu 'in (the) dog'
i) Can you account for the differences in tone on the suffixes for 'on'
and 'in' in Mende? State your solution with autosegmental notation
such as that illustrated in Figures 3.30-3.32. (Hilll: Assume that the
suffix.es have no tone to begin with, but that the words to which they
are attached do have tone.)
ii) Assuming that you have answered question i) successfully, account
for the tones of the sufflXes meaning 'on' and 'in' in the additional
examples below.
e) mba 'owl' mbuma 'on (the) owl' mbuhu 'in (the) owl'
f) J1ilia 'woman' J1iliama 'on (the) woman' Jlhltahu 'in (the) woman'
13, MoTU (Miza dialect; Moru is a Sudanic language) . '
In Moru, contour tones are not found on short vowels tn underlytng
representations. However, phonetic forms of combtned lex.tcal Items do
show contour tones. Can you represent this uStng autosegmental nota-
tion? (Hilll: A segmental process is involved as well as a tYPiCal
suprasegmental process and the two processes must be .ordered.) In the
data provided, ' indicates a high tone, • a low tone, and . a falltng (hlgh-
to-low) tone, and Y a rising (Iow-to-high) tone. Vowels "Ith no tone mark
need not be considered.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-75-2048.jpg)
![Free and bound
Allomorph
T
re-act-n--ate
genrJe-mao-h_oc
----
A mcrpheme Ih3t <an be a" d bJ iL~~f IS called fTft! ... hile a morphellle
m I be .macbed 10 anodIer elemenl " SaJd to be bound. 1be m Ih.a::
II<. • for ~xamp e. is free tnre It can be U5ed a:, a word On it o..~
. J. 00 !he other band. IS bound.
CoocepLS Ih!It are elpn!s.sed by free morphemes in Engli~ do Il<lt
oo::essarih hae!he s.une tatns In o!her LlIlguage,. For earnple, in Han:
.AthJ.p.lsbn language poI.:en in Canada's , 'onhest Tenilorie ). ~
Ih3t indicate bod). pam /Table .!.2) muS! a1aJ' bc alt~hed 10 a ~
deslgnalmg a possessor (A high lOoe b marted by the dIacritic '.,
Table ~.1 Some body part names m Hare
~~~~~==~----~-------------------------
";lhpou~uor
*fi
-be
*dzt
'read
'I;>e!l~ •
'be.Irt
'm~ bead'
'Jour bell~'
·sorneone·.s bcartla !lean'
In Engli.sh. of course, these body pan name are free morpheme and do Il<lI
have to be auached to another elemenL
Cooersely, there are also some bound forms in Engli h hose COUnter.
pam In other language are free. For example. the notion 'past' or
'completed IS expressed b} a bound morpheme (usually >pelled ·ed) In
Eogli h. but by the free morpbeme Iccw in ThaI. A the fOllowmg sentence
hows,!hi morpheme can een be separated from the verb by an inteITenir.~
word. /Tone i not marked here.) -
6)
Boon hUIJ khaa... leI:"
Boon coo rice !".lS1
Boon cooked nee.'
Morpbemes do nOI alay hale an invariant form. The morpheme used 10
expr mdefmllenc in Engli h. for in lance, has 1...0 form - a and Cill.
1.2
Representing word
structure
Roots and affixes
OR TR
• 3"
;')
an orange
dI1 a....ct.~nt
aned
,.bl; time
~car
a girl
The form a b U ed ~fore word hegmnmg ~ 1m
before .onl:-. bcgmmng "'tth a od.' The "ari:n~=nt and the form. an
called Ih allomorphs. of .. marpheme "'"
Another e'dmple of aJlomorphlc variation I found In the
the plural morpheme ·s In Ihe folo" ing "'ord . pronullClau<>a
cat~
dog.
judg""
Wherea. the plural i, pronounced as 1,/ In lhe fi!'.t ca.>e, II i, reallLcd IzJ
in the >eCond. and a» liZ} (or perhaps hZ}) In the third. Here again. ",lecuOll
of the proper allomorph " dependent on phonological facb We will e,.
thi: phenomenon in more detail in Chapter 6. . amme
Other example, of patterns in '"hieh a morpheme'5 form change '"hen It
combines with another element are ea») t~ flOd in English. The final -.egrncm
in illl'em and assen. for mstance. " realized as ItJ when these m0'l'he~
stand alone as separate words but a» III when the, combine ",ith the
morpheme -ion in the words i"'·t'nr;on and assenion. Comparable alternauons
are found in words such as penn;!/pemli~-h·e ([t]-[s]). eieclri£,leIUlri[.il)
([kj-[sj). di"ide/di'i~-ion ([dj-[:;]). impre~/impreg·ion (bHn). and so
on. In all !bese cru,es. we are dealing with variant forms o[ a ·ingle
morpheme.
Beginning students can also be confused by changes in .peUing found in
some morphological patterns even when there are nO corresponding change,
in pronunciation. Thus. the final e in the words creOle and wrile is hit ",hen
they combine with a morpheme beginning with a vowel (creal-I·e. wril''')'
These spelling modifications do not change a morpheme's identil!. of Coun.e.
and should simply be ignored when doing morphological anal)t"
In order to repreent the internal nucture of words. it is nece·saT) not only
to identify each of the component morphemes but alo to classif) thee
element in terms of their contribution to the meaning and function of the
larger word.
Complex ord, t)l>lcally con,i,t of a root and one o~ more affixes. The root
morpheme carries the major component of the word s mearung and t:elongs
to a lexical categol') - noun (,0. verb t')· adJecue (Al. 0:preposll1on (p)
Thc. c catecone ....111 t>e discussed in more detailm Chapter). cctIon I I. Fm
no 11 ufllce, 10 nole that nouns I) picall) refer to concrete and ab Iract](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-78-2048.jpg)
![.,.
tress .lnd tone
pl.l emen!
II I ,
,', 'Ulidi~I;'''m ~
'h.ld-'- - -.,-,-, _______
'lhd'~llr
I· .. :t l'lr 'tl' h.1(.'" <u
sp.. "I,h rr ""'loll' tth..'
t, ' .,n ,,1 'I' ..IUd '.u':·
RU"t.Ul ln'ft' ,~(,,"f' 'uIJI~ 'hc:I1<.'r' I 'nh'~ ~h""'-I'l
----
In " III ~ (,.St". It I"; 11.1rd ttl di~(lng:lII,t~ 1'l,'((,'l"l1 "uppklinn .lnd Illte-
~h~Ul~(' hlr t,'..UHp'~••tn' rh.,' p.I'( Il.'n:--(':-. ()' IlImA V1hlll.t.:IU). a.'h.l ,,' I. { tn'l
~ • C lOll h
tht' n'...ult (If ...nrrk·(i<'Il nf IIllC'nl;iI l"h;lIlge? Bcc..llI'c the InJl1~11 phon. g I
Ih ',t.' (.ft,... n,,·IIt.lin~ un.:hall1!t.'d. • ill ,.'llhldcr thi" ahl.'nJ.lIl('n to .t.:fOt: or
, - . ~~
.tIl i'.tll.'m" flnn llt mtcm.lll"h.mgt' rJ.thcrthan lnlt..' Sl1pplelhln. lllo~~r ~
{('nn p.-.rtial suppll'finn i..... lI·..cd b) ~llOh,' hngl1l"'(~ h)r thc:...e cast..~.... ,1 .. the
Ibbk -I." St~" ,,1.ll·cUll'm in Fngli..h
implant Hupl,lnt
Irnpon HHfIm
P"''''nI prt.."l'O(
'U~ll,,,·t ~ti~jl'l.·[
COO(t',t :t'ntt',t
In the language lon,,·Blli 'll(l..en in the African cnuntry of Ziure), 'one
is used '0 lll, ke the distin.:""n ~leen past and luture ten,c (Tahle -1.81. (A
high 'one" marked h~ and ,I low It'lle is marked h} ',j
Table 4,8 Past "'rus fUlllie in Iono-Bili
Pa"r futlllt'
dj 'p,n!.,"l' d:t '" ill spank'
II ".Itt: " ~i '"ill eat'
"" '!.IIk-d' 0 '''ill kill'
Compounding
Ml11o!I'lhHtH,'
'4
Yl't ~IOI~l~r l:nmmnll l1ol'phnlng,II.'"I P"X:C'''' ""l :CI;I tm 'u~}' 'S thll Ih){
Fnglish) I' n·dnplkntlon. ~"hl....h I.l.uph:tl's an Ir pan of the h.,...c n V.hh,;h
it l'phl.·~ h"l m:l:... a t-lr•1mm.tIl..·"l HI ....I.·m"n1~ nlOh.h I"ult r~dlpk~lhm
thL' n..·pettlinn t)t thL' ...·ntlll.· word. ih III lhl' l;tta rutn lrki...h 011 n'-'lln~!i.h':'
rcspl.!'ctivd). sh) 1'1 In T;hlc 4,t). .
I,bl<-I,l/
IIfrJ.i.·;}t
IJ,Ihuk "quid..,) IJahuk IJahul. '::I)' qu1l.:;.)"
I;),,J '~lowy ia, ar.
lilaI .... ~f) s"""y
IJI
'cU' III IJI 'lcry ""d'
~) lei 'heautifut) . )1)' Ic g) let ''cry heJ.Iitu)
illf/OIlOiitUl
orau 'man oral] oraU 'J.l ,ons of men'
;l1ak 'chll,r ana... ana... ';1 "'ort:- ('If children'
nUl.1Jga 'mango 1llJ.l)ga mauga 'a ~ort, of 1113.ngl."ICs·
In contras. partial reduplication copies onl) pan of the word. In the
1'0110 ing data from Tagalog, for instance (Table ,tt 0), reduphcat1ln afkcts
onl) (he first consonant~vocI sequence of the basco
'nIbl. -',10
BaSt'
tal-buh
Ial-ad
pili?
Reduplication in Tagalog
R,·duplicalt'd.fonn
'run talal-buh 'wlll run
' aU,: lalakaJ ' ill :111.'
~ho'):,e piplli7 ~ .ill ch('K.)..e
till another conUlll'n m<'rphological proces in human language involves
compounding, the cl)mbination of k.ical categl)nCS nouns, adiCCIlCs,
erbs, ( r prepositil'IlS) to create a larger word, There em: countle" compound,
111 English, some of which arc ,hon in Table 4.11.
Tubl" -'. I S,'me e,amples of Enghsh Cl)mpounJs
('tI" + OWI Adin rr,('" + (lUII
--~----------------
~tre('t lig.ht
,'ampsit '
h~,:,:"kca~t-"
bluebird
h'II'P) h"Uf
hIgh ,'hair
~~M l..'In.1
ushd0th
,,'ruh 13d
,) erk"d
,mthl)u,c
In gl'up](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-82-2048.jpg)
![-1
-(I
-'T
-ful
I)
·cr
-,>II
ab!
pnxl -1-1'-
I'm .aI
n t~l(ln
,df-l h
,'mllk'nJ-able
final ..''0' 10 l of th,. t-J....e' ,:h3.(]~ "'''n n
p i,-)
final , :>nan! ofthe b.!" .oh.m; -, fn'm
!:-;n')
fin , "1..'lI1' 'nant of tht' ,~ .....h .. l" fnJIl
narn
ntlne
rwnc
(h,)ne-
1l('Ine
none
none
BOlle
1,[
3
1"1 of
(OlirO L
! "I d
LJI G
h)nl.." h' 1
, ''1 l 1
(II
hk - ,11'II ,il~
1)) 2 1
hk '-il) ,Ihl'
n) I
'11
'p..' ~" h.' ..,
' t .t!
f.,~,t-,Ibll ,il'
1'><.'1 I
't
l ',t h."'" 1"',,
h"-'t ~ ~
,1<, 'pI ~bll II,
n'lt "I ,.
hHhU ,.,
t,~) !
* £:,1,1 II ' ,Ihl'
n'l.'l 1
*,I,' , '1'1'11~ •,II''-)
1, 'It ~
IWlh 'r ,''llml'!l ",I) Il' 1>11ld ""l'1h III E!l~h'h Ill " l'IllIIndin' Ih,'
(',J1l1hin;.tti.'lt .)1' k,i '~l ~..t ~~1n" 1l('1lI'. adjl'~t ...~. , 'lb,. ,-'It '"C'',-"h,lh).
ilh , 'I) f'" '' TU,lll', Ih' n"lllt1l~ ,'l'I><.'lIld ,,(1 I' ,I I,'un, ,I , 'rb, ,,
an ,Idj '('In' Ifi~uf.' 4,10, ,,, 'rI'"n, II' '''lllk ',,1,1..', I,f ''IX'ul,1
1'1' ',lIilll', m'lu,' Ih..- ",'r" /1'(' ,md elllte')
In Ih '" ,1,,1,"1 l'lh,'f "'mlx'und,, Ih ' ri~hlll')'1 1II"ll'h,'II' ,cl,'lllln',
Ih,' ",I'~)~ "f Ih' 'nli~ ",'rd, rhU"~Il-<,,,'h'I" IS ,Ill I '(,IU'" II'
righunl,):-ot t..')tH{"u.:nl i, ..1 to 'Pt'l'tt· rf,'c,d" .. ~",U:-..~ '(' ,1,, tx'hn£,., ill
Ihi' ,al"~'ll ~. and II We'1I :,/. I' ,III .11IsI ;1' III", " I'h' m"lvh,'l,' Ih,ll
,1<-1<'1'1<" II ','.l,:!:,,)r~ "rIh~ 'ntil<'" "1, I' ,,11 'd Ih~ h~:Id](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-86-2048.jpg)
![3.2
I
A second distinguishing feature of compounds in "
anuuag's '. h - english .
fi e t. IS t at tense lind plurnlmarkcrs can tYPically not be . anu OUt
Irst element. although they can be added to the compound a .. altacheulO the,
- sa whOI e
In e
Tense on the tirst element in a compound:
*The player [droppe~ kick] the ball through the goalposts.
Tense on the entire compound:
The player [drop kick]ed the ball through the goalposts.
18)
Plural marking on the first element in a compound is usually disall
*The [foxes hunter] didn 't have a licence. OWed:
*The [roa~ map] are expensive.
(There a few exceptions such as passers-by, parks Supervisor and m
~~ ~~
Plural on the entire compound is the norm:
The [fox hunterJ~ didn'r have a licence.
The [road map]~ are expensive.
The preceding criteria are especially helpful for identifying co
whose initial component is a verb or a noun. An A-N compound (grem~Unds
wei s/lii) can be identified with the help of a different tes!. As illus~~~t~~!"
the following example, the A in a compound cannot be preceded by a w In
~u~ ~
19)
Compound with very:
· We live next to a very [greenhouse].
Of course: when it is not part of a compound. an adjective can typicall be
accompamed by thiStype of word. y
20)
very with an adjective that is not part of a compound:
We live next to a very green fence.
Types of compounds Compounds are used to express a wide range of semantic relationships in
Eng!Jsh. Table 4. I9 contains examples of just some of the semantic patterns
found III N-N compounds.
In most cases the rightmost component of the compound identifies Ihe
general cIass 10 whtch the meaning of the entire word belongs. Thus dog food
I~ a ~ype 01 food, a cave mati is a type of man. and so on. Such compounds,
which lIlclude all the examples in Table 4.19, arc called endoccntric.
I~ a smaller number of cases, however, the meaning of the compound docs
not IOllO~ from the mcaning~ of its parts in this way. Thus, a greellilollie is
not a Iype 01 bottle; ralher, illS a fly of the genus lucilia. Similarly, a redneck
''it;
is not ;.~ lype of neck hut un ultra l:onwrvatlvc
anu a .UKll,.~dlldllv ,... nOl a tyn.. 01·. . While wor"-,n ' t.:h
. . I·.... ...Ug,lf·CUut.:d t'ath'r . pcron
- who IS deemed to he huth uVClgcncfou... anu ,'! hut a WtlHl"'t) 1 lover
compounds arc said to he Cx()ccntric much to() hd t~lr her Such
Table 4.19 Some N- N compound...
Example M('a,,;n,':
steambont
airplane
air hose
air lield
lire truck
lire drill
bath tub
balh towel
.~, boat powered by steam'
'a convcyence thallravels thmugh the illr'
'a hose that carries air'
'a field where airplanes land'
'n vehicle used to put oul fires'
'a practice in the event of a fire'
'a place in which lo balhe'
'a towel used aflcr bathing'
--.--
A very striking difference between endocentric and exoc t'
. '.' en nc compounds
shows up III Engltsh III those rare cases where the head of the co d h
. I I I C 'd' . mpoun as
an Irregu ar p ura. onst cr In thts regard the examples in Table 4.20.
Table 4.20 Pluralization in English compounds
In endocentric compounds
oak leaves
wisdom t~lh
club f~t
policem!;n
hI exocentric compmwds
Maple Leaf~ (Toronto's NHL hockey learn)
sabre toolh~ <extinct species of tiger)
bigfQQ~ (members of an extincl tiger species)
WaJkm~~ (a lype of portable audio ca"etle
player)
Notice that the exocentric compounds permit the plural sufftx. -s for words
such as leaf, loolh,Joot. and mall. even though these forms require an irregular
plural when used elsewhere in the language.
3.~3_ - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Compounds in other Although the rules for forming compounds differ from language to language,
the practice of combining lexical categories to build a wonl is ver)
wide. pread. As Table 4.21 (overleaf), which shows examples from various
languages. helps to illustrate. compound nouns are especially common.
languages
With the exception of Tagalog. in which compounds are left-headed. these
languages all have compounds in which the rightmost element is the head.
A special type of compounding process involves incorporation. the
combination of a word (usually. but not always. a noun) with a verb to form
a l'Ompound verb. Although English does not make use of incorporation, the
process is common in other languages.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-88-2048.jpg)
![I ~ (,
4.4
Backformation
B/{"lCh arc '",'rJ, Ih.,c ,Ire l'rc,tlCcllrom non·morphcmlc parts (,I
" I~tlng Itellls Vdf.l.,nowll e.ample, 01 blend,. Inelud.c brwwl ,I"'" .'r.,..o&<]"
I J rOl1l h J
}tHI und IlIfIf'h. ,mo/? frnrn ,l1Iolt~ and f(~, .~pam rom ~l(·t~d und h "t'll~
. . ' . m'l If'/
from It'/t'phOlw ,IUd IJIlIT(If~lfm. Iwr(Jl}/l'I.H~ Irom ~e..r(}IJI.(', and t't('r(" -' . "/h/l/!
B ·· I h 1" r h
(Jurthl' nl! unl.1crw;lh:r link hctwccn rltalO aile l c continent) fr • Ifllt/,.,
. hill (0;'
.Ind 1lIII",'!. and it~r()mt'''ci('' from !!!l!!.rl1l0llnll and ('onmlPrtifll "'Uff'1
e,amples ,ho', a "lend" u,ually formcd from Ihe fir! Pilrt oj· "n~ i loc'e
Ih, Iin,Ii part of a ,ewnd one. llihrd al1<l
Some "lend, hilve "ccome so inlegrated Into Ihe "(lndanl V(lC' h
. F ,I ular"
Fnoll,h llliIl '''''(Ike" ifrc unaware of their ,tatus, or example rei, I· '. hf
• t"' ' . J'- _ • d IV~I I
people know Ihal "'endlllg hils produced chort/" (e()incd "y author t, '"
Carroll) lrom ('hlteA/" "ndlllor!, mOle! from mo/Or and Ilflll'!. hil (10 e() "'''',
Jargon) from hit/ar... and digil. and modem from modll/alllr and t/""" I m/PUler
. . It II Ufo
Sometimes. u word " formed by a process thaI 'eelm to be r
borderline Octween compounding and hlcnding III that ilcomblne, ,IIf(:,~ ,:he
word ","h part of another. Examples of IhlS III Enghsh Inelude flern ne
, Iil'prt'JJ
(forpcrlllfll/I'IlI·p"'H). workaho/tc, met/,care. and Xlte.l.llim(J/t! A mClr
. . ' c rL"CCnt
creation of this sort i, Ihe word Ihreepeal III North Amenc.," tnghsh, u, 'U
refer (() the wInning of a championship in three ,ucce"ive yea" (a, In~. to
ofIIIl' Sail I, mlll"isc(J 4gen wue hopmgfor a Ihreepeallll Ihe SlIper BOwl ;m.
Rackformation i, a process Ih,1l create.. a new word by removing-:;;1
.supposed affix from another word in the language. Relltrrecl wa, Origi~ill~"
formed '" Ih" way from I'l'surreuirJll. Other backformalion, III Engr ~
IIlelude 1101Ift'kl'ep from hO/tll'kl't'per. elllhu.fe from elllhu.lu/.m. t/Ollllle fr:,m
dOl/allOt/. and onenl or onenltlle from oriellla/wt/. Sometimes. baCk/ormatIon
Involves an Incorrecl as..umpJion ahoul a word's form: for example. the Word
pea was derived from the earlier ..ingular noun pecHe (..ometimes wrinen
pI'C/I). whose final Iii was incorrectly inlerpreled as the plural suffix.
A major source of baekfonnalinns in English has been word, that end wilh
-or or ·/,r and have mCilllings involving Ihe notion of an agent. such a, edilor
peddler•.Iwilldler. and .lloker. Beeau..e hundreds of words ending In these
affixes are the fe..ult ofaffixation. II was assumed Ihatthe,e words too hUll been
(ormed nyadd,n!' "lr-or ('f 10 a verh. By Ihe process of hackfoflJlalion.lhe vern..
",ltl, pI'dtlh'. .r....llidle. and ."Iokl' were formed , In the same manner wllh the
alivelll of the personal computer, from the compound noun WOl'dproCl'llOr the
Vern Il'Oldpm('('I. wilsoht.llncd. Yel anolher recent addllion. hUI with a drlfcrenl
Mlun:c, is the verh la.lt!. procluced ny ba~kformatjon from lafl'/'. whICh IIell
ofl!;malcd a~ an acronym ('ce sCclion 4.5),
ilacH'HlIlillion conlinuc 10 prndul'e new words In moclern f·.ngli,h, 'Iwo
,datlvcly rl'n'lIt procllll'lS ollhi, process ilre the velhs /iaill' ffOll1litli.(1/I and
Acrunym... arc formed hy laking the tnill.llltHCrs. ht )m" IJf "It'll'
I I
u ) ne Wf)fU
10 iL phnlC or lt11c an{ rCallng them a~ i.t whrd '( hi l;tvo ht w( "I f
• ' , jI"" , C,fn 1110,",
is c~pccH,Hy c()mmhn 10 n~"nc~ of ()r~anll.'Ilhn lind lICu::llIhc tenlltn(,,
Some examples {)I "emnym' Include IJNI( U f(,r IJnitC/I N'"II( I t'iY
, _ • . ' , ., J 1 nter
nalional (hlldren .. Emergency t·und. NAIO f,,, '"nh AII.nlle T,eat
Organi/.atH,n. ACAS for AdvisC>rY. CnnelliallllO and Amllratll," Se,,,cc (,Y
n
the UK). AIDS for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syn<l'{)mc, But there are
also example,. such as NIMBY. f{)r Nhl In My Back Ya,d. Ihat are ('"md III
everyday language.
In some eases. speakers may not know that a w(ord III Ihelr v'><:ahubry "'a.
originally lormed as an aemnym. Three commonly used word, "flhl type are
",riar (from radio detecting and ranging). .~ruba (o;elf-cMlaincl und"Nlater
breathing apparatus). and laser (light amplification hy Imulated emlS Ion f,l
radiation). The name of Ihe computer language BASIC IS an aewnym for
Beginner's AlI · pur~ Symbolic Instruction Code,
~
---
, ----A
-:-:
II~I-a-n-
g-u-ag~e~s~
· :-h:OOa,:OO,,,:OO·-::w-::o::r::;d:OO.,~w~h~(=,,:-::e sound represenLs an aspect oj the Ihing that
onomatopOeia they name. Examples of ,uch onomatopoeic words in English include bu:a.,
hiSJ. sizde. and cllckoo.
Since onomatopoeic words are not exacl phonetic COplCS of nm", • their
form ean differ from language to language. as can be '>Cen in 'lab!.: 4.23,
Table 4.23 OnomalOpoeia across languages
ElIglish
c,x:k-a-doodlc-doo
men-
(hirp
hC! . OW
Japullt'se
kokekokko
nya
plI·pii
wan·".n
Tagalog
kuk kubuk
niya...
unnt
a",·aw
I.ngli h docs not always havc an equivalent for the onomat0poclc word
llund in Olha language.. Thc Athapaskan language, lavey. tor til lanc • has
th' onomatopoei.: word all ah sah for 'the ,oun~ ~f a bear ~alKtIlg unseen
nc'l f,1f from camp' . ()ik for 'the und of a crufc hitting a tree. and tie, ,'ffor
'th !lund of an egg splattering'.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-90-2048.jpg)
![lE POR
6.3
Case
RY ~I GlIlS TICS
another set for nouns In the: mas..:uline. animate da.ss. Tabl
gender endings for n<,uns mat function"" subject of a semen~e~30 hQ,. the
Table- 4.]0 Ru""ian gcnJc:"f ..utlh.t"s
Cia" Suffix £(,unp/'
------
Ia..culine ","' d"m "house'
------
Femimne ·3 ulic·a 'street"
Nemer -0 t!U'SIV-o 'sensation'
-----
Still another type of inflectional contrast associated with n;;;;::-:---
language inolves case - a category that encodes informatio~ ~n llIan)
element's grammatical role (subject. dtrect object. and so on) I bout an
English. !his information is expressed largely through word orde~ a::dMOdern
ofprepositions. the Ue
25)
Anna composed a song on me bus.
In !his sentence. the subject Allna occurs to the left of the verb and th '
object a sOllg appears to the right. while the element expressing loe e dlre.1
bus) is preceded by the preposition 011. In many languages. howe,atlo
n
hit.
di · . kd b . fl . a! affi er.the
stmellons are mar e y In ecllon lXes. As an illustration f
consider the set of related nominal forms (called a nominal parad~ !h"
declension) for the Turkish word el' 'house given in Table 4.31. Igm or
Table.OJ Turlcish case
Case Fonn T)pe ofelemem lhal il marks
!orrunali'e eV-0 me ubject
Accusative e"·j the direct object
Dati"e ev-e the recipient
Genitive ev-in a possessor
Locative ev·de a place or location
Ablative ev·den direction away from somewhere
The following sentences illustrate the uses of these case suffixes.
215)
a, Adam-o ev-i Ahmed-e gOMer-di
!-.Ian-Kom house-Ac Ahmed-Dat show-past.
'The man showed the house to Ahmed.'
b E-in rengi-o m;iidir
house-G~n colour- 'om blue
'The house colour is blul!.·
alive case
Erg
marking
c· Adam-.'1 ev-dc kah.h .
man-Nom hou",c-Loc """yeo
'The man ...tayed 1n the hnu...e:
d. Adam-<l ev-dcn lfikh.
man- om house-Abl wenl
'The man went from lhe house
'''7
Notice how in the final sentence, ror exam I Ad ' ,
d· f th " P c. am man be· h
en tng 0 e nomlllatlvt: to indicate thal it i~. b' ' . a~ c. l.ern
Ihe ablative suffix indicating Ihe place from 'hsuhlCCthl whIle e' 'hou",' bean;
w tC e man W -0
The conlraslS represenled in the Turkish ca' c. '
. . se sy~lem are 10tcrm d- .
complexity compared 10 Finnish which has fifte d" e late, In
. . . . en ~tmcl ca.....e C't
and Rumaman. which has only two contrasLs. a egone"
Some languages make use of case marking to encode gram ' I
. I'k ,,- f d' f . matlca COntra.sLs
qUite un I e u.ose oun ID amiliar European languages I th A. .
Yid
' , C • , • n e ustrahan
language I III , .or lDstance. the case system groups togeme th b'
. 'ti' b d th d' r e su Jeet of
an mtrans. ve ver an e Irect object of a transitive verb (both f h'
. d' h'l . 0 W Icn
receive a zero en mg) w Ie uSlDg a special marker (-ngu) for th b'
. . b (A b' '" . e su Ject of
a transItive ver. ver IS transitive If It takes a direct object and intran ...
otherwise.) Slt"e
27)
a. Yidin' sentence with a transitive verb:
Wagudya-ngu dyugi-I' gundal.
man-Erg tree-Abs is-cutting.
'The man is cutting the tree:
b. Yidin'sentence with an intransitive verb:
Wagudya-o gunda!
man-Abs is-cutting
'The man is cuning:
In this type of sy tern. the case associated with the subject of the transitle
verb. H'agll~'a 'man' 27a). is called the ergative. The case associated With
the direct object (dYllgi .tree. in the ftrstentencel and with the subject of an
intransitive 'erb (I'agtldya .man' in the second sentence) is called the
absolutiH.
Ergati'e case marking i found in a varied set of language. including
Basque (in north-west pain and outh-west Francel. Tagalog (in the
Philippines). Georgian lin the Caucasus). Inuktitut (in northern Canada and
Greenland), and Halkomelem (on the west coast of Canada. It is also found
in many Australian language such as Dyirbal. Warungu. and Yalarnnga.
Ergati I' ca,e marking is far less common than the nominative-a~CU'3u,e
pattern. which group, together the subjects of transitive and intransltie erhi,
distingui.hin!! them from direct objects. Thi, is the pattern found 10 TurkISh
(a, n,;ted pre~iou"ly I. German, Russian. Japanese. Korean. and many other
language, .](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-94-2048.jpg)
![1114
'n"'e<·tion
O"lribulion
.tTl" nnun... 10 gh(~ -(""('on(' tl pu.·Jt,:,llOl'c.' l. lia((crs are fun:her cornpi
(~l'" tih..'! (h~1t in "'OIllt.' l·~)Sl·"'. won:b with ,-cr) ~imilar meanings ~1·l.Ieu by
lltt1t.'n..'n1 1.·.Ht.·g'me..... Fl)r imaan.:e. the wonh like ilndfo~'d arc very.si ~ng tl)
m~"ullnf! l~h in /ic( Iikt'li.ln' !i.md of cheese). yet like IS a verb and ;llar In
••d.ll"!I l' . . ... l' III ...ee later (!<ICC-LIOn "".1). this problem becomes eveonq an
d 'f" . n III
.k' Ule hell , e cl,ln....iJer the fact (hat lan~uages .can I ler In lerrn~ of how {)re
l' atcg)r11C ON:". ilh particular types of meanmgs. the)'
: hht lingui...l.... llelie'c thai meanine is only one of se'eraJ criteria th"'t
• . • d" . "eOle
inll) Jt·(i"nllinlO.... a word's catt:'eoT). A seeon cntenOI1., compatlbilit). . r
=- ' . . 5) ' . "'lth
jrillU'" t) pc'... of inflection (see Chapter -'", seClion , IS summanzed in TabJ
5.2 e
plu",I-,
pa:-.r ren~ -cd
pTl)gre:-;.si"e -ing
compar::J(1 e -t'r
books. chairs. dOClo;:;;-------'
hunted. watched. jUdged
huming. 'atching, jUdgine
taller. fa.'ter. , maner -
~uperl,]ti e -t.'SI (.1.IJe~l. fastesl. smanest
----------~-----------------------------
Th~ om,,';nn "f Iht' gentt; e - s from the ';~t of inflectional affixes i,
delit-er.He. A, ~ou will recall. we pointed OUI tn eCllons 1.3 and 6.3 of
Ch3ptcr -l lh31 .IJthough tr3dllionall~ the po" e.'sive - sof the king shorses and
Iht' /tum:' dugs " .tlso regarded as an inflectional affix for noun . in this book
~ = treating it 3.' an enclitic rather than a suffix. This is because it is not
'tn,"gJ~ integr3tcd m the word to whicb it belongs syntactically and
"'mantt.:alJ~. It i, common. es~ctaJly in infonnal speech. for the genithe _S
t" t-e scpar31cd from the word to whIch it relates (e.g., the man sj/Owers ",
tht' man n,xt 10 hun:,j/ollf!n: the noman nf!i~hb()ur vs the woman/used
10 IIvr~ for' n l~hbour). A true affix like the plural -s cannot OCCur at a
di IJuee (rom It- ro'-i' m tht, 13),
'tlwugh helpful. mtlechon docs not aJ ay, pronde the mfOnnation
nn-dt'll to dercrr.::".lC a ord', categoJ!. In Englhh, for e.~ample. not all
.Jdj,Yllc, can t e th~ comparallc and superlalive affixes (.mtelli~enter.
Martl/full'l) and me Doun, do not nonnall)! take the plural suffix
(flW/SIIiIl'. "ral, n, know/edgt').
third and 0 ten more reI ole ('menon for dClemllnlng a word' category
w10h the 1~1'C' of Iclllt'nrs (e pcoally !unctional c8legnncs) IIh "hllh tl
Ur(1l1 distribution ) For elldOlpIc, noun can I) ptcalJ) UrreaT lIh
I uner, rb 1.:11 an ~ Illl1J), and ,dj CIJC "llh a de 'n:c .ml,
n In 1: 01 5 1
t.l Iruclure
phrase s
Heads
Figure 5.1
Table 5.3
Category
N oun
Verb
Adjective
Oi"tribUlionul proptrtit.'1O ot N,. V,. 110U As
Distributional proper,}'
ocurrence Wlth a determiner
occurrence with an aUXiliary
OCcurrence With a degree word
i1 Car. the whc-;
ha, gone:, will May
very och. tho big
18;
Put another way. a distributional property of noun . h-
with a determiner but not an aUXiliary, a di~tribulion' !:l. 1S t at they ca.n appear
they can appear with an auxiliary but not a detenn'tnae Propedrty of ~etbs IS thaI
r. an ""forth.
6)
verb with a determiner:
' the destroy
noun with an auxiliary:
' wiII destruction
Together with information about a word's mearung and its i fI .
. .. th di 'b ' aI f ' " n ectlOnal
capabtbtles. ese Sin UUon acll. help tdentlfy ItS syntactic category.
Sentences are not formed by simply stringing ords together like bead, on a
necklace. Rather. sentences have a hierarchical de,ign in which "orct., are
grouped together into successively larger structural units. Thi> section"ill
focus on the narure of syntactic units built around ~s. Vs. As. and P,. Such
units are called pbrases.
phrase are built around a .ckeleton' COnsl,ling of tv.o lewis. "" depicted
below. (The symbol P >lands for ' phrase-_)
1' AP pp phrase le"el
' A P](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-103-2048.jpg)
![I 4
( ) nlPOR IR U-'CUISTICS
17)
The) stopped {PI' at th~ com~rl anu we stOPpeu there 100.
(there =3! the comer)
The mO'ement test
A :econd indication thiu af (he conler fo~ a ~on.stituent is that it
moved a.s a SIngle unit to a different posJllon wlthm the sentence. (can he
called a mOemenl test.) In 18). for Instance, 1Il the comer can be 1"his i,
from a poSition after the verb to the beginning of the sentence. 1ll0Veq
The coordination
test
1.5
X' categories
(advanced)
18)
The) stopped [pp at the comer] ..... rpp At the comer], they stoPped.
Finally. we can conclude that a group of words forms a constituent if'
be joined to another group of words by a conjunction such as aI/d. Or It Can
(This is labelled the coordination test since patterns built ar~Or bUt.
. . . . SIb und
conJunclton are called coordmate stucrures; see seclton. elow.) Th a
know that the VP oftelt sweep the floor in 19) is a constituent because
us
. "'e
be joined to another unit by and or bllt. It can
19)
The children [ve often sweep the floor] but [vp never make the bed].
Thus far, we have been assuming that the architecture of phrase s;;--
complies with the blueprint in Figure 5.11, which is identical to Fi~ur~t~r;
above. .
XP
~
Specifier X
Head
Complement
Figure 5.11 The phrase structure template.
In fact. however. this is somewhat of a simplification since there is reas
to believe that complemenL~ and heads may actually be attached to a level ~~
phrase structure midway between the word level and the phrase level, as
depicted 10 Figure 5.12. The intermediate level of structure is represented b
the symbol X' (pronounced 'X-bar'). Y
. Acc?rding to this v!ewpoint. then, all phrases have the tri-level Structures
.shown In Figure 5.13. In which the head and its complement form an X'-level
constituent and the specifier is attached at the higher XP level. (The example
Illustrates .the Internal structure of an S. a VP. and an NP.)
Th: eXlstel~ce of X: categories can be verified with the help of the same
"(lr1ll~,syntactlt' tests discussed in the previous section. Consider. for example.
the edumr,· rite public in Figure 5.13. As the following sentence
11 AN"IV'MS. l)f
INtl""'c I ')lkl (1 k
XI'
/ X'
. /
Specifier x C'()mplt!me:nl
Head
Figure 5.12 The phrase structllre tC'mpbtc (r('vic,l'c!t
7
NP
/"~
Det N PP
I I ~
That documentary about sharks
Inn'
r
---..... - VP
/ yo
/ '
Inn Qual V r-;p
I L-
will perhaps educate the pubt'c
Figure 5.13 Phrase structure with the intermediate X' level.
shows,. this unit can be re~laced by do so and should therefore be a con,tltuent
accordmg to the SUbSlltutlon test.
20)
That documentary about sharks will perhaps [v' educate the publicI. but media
reports never do so. (do so =educate the public)
Now consider the N' documentary aboul sharks in Figure 5.13. A, the next
sentence shows. this unit can be replaced by the element one.
21)
That [,,' documentary about sharks) is more informative than the previous
one. (olle =documellrary aboUl sharks)
The fact that Ol1e can replace documelllary aboul sltarks in this mannerconfml1s
that it is a syntactic unit. consistent with the structure in Figure 5.13.
In order to accommodate these new three-level structures, it is ncees. ary
to replace our original XP rule by the two phrase structure rule 0 22).
:!2)
a. XP ~ ( pecifier) X'
I,. X' ~ X (Complement)
The fiN of th.: e rules stipulate, that XP categones ,u~h as.·P and VP cQnsi L
of an optional 'pecitier (a detenniner. a qualifier, and 0 forth) and an X' The](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-108-2048.jpg)
![lil" TI( S
A, (h~ t.~~lIllplc, in T~lhle 5.5 i.l"~) Shll. s'-lm~. hcad~ co.'lt .talc Illn
one t.·t)lT1plern~nt. The t.~rh put I.' .:t C~I~C in fXlIIlt. SUlCC It ("etlUtrcs b...)th~ t~
complcmt'nl and iJ PP complemcnt. 'lfl~"p
~6)
put with an ,"P t.·omplemcnl and a PP complement:
Tht' /ibran.ln put lw the bookJ lpp on the shelt].
~i)
rill irh(lU( an P complement:
*The /ibmri"n put [pp on the shelt}
~8)
Pllt without a PP complement:
'The librarian put [NP the bookJ.
The VP Pllt the book 011 the shelf has the structure depicted in Figure 5 I
in which (he VP consists of the head pllt and ItS two complements _ the'N5
p
tht" book and the PP all the shelf.
v NP PP
I ~~
put the book on the shel f
Figure 5.15 A verb with two complements.
2.2
Complement
options for other
categories
We can therefore revise our earlier XP rule as follows. using an asteris/( after
the complement to indicate that one or more of these elements ts permitted.
29)
The XP Rille (rel'ised)
XP -t (Specifier) X (Complement*)
This rule also captures the simple but important fact that complement;
(however many there are) occur to the right of the head in English.
Various compJement options are also available for Ns, As and Ps. Tables 5:6:
5.7 and 5.8 provide examples of various possibilities.
Table 5.6 Some examples of noun complements
Cmnplemem option
o
Sample heads
car. boy. electricity
memory. failure, death
presentation. description.
donation
argument, discu,"lon.
con."crsauon
£wl1lple
The car
the memory 11'1' nf{//rielld I
the presentation 11'1' o/a mellail
11'1' to IIr,' "'/IIf1('r I
an argument [PI' 'uII SIt'II" I
[PI' ahoul {lOlilin I
2.3
C;;lement
clauses
TUhll' '!l.7 Sum~ t"x,.unplt·s ul '1I1'n ,,"
~"'·UIIllt·m~I
('omph-mo" 01"'0" SIIUI"lt' Ilf'lUh
(1
PP.•t..."t
PPI>
PP~I
tilli. g.rccn. "n'ln
c.:unou,. ghld. <tnj!ry
apparen. oh IOU"
lund. lull. lIn.'d
1~
Tnblc S.H Some eXUn1plc,..., prcI)Olttun complcmclh
Comph'mellt oplion Sample ht'tld
o
NP
pp
fleur, away. down
in. on, hy, neur
down, up, out
(he g.Ul) down
in NI' flit' hUII('l
down 1'1' intu 1/1/' nllur
Ilere again, subcalegori/alion ensures lhal . . I
' . panlCU ar heads ..
tree structures only If there" an appropriat' I j' . can appear I.n
. 6 " . e ypc 0 complem· t l'h
Figure 5. ,the adjective cunnul (Table 5 7) ca . en . U. In
but the adjective/olld cannot. . n OCCur With an 'uh"U1 PP·.
a AP b AP
PP
PP
I'A /A
A P Oet N A P Oet N
I I
.
I
curious about the experiment . fond about the e~penment
Figure 5.16 Subcategorization permits curiou!.. but not fond. to take an 'about.pp' a~ complm1t'!1t.
In addition to the complement options considered to this point. all human
language~ alk1 sentence-like constructions to function a, compkments. A
simple e'l,umple of this from English is given in 30).
30)
IThl' psychiC know, [that/Whether/if the contestant will winlJ.
The smaller hracketed phrase III 30) ts called a complement clau.<oe whtle the
larger phru. e ttl which it occun. i called the matrh clause.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-110-2048.jpg)
![~ rIl S
p
CP
"'- ~
Ih.u Eri~ will leave
C,)mpiemenlllf P
pp
/~
p
I
,
(Ialk) aboul
CP
~
whether Eric will 'eave
AP
.-
I
certain
figur., 5.20 "~and P "ilh a CP complement
3
lRA, SFOIIlATIONS
Thble 5.10 Some As. Ns. and p, permilting CP complements
Irons
Adjeclil'PS
afraid. certain. aware, confident
X()WIJ
claim. belief. facl. knowledge. proof
Pn!posjlions
over, 300m
Example with CP complement - - -
-
The} are afraid lee tllm Eric leli1.
They lack proof [cp tllut Eric leJiJ.
They argued o'er [eP whether Eric had
left].
E'en though the phrase structure rule we have been using interacts with the
.ct ofcomplement options pennined by individual heads to form a very wide
range of pallerns. there are syntactic phenomena that this system cannol
de. tribe in an entlrel} satisfactory way. This section considers two such
phenomena and discu ses the change that must be made in order to
acwmmodale them.
,iNTI"'IIc I
f l f l Ie,
31)
(l n'ill the buy lcave"
11. Can the cat climh thh tret'"
These sentence, ha'e an uuxlliary vcrh to the lett ui tht:
to the more usual POsillOn illw..tnttclllll 32). tn] t: lO :lIn"~ t
32)
tI. The boy lI'il/ leave.
b. The cat call climb this trcc.
Our XP rule place, the auxiliary in the appropriate p<ISll1nn In 32). hut n,,1 In
31). How does the word order found 0 31) C()mc about'!
The question structures thaI we. arc considering are built 10 tW() tePli. In
the first step. the usual XP rule Is uscd to form a structure 10 which th
auxiliary occupies its normal posillon in Infl. between the ,ubject and Ihe v~
(Figure 5.21).
S
NP~VP
A 1
Det N Jnn V
I I I I
the boy will leave
Figure 5.21 Will occurring in the head position between the subject (its specifier) and the VP (its
complement).
The second step in the formation of question structures requires a
transformation, a special type of rule that can move an element from one
position to another. In the case we are considering. a transformation known
as inversion moves the aux.iliary from the lnfl position to a position to the left
of the subject. For now, we can formulate this transformation as follows.
33)
inversion:
Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.
Inversion applies to the structure depicted in Figure 5.2 L yiel~ing the
sentence in 34) with the auxiliary verb to the left of the subject :-;P - the
position appropriate for a question structure.(The arrow shows ~e movement
brought about by inversion. For now. we WIll not try to dra.... a tree dIagram
for ~enteHces that have undergone a transformatJon.)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-112-2048.jpg)
![.J .• liz /I or u."herher. Elsewhere th C
~l t'n I,.'tllllpkllll'nliler su,,- 1 jS l . . • CPOs"
rhl' CP ,hl'll i.
, pn..'s(.'111 hut is simpl) fell empty. T ' lI.iOf] if!
It I~ illln Ihis empl} po~;jrion ,thaI ~e auxi lary IS Illoved in
4ut.'slllHl" Tim.
', the II1n~f!.iiOlllnlnstonnauon can be reformulated as f~~s.....tro
-Ill
o~,'.
Inl'r.;iun (n'l'i.retl) :
110 <' lnll III C.
Accord,",: In this proposal. then. the sentence Willlhe boy leave? is ~
oy "ppJ)i~g Ihe inversion transformallon to the deep structure in Figur~tnJ"<I
nome 10 give the surface structure In FIgure 5.26. 5'~5
CP
c ~ s
I A~Y
Inll Del N Inll V
I I I I I
will the boy e leave
t j
Figure 5.26 Movemenlof an auxiliary from Infllo C.
A lransformation can do no more than change an element's POSition. It d
nol change the caregories of any words and it cannot eliminate any part of~s
structural configuration created by the phrase structure rules. Thus t e
h h ·· d ' rh C 'VIii
retains its lnll label even t oug It IS move mto e position, and th
position that it fonnerly occupied remains in the tree structure. Marked by the
symbol e (for 'empty') and called a trace. it records the fact that the mo ~
element comes from the head position within S. Ye
Why do we atrach a moved auxiliary to the C position rather rhan so
other part of sentence structure? The answer lies in rhe embedded CP Ille
.semcnce~ such as the following. S In
43)
{/. The coach wonders in' if the girl should stay].
b. A fan aSKed Ie.. whether the team will winJ.
The underltrlcd c/enlci1!S In these CPs are complementizcr.' and til' 'I'
' h ' .. • =m
occur tn .t e ( pOSllllllI. AsslilTIl/Ig [hat there can be only one clement in each
POst,tlon III ~ [rl'C structurc. therc should be no room Ii>r the moved au"'!;I"y
undel the ( lallL'1 III Ihc cmllL'ddcd CPs In 4J), We [here/tHc predll'[ that
I/IlcrSIPII 'h()~ld uOlhe ohle [0 apply in the,,! case.'. The ungra nlln ,lllCahty 01
the 'l'lI!cnl'C III .J.J) shows [ha[lhl' 1 corrcct.
Do insertion
44)
Inversion in embedded CP that includ
Q. "The coach wonders rep if_ShOUldchomp',cmentl'l'..ers:
e grr _ Stay].
• A fan asked [ep whether-will the tea .
t m IWIn.
b.
Interestingly, the acceptability of inversion in emhedd .
qUIte dramatically when there is no complement' ( cd CPs mproves
t t · l1.er and the Cpo' .
therelore open 0 receive the moved aUXiliary). ~'tl()n i~
45)
Inversion in emhedded CPs that do not have complementizers'
a. The coach wondered lCp should the girl stay1 .
t T '
b. A fan asked [CP will the team win1
t - , '
Alrhough some speakers prefer not to apply inversion in embedd d I
. . ec~_u
all (especIally In formal speech), most Speakers of English filnd th
. . e sentences
rn 45 ) to be much more natural than those In 44). This is just what we would
expect if mverslon must move the auxiliary to an empty C po"ition, as
requlfed by our analysIS.
To summarize ~fore continuing, ;;e have introduced two changes into the
system of syntactic analYSIs used until now. First, we assume that all Ss occur
inside CPs. Second, we assume rhat rhe inversion transformation moves the
auxiliary from its position within S to an empty C position to the left of the
subject NP. This not only gives rhe correct word order for question structures.
it helps explain why inversion sounds so unnatural when the C position is
already filled by another element. as in 44).
As we have j u teen. formation of yes-ito questions in English involves
moving rhe Inft cate gory. and the auxiliary verb that it contains, to the C
position. H ow. rhen. do we form the questions corresponding to sentence
such as those in 46 I. which contain no auxiliary?
46)
Q. The ~tuden~ liked the film.
b. Those birds _ing.
Since Inn in Ih6l' o;l'ntence. contain~ only an abstract (i.e.. imbible) t~nse
marker. thal' i, nothing for the inversion transformation to move. English
cin:ul11elll, thiS pro:llem b) adding the special auuliat) verb do.
.1. l1id the studenb like the film~
0.., th'he bml- 109"](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-115-2048.jpg)
![4
lJNl'CRSAl
(,R A MMAR ANO
l'ARAMr TR/(·
ARIATION
5-1)
The Subje<.'f COllstruinr . a sub'eel phnlse.
No demenl Ilhl) nt.' remocd from , ~ .
h uhieet) that does not permit extract'
A COl1"i,iIUc:nl (such .:1.'> ( ~ . .s 'J IOn Of
rt .. "'lied an Island. . a
COI1lf.l(.l.lleUI Pi) IS t;. I ty""" of island found In English
S b NP art' nOi the on Y t-'- . 'A.
U .I
eer
.l .... . '. also not possible to remove a h!h w S tht
. II ' -'Imple" show. II ':-i . . I Ord f
to OWll1g eX. .. Th . rdinalc structure IS p aced in bra k ro",
d' I "(ruclUre ( e cOO _ C Cts
It ('oor Ina t: .... - _'. 5 I a coordinate structure IS a phrase in .; il
outlined in derail in .,e~u?n. r 'g~lher categories of the same tYpe.) Ihieh a
word such a.
' lind or or JOins 0
55) ' . ' [ r a poem].
o. The author ollght '" fire a ~wry 0 .,
h. ' What mighr rhe author wnte [a story or _1_ ]'
t
56)
o. Sue will talk [to Tom and to Mary). .,
Who will Sue ralk [ro Tom and to _ ].
h. t I
, th 'e facts by formulating the following constraint
We can accounl lor e.
. , . ... .
57)
The Coordinate Structure Constraint: .
No element may be removed from a coordrnate structure.
There arc man) differen t types of islands in languag.e, and a good deal of
current research focuses on ho they should be descnbed, what properties
lhey ha,·c in common. and how they drffer from .'anguage to language.
Howe"er, since most of this work IS too complex to diSCUSS rn an rntrodUCtof)
textbook. we can do no more than mention this important phenomenon here.
--------------------------------------------------------
Thus far, our diseu"ion ha.
s focused on English. There are many other
syntactic phenomena in our language that are worthy of consideration and We
wrll cuminI.' some of them in scction 5. FiN, though, it is rmportant to extend
the scopt.' of OU
I analysis to ()ther languages.
The syntaurc dcvices prescnted in earlier sections of this chapter arc not
ti)und onI) in Engh.sh. Indeed, recent work suggests that all languages share
a ' 111.(11 set of '} ntactic categories and that these categorics can be comhrncd
10 (orlll phraSl's who.se Ifftcrnal stmclurl' indudcs hcacis, c·Ol11pICf11enls. anu
'pt.'lIlr<'rs. .I()rem"r. it aprears that tl.(nsfnrm,Uronalopt.'r,ltions arc suhlc'et In
Iflghl srflulal Wnql;lfnls in all languages, (hlf CX;lfl1plc. the prnlflhuion
against ntl.Il'IJOn from Coordinate .
s(ru.:turc.:s dl'l"lJ~sc'd In SCClfllfl 1.~ holds
YNIAX: 1111 AN",y, rH
"'rNrrN( r ~lloi:j( H.Jk:f 11'>
cross-linguistically, "'0 th'U ...cntcnc ~ t ' .
<
. f " 1..: I ....C ,ISh) and 56h
sectIon ~rc ~ot _ound in any hmgui.lgc.) The "'Y~lem (). .. ) ~n he prcvOUs.
and co.nslramlS ...haTed by all human hm Ua' . " 1cut:&?ne..... mcch;,m'tn
(UG. for short). g ge! ,... called Unlversa' (~ranllla..
The fact that ccnain syntactic prope t- ~. .
. r ICS are. Untveral doe
languages must be alike in all respects U . ~ ". t G ... n(lt m.ean that
.. It· . . . n'Versa rammar leav
vanaHon. a OWing Individual langu"ges t d" f f . e... n){)m for
. (Y , . ~ , 0 1 er WIlh re~peCt 1
para":,cters. ou. Can thmk of i.l pnrameter as the Set of . 0 ce.na,ln
pemllts for a panlcular phenomenon.) 1n this sc t' .OPtlOn~ that t,G
t f · . . C Ion. We Will con... d f
examp es 0 paramctnc variation heginning with th . I Cr a eJv
. . S .. ' e mventory of ";ynt .
categon~s_ 0n:
e
addItional instances of crOSS-linguistic differ ,," aCHe
are conSidered 10 section 2.3 of Chapler 9. ences 1n syntax.
Of the syntactic categories considered in this chapter onty n
d ' II h ' Ouns and verb,
are fOlln . In a . uman languages. The adjective category. while ve .
common, IS not unrversal. In many languages (such as Hausa Ko T I ry
. . ' . rean. e ugu.
Hua,. and Bemba), there are no true adJeclives and no direct tran,tacion for
English sentences such as 58).
58)
The cat is hungry.
Instead, the concept 'hungry' is expressed with the help of a noun in Structures
such as 59a) or a verb in structures such as 59b).
59)
a. The cat has hunger.
h. The cat hungers.
Some examples of this phenomenon in Korean folloy,;. (""om = nominath'e,
the subject marker.)
60)
u e of a noun where EngJi ·h me. an adjective:
a. Ku cha~ k-i cayml ~ta,
that x'lOk-, 'om inh!re:,t euq
'That x'lOk i, IIltere"ting.'
1>. Ku pap-i 'ria' "" ta.
(>/ )
th')l fcxxJ.- . om ta, te e, i, t
'TIul fe xi i. ta't~,
l ,,: "fa l'rh hl'r ' Engh h U,(" an adjeclle
(/ Kn I JP- lnaJlfll,
th. t fe" i-. m - PI _)
' Th t f, :xl l '1" ):](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-118-2048.jpg)
![l'ol.l hTI ..,
.1 P
P ~'P
I
. 'P Con ' NP
~ I I .6-
read a Otl(lk l'r walk the dog
b . 'p
-----:-------.
. 'p"- I ;-';P
I "'"
Del ~' Con De! N
I I I
!hi, man and that ch'ild
Figure 5.38 5oP1e coorcinate 5Iructlr."..
How does the c:rammar form coordinate structures? One possibilil, is th
there 1. a ,epaf3r; rule for each coordinate structure. For :-< categorie~, f:~
example, the following mo rules could be formulated. (The • sYmbol
indicales thar one or more categories of that type can occur to the left of the
conJunction.3l m cample ~Ol: Con =conJunction.)
,3/
a :--1' ~ ),1'* Con:1.1'
b. .' ~ 1'>* Con :-:
A .et ofparalJeI rules (onerbal categones could also be fonnulated.
4)
a. 1' --> VP' Con P
b. ' --> V* Con '
S,mJlilfrule> can be devised for othercategones (5, AP. PP. and 0 on) as well
nut?ou (an probanly ec that the result v.ill he a rather long list of new rulel.·
fortunately. we can al'old these complications by u'lng the 'X notation' to
Junnulate a ~mgle general statement that can take the place of the more
specllic rule ex~mplilied above
5,
The ( oardmatlOn Rule.
X. Con X"
5)
difiers
MO
..,YN1JX III( ANA''t'IS (11
~INltN(
fl ' S'~l( l)Wf 1.1.5
The ~ymhol X _10 tht... rule ""and", for -'" (;ac
tndit.:uttng thal either an X or an XP I:an ~ -' ~(lry at 1m)! ll'1l.:lu 1
. d- , h ClM.lfl.htillt::d A he fa eve'
( ) ,'11 IcalC~~ 1 at one or .more cau:goncN. Ci.ln ( "" .. iotl!, the a..
...lcr...~
conJu~"Ctl~n. rhu~. we ca.n lorm not only ...truttures ~~~r ,t() the: left h the
in whICh Ju~t two clcmcnl~ ar~ COOrdtn"led l.. ch a... u ,"Un ul1d u b
d • , Jut a 'Ih "'lructu fly.
o boy. CJ cal, a og. and a IUlnlster. in which ' re~~uth <1' a nUl
d d"' B ' a much la.rger n he __ fl,
Ull crgocs coor InatlOn, y addtng Ju...t nne mOre rule to urn 'r ot lkrru
we can form a very broad range of Coordnuti.()n t the grammiJr. then
~ ruCtures. .
Thus far. our treatment of phrase structure ha, ignored modifi '
clements that encode optionally expressible propert' f" ,ers, a ca." of
. ' ,es 0 ..eads Alth h
leXIcal categones can have modifiers, we win foeu h .- l>ug an
categories that can modify Ns and Vs. s ere On Ihe lypeS 0
Adjective phrases (APs) make up the single most co
.fi .' E I- h A h f ' . mmon Yused ca" of
modI lers tn ng IS. S I e ollowmg examples show AP : .
Th" h ' s serve as modIfier
of Ns. ( IS IS not t e only function of APs: they ca I f ' '
1 f b h b naSoUnCtlOna~
comp ements 0 ver s suc as ecome and seem, as in He became/,ee d
[very' allgry]; see Table 5.5.) . me
86)
APs serving as modifIers of N:
A very tall man walked into the room.
She made exceptional progress.
The most common modifiers of Vs are adverb phrases (AdvPs) and PPs that
describe manner or time.
87)
AdvPs serving as modifiers of V:
describing manner: Helen proceeded carefully.
Helen carefully proceeded.
describing time: We arrived early.
88)
PPs serving as modifiers of V-
describing-manner: Helen proceeded wirh care.
describing rime: Hetayedfor rhree daH.
As these example, ,hov.. Engli,h modifier> vary in terms of their posinon
with re:peet to the head. Thus..'P~ precede the.' while PPs follov. the verb.
lam Ad P< can occur either before or after the verb that they modify, as the
tin.t ~,ampk_ in c'6) and Tahle 5, I:! illustrate.
Tllhl~ 5.1~ ~lodifier (X' Ilion in English
1'
PI'
d,' the head](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-123-2048.jpg)
![.>..1
A rult' for modifil'rs
n ,,, h
1'
N Qual
an Intcrn.HUlnal
.I.
cn~l:-'
I
"""'ys
I ' I I" 'uIII '·,'r Ih·· pbceJ1lcnt llf I1Hxliticr:-.. we 11111~t exp'''ld
n llrucr ll. I.Ll . . . . . . . ' ) -..... oUr
(lrigillJ.l ..P nile ~ll th~lf It ;ll1llslhe vanl)U~ oplJ(ln~ sho n m89).
SQ)
Th,' FII',lIId,'" .P Rllk
:-"P --> (Sp<.'cl (Mod) : (Complement ) (1.10.:1)
This mit' allo, a modifier 10 occur either before the head (as in Figull! 5.39Q)
<'r atkr II (SCI' Figun: 5.39b). When: there IS a co.mpkmcllI. a modIfier Ihal
(!<:curs alkr Ihe head will nonna/]) occur to the nglll of Ihe complement u.
wclI. This i, illuslr.HI'u in Figure SAO.
'P
~
/ NP AdvP
,If" '" /"-.......
V D.:t "I Deg Ad
I I I I I
accepl the nell S IW) calmly
figure .5.40 A plY,1"'" hleh hOlh Ill<- nllnplt'l1lt'nt Jnd til<- modifier Octur Jiler Ihe
h""rl. In "k h C.N'" Ih.· n1<>d,ti(~ ()('cur, JIIE'r tilt' compil'mP11t.
ln 11m cilmpk. Ihe .P rule gIVl!' a phrase consisting or a head {the verb
<lCCf'I'/}, a cOIllI'il'm.:m (the NP Ilr/! 11<''''.1). and a motlilil!r (Ihe AuvP l'l'I''
UI!III!y) - in thaI nruer. .
Rl'I.llh l' d.1USt'S
(,,,h,llln'd)
YO!
II. .sUI' ilia) knOll (ItI.' m,lIl/whom Boh critICI/I'U __ I.
I>. Harr) 11IIIUtltt' IllIagt'/hlclt SUI.' wa'''''t! to I.
'1'111...' hrac:keh..
't phi "....... 11 (J,,) i.tl' n.·'""vt' c"u~~,. ("P 1
, ,"nv uh.' lntornmlHlIl ..,hoH' w N lW"It ,,' ,I I lel ll1,.Khh t 11.._
1
1 . . '. H.'If ctt h,,,. ~'4
l·,umpt~. thl', rda'ive da"'t: hdp... I"lt.-mlry the man h 't .~nl·I)C. rlfl(.l). f.)t
pl.!l'Slln ..:ritll.!l/cd hy .Boh. . "i I llI.:.ng h.! he,
lIke (),hcr 1l1otllt.1C' .... n:~ltVC d~U...C'... tX:l:If wn' L
,
"
',., , . lin Inc ' ''me pI"., •
head that lll.-'Y mot I y. HI..... 1le rdallV..' dim,c n 9lJ I L • 1 he
, N 1·1. <1 ,,,,,"1,1 he n· n f C
NP hcuded hy lle mwl. 11... .:a1 he vcnflcd with lh ' L 01 '" I'" l) Inc
, . "I h' c ne 1 1 Ihe '"n'lll
h:~t illustratc( In .., ). W leh show... that the 'c"uc.nct.: " ' U()n
• " " .., 1t mWI who Ii L
·/";tici..t·,J IS a syntacttc linn ~"'c~ It C.n b~ n.:paced hy lh.. Un
( ... ... prun~).n hun
91)
Sue nlay know INI' Ihc mall 1('I,whom BnhcrillclI.ed __ Iand I<.I111W """I,x,
(IIilll = (/tl' mall witom Ho'" c",'w/:t'cJ) .
Relative clause structures resemble embcuded wll 'lucstinns in two respect .
First. they beglll WIth a wll word such a.S who ()r which. 'icconu, here is an
empty posilion within the sentence from which lhe wh phra,e has apparently
been moved. In sentences 90a) and 90b). tor mstance. thc NP positions
following the transitive verb cr;r;c;~.e and the preposillon TO are unfilled in
surface structure.
The first step in the fom1ation of the relativc clause m 90u j imohes the
deep structure in Figure SA I .
CP
~
C s
/V~
Su~
I
lntl
I
ma~
'
I
p
,
Det ~
th... man
TIlt' ck'ep tru<.ture for a 'ootil(' dau-](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-124-2048.jpg)
![(0 1{"Pt lk "1 J INc .lIIS' I( ,
d) Lic.:-hr lin 't.UIII dil.· 1'1.11('
lo"c~ till' lIIali e/lt' tll1l.111
•D<l(." the.' m,ltl In(.' Ihe.' "tHtI,III'"
i) '"lUllillg tltOit (;e.'IfII'1I1 IJlilke, U'C' 01 Ihe 'aIBe.' IIIVer,'
, - - , . I II I· (. . 11)11 t
tllrlll~III()JI ~I' "lIgll,h (Ll.: ~JOO:l' II. to l U.: PO~1I 1 01l'), UI ,"Ill
~Ihol' d.Il,1 IdJ lI' whether (.erllJ.11l l'lIlph,ys thl' vClh ~"the
u-all,formatloll'1 You 111111 1I11.:ludc IIlL' In:c ,trUClurcs for h) ':111~t'It)J!
} Our alls.l'1' ttJ III
l7. rhe.' ti)lIon In}! '("'l1tCIICc"" all t,;ol1l:L1I1 conjoll1cd calcgorics. Dr'l .
.
'Inlc.'turc for t·'H.~h of the .'iclIfem:cs,· • ; a trcl!
a) The cyd,,' d,.tnk a galloll of waler and a lilre of Coke
h) rhe .tcrnpl'IIlL· will land <II the airporl <lnd t:lxi to Ihe lerminal
e) The <.log wellt dOWII Ihe Mairs and oUlthe door.
d) Cru.soe "lI1dL'd 011 (In ,sland and ale a goat
c) Jill ,hould recycle Ilwl hook ,md IlWg:lIlI1C.
J) Hilary kllows Ilwl .sprillg will come ,md Ihat Ihe '"0W wili melt
g) Mary IS keell 011 c"lculus hUltired orchemistry. .
18. The followin!, .
,elliellces c()Jwlin modilkrs or vanou, lypes. h'r
c' .
,entellcc. lirsl idenlify Ihe modifierh). then dr"w the Iree Mruclurc, uch
a) A large Iguana .suddell/} appeared. .
h) The headlcacher mude an imporlanl announccmclll after Ille class.
c) An unu.sual cvcnl occurred nc/ore Ihe gmnc.
d) The very hanlrdous waslc seepcd inlo Ihe ground quickly.
c) A huge moon hung in Ihe hlm:k sky.
/) Timolhy drew an enormous map during Ihe afternoon.
19. Each of Iht: /C)/lowing scnlcnces conlains a re/:ttive clause. Draw Illc dec
slltlelure and Ihe sur/ace slructure Irees for each of these sentences. P
a) The animals which Sam saw came from Kcnya.
b) Kyle likes Ihe girl whom June befriended.
c) The woman wholll Keith lives with recycles plastic.
d) Helen recited a poem which Wordsworth wrotc.
l') The canoe which Crusoe built was too heavy.
211. Tn each of Ihe 1,)/lowl!Ig sentences. IIldlcate above each NP whether it '.
suhject, direcl ohject or oh/iLJuC and indicate below each NP whcther Ii;
IS agenl or theme
a) Marie purchased a present
h) The class was conducted hy an expert.
c) Thmc hooks were read hy youn!! children.
d) All expert ('ollducll'd the class.
e) 1 prescnl was purchased hy Maric.
6
1.1
Morphophonemic
rules
Interfaces
M ich<lcl DoiJrovo/sky, W illiam O'Crad .
Kc1ldmba Y dnd rran( is
. ,tlu~r(' i afw<lY'" "'onll' '/{'<lk<lJ.w' /)f'Iw{'('" tht· hiNdU I lle " .. (
.f {'Vf'l'J fJ (j{'(J( f'
,. (). I lof~t~ldt(,'r
Up 10 this point, the individual components of a gram . h. • .
I ' · .1'1 l'h mar ave each he.
presente( In some vclal , esc components however .1 j . ' ,n
. R I ' ' . un not unctltm 10
isolation. u es In one component may depend on or afj·e,·t lh .
I h· h ~ '''e In unothcr
component. Il t IS C apler, we explore some ways in wh· h h .
f Ie c <llftercm
components 0 a grammar arc rclated to each other. These int f . .
d . d' I' .. . er aces, a, they
arc calle In to ay' Ingulsllc research. involve morphology and phufi()o
phOnology and syntax, and morphology and syntax. (A fourth Inlerf!~
betwecn syntax and ~emanlJcs, IS considered in the next chapter as pan oj h~
diSCUSSion of semanucs.)
Chapter 3 dealt with allophonic variation, which is represented by rules that
derive alloph~nes from und.erlying (phonemic) representations. A second type
of vanatlOn 111 language lI1volves morphemes and their alomorphs (rust
introduced in Chapter 4, section l . I ). An example of alomorphic variation
can be seen in the English plural morpheme. which has different aomorphs
in the words cal[s]. dOI([l.]. and nIlIlChllZj. Like allophoOlc variation, thiS
phenomenon is analysed I, ith the help of a single underlying representatIOn
from which the allomorphs can be derived. The rules thaI account for both
allophonic and allomorphic variation make reference to phonetic environ,
ments. including .) liable truclure. There are. however. differences between
allophonic and allomorphic variation. two of which are outlined in the
Il)llllwlJlg '<':Cllon.
Rule, th,1I account for altemations among allomorph mllrph"phonemll:
,llll'rnatil)I1'-) an~ calkd morphophonemic rule. Th.: major ditTerences
h ,t Cl'n allophonic' anJ morphophonemic rule,> can be ummeJ up unJer two
majllr points.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-133-2048.jpg)
![1.2
·JJupht)llIl.· nJlc..~... an," f"",:c..'plionless - (hi:") apply In the up
('0 irllnnh..'nr hl all ....h .....e... and foml.. In i.l language. ThC!r,.,. p.f1:>Pria'.
. . . E '. "are '"
(,''-HUrlt:'. n,l C I..'c..·pt ion.... (0 ..1rule ··.UL"h as asplr
..HlOn In nghsh Of v . .' f()r
,top", {'X"l'urring _,,,lIable-inttially in srres!'lcu sylIa.ble.~ (SCe Ch~lt.:ele.,
st.'L'I;On 5.5). It; ......;ntrJ'l. morphoph~ne.mic rul~s oft~n sho'A exce:~~r 3,
Thc rna). for ('ample. appl) to a IlIllited class o~ forms, as in Lh ot)
. • . IJ' . 'n the plural 01 a few E I' e ca.,.
ot lh~ rule (hal change:". tma to ~ I " . ng I~h 10 '':
like klllJ<- and thie/" (but nOl in cough, bluff· whiff. cll/e/. and So on). 'd,
will Cilmine this ~Je in more de(ail in section L~. , .'e
Morphophonemic rules often (bur do nO! always) JJ1ciude affix bound .
. h ' · t Su -h boundaries are not found JJ1 allophonic CUI .<!rie,
In t eirennfonmcn . l: es.
Deriving allomorphs . II hs in much the same wa~y
w
We analyse and denve a omorp. . . e deli,
1..1
Conditioned
allomorphs
English plural
allophones. An underlying representation (UR) Is set up. and rules apPly te
deri"e all phonetic varianIs from the same underlymg repreSentation. Ofl 0
. f Ihe morpheme IS the elsewhere all en,
the underlying representallOn 0 . , . n orn0'Ph-.
the one thaI occurs with Ihe wldesl d,stnbutlo .
'd . - - - -
The allomorphs of Ihe English plural morpheme proVI e a typical exarnple Of
phonologically conditioned allomorphs.
The plural morpheme in English shows three·way variation in its aliorno'Phs
The three allomorphs, I·s/. I·zl, and I·rzl. are dlslnbuled In a sYsternali~
manner, as Table 6.1 iJlustrates.
Table 6,1 English plural allomorphs
~~~~~------~--~~--~--------------
Elll'irollment
Allmflorph: I·sl
laps
tn"irs
hach
puffs
momhs
AI/Oil/mph. I·v
cohs
lids
lads
dOles
lalhes
pi",
plUl'"
wUlgs
klll'l'S
"ay.s
Ilops!
/twits!
/b",ksl
Ip~f,1
Im~1l0sl
Ikobzl
Ihdd
Illcdv
Id~vd
IleHVI
Ipuu)
Ipl"mJ/
1'''Ud
Illi:1!
1"",,1
• bases end in a voiceless con~
Ihal is nOI stridenl
Elll'irollmenl
• bases end in a vowel or a vOiced-
consonanl thaI is nol stridenl
------ - --
"'atiorl
oert·
Tnbh: 6. t Fngli..;h llhU, UIl(HllOrllh.. klln!.)
.-lImnorpll: I- ILl Lm'irunmnH
hi!'.ses
blll'.t!'
cnttches
judges
wi~hes
/h,'II Ii
IkrAtJLtI
Id3.'l.d31t1
Iw'J.ll
The phonelic form of these allomorphs is dctennincd h the, -
Precedes them. Bases that enel.n a stridenl hibil,.,t) . Y ,ogme.ntth.t
consonant a.w'
with the 1~lzJ allomorph. Bases Ihm end in a VOwel Or a voiced c ays."PPC"r
is nOI sindent take the l·zJ allomorph. and bases th' t d' <In'onanllhat
I " d .. a en In, voi "1
consonant tlat IS not stn e11llake the I-sl allomorph. Co e"
A fundamental strategy III selecting the underlyi f
. . h · h . . ng onn (UF) 0 a
allomorph IS to c oose t e one With the Widest distrl'but' s. n
< f Ion. mee Ihe I tJ
allomorph occurs a ter all vowels as well as afler most vo' d .
b . Th' h' . ' . Ice consonants, It
is chosen as aSlc. ISC olce results III underlYlllg representations th
I·v afler all bases (Table 6.2). at show
Table 6,2 Underlying representations of some English plurals
lOpS /top-v cobs lkob·z1 hisses
twits Itwlt-v lids Ihd·z1 buzzes
judges
1h,,·tJ
IbAz·l1
Id3.,d7;7J
Once the underlying representations have been sel up, the phonetic forms can
be derived. We can account for the a1lomorph I-IV by noting that whenever
the underlying I·v appears after a base that ends in a strident coronal
consonant. an hJ (or a schwa in the speech of those who pronounce this fonn
as 1';Jzi) is present. This reflects a phonotactic constraint of English that is
expressible with reference to syllable structure: an English word cannot
contain a sequence of trident cononants in the same coda. We can see that
the reference to yllable tructure is a necessary part of this statement b)
looking at other structure in which sequences of strident consonants occur.
Such sequence ' are found across word boundaries in phrases and compounds.
such as bus shelTer Ib,,-o:. !elt;)/. crash siTe Ikne! §.anl or bu~~ saw Ib,,; ~J:/.
The ma ewn occur word-internally across syllable boundaries. as in
{lOS;""" 'P()stJ;),' VpoJtJ;.>1 for some spe~ers). But ~h:n a sequence of two
(oronaI stridents oceurs U1 a coda (Figure 6.1), It IS broken up by the
epenthesis of a ~ome hat centralized and re,duced III (or a schwa). SlI1ce the
cl1th sequence is irnposslhle, a new S) liable IS created to accommodate It.
lh~ IbhlC1 ' [+strident] ___ l+stridentJ (J
+rcdul'ed](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-134-2048.jpg)
![I H)' a"d ~flr I d 11
(ompound tn: J
IX
(XI
IX)
I/grecnl M,
I"
(X)
Ihnusc/"
(X)
(X)
,hllu",,' HI ~
W(,rtl le'eJ
/."", level
COlllptJUnd leveJ
Word Jc~c/
[-00' Icvc:l
(jl/",' HII,..h<,,,"'. It:••herhcddrng. ,ml o.her compolJo,h)
!;r" d ~~:'..rJl·nt In «(1frlfliiUnrh.
Srrc.. 11 "vnmell' In phr;uco undergocs .he ICPS hown In hgurc ".12
(A) (X) Word Jevel
(x) IA) (-00. level
Igrecnl,wl IhCluw:1 ~
i'hm,c level ••r ~s
( X) Phrase level
Ix) (X) WI"') level
Ix) (x) foot level
I/greenI 441 Ihou~1 "I.;p
(dl 0 Hlue (1(, c. 1c;IIht:r bCddmg. and olher phrase )
lin"'" I, lJ ~II ,d ,;nrll(ltt "Ina
Ilere. tI. tre sing procedure proVtcJc a pnmary tress 1m hOllle and a
liCL'l/Id,/ry tre 01) grel'fI Jlrel'lI h,," f',
n
'"'''''('''''11
I "'''/"/UIIII ItI'
••
·ou: that ea..h tIme a ""'" K :oddcd
matching ~. mu t be added to the or(( ':' a ~ at ' -
(a. It i. tr, tu!J1 here) Thl prO<.edure ra. =the pare _
be c"rree Iy plau:d (The ltabc .. ID f- gtJre 6 1~ .ndkate.
~
that mu," he added It) the other word( I outside the: tIlaIcbi
1"001- and word-level re,
(Xl (X)
(Xl (X)
[black) [bud
Compound tre s
(firbl cycle)
(X
(x) (X)
(X) (X)
[[black] (budl
Compound ~tres
(second cycle)
par~,
"'ord bel
(~)
Foot Ie e
tne
ComPOUnd le.el (ftrstcyc1e
(Xl 'Word le'd
[oe t}
ex
x
Compound Ie el >ecood C":'c1e
t Compoond Ie I [mt Ie
(X) oro Ie el
Foot Ie el
lird loe 1 1
rigur< I>,n
all](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-139-2048.jpg)
![1.3
Stress clash
(ad,anced)
. - d on' can Icad ro some su~
The IOh:rfJIt.~t.~ fx'Cen metnc... an . 'I) ~ ~ h . e Chang _
...~(!~h rh) lhm. An e"~I~lpk ll~ Ihls phenomenon can ' card Clearly i~),j in
ca.,e of personal name.... 10 English. . _ . _ th~
. . .. I ames in EnglIsh pauems like phrases .
The stres....lOg of perso~a n_ . _",""ord's and the rightmost ete • In that th
firs! anJ IU....1 name.... are.~"JIe.'is~d as . ". Fred Smith, Mar' D rn~nt Of th~
full name: nonn.111} receles pnmlU) stress. . . - eV1ne Fi ' e:
. . E' 'h :ord in the name Fred Smlfh IS composed' ona
.1.ft:Cwdt'y. and so on. ac ". r the (sino-Ie) stressed ~ Of 0"
~rres~ed foot; word-lend st.re:SS npp leS to . e . ~l. as sho ,e
I
· . F' "0 and phrase-level stress applies as shown In FIgure6 I "n
ear ICrln IgllfC-",-+ • . 4.
xl Phrase level
(.x) (x) Word level
(x) (x) Foot level
[[Fred] N [Smith] N] NP
Figure 6.14 Phrasalstress applied to an English proper name.
In everyday speech. however. certain ftrst names such as lo·ann, JOhn
Paul. Mary-Lou, and so on, may optionally show an altered stress patte~
when combined with a last name. In Table 6.8, note how the stress pattern Of
the first names in column A changes when the last name IS added, while th
stress placement in the first names in column B does not change. e
Table 6.8 Proper names undergoing/not undergoing stress clash resolution in
English
A B
-
RHinn -> Jb·ann Watson Yvonne -> Yvonne Watson-
John·Paul John-Paul Campbell Akim Aklm Campbell
Miuy-Lou Miuy-Lou Henner Annette Annette Henner
Represented on a grid, a name such as lo·ann Watson takes the form shOWn
in Figure 6.15 before any adjustment to the stress pattern takes place.
Stressing of the first name and fuH name takes place cyclically. (The italic x
indicates the matching stress that must be added to the other words in the
group: see section 2.2.)
Note that in Figure 6.15, two stresses (x's) stand immediately next to each
other on the phrase level (lirst cycle) and also have corresponding x's on the
(.lord) level below. Such a contiguration of stresses is known as stress clash.
(To see a different configuration that does not show stress clash, compare the
two .x in Figure 6. 15 with the x's over black and Ilest in figure 6.11, where
llit're is a gap belween the two .~'s at the compound leveL)
The 'hili JiulIl what is represented in Figure 6. I5, jo·ill1/1 Wdl.lOll, to the
figure 6.15
x)
(x)
(x)
(x)
(x)
If'il q"" '
),,) PII"'t.~ h:v.'l t
l.Un';'yI.:t"
x)
Pht.IW level Iht. I.:Ydq
(x)
{'X. WUI,lh:'d
(x) (x)
(x .) "n(l evel
1I pol N lunnl NI NI' IWat'''''1 NI Nl'
commonly heard pronunciation ./b-wlII Wat.liml can h' .1 ~ .• 'L.,.. •
. II) . . " Ucscn,",,( 111 111<ln
terms as (opllona y occlIrnng tn order ll) resolve. ~tn!~~ I''" .:a
. I ' ' "c ~'!Il, As hm~ '
there IS a stress on a ower level tor the dashing ~lrcss to ~h' it h' .. "
'. '. - . F' , I ac hl, mal
This adJustment" s lownln Igurc 6. I 6, where the 0 'tand, I·, r' . II hI ,.
. . ). ~y " <with
no " on the gIven level. The phrase level (first na111") ·,s h 1.'1
' " ..... - 0 U iU':l.:.d 0
emph~1SILe that the metncal adjustment lakes place there. Rememher that Ihis
adjustment can only lake place because there is an x over the na111e I" '10 Ihe
level below that where the clash oec.urs. The ahhn;viatlons Ie anu 2( stanu lor
first cycle and secarld cycle, respectively.
x) x Phrase levd 2e
X -+ (x 0) x Phrase level Ie
(x (x) x) (x Word I"vel
(x .) (x) x) (x .) POOl level
[[[Jo] N [ann] N1NP
lWatson) ) ,,) "P [llJo] N [annl Nl NP lWalsonl1 "I NP
Figure 6.16 Stress clash resolution.
We must now ask oursel,e, two questions. First, why h there nil Mres,
clash resolution on names like Fred Smlth'1The answer 10 thi, l1uc,ton IS
easy: there is no other S) liable tn the name Fred for a stress to fall ha,k nnto
The second question i more tnteresting. Why do names like Y'onne ami Akim
in column B of Table 6. not undergo stress clash resolution'?
The answer to the second question lies in the formulation of stres'·ca,h
rcslliullon presented abtwe tress i~ shifted one syllable til the ldt what'
possi/J!". All t)f the c.arnplcs in cl)l~rnn A above resolve stres c1a,h by
,hifting a "tres, bad, to a syllable v.hleh IS already :tressed on t~c lxltlevel
,ince the namc consist of tO ,tressed feet. In the ftr1 namc hmt/It', blll,
and 1111('lte ho.ecr. thc first syllable is not tre 'ed, and u Joe nul
,1)Il,tHute a pwpcr landing ,ite for a n:tracteJ ,tre s. figure 6.17 how tim
1111 a t1ll'lrical grid.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-140-2048.jpg)
![llYvonneJ,
xl Phr.s. I
eVel
rt"solution not possible
''ford 1"'1
FOot leVel
[Watson] .,1 Np
(. .l
[aNml ,I '" llYOnnd ~
figure 6.t7 Stre..s cla~ re~o'lJtion doe:. not ~lPP"':
3
MORPHOLOGY
AND SYNTAX
Subtle derails like lhese gOlem many aspects of stress and rn
e"eryda speech and provide-convincing evidence for an interface ~thlll in
. • Cl"e.
pbonology and s)0I3. cn
. . f th ------------
Many Iinguisric phenomena reflecr rhe Inreracl!?n 0 e morphological an
syntacric components of rhe grammar. An ,mportanr example of d
interacrion involves case. which indicates an NP's position in sy th,
Structure Case is usually' marked by inflecting the head of the NP (whlnhtaCt,lc
• • C "III
always be a noun or a pronoun).
We noted earlier (see seclions 1.4 and 6.3 of Chapter -I) that the En I'
. th I t · 'tten 'h' g "0
noun has only .one case ending - e. e emen . wn as . s w Ich marks an
NP that occupIes the speCIfier posItion wlthm a larger NP. as depiCted'
Figure 6.18. (We extend the system of phrase scructure preSented in Ch In
. N apter
S by allowing an NP 10 serve as specIfier of an .)
NP
A~
Det N N
I I I
The minisler's briefcase
Figure 6.18 The genitive case marks on NP that function as specifier of an NP.
As also noted in Chapler -I and shown in Table 6.9. a somewhat riche
system ofcontrasts is found in English pronouns. whose forms reflect a thre ~
~=~~~. e
Table 6.9 Case for the Jrd person SIngular masculine pronoun in English
"orm Name FUllction
----------------
he
hIS
hlln
nominari"e
)lcllltln'
aCl'USafl'C
subjecI
specificr of N
compkmcnt of V or P
Ewmp/e
He left.
hIS hook
---
Mary saw Illm.
Mary sat lIeal him.
Figure 6.19
1NtUtfl( t!. '16
Figure b. 19 shu,,,· .... thilt .h~panc, •. , '
'with thl:," nominuttvl! ~uni'. -),:U u~ccllil,,:-'U ,mUkl"S a hrel~-~ay _. '.
,- f N or ., 'uh,c ' h I.:~ dU'llC .
.~ ....pCl:l lcr 0 ,and lhl.:' ~u.;CU""'tl.. _- 1..:. t e genitve f&- 'lon,
L . • L .. '" lthx. f !IoU ItA -n f
(Complements 01 P uo nOllUkc i.l eel'C .... t1' _ -II nr 1 Cnnpe 0 (JI(
1I IX In Ji.pane'e ) men ()f 'J.
II Tire Ilominlltive lind Uq'UttU'e .
b Tht· Rt'niri't'
s
~;- Inll
r , A~PL,
N nClIll Det N~c V
I
Gakusei-ga kono hon·o yonda
student·Nom this book-Ac read
•A student read this book:
Case contrasts in Japanese.
NP
Np.....--
/"
Dct N
to
•
kono kodomo_lIo
this child.Gen
'this child's friend'
N
yuuji
frien
In order to account for the case cOntrasL~ found' E .
th . In ng Ish nouns a d
pronouns. e grammar must tnclude a set of rules that . . n
.fi ' . . Th assocIate case With
specI IC syntactIc pOslttons. e fOllowing rules capture the e "
about English case noted above. g nerahzatlons
3)
The case rules for English NP :
a. The complement of V receives accusative case.
b. The complement of P receives accusative case.
c. The specifier of N receive' genitive case.
d. The subject recei'es nominative case.
Let us assume that the lexicon of English includes a list of the various case
forms that each word can have. So. the entry for the third pe('<;on singular
mascultne pronoun. for example. wtll mclude the following information.
-/)
Case fom1:: he (nominative)
him (accusative)
his (geniti e)
ccording. to the rules in 3). Figure 6.~O shows that a sentence such as MUll'
.1'(/'" hl/II t~ well-formed since the pronoun in the complement NP is
;!ccl1satiYC. as requtred by rule 3(1).
In Cl1l1trast. ,I scntenceuch as *MClry S(lW ill' is ungrammatl:al since the
I'H)I1)I111 in h' '~)'l1pkmen .'P has the nommallYe form. in iolaltllt1 of rule
30).](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-141-2048.jpg)
![(» TE 1PORAR lINGUISTI S
Case filter
(advanced)
s
~
//It VP
~r Pst /7P
N proN",
I I I
l.fnry S3- him
figure 6.20 An example of case assignment in English.
You rna} have noticed thaI Ihe case rules outlined in 3) do nOI Specify
fonn for every imaginable position in syntactic structure. For instance a c~~C:
. ( I 3 ,whll
the complements of V and P receive accusative case ru es a) and 3b) e
rule specifies the case of the complemenl of an A or N. [nterestingly. !h no
latter positions cannOI be occupied by an NP. esc
5)
V with NP complement:
criticize [NP the girl]
N with NP complement:
*criticism [NP the girl]
P with NP complement
near [NP the girl)
A with NP complement:
*critical [NP the girl)
We account for this by requiring that every NP recei ve case, regardless of
whether the case is overtly expressed through mfiectlOn. ThIs requirement'
known as the Case Filter. IS
6)
The Case Filter:
Each NP in a grammatical senlence must be in a position to which case is
assigned.
Phrases such as criticize the girl and near the girl satisfy the Case Filter
.
since the NP the girl is in a position to receive accusatIve case (Figure 6.21).
(Although nouns have no visible case inflection for the accusative case, a
pronoun that occurred in this position would have the form her rather than
she, so we know that the accusative case is assigned here.)
VP pp
/ )Z / /
V Det Nar P Det Na"
I I I I I I
rrili(i/c Ihe girl ncar the girl
1l/1ur" 1>.11 (.1'" .1'-'IIl"llPlt for Ihl' (Olllp/!'I11('nl of V.mel P
INHkfA< f1l.
In contru~t (sec r;igurc 6.22) lh. ·11 I' 14.1
. I . • C 1 tlrnH~U I
*c,.it;cal Ilu' ~tr In 5) above vU,ll·,1 Ih p lra...~... •('r,·,
, . ' _ • c c (',''''. 1- , Inrn rh
not III n pOsitIOn to which ca"c ,... as..,ignctl C 'Ihl:r "nee the NP e ~lrI.and
to the complement ofN orA.) . (kccaH that n<) ru-. Ih~ gIrl 1
e a.SMgn~ l:,,1lC.
/~
N Oct N
AT'
/yr
I I
'criticism the girl
A DCI
* ..
cnllcal the
N
girl
22 The absence of case on the complement of N anel A.
figure 6.
In order for these phrases 10 be grammat' I h
. PP h . . . Ica , t e comple
reall/:ed as a , as sown 10 FIgure 6.23. ment must be
NP
//"A
N POet Nt><
I 1
criticism of the girl
AP
//'A
A P Det N
.1. 1 '"
cntlcal of the girl
Figure 6.23 Case assignment when the complement of N and A is realized as a PP.
As you can see. this trucrural pattern avoids the problem found in Figure
6.22 since the complement ofP reeel'e accusative case according to the rules
in 3).
Sometimes. an NP', ease is determined by its position in deep structure
rather than surfaeetructure. A good example of this involves wit questions,
in whieh the '"h word appear- in a position the specifier of C) to which no
case is assigned. In such circu11ltances, the NP's deep Structure positiun
lktefmines its ea~e. Direct evidence for thiS comes from conservative
arietics of English. in which who IS associated with the ,ubject positiun and
the ~rccial tll'Ctlsaliw t)rm whom with the tlirect object po'ition.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-142-2048.jpg)
![( f IIlI,III/WIII;.1'
.111•• ,>,,;
'h;1II1' 7.'
It
('II'lt/(, IOltll',,) wI ,.
' hUIII.111 S ,. III If, IIl1l'JlIOn Illvolves , notIOn... like 'I'.
Irs ('Xl<'" 11111 ." I}. Ih,· pht.ll' I'rum' A-1I11i.{l'r 0/ 11ft' Ullill'd All C,,'lliJ1c' ct.1
~"I/I .lIt 1I111,VI I 'I (J I ' , , 'I< on ld.
'J,' It.!· " l tI.t 0 HI ItJaJor). hut lIs Jlllc",ion "wolve... lh 'hi.
• ,t, n (I,' gO'l'llIll1.L' parry' c<':()I1<.:.al)
1ht dlIIIII.:,1O I ' _ , CPt
" I I 11 lc:IWt','n I1I1Clh1011 und exlenslon docs not . II
l '0 t' 'Il' '"1"('"°11 of whal flH.'aning ,. h simply penTIns lis IO~1 lJw u 11
1It'", ..I} ""hill illl' IlIIl·n.... 'OI1,·/ . pc.)Sc it in I
(>til' 111111' t' ' I ' - <t
I ""e--'''' 1011 ' 1)(11 11111.:11,,011 I,.'orrespond In menial images In.
fI l loU, lIllPIOVc,'lIlt'Uf OVl', rhe n.:fC,.cnll~d thco~y. slI1ec it is POs'ihl I~ i, iln
•, IIh'IllilJ IlIln~l' 01 a IIII/COrtl 01 even rhe king oj "nine," althOugh til ~ to have
.... lldl.·lI!lfll·... III Ihl' Il.'jll world. Ilowf..'vcr, prohlcrn... ari....c wilh lhe n ~.rcurl! n()
(IId,,,,, 'II ' I · " . lCilllll
lg
. I( II, (OR, W/1I1'11 cun he lI ...ed 10 refer to HIIJIll.aI ... of rnall . " Ii lit
·
...,/l· ...h;lpl.·..... ;jlld C%w .... ",hl' IlH.'uning of (his word COfrcsPonu"i~) ~ltflcrelll
11l1;1'~l:. Ih", IIl1i1,1.!e would /lilve 10 he general enough Lo include Chi~mental
oIl1d ,~, Ik,""",,- yc, ""II exclude foxe, alld wolves, I,. you Iry 10 ~~hua,.
r'l"furc.' Ih,lt ...;III....IIt,·."; Ihc...e Il·(/llIr~IllCnh. you will ...ee .iu..., huw hard .r~ a
("oll.";(IIH.:I illl IIl1a1-!I.' I"or word I1lC.tnillg... of 'his "iOIl. It 1 tu
."tllI .I/Hlllll'!" .Ipproadl 10 meaning tries to reprcsc..'1ll a word's intcns'
I ' ' S . "00 by
l'C"P"Jllp II do 11 11110 /twlll'" "icmantlC compnnt!JlI."i. OIllCIIIllCS lna
('('IIII""...nll,,1 analy,i, <II wmllnfic decomposition. Ihis approach haw,o a
. . ~ (song
I>el'1I ""," '0 """'y,,' ,,'" lIIeanlllg 01 certam types 01 nouns in terlU'
't'lIIanll(" Il';!lllIl'."i , 'nll' ,"wlyl: in "'gllrt~ 7. J for (he words mall, WomaN b
S of
I I I I' -r ' OJ'
W" );1I/,I/I1"',Ii(" "m. (No"lIlIg depen" nil I,'C C 10iCC 01 eaturc names her~:
'he all,dy.,i" wnilid <11~ jll" ii' wdl wilh Ihe leature ±'+MAI I' as ±MAIL.) ,
III,,,, : /10
1+111111 N I 1+1flJIIN'i I
; 11 I I + 1,1 L
; 1)( '11 fIll I
1I'0mall XI/I
t"IIII'/ t"lIilA!'.: I
~I 1 I iIlL
t 1)( 'I I Ill'l I
~(" lI,tll It li'1't l l OI1~~j-':;llIolllcJ( "'.111,U LN11.",. h ,~ SIf!.
hll1.lI) "'.III11<s
Me"ning and
concepts
S MAN lie '. t 1 ANAlYIS ()f
Mr "NNf~ l.7~
semantic ~()m~n~nt thal i, c'pecay u....cfu for the ,mal ~h.
.. cO which IS used to repres.cnl change of V' . y .. of vt:r) tncanlno
IS ~ • I h h ' anou.... ~n,'o;. A., lh f to
examples he p. sow. l e nOimn of Change a.....'iociated . e omoJ¥'ng,
manifested in dlfferenl way~. With (ih C.an he
12)
Manifestalions of the concept (;0
a. positional
Patel went from Delhi to Sydney.
b. possessional
The inheritance went to Mary.
Jdentificational
Max went from being, a rational gentleman to being, a ,.
'tar~ ravmg
maniac.
This concept i< manifested in many verbs other than just go. For example.
positio~al GO IS pr,esent III the meaOl~g offLY ('go through he air). walk ('go
on foot ), crawl ( go on hands and knees ). and 50 fOM_ Po>ses5ional GO i,
manifested in the meaning of g,ve. buy, and illiteri!. all of which inVolve a
hange of possessIOn, while IdentificatlOnal GO shows up in become and 'urn
~ to (as in The carerpillar runted into a bUl!erjly).
In I . .
Componential ana YSIS IS most useful for uncovering and representing
similarities among semantically related words. _As Illustrated above, a few
. pie features allow us to capture the slflulanues and differences among
S1~c1asses of people - men, women. boys. and girls. Similarly, componential
~alysis reveals a surprising similarity in the meaning of (for instance) 'ravel.
. 'e and become. all of whIch Incorporate the GO concept (pOSItional in the
~:;st'case. po ses ional in the second. and identificational in thethird).
However. there are 111mb on the inSights Into word meanmg offered by
componential analysl . What value. for example. is there in characterizing the
ina of do!:! "" [+A_ l."AL. +c_o:: 'r.-;E1 so long as there b no funher anal~'ls
mean", - th th . . hI ' f
f these feature_ ') imilarly. do we say at e meamng 01 ue con'''b 0
Of · ture r+COl 'LR] and something el e? If so.....hat i that other thing" bn't
the ea 1 , t h . - 11 '
bl .) 1- l) men e ul1 hay e not broken e meamng ot 'ue mto
it uene~:-., l . -
1 - )M no- n'r .mJ I! are back here we started.
$(11<. er I....I...! l t '.... . •](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-148-2048.jpg)
![T['tr(""~I' 1I lll'" "
].2
Thematic role- 4 nl"'U1Cf .I"'pt""~·( ('If" 'm3nfi~' inrcrprcr:Hion inolc~ determining the
the I'('f'n.'m:-- l't ~'Ps pl.}) in the .-jfuauons de~cribed b} :"Ientences role that
in lhi_, n·~.:lrd (hi' s(.-'nr~lh."e in I...'I. .. COnjdet
I -/
The lalfu "cnl me ,:tlm,"'n fn,m In"~m~Y~ {O Edinburgh.
It '''>!lId I'<' mlJ'l"'ibl~ rn undersr;md this ,,,Olenee if" e could nor id .
'''1' di' enlJf, ••.
'aim 3.:-- lh '" pt-'n.l)n ho IS rt"~pon=-IL' e tor .<en ng ~omething. the s.al . "'It
rh> rhmf th3r " ,eOl. ;OJ "lO. The. renn thematic role i. u.ed 10 dmOn
the r.1It rl:i, ed b, 3 ram.-uttr enol} m 3n eent. In mo,r hnouistic escn!,.
Jr k~bl Uk' rh"lluti.: n)k, in Table 7.1-1 are recognized. ~ anaJ~~,
Tab" :.14 1bemall-n,l,
A.,,'D!
lben>
me l"ntit~ lh:u perf('lnns an 3ction ______
the enul. undergoIng an J~l-jon or a mo'-emem
...- lUr...·e the ~l.lftjng POInt for a 010 emenl
G..X1I ~ end J)l)inr ior a rno ernent
L n", the pI 'e , here an action occurs
-
J /
'Jh.> I ird DI the ~mon from In' erne. _[0 EdinbUn!h.
A ,ml Theini' Source Goal ~
TIle BMb:uidll, prarti ed a[ T" icenham.
r.I U>cGlion
'Tbt- nolton of mm ~m~D1 u,ed in [he defimtion of !heme Ou~e d
. . '~,dIl.~
In! I .1Oohe DOl onl~ JC[ual ph~ [cal mOilon, but al 0 chdll 'e~
In :0), JIJd.d mi[). in : J). • g In
fem ~ 10 1111).
Thnrte Goal
;!iJ
The magician changed the haH Into a rahhl
gt'lit Tht'lrle (;o(d
Vhcre do thematic roles come frum and h d
. ' . _ . • ()W (lC!sthe
npprop~a~e the.mallc rolc ,... ~Ss()C,at:d With each NP ~r-~mmaren.,ur~hahe
rolcs ongInate In word meamng !Table7 IS) Th . In a '>entence) Tnc~-
. . . ' . US,lfthe.. .._he
ball coniam, an agent and a theme, II i, bec' h senlence Hurry h" rh
. I" aUse t e verb h h ~
mcnning Ihatlmp Ie, an entlly that does the hill' (. " a the t).·~ of
. h ) S " I ' mg anagent) d y~
gers hll (a t erne. Iml arly, If we understand IlIvern ~n an entlt~ that
Edi/lburgh as a goal In sentence J9a/ it is bec ~H as a ,">ure< and
. . . . ause of the d ff
mcaning of the preposlllonsJrom and tothatoccu . h'''' . 1 crence In the
Table 7.15
hil
walk
10
from
near
rWlt u.e'iCNPs.
Some words and the thematic roles imph db h
e y t eir meanings
<agent. lheme,
<agenb
<goa>
<source,
(location.
These roles are !hen assigned 10 NPs based on meir po". t'
. . . . Ion In wnacIIC
srructure. wllh each NP recelVmg one and ooly one role. .
As a first example of this. let us consider me complemenl of a p ..
. repo,ltl()n
In such cases. the proce s of themallc role assignment can be summarized ~
fonows.
22)
A P assigns a thematic role to ill> complement. 'l'.
The operation of thi con,'ention is illustrated in Figure 1.5.
PP
----------
b pp
---------------
a
P .'l' p :p
I ~ ~
from to Edinburm
<~,------,j ~
<:ourxe>
l
Figurt' 1.5 Then
a ,1l:rvnent bv prepo_tions.
1 Iter'> re bghU) m re ompb ale<! m the se of Here :e mu t
di :tlm:U1 h beleen the theme role. hi his i-;ned to the . romp ement,
andth- g·nlrole.tu~hi 19nedloit 'Il eel the 'Pimmed1atel~under](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-154-2048.jpg)
![f 1ItJIl Jr'y lIN(.#III~"(
'i
r
NT' 1,,1/
I
1'...,
/
V
I
/
VI'
/r
V
I
i"rc~(cd
VI'
NP
./'
Ihe thiel
nl~, Ih" J
l
'--_--'
IlgurI' 7.'/ Iif'f'" ,I"" III... lor ""' lh"'1 W.I' "'" "II 'd; Ihf' ',m' th"'"gh Ihf ' " '1;' 'ymholh"II" ,II I
11,, /) UtI/if ,11f'" 111,lt Ih,·,IHI'MI te,/" ,......uppn......flll ' 1 t li'
S llll'l' 1Ill' NP 11r(, lhi,,! apf"'lIfS a' complemenl (dlln:1 oO/Cet) of Ihe
' " . ~~
(/IIf',1i11i dt'l'p qnlt'lufCalld ' "In' an NP dcl'p ,
qlUt'tlllC positron (ktelln
' ., " . Inb
1/.' thellla/,,' role, Illo/lows Ihlll II WI/l Ol' .Issigned thc theme role ,1 de,
srre!/
HUI wh", olllll' agellllfl/c'/'l he crucla] assurnptJOn is UHIt the pa'IVc forlll 01
iI vnh low, Ihe ahrlllY10 as,,,!!n all a!!enl rolc . ~hKh IS why the 'ag' 'Ylllool
hnll'alh Ihl' H"" III "'gllle 1.1) ha, a IlIlc Ihrough Jt I hi, " why P",slve 'entcnce
.fll' pl'rlixlfy alTl'p/ahk CYril when thl'fl' j" no agellt NP (forc)(ample, lilt'lhief
11'</1 (///('II"r/), Whcn an NI' heHl Ill/! the agcnt rolc docs appcar, it OCCurs not '
Ihl' ",/lWl't po"iliol1 hilt falhl'f a, l'(ffUplel1lelll of the preposillon hI'. Becausc t~~
WIll IS ullahle to a',sr!~n Hli .Igcnl rok. ,01l1e othcr c1emcnt mUst take
Il"'I"",srh,llly fill IIll' as'W""ll'nl 01 tim role I1v tS that clement. heing unique
amlin)! 1" l'I"'''I11111, III havill/: Iht' tYPl' of /1tl'uning that assigns an agcnt ml '
llll~'. II" M'lfll'lIn' n",Ilri'lll'</,' (/1/'('.1('" /'v 11t(, po/il'e has the rll-cp stflfctllle~
d(,(lIl'lt'd IIII'I/:U'l' 7, 10.(TI", hI' ~hould not he confused wi th Ihe hy in / /e,l/ood
hI' rh(' III'", Jrldl "ssi!!I" a Im'atlve mk.) III Ihls slllfl'llfl e, lite passive vnh
(>1'<11) flllf',III'II."si!'fL' It,~ Illl'llie mle 10 tis l'olllplcltlcni (Ihc NP 1/11' Ihit'/) whl l '
Ih,' slll'nal P'l'pII.srlll1n hI' as"iillis ils a/:l'ul role to Its l'olnpleltll'II' (th~' NI' 11r~
/'(}/'f(' I, 1'I,,~ l'U,~lfIl'S IJr", Ihl' Sl'IIll'fIl'l' has Ihe CflITccl IIIIl" )1'"'tatloll, with Ihl'
polin'dofff).' Ih.. •11 Il'.Sri"!! '''Id Ihl' IIIIl'Igl'tlln).' HI'l'sled
Figure 7. 10
FlgUrl' 7.11
s
__ 1
N I' Inlt
I
P..t
Nt'
/'
Pa",c"ivc V ctmn(Jt
a~'ign agent rolc
1'1'
/'
I'
hy
NI'
L. •
the pohce
j
<ag>
L
In oruer to form the correct surface structure for passIVe "'nt' "
' I 'II h N ' cncc,weneed
a tran,formatlo n t 1ut WI move t e P hearing the theme role f ( h."
. . b" . r )m t C UlfCt
obJect posItIon to the su Jcct pm"t,on when the latter" empty,'
27)
Nl'Movement
Move NP into the subject position.
This transfonnation ~ppli:s to the deep structure in Figure 7.11) to gIVe the
surface structure depicted In FIgure 7.11,
S
T h ,
Pst / ~/
NP V V NP P NP
/ I I ~
the Ihu:f was arrested e by the police
)
SIll f,1le ,II II{ ttlft' rcsultinf: from NP movement. (n this figure e stal1(h for trace which was
111tlmltll I'd in w( t.OI1 ,.4 01 Chapter 5.)
III ~1lt11, theil, the transformational analysb of passives makes use ~f both
lkcp struetme and surfacl! structure In order to account for th~mallc :ole
assignment. the P that rcceivcs the theme role occurs as complement 01 the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-156-2048.jpg)
![2
3.3
The interpretation of
pronouns
. eludes ords such as he. she h.
The ~~regol') or: P:-o=~;:sar.::rerized by the facr thar their inr~rp~f1Ise!f. ~
her"'''IJ· The,,, H rd. I '0 the same sentence. (This b tatjon <,.
be determined b another e emenr I _ _ Ot er eJe ""'It
(ad,anced)
Principle A
'aJI d th~ a-;'tecedenr) Consider ID th,S regard the fOllo"in "lent
I- c e ~ g t<~
~emence.s_
,:?,,"J
a. lim' friends admire him.
b. lim admires himself.
In the firsr of these senrences. the pronoun him can have the same referent
the ;-.;p Jim or can be raken to refer to someone not mentIoned 10 the sente <1.
. J. . C th r) In the second sentence. rn contrast. the pronoun h. flee
lsa) 1m s.a e . " . 'fIIs If
' h th ame referent as Jim: no other InterpretatIon I~ po."ibl ~_
must ave e s . d th I . e. "Je
former type of pronoun is called a pronomlflal an e atter type a rene"he
pronoun. fl . I
The interpretation ofpronominals and re eXlve pronouns a so diffe" in the
fo/Jowing sentences.
29)
a. [s Clare knew that [s Alexis trusted herJ].
h. [5 Clare knew that [5 Alexis trusted herself]].
Notice that her can refer to either Clare or someone else not mentioned in th
AJ . e
sentence. but that herselJrefers only to eXlS.
The contrasts illustrated in 28) and 29) reflect the fact that the int
pretation ofreflexive pronouns. but not ordinary pronominals. is SUbject to ~
following principle.
30)
A reflexive pronoun must have an antecedent in the smallest S containing it.
Malters are straightforward in 28b). where there is only one POtential
antecedent in the sentence containing the reflexive pronoun. The sentence in
29b) presents a somewhat more interesting case in that there are two NPs that
could conceivably serve as antecedent for the reflexive pronoun - Clare and
Alexis. However, only the latter NP can serve as antecedent since only it
occurs in the smallest S containing the reflexive pronoun.
A ~omewhat more abstract feature of syntactic structure enters into the
Interpretation of the reflexive pronouns in sentences such as 3/). which hal
Figure 7.12
FM"NIIC., lin ""'A)'51
(Jf M'A."',.... ~
the tree ..trUClttrc in HgUic 7.12 IfJ'n
,I NP . InC)Ih~ are Ire:, d
thUI hcuu .... to ~a'e 'pace. Urne whrd 1 a e UN-type CiIIe
noted in the prevlou.., chapter, phSses u; ~v~!I. C"leghry lahel are: flnlU'(1II1eI.
""llhin larger NPs.) )CeUf In the Pt'clfier ~ A.
31) ...."."Mlft
The boy's uncle admired him,elf
s
~---
NPI Inn VP
~ ~
NP, N Pst V NP
.LS. '
The boy's uncle admired himself
Structure containing a reflexive pronoun.
Although there are IWO NPs in the same S as himsel'f( I
' I) I ( h name ~. Ihe hoy and
lire bov s unc e , on y one t e boy:, uncle) can serve .< ant d f
.- Th h ~ eee ent or the
refleXIve pronoun. us. I e per~on Who was admired in 31) mUll h-
the bOY'S uncle, nOllhe boy. ave been
The principle needed to ensure this interpretation make' U· f h .
• • > seo I en()llOn
c-command. which IS defined as follows.
32)
NP c-commands NPb if the flIst category above NP contains NP
a /l h'
AJthough c-co~and might apl,lCar to be a rather technical notion. the
underlying tdea IS very Simple. FIgure 7.13 illustrates the type of confIgura_
tion in which c-command OCcurs.
Figure 7.1 3 The c-command configuration.
When trying to determine c-comrnand relations. you can either use the
definition in 32) or apply the template in Figure 7.13 to the tree Structure
heing analysed.
We .:an nO formulate the constraint on the interpretation of reflexive.
called Principle A. as follows. In order to keep the discussion at an
introductor, level. we con ider only the version of this principle required for
simple. one-clause sentences.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-157-2048.jpg)
![... I
I I VUht'
Old ilnd nt'1
inlornMtion
" ' "
I ,
PnlJX·ftIC, ,f,llhcf un "'r.ln~.·' in the s~lrnc"iJX'c,.:h lo'Vl'nr Uh.... diclUl, ....
l-'nh,'i.II tll UfHll.'l~tanJin1! .1 seurclll't'. n:'f) slIuplc l'ampk ,~f th l'} .lrt· 111'0
• ... . ' 111 I
rhl' Intl"fJ'In"r.Hiltl llt dl'lllellh sw.:h ~l'" Iw. If. and rlwl'f', hu'ic h,'fcrl'lli .. )"
J"'c('nuincd h~ .1 word or phraSl' III it pn.·~l·dtng utk'ralll."c.' COIlSider" utt.,,'n
J '~ard rhc t(,)llt) in!! ra~.IA!l.· . In Ihl
-Ii)
"hild 1 ,'11/ ("r ,I II ,lik in Iht' pilrk, Whik III,'''', lit' ';1 a rahol! '"
,"l In c e.' il
inJun'd, h"Il><,k /I ''''"It', la,
F'k'h (f rh,' italielfed II "rd, ill Ihi, Pel"iI!!" rd,c, 1'0' it. 1Ill"rp""1
' f ' , r n · Oil'In
In .(lmlMIOIl ~·III.:oJed In a prl"l-'c.·( 1Jl~ Sl.'nCt..'l1cc. l~IS. t..' Illll'rprl'l flrt,/'t
,
,In
1'/.:""11,'" 10 /II Ih,' 1"lIk, ht' wl!h relt-ren,'" 10 (I duM, mid it l ilh reI" " Ih
a fabbit. : r~nl'l' In
Ont'of rhl' mosl imp(lrtanl COnlntsls 111 Iht' sludy (If dist'ulIr'l' IS Ihe di,,( "
belw,'"n 1It'1I' and old illtllrmalioll, Old (or ghen) informlltion cons"l ,nclIIOn
' u Ih'
"11'' it'dgl' Ihal Iht' spt'aJ..a assulllcs IS u'ilIlunlt' 10 Iht' addrl'sscc al Ih ' c
t' h 'h L ' 0 c lillIe
" I e 1I11l'1'ancl', CII ,'r "CCallst' ,I IS shared ) hOlh or hccame il ha, 01 " .
L ' ,,' d · h d' , rc,ld,
"t't'U /llln"'Ul'e 11110 I e ,scourst', In conlrol'I, ne" information in" I ..
I I d h ' d d ' h d" ' O'Cs
"noll',' gc I al" IIIrn' uct' WIll I t' !Scourse hlr Ihe lirsl time, Consllierlh'
,'l'nlra,,1 belw,'t'n Ihe foll(H ing 111'0 st'lIh:nl't:', C
4:!)
0 , The woman IS al tht' fn>JII duor.
b. A W(llllan IS al lht' fronl d(lOf,
(h(lln: of Iht' ,Is the dt:lernrill,'r for 11'01/1111/ in -I2l1) suggest.s that tht' rcJ'ercot
lf~ht' jhr,lse IS SOlllt'(lIlC "ho has ht'en Illentloned III the previous di scourse
lin IS I ll:rl'torc alrt';~dy "n(IWn 10 the addrl'ssee (old Informal IOn), In COnlrasl,
"hl'll'" of ,Ihe dC'll'n,lIlnt'r (/ in -12/1) implit's that the referent IS bt'mg intrudu('cd
Illto tht' dlseour", hIt" Ihl' first lillie (nt'I lIIt{lllnation).
SOItt'l' Ihal /loth sentenCt'S III 42) Use fh.. as the d"tennin," lor lroll! 1
/ . '
J'l ' I ' . , (//,
m IS ,<,<'aust' Ihl' 't'tllng lilr thl' t'olll'l'rsation prl'sumahly lIIL'iudt', nnly (llll'
·N)
/I, The police chasl!u Ihe hurglar
/), Tht: hurglar WUS chased h) Ihe police,
In some languages, a 'pt:cial affi l< " uscd III illcllllty Ihe lop,,:, The
fo llowing senlt:lU;es from Japallc'e IllllslrtllC Ihis phcnnlllc"l", (Nn", =
nominative, Ihe sllhlct:lmarkcr: Top IOPICmarker: Q lucsIIl", marker)
015)
Speaker A:
SI','aker B:
Dan:ga kimasila ka']
Whtl, om came Q'1
Aklra ga k.lmasila,
Akir.l' 'om came,
klra a J,m:·to kima,ila·ka'?
klra-Tllp lllH ilh camc'Q'?
' 110 Jill , kil1 ,ome ilh'"
rile lllpic- mark.cr in Japan,'sc tht: sutTi, ·11'11 ) i, di'lin~ui heu tfllm Ille
suhlCt't Inar..t'r -1:(/) hy ii' ust: III mark old or hilt:kgrullllli IIh'rn~allnn Ihls
is ~'I1 s{,,<'akt'r 13 re'pl'ntt- 10 's first ljUC,1Il1l1 ~yUStl ,lhc SIIOlc' l marker
<11 tll' P ktllL Bc,'<lu,C this P pro llk' n~w tltlln~'Illl1 hen: (an un~wer
t,l ', qlll'slllll), Ihe lopit' malkcr l'lIld hc Il,lppmpnalc IIl''cv r, 1lI1:C It
I I" 'II 'sllhlishcdlhal ,1.:",1 IS the ""NHl , hl' C,lnlC. tlk curre l<lIlumg P
1,1' • l c" . , • , ak :""
,',In then lX',II thl'lt'pIC IllJrh l, Ihis is pn:.:i,d) "'h,lt happ<n ' III pe er"](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-160-2048.jpg)
![('ON TfMPORARY LINGUISTICS
4.4
Conversational
strategies
final utterclnce, .herein the NP Akira (which is now ass '
pre'iously established infomlation) is marked by the topic sUffix~~~ted
'~Cl, "ith
In addition to background beliefs. the setting. and the diSCOUrse c
. . f . C . th onte,
f.Ci at lea....t one other major rype 0 mJonnatJOn at enle : t. ther
interpretation of utterances. This infonnation has to do With th~ •'nto t~
ConveNation " our understandmg ~f bow language IS USed in rul~s tOt
situations to convey a message. If, for example. I ask someone, ,(,an'CUlar
like to go 10 the cinema tonight?' and I receive as a response "Ita. aUld Yo
. d I" " le la II
for an exam", I know that the ~r.her perso~ IS ec mmg my invilHti Silidy
thouah there is nolhing in the IHeral meanmg of the sentence tho On eVe"
eo , " at Sa, 'j
Moreover. even though the response does not contam an explrclt 8OsVe }s "'.
invitation, I recognize it as a perfectly appropnate a) 10 respond rIo Ill)
that the same could nOI be said of a response ilke '/ "m'e 10 Comb ;,,(Notoce
or '/enjoy reading books ',) J ha",
As speakers of a langua~e, we are able 10 draw inferences abo
. - . th . d . Ut IIhU .
meant bUI nOI actually ,aid. Infonnal1on at.s com'e) e on this Way' I.s
a comersational implicature. The ease ith hich we recog IS cUlleo
' . ,.- '1 d ' n'Ze
mlerprel Impllcatures stems /Tom our IU'O e ge of how peopl . and
" t h e In 0
lingUlsttc commulllt} use language 10 commUnlcale WI each other. Ur
The general overarching guideline for conversational interaCtions'
- - .s of
called the Co-operatiu' Principle. len
46)
The Co-operathe Principle:
Make your contribulion appropriate to the conversation.
More ,specific maxims or guidelines ensure thaI conversational interactions
,"ctually satisfy the Co-operalive Principle.
Tabl.7.17 Some COlli cr. atlOna! maxims
~~--~~-------------------------------------
Iht'M<lXIIN ({Rt'/alivn'
II<- relevant
rhl' lIfaum ofQualm
fry '0make your conUlbullvn >fie thaI I true (Do nol say Ihmgs thaI are fal'e Or for
"hi,h }'/lU lack t.ie'i!lJIC c"dence )
'ht' [.lI/lIl ( {Qu(lnlm
D, ""I mal" }' jur mnlnbul.oo 1n(lre or Ie /Of II"allYe Ihan re<]""",1
I1It 1/1.1..1111 'If I/ulln I
, lid an'!>1 'UII} IW<i obsclllltv toe hrl t and orderly
Quantity
SfMA.N1It.S: Ilt
...."'A.l.... S1 ("If
. " f'IoolA.Nt<.lC
The MaXim of Relation IS cruci'l. 1Il,
t h " a 0 eva
responses to e question '--'ou/d 'Ott fk ualng the ap
e -aonple given at the beginning of· lh" I e t~, go to the C."ln PtnPriatene os ()j
.... 1 sect emu to " h
conversational contribution! of others arc r~~n). Becau".e We a' ~:.:: I?' (the
able to infer from the response '/ have I eVant to the tOpic at h. e that the
'11' 0 "",d" fo and "'0
is unable or unWl log to go to the mOvie S" ". r all exam' that.t..' are
. be b' . .m.I'fly ..._- u.c 'peak
a connectIon tween commg one', hair d be· ,vo.;ause.t is h. d er
J
·udge the response '/ ha'e to comb m,~nh . ,1ng able to go t~ a:; ~{)!ee
" , air to be . O"le We
inapprOpriate, - Irrelevant and h'
Of course. the Maxim of Relation can. . cnce
h . SOmetimes be
speaker w 0 wants to create a pan.cular im . . S"spended b
'H '.fi' I pre'''on. For exam . Y a
asks you ave you nrs led thai essay vet" d. P e, If someon
. I r I r I, h " ? ' - . ' , an )OU res~ d e
raillwg a 0 a e). aSIl t fl. , you viOlate th M.' 1"'"n 'lfs been
. ' I 0 e ax,m of R .
respondmg mare eVant way. n the other ha db" e .llon by nOI
th th n , YglVlna th
signal to e 0 er person that you want to ' e" response you
' . th h bee mme away from th
conversauon at as n raised. e topic of
The Maxim of Quality requires that the slatemen" . d'
• . . '-3 u..e m convers.ati h
some factual basls. If. for example. I ask 'What' h ons ave
d '/' ' , . s r e "eaLher lik ?
someone respon s r s sno",,"~ . I will nonuallv as th . e. and
. bl . f . , ,ume at this State
provides reha e in ormatJon about the current weather. " ment
In order to achieve tron~ Or .3rCa;.m. however it is so' .
1 · f Quali ' , meUme, po. "ble to
abandon the ~ axlm 0 l) and "Y >omething that one 1_ be
. I Ii' . th . "'10" to fat e
Thus, If twO peop e e m e rruddle of a swelterina desen and .
. k i n · , · " ~ one per,on
inSISts ~n as g e~ morrung Whal s rhe weather like?'. it might be
appropnate for the other person to respond sarcasticalh .Oil, roda- . . ,
/' rha ·th· - I( S
snowing, as usua , pe p. 1.1 a pantcular facial e"pre"ion Or mto~atlOn
to indicate thaI the statement "'"3., not intended ;b a true repon of the facb,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-161-2048.jpg)
![Analogy and
reanalysis
LallgU<lge contact
three hundred years ago). spelling pronunciation Can r",ntrOduc
lIOn that Hl.... earlter altered through sound change. e a Pro
tlll
ore ~llsll tha~ changes inuuced by spelling pronullciUlio, IlCfil,.
t~e nOlonous arbitrariness of me relationship between spelli n .tend to ftd
tlOn which is a femure of many names. For example. the ;~~~prOlllln~~
Ilen:i..... hich used 10 be always pronounced [mqJlsJ Or [menIS] ISh ''''''~
nonnally pronounced [menzlz). The same applies 10 place IS no","<la
Frirhsd,,11 (near Berkhamsled in Hertfordshire) is often pronou n'lnles. 10h
rather Ihan [fnzd'lIlJ. and Cambl/slang in Glasgow. which r::;=: [f~le'<l.~'
[k;)mzl::eIJJ, loday tends to be pronounced [k;)mb"sl::e1J1_ espec"1 onginun I
Who are not from that district of the city. I. Iy by tho Y
Spelling pronunciation may sometimes be triggered by social ~ '<
is obviously what lies behind the change that has affected Wo dactors.1q;
origin such as hUlllan. herb. humble, humour and horel. These: S of Frenc~
stan with a vowel sound, and had an initial 'silent h'. as the Ords uSed 10
French. But mOSt of us now pronounce the initial Onhographi~ :tll1 do in
'dropping one's aitches' (as III [ousJ for 'house') is generally n'e becau",
evaluated. gallVel}
Cognitive factors also playa role in change in all components of th
Two sources of change having a cognitive basis are analogy and r
e grarntnar.
eanaly'
Analogy reflects the preference of speakers for regular pallems Ove' SIS.
ones. It typically involves the extension or generalization of a regr ;rregUlar
the basis of the inference that if elements are alike in some res~ anty on
should be alike in others as well. Both phonological and semantic c~ts, they
istics can serve as a basis for analogy. For example, on the basaracter.
h I . I . .]. 'th h b ' IS of lis
p ono oglca SImi anty WI suc ver S as Sling/Slung and SWing"s
. . . ,. Wllng .
some dIalects bnng has developed a form brung, as m I( 'vel brung 1'1' , In
. ~~
house. Chtldren create forms such as goed by analogy with regular past e
forms like played. As we will see, analogy plays a very important rotl:nse
morphological change. In
Reanalysis is particularly common in morphological change. Mo hO-
logIcal reanalYSIS often rnvolves an attempt to attribute a compound orp
r rOOt
+ affix structure to a word that formerly was not broken down into comp
h A I · I ' E li h' th anent
morp emes. c asslc examp e In ng s IS e word hamburger who h
originally referred to a type of meat patty deriving ils name from th; cit Ie f
Hamburg in Germany. This word has been reanalysed as conSisting of~:o
comp.onents, !ram.+ burger. The latter morpheme has since appeared in many
new forms rncludmg jislrburger, clzickellburger, veggieburger and even as a
free morpheme burger. Note that the reSUlting reanalysis must not neCessarily
be correct. (There is usually no ham in a burger!)
Another cause of linguislic change is language contact. which OCcurs when
speakers of one language frequently interact wilh the speakers of another
language or dialect. As a consequence, cxtcnsivc borrowing can oc,'ur,
partit'ularly where Ihere arc significant numhers of hilinguals or multi
III"'l()~ILAI IINC,lJIIII( S 1111 'llUtJY III
INC')A(,I r""'''lC,f '"
t· gunts, Although horrHwi"~ l:~m aftcct a1 .
In . II It C(l1n{kHlCnt'i t" h
t xicon i s typlca y most ~t cctcd. HngI'o.h. f()r. t c ~r;lln"t;lf the
c d ' . Ich .,.... P ' . t:Jli.tTlple h'1 h< r
French war S Sl. ~ - CIrelli, ('oU,III, unullal, UUr, c:"(;ur ) f()~C:t~ In<0"f
teau and blll.e. In North Amcnca m'n'-l A' • t11a.)or, Cltl tru'
8° ' . , I ' • J me.nnd'an W{lrc •
Canada, moccasin. 10':"" Wnw llI-'k, c-hulook. mlJfle ' d . ndudn~
been added to the Engh....h leXicon. • an '1kullk have a~,
Among the effects that borrOWing can have. On the Mlun
he introduction of new phonemes Or allophone, ' d' _ d "),Scln i.lrl!
td'stribution. For exam.pic, some English speakers' nran Clange, 1.0 thtir
I B I ' . t"' ooounce. the. nam
the classical composer, {Ie I, With the final velar fricaliv I ' e ()
. ., t' If h . " - e x "lUnd In
he German plonunclu ton, 'ere IS a slgmhcant n h._ .
t I h b Ulnucr of horroWln,
from another anguagc, t c OTrowed foreign segment c' ll'
h I h . . an eventually
become a new[f] Pboncme. n t e early M~ddlc English PCriOd, the I"'muon
dialect had ut I;Ot fV m wOrd~I~llal position. The v1 was latcr
introduced as a hresudtd0
contact wit Other English dialects and with
French, in wh,c It I OCcur word-mitially. As a rcsult of this COntaLt
a contrast developed between IfI and Ivl word-initially, as found in Mode"':'
English pairs such asji/e and vI/e.
Language (as well as dIalect) contact also results in another minor but
nevertheless important source of language change, hypercorrection. Hyper-
correction occurs when a speaker who IS attemplmg 10 speak another (perhaps
more prestrglOus) dIalect or language overgenerahzes panicular rules. FOT
example, many speakers from the north of England have the vowel (ulin
words like cui, grumpy, and Slump where RP and other dialects have ("1. But
there are also a few words such as pul, sugar, burcher, and Buddha in which
both RP and Northern Enghsh have the vowel (u1. (This is becam;e Northern
English is conservatrve and dId not .take on board a histOrical change that
urred elsewhere whtch resulted m the spht of the short lui of Middle
~~CgliSh into the phonemes lu! and IN in certain words.) The problem is thaI
. present-day English there IS no way of dtstmgUlshing between words that
~:IOng to the WI (lkAtI) class. which underwent the change of /u/to /A!, from
rds in the put (/putl) class that evaded the change. So. somelimes speakers
~fo orthem English wi hing to adopt an RP accent. overgeneralize the rule
th t makes their [u] correspond to RP (Al The result IS the hypercorrecl
r~nunciation of a word like butcher as [bAIJd), although thi word is an
p., tion to the historical change of [u}to [t,,]. They may also pronounce
ex-cep al" th h tho d b d
I II '[rubel~]) as [r"beld]. not re IZlng at w en IS wor was orrowe
rlIU' O, " ' t h l ' th thL'
from Latin (cf. rubel/liS 'reddIsh, ) ill e ate mneleen century, e atm
rOl1unciation of II a [u] was retame~. . . .
P A th~r example of hypercorrection I the use of I m constructIons such
no ~ ' - . . f h h I
H ' .J >/111 and I. This usage is an overgenerallzatlOn 0 t e ru e t at on y
t1~ l S(III ( -. . . th' , I J h
Id '" used in SUD,'eel pOSItion. never me Accordmg to IS.ru e. 0 n
I S lOll l·e, '_ . .
. II ' ';Il" is correct but Johll and me/me alld John are ~()mg IS IOcorrccl
till< tln g( ." ' . I d ' th . f . th' I all
' 'n.'ttk.crs h,'n.>rcorrectlon h~ re,u te 111 e 111 eren~e a
F,)f 'OI11~ ' •.- , • -"'-. . d . I
d
' · . t> phra<e< contalOlO" me buch as JollIt an me) are 1I1~urrec even
(0.)[ lOa t ., ., e b' ha h
h th 'e~'~ as the direct object tcomplement' of the ver .• ole tIt e
en c ." I
'h' ays HI: s, I'}(,!rn allill would nOla) He ~aw ,
~rson 0 _](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-169-2048.jpg)
![Table 8.7 Pat..t(;]Tiz;]tit)(J/atlnL';]uon mduL't.--d b) fronl voel! and Ul
U}
Latin
WOn
I'
~
~ nlum (k/ Old French fent [I'J
,enlum [kl hahan fient" (IJI
bun m<!liu., (dl hah.n mego [d' J
~
~
• ""'''<j'
one huod .
'half' fed
_La_ti_n__-=Il~e_n_le_n_'..:[g:..,I__O
__
ld_F_l'C_'_n_ch
___,;:Il_e_n_t___I_d_'l_ _ -.:..
peo
.:: pie'
-----
l'iasalization refer. 10 the nasalizing effect thaI a na~al consonanl
<'n an adjaccllI lOWe! (Tanle ' .8). Thi". change occurred in both Fr~:hale
PO/luc:uese. lth Ihe suhsequen! 10" ot the na.,al con.nnMl. (The pro and
• . d . dd" ~~
rion of rhe od In (lur ",ample. un emen! a Illonal changes in h' .
and lelhene" In Frcnch.) eIght
Tallie H.S
l..mn Uf'.'ir Frtn( h
--
b<1l1' 1x1l1 :lxiJ tx.m Ib5J 'good'
--
un urn [OJ un [re] 'one
-
D issimilation. the proce" whereby One <;egmem " made 1 1".
. " . e~~ b.e CUlOlha-
-egment in l~ enVironment, 1:-' much less frequent than a!-.~mi"'; Th'
S . II h . . ~uon. "I~'pe
Of change typlca y occurs w en 11 would be difficult 10 i1rt1culat .
d · I . . I! or pen:.eloe
1",0 SImilar soun S In C ose proxlm1ly. The word anma '",ur ',n'" ..
'fi d . - ' ......Ie '-"lin
for example, was modI Ie to all11a In Sp"';ish. thereby aVOIding tw~
consecutive nasal consonants. LIke assImIlation. dissimilation Can al",
operate at a dIstance to affect non-adjacent segments. For instance. the Latin
word arbor 'tr~' became a[bo! In Spanish and a(OO[O In Italian. thereb~
aVOiding twO Instances o~ [rl In nelghbounng ylable,. <By contrasl.
dissimilation did not occur to French ",here arb[. has retained both in.,tance,
of [rl·)
Another common sound change. epenthesis. involves the In--en1on of a
consonant or vov.:el into a particular emirorunent ~Table .10). In 'orne ca.ses.
epenthesiS results from the anticipation of an upcoming sound.
TableS.lO Epenthesis in Old Engli:ill
Earlierfonn Change Larafarm
g3!l0l
YnrV > Yndr gandra 'gander'
. i.mle YmlY > YmblY "mble ~alv.."3~ .:
remrig "mll > mplV re~g 'empty
In these e-.;:unple-.. the epentheti.:: lb], ld1: or {p] h . the pi of
articulation of the pre...··edm'" n al but ~: "'1m the foUo~lng '<.~ent In
t· ,. °
t::e and n - o
r. Th epentheu~ "'!!IDem mereore <;ene, :;, a
tenns 0 " ° • _ • •
t>ndge for the tr.lIl,iu n t>e n the ,?menl> on enher 'Ide (f 1e .l').](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-171-2048.jpg)
![2.4
2.3
Auditory-based
change
EM
Phonetic Io'ersus
phonological change
~'lfc.. rs
IhJ~m F",nch rn
~lier £h3ndelier
.:luutfeur ,"hautTeur
~~------~~--------------
'I'~ h '-'culalOl)' faclOTS (particularl) relating to 'ea:>e of a~1
.
.... moug ~u . d' , atiOO')
are of cenrral importance in sound change as In lca~ed .In the P!"ec!d'
di . " audilOry faclOrs also play a role. SubshtutJon is a h. III
,cus>lOn. . , . f ' J pe Of
audilOrily.based change Involvmg the replacement 0 one segment
. ' . T bl <, "I A . , ....Ith
ano!her similar soundmg segmenl ( a e 0. __ • common t} pe 01,uh
. ' [n) Earl ' . h hi 'lltu.
rion invoh'e; [I] replacing eIther [xl or u. ler In t e story of EngJi h.
[t] replaced [x) in some words: today [I] replaces [9) In the spec,h of sOftIe
Londoners who speak !he Cockney dIalect.
Table 8.22 Audilorily·based substilullon
~~~~~~------~--~~=-~'~
h--~~~-------
[x) > [I] ~liddle English laugh [x) Enghs laugh [I]
[II) > [I] English !hin [e) Cockne) [flO)
~~--~----~--------------------'--'
So far we have trealed sound changes without consideration of their effe(1
on !he sound patlern of the particular language as a whole. Bul. in reali!).
since languages are integrated systems. a phoneuc or phonological change i
one pan of the system may have implications for the rest of the sound system
n
Thus. all of the foregoing sound changes can lead both to new types of
allophonic ,·ariaMn. and to the addition or loss of phonemic contrasL~.
Examples ofsuch cases are presented in the next section.
The sound changes outlined in the previous sections can affect the overall
sound pattern (phonology) of a language in different ways. Commonly, the
first stage of a sound change re ults in the creation of a new allophone of an
already existing phoneme. The term phonetic sound change can be used to
refer to this ,tage.
s
plits
.t. I .t.!I( l U (UI 1 H
l"l l UO't If
-
:i::.
....:,,~,/,.._"_'_'_F_r
..
_"_,·h
______
....:.
'•.::
..:::
'tan I f ..nch
Clt)<;t'(/n-/l(lbJ~
[,itl
[1i"~1
[<, utl
Il'us]
Opt'"Y,yllanit-
1 i I
llil
[ u]
[Iu]
[ ttl
llth'1
lekut
1"'>-1
' h'l~n'
'thumh'
·ltk·
'he<l'
'you'
' wolt'
Vherea" Canadian French .has the lax vowels III and l l ' .
, E F ' h h ' " In do",d final
syltabk'j' ~o[pelan renc ~s kbeptlhe tense vowels li1 and luI.Bolh dialect.
relmn [I an u tn open S) a Ie . ThIs suggests that Canad13.n Fr ' '
developed the following rule. enen na,
y - [- Lensel ' _ C(C)#
[~:~~; 1
vawel laxing rule in Canadian French.
figure 8.5
While this rule clid introduce an allophone not present in European French, it
did nOI create any new phonemes ince there is no Contral.l betvoeen a:<.
vowels and their tense counterparts in Canadian French.
Sometimes ouod change can lead to changes in a language' phonological
system by adcling. eliminating. or rearranging phonemes. Such pbonological
change can involve splits. mergers. or shifts.
In a phonological pht, allophones of the same phoneme come to contral.l
with each other due to the 10 s of the conditioning environment. with the
result that one or more ne' phonemes are created. The English phoneme lUi
was the result of a phonological plit. Originally. lIJl was simply the allophone
of /nJ that appeared before a velar consonant. During Middle Engli,h.
consonant deletion resulted in the loss of 19l in word-final position after a
n3s31 consonant. leaving [IJl as the fmal sound in ords such a;, sill~ (Table
8.:!4). (1 ote that this change did not take place in the area of the midland' and
the north of England stretching from Coventry and Birmingham in the outh](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-174-2048.jpg)
![no ((}Nll>1PORAR'Y ',NCUISfICS
a Typicill di'itrihurion of vowels in phonological space
b Atypical dIstribution of vowels in phonological 'pace
,,7
LiI
figure- 8.q Vowel distrihut;on
I
to ma.101Jze the ,,,c of space in the trapezium. Accordlllgly. if a lang
only thrce vowel rhonemes. the) will i1kel) be Iii. Ia!. and 101 Or lui Uage ha,
" .. I h -, . nOt (~
t'xamr'e) Iii. IL'!. 11:/ Slmll,,,I}, II a. angunge as.llc vOwels. they W' Or
distrinllted Ihrou~houl the rht>noloclcal space. t) pIcaII) as Iii. lei h1 1111 be
rather than IlI/lo/,/a/./o/. ,md hi. t~r example. • , , ol,IUI
I~JI1gll,,~es wllh secn (or more) vowels (the case in English at the, ,
point of thc Gleat f'nglish '0,,~1 Shift in Figure 8.8) often ust~rtlng
diphfhongizulioll fbi- can t>.; seen as a reaction to the overcrowdingno;rgo
phono'ogiclJl 'r;h.C Its dfect " to rcdue'c the seven-vowel system to ~ the
d· h h " . f' . a nVe
Owel'y""n. ( IllInk or th" tv,"!) Ip tongs as not to nnglOg on the sp .
aCe of
lilt' sil11p/e Q"'ek)
1,Ihlc f< 26 hows thaI ocr,mwtltOg appears to have resulted in d'
Ilttl" 'L.lt'lln 111m) bnguagcs, mcluding Old High German and SpanishlPh.
II
u
P'
,
Ie
cJ
I /11/
-
u
we I)
:'J
HISTORICAL IINGUI<;flCS IHF StlJO't ()
I INC,UA.CE. {M "Nc-
" 33,
The diphthongi~ati_on in the~e two languages difter
English Vowel ShIft In two way~. The mid !I. from hat ()f tn. G
:rc affect~d. a~d different sets of diphthong~I~e~:~: ~:~ not the h~he"f):~
honologlcat space all these cases of diphth ., . enhee~!i.. In term f
P h d . Ong17..aon . h' , "
esult: namely. t ere uctton of an overcrowded, at: leve the . m
rowel system. (Of course, the Greal Engl~evhe~-,v()we '!YMem .r) a. f1V:
v b h d IS vowel Sh' f· ~
complicated Yot er evelopments.) I t IS further
.....--~descrihing language change, it is olten crucial to'de 'f _
- -- e and hrono1ogy, or times at which different changes hI ntl y the relatIVe
j,i./
dchang Cnportant changes in the history of English can be g' ave OCCUfTed, Three
/'~~ . g I . ' lVen as the (
50~ rderln .,implificd) rules presented In Figure 8.10, someWhat
(,Ie0 ced)
dva~
(I I) Voicing
C 1+V<Jicel/l+voicel __ I+voice
2) Syncope
V 01 C>I
[-Mress]
AssimilatIon
3)
C- [H01Cell C
Three nAes n the
Figure 8.10
[- Ot el](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-176-2048.jpg)
![t I l I' )
,
I
'/
Ih'III,I~
,'llh'lI
1 ' ~J 1' I )
tl
1"'01,
lh'rn
HI
""
1.1 ,d,
n1. d.~
14 •
II
, ~
11 I 1' 1' "f ," I,kne,' I~ r 111,'.11 h,'r S( l 'Ihkr" f,'"nd in "" IllI"'IIIl,1
I """1111 '111 IIIIIh' kl 'Ih" , n III' 11I"llIh , ·""l1n.' '111 1,'11,' 1'111 '
'" ' ,c.nh,
I',", '11111," ,,'I{' . ' ,111'1.1,,'.1"'1 ,'I '.lIha ' Ill," Ill,' ~ ) ""1111"'11 t
" I1UlI< II 11 ~1.1 t I: ,11 I.h ,.'11 ,I' in : h I'In hI); h' h, ,'n I'I'tI~;;
'h 0111 ,1111,'1 ,1,1:,' .'1 ( "Id "da.
m,lIhl,lII!!hl"', hllllkl'
'.ll'l'kt '.lnn"
'. "
III ,,1t( lt liN ' ,t 'u I, ,," III
v)
",d,'11 kl m ,1 ' 'll 'I~kl
,I "Il' HI :-.'" "...1 P"!-.ItH'" 1 '"WIH"",n ,:,nlW)oi
t 1,, ' til' Uhl ngh'h "'' nh-Ih'.' "I -0)
S (
lh',l'I" hn1,· "'Il ",,' I, ''1
",· ...1.·hL h .I th'ttl,,.·
' h .Hl th) tUH.· ""h'ld,~
" S() 1 ,'tIIIl,'d,"'d d ,..""s
II '1111',11 ' .1<' I)1. 1 ; Il~ h'h ,,'111,"1',' III 7) )
S 1
1- ,'I ,h'Illl.l1Il1 ' ,Ih
Iw tw tll' tn.l " i
. 11'11 II<' ,.1 Ih ' 1tI,III
1'", '11.111: <
' 11'111 St 1 S () " 111 '~'ln<'I~,1 1 -.1~I"h .l, ,lhel
t k t tl~tI.~ 1.ttJ.h~'I.·s , w ....'."w .~hit~l.~ s (' .('nt. h.w .:'~~ml'c ~"1l'.'kh
11111";11"" 1!1tI~11.lll'" "I"h ,I' Ih,I,,· "I Ih~ Ihm" 1,IllIII) nl lnc.l . Sm,',.
hll!lli' I' :111' ,1111 ",I .'11 ' 11 hlll!Il:l)l'" "h'I1l!l" 1'",, "n~ ')1ll:1~1I" 1' In
.",,' IIl'I. Ill ' ....11"'" "I '~I"h ,'h,I1l!!" III 1111.1""11,,.11) [""';Im .11l1111I"'",ml ,lI~,1
"I 11I,'sl1~,ll "l, "'I""'lall) ' 111':,' 11ll' 1"':111" 'Id~1 ", "Ih .I1l.l "hi"" l
,'''11' 0 h," 1""11 ,'hI",,, lin...,',1 llh "Ih,'r ,I,I ,,,,kr 1',111"'1" ,~"
t 'h,II'I"I 1).
III l)hl .111,1 l'.1,,1.1l, FIl)lh,h 11ll' Iml.'l"'1 n:llbf,'n":lI'1I l" '" eh.ll'lt.'r ~I
111 " " ,'.1 mlh,' f,Wtll:lIh'n "f Ve.' /Ie' qUt."""II, ",,,1.1 ,II'I'I~ 1, .111 ,'rh" 1"'1 ]11'1
,Ill lti:l1i '" id dm)! t,WIl" Ii"" Ih,'''' 111 II) lr"tn Sha....:,t't.':U,' .h.1l "ul.l II<
UIl:I"""I'I;I"I' 111 1 I,,,krn rn),!li,h
1(1)
n,1 h,IIIl,lk,' ~ ,'I fn'tll 11I"Il"t.'I)!., Il'lai,'~ /I,lInl I, " '1 I ' i
" Sp.l'" ' " " ith hllll'~ (I ( " , "1 I ' Ii
I tllIH' th' ' 1'1.1" Hlh ,"hi ,,' 'nt"I'Hlh ,"'Hllno, Ihl' 1m ~I . I' n ruIL
h,I11::' " :1' 1 ,,' '1 h' .Ill I ,.(~ 'It-,.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-180-2048.jpg)
![~ . The 11K' b Ie _ "0 of fami!} relationship, i~ /he e'<.i.·'ence Of sy
.....-:.. . .;dences in !he mcabu!ary lIellli of ddTerent I S
.......~~ <vrr...-po,~ _n be found and Table 8.57 sho" anru;,
I II ,"""_pon",,nce. <~. , a ~
• - . , E I"h Dutch. Gennan. Dan;sh. and S" d a"'PIt
3l) "errb from ng I>. 'c family of language,. e "II. alI Of
.: !In." member- 01 !he Germaru .,
Table , .$.)me Geml.1fil: cognates
~
Guman Danish
U<.!i.s/t Dkrch
~Iann mand
~
m;m man
hand
Iwld hand Hand
h..nd
FoB (8; is]) fad fO(
(00(
""" bringen bnnge
bnng.
Orin; breDg~n
$olJllTler sommer
<Om11lar
mwner zorner
-------
S - !he re/ar;onshlp berneen the phonological fonn and meanin
IDe t1 arbl'-~ the exisrence of sl,remalJc phonetl·c g of a
"ani " mo. } U~." COer
'JX'flde~"'" in the forms of rno or more languages must pointto"arde.
~ "'ce Con~erseh·. whe.,e languages are nor related. theIr 'Oc,•.~a
< mmoo 'o~ . - , . . . Th' be ....",
I . l' 'j r ~ho" s}·,remaric "nulantles. I, can 'iCen b} CO~ . '
ary",tern.. 3J 0'" "' - _ . . •liPan"
word.:. from Turkish (TabJe 8.:>8). which IS not related to the German!
,
" c with their counterpans in the languages clled 10 Table 8.57.
3ll"U3"e. ,
Table ILS Some ..ord.> in Turkish. a non-Germanic language
~~~==~~-------------------------
"man"
eI '/Iand'
3Jai: 'fOOl'
gem ·bring·
]32 . umrner
~----------------------------------------------
ord, that hae de. cended from a common source (as shown bl
,) ternalic phonetic correspondences and. usually. M!mantic similarities) ar~
called cognJlt~. Cognate are not alwalS as obvious as the Germanic
cUI1IlpJe lfl Table 8.57. Where languages from the arne famrly are onl)
distantl~ related. the ) temauc corre pondences rna) be con'>lderably Ie
ruiling. 1111 i e~emplified in Table 8.59, showing data from Engli h,
Ru Ian. and HlOdr. all of which are di umtly related 10 each other. ronn
from !he unrelated Turkl h are included to emphaSIZe the Imilantic among
the fIrSt three language
oJ • ueS of
rec~Il,q tiOn
IlstrUC
rrcO
tIiS10W:ICAl liNeAl TI Hit luO'i O. l"
CU"Q (""
,
:::.=----d-v-.--- dO --,,,,--___ _
tWO
thre~ tri tin Y11
bro.her brat hhai wdeI
nO-,.e nO'. nahi' burun
Once the existence of a relation hip between th
"
. ~ ) Or lllQre 1""",,>&
been estabh,hed. an allempt can be made to reeon tnl<:t the C<'>m ~-..a. bao
This reconstructed language. or proto-lanonaDe ,. m"A- f mon """ree
. . . . n-,; • ~ up () proto.r
which are wntten with a precedlOg • (for example "hand ' . ...,.
. I h t . . ) to IOdu:ate ''---'r
h>potheuca c arac er a, recon'lrucllon, of earlier form, that have """
recorded or are not dtrectly obscrvable. _ been
Reconstruction can be undertaken with SOme Confidence becau (•• d
' . . - 'seu sed
in the prevlOus sections) the proce<,sc underlying language change are Mem-
atic. Once the processes are uncovered by linguists. they Can be r;~ersed
allowing us to mfer earher forms of the language. Although it is possible ()
reconstruct all componentsof a proto-language (its pbonolog). m()tphoogy,
syntaX. leJUcon. and semanl1cs). we wll~ focus 10 the following on Phonological
reconstruction. the area ID whIch linguiSts have made the most proyes .
Reconstruction of a proto-fonn make use of two general strategie,. The Ill()M
important one is the ph onetic pla usibility strategy, which require that an~
chanoes posited to account for difference~ between the prOto-foTlll' and later
fo~ must be phonetically piau ible. Secoodaril~. the majority rIDes
strategy stipulates that if no phOnetlcall~ plall5ible cbange can account fOt
the ob erved difference,. then the segmen found in the majority of cognates
hould be assumed. It is imponant to note that the fir t trategy alv.-a. tak.~
precedence OVet the ~e.:ond: the '>eCond 'trategy i a la:>t re:on.
Consider the following cognate" ( omewhat simplifled) from rnembe" of
the Romance famil).
Table 8.60
Rumanian
Th rut '<rmplif, rre pondence betl!. n l-l and inbefore the el 11
To - ount tor thi , e uld ume nbet t Rumaruan lIIldent;ent a](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-186-2048.jpg)
![RUIll~lI1lan, hili in Plr!U!!lh:..I.' il lIllI,h.',' WI..~111 Ullcl'(l..'ah.." VOicing ;'llIll
J( lIJ1fJefl'UI ~(Hh (lll..'IUg .Iud ""....;(11011 (th.11 IS, I..'U"ellll1g). (W,. Ih ~Jla
oll..'ing pn..·t...·l.·lkd fr h.:alhUl ... 111.....1..· Pnrlllgul..·.,e SIH1~ o Il...""iIIg bUI C .1!)1I111l,fll.h
. . . r · · %r ~
It e..' ;t."UIllI.' Ihallhl.'lIn,l' nlI.·1 (,f thl..."" pn1l1 orin :1, MtI' JlrC't, .rtc;'ltifJ "I
ht.'n lIw C(llI'''IlJIlI d1.;lnp~' h"l(l" plal.·l'. we call condudc thai III In "re fl.,
. . . 'II "I'· hI v,,, , "'h
fncilllOlI {l.'I..'IIITl.'d III rtllo,; language ;1', H Sf.::l:.1 C K65, (In ' I.:Illg ;,
tllnn, ,.i!"(~ r.'lalll' ~I'i!ln 01 ,hl' t'~lrhcr reduced H}wd tt".) Thl'.s! c~~, lrlitt~~
rhl1nt.·til"lfI~ pl.lu"hk ;lt1d (hu:o; c:pc.....lt.'c1. ~lngc~ art!
Thblt.· 8.6...' SUIllIll,II) III rhe..' dwn!tc.s illl~clillg Pl'Ulo-Rol11:llll:c .,J
I' > p/
<r>/1/
" p "'> h '>LI/ '
°1' >11> 1 _ '
110 I..·h;tngl' Itl S;I'tlilli~1I1 or RunulI1inn
voicing 11 p{lrrugllcsc
nlll'ing ;1I1d IriC~lIi()n in Sp'lnil'ih
h"1l llil)ll11l French
----
Tumrng 110, I() f/1(' filial "o~'d. e nOle lhut three. lan,gu"lgc!-. hav_ '
,owd." RUlllalllan has/~/, and French ha, no vowel. mec VOwel rc C lUI/
and apocol''';'''' lucllIlf,cd as phonCIIC"U) plau"h/C change, in Ihe cal"~'ction
II js "ppmr"aIC to pI"jl a (flU "mel tor Iht' proIa-language, FUrthca ogue,
sInce Ihe Illn'C I,Ul!!Ua!,"!I" ilh " fuU vowel aU have lal, we can rIllOl'!,
, fl· .. I't t' d' POSlllh'
Hld on Iht.' naSl.'i () 11C..' IIlJ.lonl) ru (;!'I s ra t:gy, f ccor Ingly. th 1
, . . C recOI"
~rrw.'tt'd pnlhl-hlnn L' l"If1d.
ntb'e 8.66 .sul1ll11i1r~ (If fht' dl~lIlgt'.'i alll..'~ling Proto-Romance *1I
('''on,l.:l' (H'on/:/iltaIJ Nall/t'o/change!s) _____
RUIIl,mi;m ·,1> " 'O'cl rculiction
---
I'",neh -,I'>,' '> " vowel reduclion and del .
_____________________________ ::.::el'on
---
We ,'.111 nO oUllllle to Ti.hk S.b7 Ihe dc,·e1opmcnt of Iht! Word in F
Illch has Ih,' 1lI1'" "omp/ie,lIed dCH:lopmcnt of Ihe live languages. renCh,
~------~--~~~--------------
eltam.', *rJPIl Sa"l(-- ofdllllu:e
I' h nh.r "lul'lng
--
h rrnl Int'ul/un
,I ,>I fl,' vlI,,·d rl'dUl'lion
" 0/ 1/ m ,111tl(.'('I1C
11/ Ih,' 1,1',' (1/ Ih,' 1.·I'£.J;iI,'S "" 'li:II1,IIt' hWlld' (lh,' ,,'<'(jilt! nm 1" J', II
'(' I . ,Il r
, I. /1,' III I (/lI"e "'gll1"I/I' ,II,' JlI,' S,'llll' in ,./1 Ill(' languag," in lit" dOlI.
k'l'ldlllg h' Ihl' IIWlo1l1 IUIe, '",'I"g), Ie ,"111 n'COIlt;lllId 111<' 111" Ihll:,'
d *41IU III lit rt',PII'lllIdIOIl(J1 111l' ,,'nmd COII"II,lnl , 1t"'('"1
'I'~ '31 (0 ollr '",11c ') 0/ phOIl,'I.1.' 1'1,111 iht/II} .
III"IOI-Ill A l lIN(,U·>lH ... 1111 ~lH'Y
• 1 ~Nt'IA(.l
f ""Nt.,
.'urtli,, ;wl 1''-('11,11
l'fllrU/{III'f'
y'
k-
Once again. since intcrvoc;.tc VOiCing I' '.. . . -
'bl h ." . . fle.hon and. d
icully plausl C c angcs. It IS most appropriate. to '0' -. e Chon afe tlhqnct.
(sec Tahlc 8.69). P "t k (lIT the Protoh>nn
~rnhlc 8.(,9 Summary of the change~ i.tTcclin~l P D
o rot)- "nmance . k
/..(UlH"{IMl· (,lllllIge (ill V V)
------
'k > g
voklng
voicing and fricallon
POI1l1gllC~C
Spullish
French
ok,> g '> ~
' k,>g'>~'>0
VOicing. fricalion, and dt!l!tn
In the case of the final vowel, we have the same·t .
. Th f I' . . . . " uat,on we had in th
Prev.ous form. e u I owel ,s found til Spanish Sard· . C
. I· F ' ,man, and Ponugue,'
but there ,s no vowe 111 rench. We can lherefore assum' th f II e,
, f . ' th e e u Vowel"
lor the prolo- orm, w. ~ub~equenl vowel reduction and apoc . F a
Consequently, we arrive at the proto-fonn "ulllika. ope III rench.
Finally, applying the ~ame procedure to the cognates in th' ~ I
. . , C llna two row~
of Table 8.62 y,elds the proto-forms "kappa 'cup' and "gulla 'd 'All th
. th d . h . . . rop . e
languages 10 e ala retam t e 'OI~.al consonant of both proto-fonns. The
vowel * 11 IS reconstructed on the basIS 0 the rna]'only rule' str"t'g ...
, " .... .... c 'i, ~mce we
have no phon~ttc grounds for ChOOSlOg e.ther lul or l01 a, the older ,·oweL
The systemattc correspondence. II1vohmg the intervocalic consonants are
given in Table .70.
Table 8,70
*glltto
y....tematic corre-~ponJence~ of the medial con~onant~ ot *kUPPd and
51'(1/1/.-11
-I'
-l-
,,'II lOIs
, ,011 1 t'
pp-
-1-
m J nl 111',
Fn.'nch
-p
-I
Portll~ue."e
-p-
>-
RUntlllllan
.p
-1-
COL'
tlII
lh](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-188-2048.jpg)
![/I
1
,~ ~, IN I .IJI lit
r:,..rt l.Juill f,,~/,,"
L'lhl L',lh'l I.u/,,·r
Ird, I, IlIrt'l'
II ~.h'U ~ t"HllIIlI hUfldrt~d
-
1111- '.11",./ ,,/>, 1,I/II'n h Ih,lIl1h"!l"'ngh,h h;), 1f/,IOI, '1I1(llhl (h
. ~m
" "rd 11111"'//""111"111. (,r Kulld / 11'" h n'lp),lr), ilnd Ik l ( iril111t1lah I
• . : U alcd
I' fI" P/ ""'''''II.1rll '/lIft, /"1 ''!"to (..~rlllilm, hrdl drltn"nlirucrJ /I f
II I / ,
/ ('" rllrn
pl I II." 1111'/ ,III .111 'lUI," .TIIlUII' 1.11> ( /,lhle 1<.7·1) i, Ihe nall1e
I Ill' Ih ,·(I,,,.'lIoIIII ,h/f" 1 /udl IIx,1,: 1'/,1 'c ''''/wel:lI I'wtll.Jndo."ul(
md l'r. Il> (, '101,11lI,' • 'P'';ln
IJllpJ
111
"~I th I IlIlfllll hlp' l<lplllrcd 11 Ih,
l'rullI Indo / urol an lUlI'"1I 11
luff, .11
II crt' lIlt I
'n..ble 8.75 Some example, (If the con...
. , nnant i-hlfl!-. underYlng Gn .
Slu!' in Cit'rmcmll' Stm,krll Grt't>k r mm!. '..a~
..(Ifm
~ :> x
b :> P
d > l
g:> k
bh :> b
oh :> d
gh :> g
pud-
tanu
~alam
da~a
ajras
bhrala
vidhava
hansas
----~Ii_h
pod 1_ r _ _ _ _ _
tanu6... fled- . fOOL
hekat6n lenu"
centum
de••
.gr6s
phraLCr
eitheos
kh€n
liJbricu~
decem
ager
fralcr
vidua
(h)anser
thin
hUndred
'Iippery
len
aC.re
brothel'
widow
goo,",
Altho ugh Ihere appeared to be exceptions to G .
. nmm's Law (T bl
they turned out to be syslemalle and could be traced t .fi a e &.76)..
I . I 0 SpeCl IC enVlrO
For cxamp e., VOIce ess stops were not ~ubject to Grimm's . nment,.
wt:rc immedIately preceded by s. Law wben lhey
Table 8.76 A sy>lematic exception to Grimm's Law
Origillol s + "oiceless stop
Latin
Latin
Latin
~u -o
g are
pi~is
Englb b
Engli'h
Golhlc
~il
~tand
fi~
[spl (not [sfj)
[st] (not [s9l)
[5kl (not [sxl)
A particularl) impon'illt discover: as made by Karl Verner. ho traced
a group of exception to Grimm" La to the original accentual pattern of
ProlO-!ndo-European. In a generalizatIon that came to be known a., Verner's
La. he prop<: , cd that a oni-internal voice!es fricative resultinl'. from
Gnmm'~ Law unden 'Ul oicmg I the original Proto-lndo-European~accent
,lid m)t imm 'dI3td) p~nI ' I mce ·tre" came to be f,xed on the rOOI
,,1l;Ir.k in G 'nnamc sU>"'Qu '1l to he change, coered b) Verner', La", the
,'n 'I,ll ,'1 ,"'IHl III l'r. cun.'li. However. an,krjt prode, uirect
"I,kn" 1<'1 c I'r' d,UL
ll inc.: ·an,krit was cr: Clln enaUe 0 it-
l1,unt '0,11,'" ,'I t " ,ngmal P- 'tnlndl-European accent. Although the
Fnl!Ii h I" nn, ,m.' (,'I lpli t d b~ other de el pmem,. the effect- l'f Verne,'
I .I~ ,1 ' I P III til th' nhk ampl, hmn U Tabl<!-~ veri an 1
th' ~ 1 thl rd fl r mIll r, PH: *1 ttc, me: ( 1 cord1Og t Gnmrn- La
h n' 10 th' ,rd f r fat l 110 ac rdan e lth
.nmm' lid rn r' La](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-190-2048.jpg)
![Subsequent
dellelopmenh
'1
'1
p-.. r
1 ...... 0
k > h
f'<.'t/
(l' IIII"
~.Inah ~
"'IO,tI,111
11.10.11'1
fll.'·,k .
...rfl;UI
r(' fltH 1U ~
1,.:,111.1'
-----
Th~ ilpp,lrcnl 1;lIlur,' 01 (or/111m ', La", here ~1<'ll1s Irolll II", filer In
!:neli,h ,,,,,.I, ,,,,rt' norroweJ dlrcclly lIolll L.UIII or h"lIdl Illanv . ,II In
- , I h (' , I ' . h' I I J cenl"
nht.'r lh(' .
...(lund ....h,tt., ue..,....cnhcl }, ,rUllln S .•l.. .Il WII.'I1 pl.H:c I q~
offt~l'<)!],'rul'ljt)n cun olh..·J1 he (,.'omplll:alcd h) " w:h horro..ings. he t.l ~
l3y Ihe miJd/t' of Ihe nineleenlh ('elllury, Ihe sludy of lall!!Uil!!l' h'ld III I ,
slrides, c.
'pc"in'.'} ill ~he Ikld 01 phoncl"'s: which .Opl'l1L'd Ihe w,,;'l'll~rl'.1
del",led companson 01 IIIlgillS I1(' forms. One Influenllal hYPOlhesIS III til ,Ih
I . I ' ' A '1 ,Ullln ,
"ii' Ihill sOllnd laws Openlle! WlllOUI eccpllOn.., group 01 1II!!1I1S1, kn
. .• I h' '.' I " ' "I.n'l
Ih~ Neo~rammartllllS auOplC! I IS luL'a .iIll maul' Illany IInp0rlant e l •
. 1 I' I' .. h i " I Iltnh"
11011. 10 Ihe I edgllllg SL'lenc,' 0 IIlgIlISIJC' y apI' )'lIIg It 10 Ilew lind
complicated datil, Allhough such factors as !c.:xit'aI dillusioll an" ntore
. u ">Clal
pres.
,urcs were 1lI0re or less Ignored oy the Neogrammanans, Iheir hyp h '
d . .1. " I . I ' . . ot ell,
rcpre.lcnte an Important anu uanng lI( vance IJ1 t le sClentil ic stUdy ofIan .
'fl ' h i ' d gu,lge
Ie Ilinctet'nl celJlur} a so saw IlJaJOf a lanccs III the da" lficat'
languages. A Germ,lI1 scholar, August Schleicher, devcloped a d:lssirl~.>n 01
f· h I I '" I . I t· · Icalion
or ( c ne 0 ' europe'lIl anguages In 11C orm ot a genealogical tree G,
I t- . . u' I . h 'J . . cncllc
c assl IcallOIl IS ISCUSSC( In llIUC more dctru In the chapter on 1
'1
, nguagc
typology Ihal fol/ows.
. Wod. iu comparalive H:collstruclion is far from finished. In panicular
IJllgUISI.I arc now consldenng the posslotltly of supcrfamilies. Ou ' , .
I f• 'J . N . " C slIcn
propose( :11111 y IS , OSlrallc, whlt'h Includes Indo European, Afro-ASiatic
(1111 nample, Amolc, l!ebrew), Alta,,: (for example Jal)'lIIcse K
' " . . . r . . orCUIl
l urKlSh). '.lIld UralJc (tor exallll~le, Finnish, Hungarian), Conrp:mllive rccon'
S~'~lctlon IS also plaYlIlg an Important role in determini ng the genclle
ldatl(1llshlp. of the hundreds of North American indi"ellous hngll' '"
t . I h 'JJ ' '" ' . ges, II
oJlIe II lit' ,II remalllS htghly controvcrsial.
III 11l~11 '" I tNt-II! lit
1111
1 1 I i'W I II
"',
Sl1ln ,II," t KlXhi. . 11"1 lh , I n ..:t1u 'ttUi. 1ulIl)t 10
'
,,,I lIu.'ul't! h.we Iln llll1l1l.,tn l v ", I lIt() I,,,t.. , lil t
' . I . ''''11 11111 III ll "or'.I' ~"
l.l Ut!IHI).'''·S , 'hl'- ,.. 11 I'at l lU I' III Ihl. ''' 1110 ' 1111, II Itl"""1 'Ihl) lin Ih (", C tIl d
III)""'!!Y 'hu.h I U lU'-T llh: tI '"- Ith II. , I lu,l! llihe ll 1 nl Ilf
~ 1I1 1~ 0 I I,t lI,
~"HH!l tan '"a~l" 1 I.,~. tl tth·'. 0 ' Ih l.'1'" t ~., IIlH It lUt hl,,, U
'llI.:
• I ' I tI t ' I,~ Y 111' • • Uhllaull
1.1I11·lhl!"·... I hH , 0 nu l ',.' Un )' 11 II,,: .11 • I I Ih"II4...'Y h 'I •
r 1 .1 l ,11111 ), tun' I '4
hH l""mil .'. tI <1.u llhm I n , 1Ml l'< Wu I I .I'tl! I~HI H II
. _ It_ 11111' 1 patt _ 1 01.1111
( 'h~lptl'l (l,l. S()V .UI g uagl" :t'1H11l11ltIv • 1'1 t 11 I 't~ • -'lIn " '
I , J l)" 111 i 111 " 11,
I"1!htIIlWllllg mOlp IU " BY tol ' Y1
Wn l l:ol1l' " I )"~ h' IU"III~ I
~r ' I ' I 'x,.tI .... ilhon ..... ( .1 ,.....OU(
Ilho n u lugtt.:n pHll·....~~ ,,111) 1 iI... VlIWl" 1'1.11 ' 1 '.lltl...·I} I . I I
" • IlIly,w hl' n · '1 I ' " Il'
I ~ ,"'Il'"'h.'d 11 0 m onl' ul tw o ..."",... thut 'I t' III . ' 'Ie " " Wt:'h, In U'" I
I ' , • l ')1patlhll- With ' . """I(
lI ont v... hack vnwl'li-t. lUll1llll' ll V1-o, Utln
,HIIl.lc I I , l',U h t)hl' IMI{I,
' . ' (Vl)Wl·" Cl., ) ~~
1
11'IY 11 IInpOllant Utc H the- 'II n lll "'I '~"''' ·'1 t ' .' YPOt)~lC' hhI '
• . . l"" " I: .1 l 1 UIlI ,,"
:..l ah; llu..' nt , w hich HI C ' .llIC for alllal1 ~lav,cs, .: 1~a " Ht ;Ui! IMV'
T he cxtcn:..v(' inl olmatinn nn ,hl' hI'"' ' t
' ' - , - ' r" 1,lp.l'~ () the W()r 1 . .
Itlotie rll h ",gUt1-o1S W.IS, 0 1 COlll sC, nut av',1" . . ( ,IV,lllahk III
. I' , • •1) l' ,It the tllnl' 1 •
I'l'(.'()1...lntl'ttllll 0 1 rutn Indo ' ..urnpc'l1 W',o., lin' " " ',nt~Ia
. . ' " ort"~on M, " I
Invol ved lit clHnpatall vC rcconstnlclion nnw 1',k ' ' k . ll l:rn IO)!.lH,
I· I I • C.I ecn IIIC
IC" '
1
0,,"::11 SIUl ICS ant 11C rolc 01 lypolo~ic"l plnuslh'I'1 ' In IypII
"' , . . ' 'I Y In I'CClln' !ru '1 c
hCCOIll! an Important WpIC. hlr CXllllplc '1 linou'l I Id ..... C 11m 11:'
, ' ~ 0 s W OU tno! Vcrv . '
to propose a reconstrucllon Ih:I violatcd 'I univcrsal .J re U
C
lanl
. ' . property III hn'" ,
that oad no purallcl In any known Ianguagc. • eu,lge I)r
SUI'l! linguists havc argucd Ihal the tr'ldilmnal r"CI I ' ,
, ' . ' ~ lOs ruelllln nl the I'll'
ohstruent system (given In Tahlc 1l.79) should he rC
j
'ccI"d I ... h , .
. ·...·1· ~ • n IIIC a, 1S 01
typological plauslu' Ily. .
'1Ilhlc 11.79
P
(h)
bh
t
d
dh
s
The Iraditional reconstruction nl the Pnllll"Inun·European ub" nlclI"
k k kW
(voiceless slllpS)
g II SW (voiced SlO
ps)
gh Sh S"'n (voiccd asplraled SlO
ps)
This reconstruction is typologically questionahle in al leasl two respects.
First, reconstructed forms with PIE *b are extremely rare, almost as if there
wcre a gap in the labial system. Such a gap is very uncommon in the
languages of the world. Typically, if there is a missing labial stop, il IS the
voiccless stop that is missing, not Ihe voiced stop. Second, the trauilional
n:construction posits a series of voiced aspirated stops but no correspondlOg
scries of voiceless aspirated stops, even though some typologists have argued
that all languages which have a voiced series also have the voiceless one.
Such facts have led some lingub ts to propose what they believe is a mme
typologically plausible rccon~truction Of.Proto-.lnd~-Europc~n (Table I.tI.O)
tIlvolving a voiceless stop sen es, an cJccl1ve senes, and a VOiced slop senes
(as wcll :,S · s us in the traditional reconstruction).](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-191-2048.jpg)
![1M (l
. - • l h..'d 1''1 (he..' IIn,g,lII,ril.' t:t)lIlIlllJllil,Y ~l I
lmh'" .ltlon IS ulllnl~ud~ .tdl r _.- 1~le b)' It,k'lIrif) In<> Ih iJ.rg.. ~
-. l' It I' pt....... " . eo ..: ch. ')Ifl(:
langua.l!~ l.·han~l..· I.' '} ,h: m.lIl I' h.I' t1lltf!,fV.'IlL', In r.cL'on"lr a~g~ I' •
... • Ji I L'Cr • - t::' lief I '1;,
a p.lnl,.:uJ.tf tlfl~U.lgl.. Of. "fit:'r fom)s from ""hh..'h later f IOglli '"
hl"hl0 .tnd ,hc..'f.'o f~"H rh~~·.I~oJOpnrllth e reconstruction al~rnt h...~'~
cohc..'d. lr....,ug 't.'h (It COAn~ I" p-lO:nl or proto-Iungua~e 011 [hOW 1.1, Ie
f'e....·(lfI...rru...·( rhL' propen.ic:-. oj (11,;" '. ~ e ba..i ()
. '.. 'sponden(es . . Of
.!t."stematlc ph~netu: t:o~rt!. _ '. _~an pro ide valua.ble 1Il.,)lghh int
StuJj(.'... Itl hISh)n.:alllOglll.sU...·
...hc.J light on prehistoric d. 0 relillio
" and oS eu cVelop n.
,hip.
.., among language '" ' f language arc of great impona tnenh
Furth~rmt)IT.~. hi....wrh:al 'IU.JJt:S, ~tl" competence, In fnct, it has on
f
ce to 0ll,
. h . 1 ImBu" < . ' ten ...
unul!rsrandJng ()J um,1I .'.bS onc of me most dJrect windo..... V!'en
" 'h'lJlge pn.n Jut.: • "YS Int
sratcd Ihat Innguag< ".' nind Furthermore, the study 01 language c 0 the
"orll.·n~' 01 the hum,lll' 0'- of how social. cullural, and p'Y'h hang,
- d Nan 109 . . colo .
conmou.tes to our un
.. e . ge Finally. the lI1tegralion of 'I . glcal
h lpe languo . . , Ud'e
fUL"wrs IIlremct to S ~ . l'tl'Oll and language universals re........ ~ on
1 c acqUls • ' . '"al
language change. angling facillO" linguists coday, n~ one
of rhe mosr important challenges ~
--------------~==---------
. r s is a... follows:
The fT3n ...Jation tor the!<oe lOe. .'
Notes
5
6
Many men sa)' that in dreams,
Thel"<' is nothing but talk and lies
Bur men may see some dre,ams
Vhic;h ,Ire scnrcely false
2
B r' fterward come rrue. . h h
U .. pIes throughoul thiS c apler. on ographic forn,
I~ Ihese 'IOd hO~I,er .~.,o~), reflect the sound change(s) in question. If req~' are
3
glvcn whcn: I t:se Cea ., 'd d Ired,
. f Ii honelie lranscnpuons are pro 1 e, . ,
panllli or u P I occurs between VOiced segments, l! can als
Smce I'olcmg common Y a k " .0 be
'd I 'I type of assimiJation, h is treared here as a we' enmg Since it is ofre
consl Cft''- l 'f m~~fchange involving various weakening processes. II
pan of" lurger
lPfj,lldehore in IWO respects. First. we ignore the fuct that the Ve b
We have simp I Ie ., . h th d r l)
he and htll'e can unuergo Inl"erslOn even w en ey 0 not fUnction as
auxiliaries.
AI"<' tht' here'!
Hill"r y~u no sense"
Second. we hove not traced Ihe emergence of the auxiliary verb do in the
formation ofquestions. .
Classical Lalin was the literary language of anclem Rome whereas Proto.
Romance I"<'p~sents un aUempr to reconstrucl the spoken language of the Romans
which spread Ihroughout much of Europe and which was the SOurce of the
ariou, Romance lunguages.
Eiectives ure prouuWd by a closing of the glottis and raising of the larynx. (Sec
c"lwpler 2. section 10.)
This chapler is basco un a chaprer In the original edillon by James M. Anderson Ihe
adl"anced lelbooks by Anuila. Hock. and McMahon (cited below) provide Illuch
rnvrc dClatled discussions of mosl of the major ropics In Ihis chapler. They are aho
---- d'
ndedrea 109
RecOmme
IU"'ltHU( AI IIN(.!!!"I( S 1111 !illJ)Y
l), I "Nt.lllt..i
(li~,,<.t '4,~
.:xcclknt "'OUh,:cS tor h.'It.-renl'!.". h.·!tthIIK In );111
illlponalH lor prl'lvu.lll}! uc:t.uled I.h...l.:u......'on' t (11,,1 tupH.:!I., H()(~ ,
typology II) feconMflictUlI) ~I ....yntUt:h,; I.:ha.Oi!l' ttnd P~fII':Uilrtv
Overvic.ws of hi...'.Oficul lang.'I"tlc", .'" H' tIt: T(,Ie 'Jt
b( k b · • .Ipp It" Il) the d.
prcst:nh:u 10 _the Xl... 'i Wilham..., I)yll:.... i.tnu AI Cl eVe I)pm~ll tIt En h h
lod Strung cited below, g '. Ha.U~h 'lOti ( 'Ihle nnl ~ arc
~ The catalogue of ,ound chltllgc, I'" tu,hntec.l 1- • ' I ~'oru
'h ' t , · · '" rtHl cataul
Vennemann, til.' e arlle e LlOglll'o.ttc typologies an hl..torh:aiu~ pn'tM1SCd hy Thet.)
/i1H:ui.',ica 1I111WrUl23: 87- 9 (l,)8~) lllld u nook e ttl U f hnglll..tc,·, 5;u(',,"r I
S';llcture and 'he Explanation oj Sound Chang n{IAt:: >rt'ff'ren(:l' I"(HV, jm' S.,,,::~/
. ~ hi· be . t' IllMcrdam: M . t'
1988), Sectton - as a so nctitcu trom unpuhl h c.l . Outun (It: (inlYlc:r
. 'L' . " h • k' d !o, e malena (p . 1 '
manuscnpt Ingul, ICC ange) 'tn lymadc·V·utabt.h. 'T'I.. antcli arty the
. h I (R b M ," c uy 1 nco Vennem' n.]
ofMumch)tot e aut 10r 0 ert urraY)dunnghl~Ma' M . . ann nlv~r..ty
The data on vowel laxing in Canadian French ~rc~.tn ~nlchtrl)m I.)K()(,)~S .
Tire ProIHmciatioTJ ojCalladiall Fn'tlch (Ottawa: Un,rom, Ou~a..,c Wakcr'sbo()',;.
. I' b ' 1Verslty 0 Ottawa P I
The diSCUSSIon 0 orrOWtn,g and semantic change in E. I' h res;" 9&4.)
. Old d' . ng" .., well a, lhe .
on word order 10 , an Mtddle English corne from the book b J: m.al~na
Origins oJthe Eng/l.I·" Langill/ge (New York: The Free Pre", 1975; ';:'~Ph Wilham,
8.46 on the ongin 01 the 5000 mo't common Words in Eng" hi' dala In lable
of the same book. IS a so come trom p, 61
Figure 8.11 depicting lexical diffusion of the stress change E I
. b . ,_1- f h ' . 0 ng ish nouns
denved from ver S IS Ul.IIo.en rom t e book by Jean Anchlson cited bel . . .
d th . I b ow. Allch"on',
remarks are base on e .n,c e y M. Chen and W. Wang 'Sound h . .
. . La ' c a.nge, actuatlon
and implemenrallon . nguage 51: 255-8 I (1975). The data on the re I' . f
. h .d db H a Izallon 0 [sl
as [hl in Spal1ls were provi e y erben 7.7.0 of the Univers,ty of Calgary. .
The Genna",c c.ognates used to ,lustrate family relationships are based On
Leonard Bloomfield s clasSIC work Language (New York: Holt. Rmehan & Winston,
1933). The data on sound change m Muskogean come from Mary Haas's book The
Prehistory oJLanguages (Amsterdam: Mouton. 1969). The quote from Jones is laken
from A Reader in Nineteenrh-Century Hislorical Indo·European Linguislics. edited
and translated by Winfred P. Lehmann (BIOominglOn: Indiana University Press. 1967)
and the quote from Rask IS tak~n from HOlger Pedersen's book The DiScovery of
Language: Lingulstrc Sctence III rhe Nllleteenth Century (Bloomington: Indiana
University Press. 1959).
Question 2 is based on data provided by Dr George Patterson. whose generosity
we hereby acknowledge. The data for questions 3 and 4 are from F. Columbus's
!ntroducrory Workbook in Hisrorical Phonology (Cambridge. Mass.: Siavica Pub-
lishers, 1974). Que tion 10 i based on data provided by David Bellusci. The data for
question 18 are drawn from Source BookJor Linguistics by W. Cowan and J Raku'an
(Philadelphia: John Benjrunms. 1987).
Aitchison. Jean. 198 I. Lunguage CIlange: Progress or Decay? London: Fontana
Anttila. Raimo. 19 Q. Historical and Comparative Linguisrics. Amslerdam anu Ne..
York: John Benjamin•.
Arlotlo. Anthon~. 11}72. llltro<iuctioTl to Hisrorical Linguistics. Lanham. Ne.. York
and London: l'niYel">lty Press of America.
Baldi. P. IQ,' 311 frltroductr(1n 10 tile frida-European UIl1~ll<IgfS. Carbondale and
Ed",;n:!>"lle: outhem llhnol' University Press. .
Rilllch. Alt-ert C .. and Cable. Thomas. IQ1}3 A History of tile Engll,11 Utrtg"u~e, 4th
<'dn. London: Routledge.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-193-2048.jpg)
![.. I ..
6,
J) lUte (Stluth ilt'.u..'l)
p I k ','
J ~
h IJ
h
m n
.t De~('rinc the morphological characteristics c:>f each of th
languiJg~s in. rerm!'i ?f t.he ~our-w~y system of claSSif1cationeofOUOljlll
."ieerion 2.2. (lOdh: =znd,ccHive or slatement) Ullll1~d i!
iI) Swahili
IU- Ii- sOITI- II
we pSI read indie
'we read'
b) Lan'ian
las-u
read-I sg/Prs
'1 read'
las-am
read-I pllPrs
'we read'
c) Japanese
gakusei-wa homer-are-na-i.
student-Top praise-Pass-Neg-Prs
'The student is not praised.'
rakst-u
write-I sglPrs
'r write'
ralst-am
~Tile IPIIP"
we wrile'
5, Do a morphological analysis of Ihe foUowing data from La! .
d
'd 'fi d h h Vlan Af
you have segmente and J enlt Ie t e morp emes, describe ho . tCr
refleci the implicational universals in section 2.2. (j=[j]) wthe dal~
a) lidotiijs 'pilot (nominative)'
b) lidotiiju 'pilot (accusative)'
c) lidotiijam ·to the pilot (dative)'
d) lidot 'to fly '
e) rakstTtiijs 'writer (nominative)"
f) raksutiija 'wriler's (genitive)"
g) raksrTt '10 write'
Nole the following data from Malagasy. an Austronesian Ian u
spoken on Ihc Island of Madagascar. Does Malagasy comply with gage
word order tendencies mentioned earlier in section'") 3? all the
a) Avy any Amerika izy. - '- .
comes Ii-om America he
'He comes from America.'
b) cntin ' ny lahiera ny mpiasa.
nrings the beer the waiter
'The wailer brings the neer,'
l.-) tanuna nay
cuuntry our
'our country'
1111 (II,
11 II 11 II,,,,, I Jl
It.I(·'>CI
7. To whi~h fa:nihc<.;, do the fouWin 1 .
a) GUjtlrnu j) Yuma ~ i.ngu;.t~!, ht!hng'!
b) Hakka k) Korean
e) Lapp I) Kabardian
d) Uzbek 01) Koa'>ti
e) Sandawe n} Aramaic
f) Huasteean 0) Flathead
g) Faroese p) Telugu
h) Twi q) Javanese
i) Santali r) Navajo
8. Make a list of up to fifteen Ian
ct
·ct . ' guages spoKe h f'
anees an t ent.fy the language f'l n Y nend, and· .
am. y to wh.ch each ~_I acqua.nt·
He ong.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-218-2048.jpg)
![4.2
xiUl'IiOIl deli!:!t at ~I "l~T) Ul'Cp I
artk'ul~ltilln JI..'th..',f It j.. a pn, e-VClllf I
pl.lUning• . . h ....··IJan~1 and wrilinu U.... t-I ," itllglJ;k.
.. .. h- .... · tI"l1" 0 ..... . e" e- .... (.;lls lh lit
.~~nll.ck~ ......lp ...I:h"';n'o Jislt.'ning. The writing of Werni~kc.at 1110lh.:h
dell,'lh In sp".tl..ln!, . . "Iii'· retain good s~'lIin ' up'- lh.i,
, xl The t) pIC. , ~~ g and k ....." .
tOfl1.wll) ~r~ gl)( .., • h .,'cr like their speaking In L IlUn(j>. ,I..: q
.. WUI..'lIlHl Ot: .. • a"cs r ""1)1
Their n[(cn pr .. " , I '0 severely impajred in Wernick ".. ' HUe l_llJ~
R d.. ,.. IprehcnSlon ,.....1 "" .... e Saph ~n
ea 109 .tln , _.c> we letters and ords. but cannOt ,il'siil l'~
C:.s. f11:"':-'. r~lIl.·nls ~~:J:;I~~ion £0 be drown is that Wernicke~ilke an}' ·~1~
ot them .-gaw the II I - ill disturbance of language c , aph""iu n..
, h-'· IS a ccnln ompet . It,
Broca "i ap d:-ota. .. I age functioning. In such ence ~
I . h' t umJerltes angu - cases - !he
~no"letg<. t ,I . hatevcr impairment the patient has In I:. Of c.nl~,
language dIS{Urb3nt.:e. . rcadinO' and writing. Istening ..<tj
speaking will be malched III e anu
.' d' g and wriling deficits that accompany apha '
Acqu'red d le'a as In addmon to the rea In , ' d " , . Sta.'k
I ys XI , h' hthedisruptionofreadtngan wntlllgabllnYisth ~Iere,~
tn d . man}'cases III w Ie ' d d edo~ ' ~,
e amman! . , 'II follows damage tn an aroun the angular . ""nant
language deficit symptom, ThiS tYPical y's of these types of disabilities has led t gYrusOflht
Panetal lobe, An ana }SI ' I > " a sOIll
. ' ' boutthenatureofreadtng(at eastmEnghsh) e,~
mterestlllg theortes a ' . '
B
~ e proceed to discuss twO contrastIDg types of acquired d .
, e ore
b
w. h while to rellect on the abilities involved in the YSleia..
It mIght e wort h d fi read'n
d U to this point in the chapter you ave rea over Ive thousand . gOt
war s. f Ph ds (such as the function words) are very familiar t "ord,.
Some 0 t ese wor. . ' h . a You,
b bl ecognized them as wholes, But ot ers. such as {/JIll' I and
you prOd athYtryou probably read for the first time. How then could y'Qr 8Yru.,
are war s a , b I' th ou kno
how to pronounce them? Many theortsts e leve at readers maintain a .~
f II ' -to-sound rules Ihat enables them to read new words alOud 'l'c set
a spe Ing f d' b'l' , ' 'nes
rules are important in the development 0 rea 109 a I tty and In the add' .e
. ' b I ilion
of new words to our readtng voca u my" , ,
Phonological dyslexia is a type of acqUIred dysleXia 10 which the '
. , II' d I pallent
seems to have lost the ablhty to use spe
h
tng-tO-SOlbln" ru es, PhonOlogical
dyslexics can only read words that they ave seen elore, Asked to read a
word such as bIll' aloud they either say nothtng or produce a known
" . Word
that is visually similar to the target (for example, blue or bug).
Surface dyslexia is the opposite of phonological dyslexia, SUrface
dyslexics seem unable to recogntze words as wholes, Instead they m
process all words through a set of spelling-to-sound rules, This is shown ~st
the kinds oferrors Ihey make, Surface dyslexics do not have diffiCUlty rcadin~
words such as bat that arc regularly spelled, They read trregularly spellcd
words such as yacht however, by applying regular rules and thus producin
the incorrect fOfm IjotfU, The most interesting aspect of surface dyslcXics~
reading ability is thatlhey understand what they produce, not whatthcy sec,
So, if Ihey read out a word incorrectly, they assign it a meaning that is
appropriate to their incorreci pronunciation, For example, if the patient read
the word ,11'<'(/1 a., Iswi:U (and not/sweU). when asked whal the word means,
they would answer: Ihe Opposile of biller.
j,t ules and
eS r '
feat~rl '~g forllls
under yl
Looking at aphasia in term, of hngui....llC th ~ .--
, h b ' ' . Otlry gIve, U
on language to t cram. LtngUl"iltc lh",tlry h he . 'i a new n.-f""",
.... <1- en t . d" r"'" ,'-We
with the structure of language, not with h . U Hi"la), l:~mCt d
, k' d' - Ow .... u....cd. in h me
listeOlng, spea lng. rca mg. and writmu I 1 C f>n)Cc~~. t·
. .. c' n comrm.l th' ' , t)
looking at aphaSIa has been in terms of wh' t h .: e tf'.Ulmna Way,!
' I f h " ate patIent Can' d )
The tnvO vemcnl 0 1 corCl1ca hngui~s in lh ' d ~n cannot u()
I , ' h fi e stu y of .ph', h
minor revo u110n 111 l C lcd. Aphasia rcsearch h 1.1.1a. 'i, ,ca.m.t:d. ~
, ' I' I I erR ave hegun t" th k
the defiCit 111 terms 0 t le oss of knowledoc rc . v In ah'lUt
, .. presentatton, such.
features, phonological rules, and perhaps Ryntact' t . as scman.tic
, . IC rec Structur . Th
linguists have also found that the Study of aphasia off . es, eorelleal
, I d" , ef', an ImpOrtant , I
testing theoretlca ISlltICtlons such as the one betw d" arCa Ilr
, I f f i ' een envatlOnal Ie
and inflectlona su Ixes. In thiS section we will look . su "XC.'
, . " at some of the a '
which the mamage of theorellcal linguistics and neurol' " rea.ln
, f I Th' [ 'f mgUl',ttcs has be
moSI fruit u ' IS rUlt ulness has usually meant a' . " en
. , ' f th " n mcrease In the
sophIStication 0 e questIOns whIch are asked about aph " I h
d
· f ' >l>la, t a, aha
meant the Iscovery 0 new and often b,zarre aphasic phenomena, .
In the area of phonology, we have found that the phonemic parapha ' f
h ' II d' ff f SIaS 0
Broca's ap aSlcs usua y t , er rom the target phoneme by only one
distinctive feature (recaUsection 3,1, sentence 1): 'with' ~ ('wIn and can
therefore be eaSIly descnbed by phonological rules, Observations such as
these lead us to believe that phonological features and rules might be good
tools to characterize how language is represented and produced,
In the area of morphology. the study of aphasia has offered empirical
support for the theoretical distinction between inflection and derivation, As
we have di cus ed. Broca' aphasics how a sensitivit] to this distinction in
their omi ion of affixes in speech, Inflectional afflxe are commonly
dropped. but deriyational affixes are usually retained. Perhaps most inter-
esting is the tendency of some aphasics to produce underlying fonns of
morphemes in reading and repetition. Asked to repeat the word illegal. for
example. some aphasic will produce in/ega/. using the underlying fonn of
the negative prefix rather than the aIlomorph that should occur before, a base
bC"inning with IV, Again. errors such as these pomt to the pOSSlbtllt) that
h~nolo;ical processes such as nasal as imilation and the notion of under-
p ~ I' '.' b
lying f0n11 arc not only an elegant way to repre,ent IIlgUlStlC competence ut
arc also rele,ant to the processing of language III the bralll.
The study of aphasia abo ~tands to shed light on the nature of semantic
representations, Most of the work in this area has concentrated on the many](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-226-2048.jpg)
![• I
1
1FT H O O S OF
P <; YC H OLINGU ISTI C
Rf H Rt H
Psycholinguistics: the stud
of language processing }'
G..m Libben
Le::W' "'(,.¥k" ..~ 'th tIJt,.,tu!tYolhlt· IHt'o;tlt·
th Ulfl~ J/)(lnlt'JrWJJ.:'
,. b. fior
(" ~n~'Ta"'t' in languae(' proce.....slOg almost every day of OUr I'
- - - - . I .' r IVe,
rnx.~c.,...ing take~ pl~lc(, whc;)'n e ~lfch te eVISJon. ,IMen to (he radio . Ihi
ra., :-.ing signboard ~~i.1e dri"il~g. ~"nle a Jet~cr or have ~ c()nvc~sation. U~e~ q
(he~(" bngui.lg:t~ aCU"lut:s arc L:amed o~t "Ith great ease and In a corn lJau~
,1Itx:onscillu. manna. We mighl someume, be aware that we are sear~h;lelely
a ''llrd. l'olllpt)sing a sentence. or stratnlng 10 understand someone el ng fOr
W' are neler aware of Ihe actual mechanisms and operations in I'"' but
pn~ucing and underslanding langu~ge. 10 led In
PSlcholinguistics is Ihe study of these language-processing mc~h
P"cholin~ulSb slud) how lIord, sentence. and discollrse me'l an,,"",
'. ~. . ' . . . .nlng
represented aml computed 111 Ihe mind. The} study hOlI complc h . are
. . . norlh
sentences are composed 111 speech and hoI'. the} are broken dOlIn into t~d
consliluenl parts dunng hSIClllng and readlllg. In shon, Psycholingui e"
Sis eel
10 understand /tow langllage is dOlle. .
This chapter introduces Ihe field of psycholinguistics by lirst dis.
. . . .... I eU
s'in.
some melhods w;ed b) psychohngulsts to pro,,,, anguage rcpresCntatio •
processing in Ihe mind. This is followed by a summary of recent rese~ha~d
language processing In the domaJlls of phoneucs, phonology. morpholo In
and syntax, Fmally. we WIll dlSCUSS how these vanous aspects of linguis~:'
processing work together 10 make ~he el'eryday acts of peaking. listenin
lC
and readmg appear so SImple and effortless. g.
As was nOled. language users are not able to introspect on the details f
language processing, Just paying attention to what they are doing will n
O
d I bl
.. . 01
pmn e re ia e nlSlghts mto hOI they access words or build sentence
Perhaps Ihe reason for this is thaI. in nonnal use. language processing mu~t
occur ICC} quidJ). By shielding mental linguistic operati ons from the
l'onSCIOUs mind, it is possible that the language-processing system IS
mUinlllltlg its ability to operate with speed and efticiency.
tn Irlkt hl ~t.·l a lOth,,' Ot II I, "'"
le, t Xt t
...UOl·,l1l'CllHI' , uu Il~h 11) the 1 II 1 '1. ,,1,, n
I
H lI.... H. _ . ~Ug
Ie" to n."ml SI C'mty ,od M OPt} l:: t', 1 (IIV ftfO{;: n
. ' . • _ u t,,~ h11 I' t:., tnc.lt '
fr",,.nL! ... eye... '' th: )' tnll'
. C ,ILtH," tIl- , • v II 1" l r h fJ'liJ.,
t 1 t 1 :~ lUll~ 'i '1 (
HUn'CO ....n u ')u . ) n,lIn ch 0 rgh' Out 1<'Iht." h I~l",; thai In C )tJJ,(
saccnd.es. Like mthl 0 u.... ynur tn"" ,' hi' ~eel' In n 'je dotl)t
. ... u prll .,hy h tit 1 I.
that h'.... or her eye, an~ mU'inl1 " , "~the un] " ' t;d
• . _ e- I.:f) t"':h /ellft
..uh1ct:tI C lmprc....slOn ,... mcorn:u " h .J .(;h'S,ti. lh .. n U""
J n'" uman, 1 .,age Rut h
~onSlnlctt!d to be able to munitur m"
'ny I • ~t:n.'i. lh", ~.e Ie . at
. " II mu Ut IO,p" IV.
language pn)('cssm g. . om'UK actl'. tle > 1 .......
. I "d" • IClu<,no
A substantia au ltlOnn cha~n" t·, h . C
e C
Ir I e pS~ 'h 1
P
resented by .thC fact that mo,, inlu'~In. c l) n~UhtK H! .tH.:he
h . eo "~'- prlK:C "lO:J I ' I
observable P ) stcal e v ents :-ouch a:-. eye.n,o',. g (l~~ nh In' I
• ' yC1
llcm , bU fa ~ . .0 Ie
events that cannot be ohservcd dr~cy. R' ". 'et m",o",c~ tl n"'1
. Cc.n.:h lheref ~
language proceSSIng e'ents in lh~ mind ~_~ . t' Ore rcqUlr! that
. C . K! 10 erred f
beha' 10m'. on~eqllently, a large )un of ph I' .. mm I>h"'''ahte
. . ":-'yc () tng.ullC >.. .
cerned With Ihe development 0 new ('md oft rc"'arch " C1)n-
• en very de, )
uncover how language proce~sing is uccomplished S er technIque., lu
ure presented in Ihe following scclions. . orne of the,c Icchmqu
Some of the earliest and m OM influential "udies )f I
. d h . . . ( anguage pn><:c,
c,mTIlIlC I e spontaneous slips of the tongue prod d d' slOg
. I' f uCe unng S""e h
Spoonensms are S ipS 0 the tongue named after the R d .r- C .
everen Wilham A
Spooner who was warden of New College, Oxford. between t903 amI t9'4'
The Reverend Spooner was famous for producing a great " .
. man). oflen
humorous, speech errors. Some of hiS more well·known . . k
m"ta e~ are
provided below.
1)
W hat he intended:
What he said:
2)
What he intended:
What he said:
3)
What he intended:
What he said:
~)
What he intended:
What he said:
'You have missed all my Ilistor' lecrures'.
'You have hissed all my mysre0· lecrures'.
'Noble sons of roil'.
'Noble rons ofsoil'.
'YOII hal'e wasred Ihe whole reml'.
'You hal'e rasred rhe whole woml·.
'The dear old Queen'.
'The qlleer old dean '.
Beoinning in the 1960s. Victoria Fromkin began to study these and other
natur:!I) oc-curring slips of the tongue and noted that they can be very
, . ,_I' 1" of the manner in which entences are created 111 speech. For
ft:t;"uU eo . . _.
I as can be seen in the precedin" example •the charactensUc pattern
examp e. e](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-230-2048.jpg)
![GIIAC,'
I'I/OC. "Nf, ANU
"f',j(Jl j " r,(
2. 1
Phon...in .lIla
p"onolll~y
fill' " ud} ,,, pholll·I,r., and phonology rc~~?ls thai lht! Mlund;-- '-
'''fl t'Uilt'C " rlt.'hly , tnlt.'lUn:d 1111 ('1 man) dltk-reiH levels of rc ruclurc. II·
<' C , , I 1 . d · preseo I
I'hll' i.h i, d" '1l' U" l' d In Chapler, - :lilt .• If} lVlduul segm' tUt/on
, f . I cOls c· .
dla' ,I('IL'n /l'd 111 1(" Ill'" (It pli.ll.'.c ,lIld l11annc.!r 0 al1lCU ~tlOn Or With P , an he
,I h'I'r;II'r l1 l' 01 phollol<li!,rill Il'allln!" Sequcnces of sounds C:tn beCpeel I~
IIIln ,yll,lh;c 'Huettll!'.', ;ul<l alinpholllc , an alIon can be described in g~ouPtu
'l/,d,',I} III " l,hn,,,'I1I<'.' ,,1111 lI/Iaet' nllnphoncs, How mUch of Ih '. klln'of
" , IS Stru .
pia) .... a 10k ,n '.:HlI!U+.Igl· pnK'l',...!'t'flr-' . ctur~
II", simple- ;l/l" CI I" Ih i., 'I1I!,.,(lOII IS: 'AII of il!' The mOre c
;II1' W
t'1 ;Iud. 0 1 C()U
r'l" ab o Ihc.' more accurate answer is that laOIl1Ple'(
"/(""'.'''''I>,hO <"ld" I1,',' Ilwl /t'alurc, . phonemcs, and syllable struenguage
<'111"II/(' "lItll' ;."'1<'1'" o f Iltt' a) in which we process languag' b,ureall
, . I . , c, UI th
' 111'1'1'11 ",..,dIlCI IOII and Pl'I'l'l'pIHl11 " " coml' cx acti vity that invol, al
I
. I . Ie, Illu c
1110'" Ihan Ill"'" I'hllll,'IIC,llId phollo ogle;1 rcprcscntallons, COl
III .l',' h~ Ihis is Iht' cas,', l'IlI1sidel whal mighl Occur when you h
"'111<' 11''1': /I" d,.~ !>illh, ,·tll. Ikcaust' Iht' utterancc unfolds in lime ,ear Ine
. you Iill
III."llI'al fhl' ,<,gml'fIi/N ,111<1 tht'll Ihe Sl'gmcnt I;,/. (In fact, you do not h '
Ih,'", "'CII"'II" ."'1'''1,11''1 hul r,llher yoU create thcm out of a co I' ear
- • . • n InUQU
"'"l1d"I<'alll.) 1 ""'11. ,Is Ih,',,' ,,'gmt'nts arc Identlhed you have I
, a read
""<'<',,cd Ih,' 't'f'I,"CIII;III<111 1<11 th,' "onllh,' In your mcntalleicon. When thY
IIP" "'glllcIII ,.1Illl',' up III Ih,' '''UIIJ stream, you already know that II. e
. . I I I . Is Ihe
I'. gllllllll,!! (II .1 Ilt' 110,,1 aliI OU.I '0 "now thaI thiS word is likely I he ,
IhUIII Ill<' phllll,'11t' ,111,11) 1,,/),11 /(,110", idelllilies the segl11ents d-n_" 'lod h
a
, . ., ,n I e
u'""'I"'ndlllg 1,'1,',11 CIIII) . (/~ <,"me Ihe Itrsl ":gtllents of Ihe Word h' I
1" lilliI'll, lilt' "11 III II pll!1Il,'tll,', Ihll CllUIJ he Iht.' Iir'l tW<I sCg ll1Cllh 'I" h
n
I h
. . . . . 0 Ie
""1, III/I, hUI "II ,u,' 11(11 h~t'll It, rOIl,"kr thiS I,o"ihl lity h'''' 'lll''
• .., ,C YOUr
lk' ,'1"1"11 ' IIIll''1''''IoII1,," "lIlt" ,,'nlClll'l' i, hlasin ' you tow" rds thl' Iltlrd hit
Idll,'1t I', '" 1 I I til "'UI IIlIlId 1Jlh d(/~ ,
, 11111 'llppll,I,lIcd Inllll Ih,s,' .tnll'i<', 1,lnt!u,lgt' pron "ing 1/1 "Ill's Ih,
lOt lJ'lJ~ t>llIlf lIlt1,IIlOlllh,1I del ,1,,1' Imull,lIll'ousl).1I m,llI l Ii111ncIII Inel
t'/ lIIah Is III r.: 1">(1It It ann' Ih, s nI ll''t' /11< dog "If,Ir(' nil j, 1'l'll"nmng
'illl!>... (JI
ANt .IM I
• '({H.{"s.
phonetic anulYMs to ic"ohne f'lh(lOcm~.... . '''''. ~
these to representation" 10 the mcnt.. llt.t..WhTll htl"ntla.rlt:';
referred 0 a.... bottom-up prOCe' I!Xh.:on. 'I hi"; ..1 :::a, <lnl 1I r _
'd II h h - "",n!._ But Vol' InUUl,.t't! e ate
analyse n. t e P onemc!o. In a ...ent.... _ C U() fUll W' _ ;,tna':1~
b . , cnce hctor. _ au. unhi I
it. Rather. we egm mterprelation of . C We begin 0 ~I! na"t
cally on the basis of whatever inform
il
sentence 'KlnlancHU 1)'1 l{) u".<kl''l.tald
. <lhon IS' '-I ~ 'j and
by the ume we get to the Word bit in lh. l1Val <he th u.... ~ ~Ut)m.h_
b
e "'Cntcnce . ()( tW'T
it using attorn-up proce~sing but we 'trc . . We aTC nOt ()nl)i ea"",)",
to guide phonetic processing and wo~d a so emp()':{mg a el of recO&nln~
. 1 r rccognli.()n "T'..' .' ex.pectutl
proceSSing. n normal language use we a . . . l Il caned t t.}o....
and top-down activities. We never pr:c
e
, ,~ays engaged in both ...~P-d()wn
W l ess JU" featu. ",ttom-up
syllables, e process anguage for the purp. res, or phone '
, 3 f h' h ose, of unde ' mes, (It
In seCllon 0 t IS C apter, we will disc h "landing e""h 'h' .
. fi· h ' UgS Ow phonef 0 .. er
analYSIS ItS IOtO ot er processes involved in 'peak.in . Icand phonologIcal
however. we WIll concentrate On three leveh f r gand I"tening, For no
fundamental to phonetic and phonologic~IOrel~gU"llc"truCture thae~
nemes, and syllables, p eSentallon: feature" ph<>-
In both linguistics and psycholinguistics the te' '
, I " rm J eah4re lS us. d
the most baSIC evel of representation, It is theref al e to refer to
bollom-up processing in language. In the proce~re Wt
yS
assocIated with
characteristics of individual phonemes (e.g '+ vSotng1°, sound. It refe" to
, , "t- tee l± conttnu I
The most stratghtforward eVIdence concerning the role f h f ant,. etc,'
from the analysis of sEps of the tongue. Some eJ<.am~:uc f ~atures comes
presented in Table l.. s 0 ese sltps are
Table 11.1 The role of features in speech errors
Intellded
a) big and fat
b) Is Pat a girl?
c) Cedars of Lebanon
Actually produced
pig and vat
15 bat a curl"
Cedars of Lemmanon
The errors in T able 11.1 follow a pattern. but that pattern can onl) be
understOOd with reference to a s)tem of phonological features. In all three
e" am pe' - the errors invohe a phonological feature. 1n example (a) the
feature [voice] ha>. t>een exchanged between the words big and fal to create
the nell loro, pig and '(II (the phoneme pair Ib-pl and If-·I only differ in
the fe3llre [yoieel'- Thi:ame pattern of the exchange of the feature OlCe can
he sel'n in t: amrk ,b ) where Pal become, bar and girl become, curl. Fina~
the eIT,)f in Ie) l~ rart.it:ularl~ intriguing becau..e we normally think of fbi and
1
m! as .:,'mrktd) lilf'ferent phoneme's, In facL however, the) are both VOl ed
I il.ll't;11 , tl'I" that l nl~ differ 1lI tenus of the feature [± na,alj, ChanglOg be
/1 / 1'1 t It fn'11Il-na I) to l +na all create the error Lemmonon
l'11t' , • .llllpk offer e'idl'n.:e that language productton m 'e u of](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-235-2048.jpg)
![.0
Phonemes
Syllables
'e ha e ...("en tf1 ..t.·.~tilln I I [hal Sptxmerisms. sho eViden"
, I . J durin" ,enrence plannmg Th Co Of
ph4JnC;"'me:-- bt.~ing nllsp ~1I..e ~ . , " . . . e Phone . en
, I pl'I)·1 cenlml role In PS) chohngulStic ~ m'e u ,II"
n.-prest.'nrUlhJll a :-.(.1 • .... . . '''Odels . nil
. u'h I· the cohort model, ThIs model States h' ol,~ Of
proce......mg. .~... ...... .' "d b . hearers from be' . t at. . t"I:~~
comprehensIOn. word... dre anal) se ) _. . &,lOnlOg to e In Or:
, I' ·h 'n ," hear the word glass. we IIltually constder all th nd, So d
exarnp c." c d [I] , e w .t"
heuin "llh the ,ound [g]. When the next soun IS recognized h ord'lh'
of~ssible words (the cohmt) is reduced.to those words that be~i~ e nUIll~~
Thi, process continues until the cohortOt possIble words ~s reduCCdWllh 1&11
th
'd h t' b'in" recogmzed. EVIdence JIl favour ot the to on '
e or [a I~ t: e . h' h . Coho e...
comes from a number of experiments III W IC . It has been fOundn fllOdel
be"inninos of words playa more important role III word recognitio that the
middle ; end portions, The cohort model has also been su n than the
experiments that found that the beginmng-to-end analysis of s~Cnned b)
proceeds one phoneme at a [lme. rather than one cluster Or one syll wOrd,
. ~.
~~ a
Althouoh in the cohort model, the phoneme rather than the syllabi
" ' d ' . e seenl
be the fundamental unit of auditory war recognHlon, there is othe " to
. h re.~
thai the syllable plays an important role III speec perception. In ,encc
subjects were presented with disyllabic words (e.g., bullel) and ~ne Study,
non-words (e,g,. s/llIer) and were asked to press a button if a Partic IIsyllabic
" h Uartar
unjt was in the stimulus. The target unllS were elt er syllables (e get
b h
' d d .g., let)
segments (e,g" I). It was found at, lor wor s an non-words that Sub' Or
were significantly faster at IdenllfYlllg syllable targets than at I
'd ' ~ects
' . entlfy"
single segment targets, It was conc1~ded that syllable tdentification was f 109
because, m normal audllory analysIs, subjects first break down sti ra.ster
syllables and then into individual segments as the situation demands
ffiu
I Into
Another source of evidence on the role of the sylJable in I
processing comes from observing subjects' performance on word ga~nguage
example: You are given IWO words such as bug and cal. In this game es, For
required to blend the words together to make a new word Now wha't
YOU
are
. ' , SOunds
better: (bug +, cal = bat) or (bug + cal = bu!)? The dIfference between these
two posslbJllIJes IS thai the fir~t one takes the onset of the first syllable an
combmes II wllh the rhyme 01 the second syllable (Figure 11,5) Th d
'b'l' d ' ' c olher
POSSI I Hy oes not spill the words at a natural point of English ' II b
" ' sy a Ie
struclUre, As you Il1Ight expect, subjects are much better at creatin W
blends that correspond to the syllable structure of their language <md
g
~rd
such blend" I hen presented with a choice. The fact that English spl!ak' prl
: cr
s 'h , t h' d'" , ers Iud
,Ul Oflse r jmc tVtSlons eaSicr and more natural suggests (hat (he sound
~"it. ~,
"
h
l1 l1
I~ Ir-
0 N C o N C
b 1I g C a
l
Ii
l
Ii
() N C
(I N C
h l
a
CI
I~
ONe
b a
1 5 Speakers of Engtish find the word blend in a easier and more nal I
figure 1· in b because the former Involves breaking Ihe word, al nal ' I ~ra 11",n Ihe WOld~''1(
boundaries. < um sy abe-strucure
The linguistic study of morphology is the study of word Sir
' . f ' ucturc. It ,cells ~
charactenze the system 0 categones and rules involved' d f ' ',0
. 'Th h" . . m wor ormation
and lI1terpretatlon, e psyc ohnguls!lC study of mornholo' I '
d h
' '. glca proce,smg
seeks to understan ow thiS word structure plays a rol ' I
' . f " , e m anguagc
P
rocesslllg. In the ollowmg sections. we Will summarize some ' ~ I'
PSYCIIO 10-
guistic research that reveals how morphological structures and principl I,
'al I . th . , ~p~
a substantl ro e 1tl e representation of words m the mind and in word
recognition.
Words such as blackboard. happiness, and watched are made up of two
morphemes. In the case of the compound blackboard, both these morphemes
m'e roots. In the case of happiness, one morpheme is a root and the other is
a derivational suffix, Finan) in the case of watched. one morpheme is a root
and the other is an inflectional affiX, The ftrst question we will addre" is
whether the iudi, idual morphological components of words playa role in
pro('e~sing. . ' .
The ans er to thiS queSl10n ,CCtl)'; to be a straightforward yes, For most
tnlllttlllorphemic words, individual morphemes are automatically activated
dunng Wl)rd recog.nition. One source of evidence for this conclusion comes](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-236-2048.jpg)
![Sw -OW.
TI '
n • TIll I' rerre,enled 3.> an arm... [hal feeds back 10 the
I1bo 'h Lc,e!r", modd nughr I()()k qutle comple _COI)C~
_---' L u'!'pre cOled in Figure 11.10_ i a great Simplifi!' 1.1 i; cle- >•
Ulvue 3.> - ! a lcaho <If _
_IJ ex ur in Ihe mmd dunng an."uage prOCessing "rt. n of I>.h.
:-co... L - ,,- _ 'He ''''!_
I'b deratl, of JJ.flgunge proce smg. we more We . lllore
'.
bout e . -11' - . realiZe I>.e,
01 ho" people do lon~uage I" .~ ID Its infancy. The fun that the ~
~ . '11 [mecharurns 3.110 a task so complex to be datnentaJ .
r,matn . - . rth d - acco ~.
-h •.., Thi I' a quesuon o. pon enng the next 'i_ Illplish.:.-.
u, e~ . d rh - "''Ie Yo ~_
J 'ru~ "rilino nOll" -. an ave eanng a whispered U <Ire 1_ _.'
CD:J e,; ". e_ conl'e _ •
, au all I the same ume. !Salton Ile -•
. ~~
Pncbolingujstics i the study of language prOCessing_ Th
boili b an area of subject maner and a partiCUlar methOd e field is,
IJU;<IS • cud' bow people perform the functions of lano"o Ology_ PsvcJ.. •
" ~. . ,,-ge CO • ..:
and production_They seek w dIscover the nature of the mental lltJlreheni
thaI serve the-e functions and the narure of the CognitiVe ~epr~
computation that are employed when we understand and p Od perati~ .
- - I r UCel-
Since language processmg mvo vescomputations and represe ""l~Et
cannot be observed and measured dlIectly. Psycholingu- DtatJOlls .
- hill ' . ISis have d_
special expenmentaI tee ques to mvestigate language proc _ utI
these techniques. such as lexical decision and Priming. me eSSl!!g. Son.:of
. d lin . - asure a .
response time an response ~ccura~y to gU! tIc stimUli. Other ~
measure eye ~ovem~~t ~'hile sub~ect" ~e reading silently and ~hni
measure electncal actIvI!y m the bram dunng Janguage proces' . el oth.:-
- . I Sing
Language processmg mvo ves man} processing modules ~t
ciahzed for a partIcular language-proceSSIng task and that intera are 'f(.
od I · . d Th 1 Ct V.lth",~
m u es m restncte ways. us anguage processing im-olve ___
interplay between bottom-up and top-down processing. We prOCe : c:::
features. phonemes. and words all at the same time. We Construe P :
. h j . I ' t s,llabe
representatIons, morp oogica representations. and yntactic rcpr " _.
. d ' CSenla!Jor,;
In a spontaneous an automatIc manner. As conscious being "-e
- . ~ are a;;p
ofthe results of our procesSIng but not of the processing itself. '
10 general. psycholinguislic studies have revealed that many f->
concepts employed in the analysis of sound structure, word struc~. .:
sentence structure also play a role in language processing. An acCOUnt ;
language proces ing, however. also requires that we postulate additioo'
processing units such as a parser. as well as the non-linguistic compone ~
fIi models of language processing. These language-processing model> art
oftaa ~ in flow chart fonn and seek to provide explicit accounts (j
. .padicuJar language tasks are accomplished_
:;lI__,..., IIIMy new books on psycholinguistics hal'e appeared. These iDclllde
....u by JOICpIJ Kess (Philadelphia: John Benjamin, 1992). Psycllo/Jl-
IIc.IIro-GIeuoo and Nan Bernstein Ratner (Philadelphia: u.m-t
....., Garman. Psycholinguistics (Cambridge: CaaDiIF
Ilecommended reading
PSYCHOUNGUIS1ICS, lHf STuD
Y (Jf lA
...,
Umversity Pre,s, 1990>_ All<>Iher e«ell
Ps)choJillguisics ediled b) Monon Ann c:; '<lIlru: " Iht 19';4 H
1m)- rmbacber New YOI.
Some of the 'slip of the longue' RlaleriallO _
Fromkin', chapler on speech production ( . ,,~non 1 I r
Ramer 'olume clled above. Pl -1- 3OCJ) to 1hc ~
The experiment in which bar-presSlnn I -.I
dari - . all " iOle, "'ere fOUnd 10
boun es was ongm y reported by E AS. ~~
- f - - . nne (99(» In
processmg 0 wntlen teXt by younger and older adull' an anJde Iilltd 0.._
6&-78) and IS discussed in Anhur WIngfield's ell:; .1 PnchokJgy and A "" <
Berko-Gleason and Ramer tex!. pter ~tellC<: proc 1ll1be
The discussion of eye-movement data tn Rev h 1_ .
K R d S S y_:e olOgubtic,.asbased
by . ayner an . ereno. ·Eye-movemen. _ . oolht~
PsYcho/inguislics edited by M_A. Gemsbacl.- 1>. lIn
I readmg, In Handbooi:
. I k "lOr as we as tn Iht boot
and A. Pol atse , The PSYchology of Reading (En lew . . II ~
1989). g 00d Cliffs. . J Prem.ce Han.
The material on event-related POtentials is ~sed
and Cyma Van Petten (pp. 83-133) in Handbook of P~';."a;:"anJde b, Marta Ku.a.
processmg expenmem Cited in the svlable section' ~ltrrlU:J. Tbt .~.
S . U F < Ide . Yo as repClned In an arucIt
J- eglll. - rauenJe r, and 1. Mehler 'Phoneme moni . _
dl- . ill . . B - - h ' lDnng, vUable 1Mrntnn_
an elUC acces,s. ill. nus. Journal of Psycholog}. -2: .q:-and ~~
ill R.E_ Remes S amcle On the perception of speeeh' . If
Psyc1lOlinguistics. ,m andbooi: of
The word-~Iending studies are reponed in aseries ofsrudies conductedtr. RdJea:a
TrelIDa, e-g.. The StruCture of spoken syllables: El'idence from llO'el word
Cognition 15: 49-74 (] 983). A eros -Iinguistie SIlIdy using afOO:ed<hoice ,=of
these word games is reponed in G.E. Wiebe and RL Derv.ing. '; f~
blending rask for testing intra-syUabic break points in English. Korea. _
Taiwanese' . in Twenty-First LACUS Forwn IChapeI HilL _.O!tb Caroiina: LACeS.
1994).
The morphological priming eXperiments are summarized lD an article II) WiIIia
Marsleu-Wilson. Lorraine Komisar.iev~ Tyler. Rachelle Watser, and u..<lIdIs.
'Morphology and meaning in the Englisb mentallexicoo·. Psyc~ ......
101(l): 3-33 1199-l). The experiments 00 selectional remictKe Ire rqJOI1I:d • G.
Libben' .Are morphological structures computed during wml recogniboa J--.l
ofPsycholinguisric Research, ~~ (51: 535-W_ .
The section on the processing of gardeo pad! semeoces 15 tIb:a r- .....
Frazier's anicle 'Sentence processing: a tntorial re1ew', iD~"'1'eJjint
ance, 1'0/. n. The PSJclwlogy ofReading. edited by M. ~~=
Erlbaum. 1987, pp. 559-96). These seuteoce type5;:,." CPU,
Caplan's book Language: StruclUre, ProceSSl1llIllfll
:llT Press, 199-l)_ . M.)t.'nII":....WIL'!l1l!!!
The study of sentence ambiguity is ~ID •
~I.s. Seide~berg, 'Do listeners COIIIpUIe ~ ..
Language Parsing, edited by D.R. Dowty•
bridge: Cambridge lini'ersity Press, 19115).
Berko-Gleason, 1. and RaIDer. Na.......1.~.
Harcourt Brace.
Garman. Michael. 1990 hJ"'_"~!,!!](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-241-2048.jpg)
![J1
lOY liN I
~u en "ngo" II .m.I.ltlII ,ugs"'" Ib I earlv ha
p:itlly .ndqxndcn. of !be p.u1Jcuw l3Ogu:r!", 10 Which- b.,,~1i ..
In fact. ,,,en deaf cluldren Nbl>Ie. ",.hough !belI an'~ul r"" ~
II()tI1C1>bat J • V1l11('(/ th.>n th3. (Ileanag children iltOr) ~
..
/I". ",.vt""pnwnl."
ur,'.·'
8.''''''111/: ,/I<.r=.o In I",quen.:y unnl !be age of aboUI I"el,
..," h tunc Liu/dr.n tart to produce. lire".: fi"t unde,..,,,,,, e Illo",,'
O,"""ng m." overlap ,,,th the production at real Words ~ dable ....... "
I>e{orc d) Ing ;)ul. By !be ume children ha, c a.:quired filt). Or "',.",."'"
f
. . "ord, ....
hegln to adopt farrly regular pattern, ° pronunciation. Or "<l
Lunguagt.· UCtlUI IUon rc~earchen have expended a gOod . ~
Iry 109 to dctcrmine the order in which speech sOunds deal Of
. . are orr
prouucIl"nand perception. Although Ib,s work has been hlla.'lereu'ln
,IIII,,:ullle, In determlOlOg precISely when a contrast has be IOdered IQ
well iLS oy a ,hortage of reliable data from a sufficiently' CbO ~cqU"." ~
. rDad "',
languages, some general trend.s seem to exlS!. "'"go Of
As a gf(lUp. vowe" are acquired before consonants (by age th
SlOpS lend to be acquired before omer consonants. reel.
In lerms of place of articulation, labials are acquired first f I
some variation, by velars, alveolars, and palata-alveolar.:. ~O"ed. "lib
as [fJ} lind [c1iJ are acquired lasl. Otab (Iuch
New phonemic contraslS manifest memselves first in WOrd_I '.
tion. Thu~, Ihe /p/-Ib/ contrast, for in. rance, will be manI' c nlllal Po,'
,e~ted . ,-
such a.s po/hal before lIIop-mob. . In Pair
All olher Ihings being equal, a sound (like [s] in English) Ih
many different words will be acquired before a sound (li~~ OcCUI in
occurs in relalively few words. [3lllhat
By age Iwo, the average English-speaking child can produce the'
consonanl phonemes lisled in Table 12.2. IIlVentory of
Table 12.2 Consonanl invenlory al age two
SIOpJ Fricatives alher
-----
p b OJ f w
---
I d n
k g
-
By age four, this invenlory is considerably larger and includ h
I· d ' .,., bl . es t e sou d
",te III ,a c 12.3. SuI/to be acquired at this age are the inte d " n s
101
' r enta fncat'
and ld) and the vOIced palato-alveolar fricative 131. Ives
In gellcral. the relative order in which sounds are aequO d d .
I
. . . Ire unng lh
allgnagc acqulslIlolI process rct1ccts their distribution I'll I e
Id
. , anguagcs or h
I'. or '. fhe sounds that are :t<.:quircd carly are generally the . h . t e
d , e ' ones t at arc m
II Ie) ,(lund rn thc worJl1's languages while the sounds thaI' ,,,' 01
•. I I I . . arc acqUIred lal'
llll In le t Ie one" that arc less common across languages. C
-
''ubtl' 11... •
h tl l1t'h"~
r ""-' 11,..
-:;----"
I d n q l~
. S 1 .. I
~---.:.. _ _ _ _ I
One freqllenl proce~s In children', 'I" " h
. . d " d ccc lOyolvc, Ih'
cerlall1 soun S 111 or er to ,implif'· '~ II' hi . c 'Y'lomahc <1'1'1
• J 'J ~ C slrm.:t ., : Illn 1
Table 12.4 - typIcal of the 'p~ech Ill' t. . Ule. n tho ,Ia'a 'h""
I
"" ,In<l thr" n n,
consonant c listers are reduceu hy ddcIIl ,. ec-Yca....'i<1 <hlldr.
g Olle nt tl~'fC e~m:n..... n
Tuble 12.4 Reduction of consonant dU"cr,
lsI + stop (stralegy: delete (s/)
slOP -+ltop]
5m"II -+[moJ
desk -+ldek]
stop + liquid (strategy: delete liquid)
try -+ ltaIJ
crumb -+ [gAm]
bring -+lbll)]
Jricatil'e + liquid (sJrCJle.~y: delete liqUid)
frolll -+[fAm]
sleep .... [si:p]
"CI"ClI + '(>ict'iess stop (.trl1lr~.'" delele )Jus,,/)
bump .... [b.'p]
tent ..... [det]
Another common delelion process in carl} child language involve Ihe
elimination of tinal consonants. Initial consonants. in cllntra,I, ar~ Iyplc,llly
retattled if thc_' prcct'uc a vov.:!](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-245-2048.jpg)
![470 () TIMPOk.R," U~f,11 II(
])
/)
d,'g .,dnl
I>u lb"
I..... 11111' I",,,, ,'lid ,,'" ,,,",,,,,,,, .., 10". I
dUlIIIIJt 11'1 fill '111.1111 ,', 11th' ... !rlh lilli', hIIJIJ"lIg II til" lllllllll
III' ,II' ' I ~.'I It 1$111
"" 'h ,I 'C) '""',,11 /""""'" 11> ,h,hlh'" ""d 'iI;II " 1/" '''",: '10 (I'
/ ",," 111.11, """(,, ,.;", ',' "' ~,.",."" ""~I
Inul1~f p.rll III III hlll1l,IIII.II h '1
Sub 1/1u Ii"n , 11l."lphpllt'lh' PIOlt"'"'S III l ', lI" 1,I/lVII,I,.". 'II
f )Ul III ,111 11111 I If I I . I ' lIll'lIl III I1l1t ll l11hl 11) .111 .tll I lIh,.
t 1 ",II.UI tt p . h ' . I 1
1
;111.
'111"",,,,,,,,, ,/< " ,'.I'/<' ,,, ."'1<111.'1<' ( """""" """""/I'h", p" ' ""'1
Ule hlld .1(11'.111 Ulh 'U' / '1'111 fl' .1 h" .III'~ h II l"lllt'Plllll It ("".
, ... "'1'.11, III '1I1~
IfI Iud r",JlJinJ,l:. I II.: I t I ,tllllld's ,,1,1 (" nl .11111,,"111.111,'1, IIUdl 11111
I ' tOf .II« P • I ' II I ~It •
" nutmlt'. lilt '"II II , I I IIlid (I'".., •• .,u Ofl , I h It0llld' • .Ih
t
I I', t • II • ( 111"111
' pi I /II /II .. I " '''1'''' ',III '" " 1""'" ,'S." . '11/1"1;11,." "I a
n d "hIP h I 111m 11.1 II~"IIIJ~,'! I' l,
llh 1
h
r
I III I .' ,; •
h 'I" ( I " ."", r ""I'
," h
I' ( 'hall "
~h""," t
nnlll1ll.Jnt •• r) S • I
I 'd
0
"
,I d.•
"
.. I, l
"I
F f .,
dl 'HI,
If ts
d
j
'J
W
"
r
•
• I 3
1II loll
b RI"I(I
m
111
11(11'11
'" " 1'1](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-246-2048.jpg)
![(..(). Tr~1p()"" 'R) LINGUISTICS
a b
r
L-_I
Figure 12,1 The Ifl¥lO'tance 01 ",lienee in the development of adjectives.
!;,]
The interpretation of
sentence structure
(advanced)
A ' t-d ,'n Chapter 7, the interpretation of se,mences draw< h
s no ~ , h- I ' " cav'J
information aboul hO~ words are hle~rc Ica J) ,organ,zed to fonn I) on
trucrure In thIs section we til bnetly consIder some aspe Phra."
" , th I ' Cts or
acquisition of two IIlterprel"'c phenomena at re) On Informat' the
Th("matic roles
IOn abo
syntactic structure, Ul
In Chapter 7, we saw thaI thematic roles are assigned to panicul
'th th - II ' , at Cd
structure) poSItIOns in accordance WI e to Onng generahzatio
ns
, eep
1-1)
A preposition IP) a"igns ih role (location, ouree Or goal) to
an 11>
complement.
A verb IV) asigns its theme role to an, 'P complement (lraditionall
- , y~~
Ihe OOjeCIJ,
; I'erb I ') mSlgm ih agent role to lhe subject.
Chtldren learnlOg EngJrh are able to associate thematic roles with pan'
I , - h - , lcular
stnlclural position at:l I1:1) e~r YPOInt In [ e acqUlsJllOn prOCes , By the time
theIr 31crage utterance length 1. !~O onh, the) are able to re -pond COrr
' " , ectl)
.tbout 75 per ('l'nl o~ Ihe lI~cbl0thcompr;_h,enth'lon te,rs IIldv0
thhl ng imple active
, ntenl'C' such as I)). m hi e lrue.. , e agent an e car is the theme_
15)
fbe truck oumped Ihe car,
Hocl cr. 'luldren find it much harder 10 interpret pa'Slve cntcnces
corrcctl), I'h:, peclJII) true for p ( e ntence uch a the one III 16
"hleh cllnt.un no manuc cI about which 'P I agent amI hich one;;
them ( lite th.1l11 m JU! t 8l much sen for the car to bump the truck a II
d. forthctrudtobumpthc:aT u hsentence aresaHJto!lc'recr iblc',)
16j
Ib ar bumped b th trud;
O
minalsand
pro"
rtflexives
Tuble 12,20
GroUp
- - ____ .!:t'_r_l>'·tltQJ(t' (.orr,.",
Nursery school (around age 3-4) 21) ~ _~ ___~ __
Kindergarten (around age4-S)
Grade I (around age 5-6) 3~
4~
Grade 2 (around age 6--7) (-,3
Grade 3 (around age 7-8) 88
Why should this be so? Thematic rotc a ' - - -
"'"tgnmcnt' .
complicated by the fact thai the NP bearing h In P""lVe 'tructu,""
' ' h'l th t e theme r I
subiect positIon W lee agent (marked by th " () e OCcurs tn the
' J e prep<>"tJo b
the verb_ . n Y) 'ppea" af""
J7)
Passive sentence:
Active ~entence :
The car wru, bumped by the truck
Theme Agent
The !ruck bumped the car.
Agent Theme
Thus passive sentences are almo't mirror images of the' ,
' , Ir actIve C{)UntPn>
in that the agent occurs after the verb and the theme before 't th -,yan~
- 'fi tI th I ra Cr than Vice
versa, Sigru Ican y, e most common error made by child '
'T> ' , ' ren I§ 10 as.ume
that the first, ,r m pru,~lve sentence is the agent and the '>eCond. ~ the theme
This suggests that they tend to overgeneralizethe thematic role pattem found
in actIve sentences. thereby • temaucally emng on p~ive pauem
As the data in :rable 12.2? how, children begin to apply thl' trategy
randomly arou":d sIX, ;uggesung that the, are tarting to realize that 1l is Il()t
always appropnate, A ~ ear or ~ later, theu cor~s tan to me dramaucally,
indicaung that they recogmze the >penal propertle~ asSOCiated ith thematic
role assignment in the pas-i~ e COll>truction
In Chapter I. ""e "" that a re e i~e pronoun lh,m.sel , herse~, aDd on)
must haw a 'higher' i e • c-coll1lIlatlding) antecedent In the nurumal clause
contaimng it, Thu ,luntulf u er to Gar) in the following ntence
I
_ . '1 id th t [ G nsl},
. reer 10
to
t1](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-254-2048.jpg)
![I
1>'
, I
,I)
, I
,)
,I)
, )
'I
1
~/.",ulln,
hl1II1 " 11
1. " ~'"~
1'",1" "nl"
I,,,,h II 1"
:-.hlllll1l' ,,',],
Rllnllln ,
, , ,'h I
I
,I, I "II nUll,
I ""'1,1"1,,
1,I.h 'IIh,
1'1111""m ,,1 'lI,nk
1h,f'" 1111'1
,
I"
.,
.11
" , , '1 "h'I'..
, ' tI.' ml I hll
,,, ' 1
hl lll" HI ""' ,,,
" 'h" nh ",.111 ph ,
" t ,I "HUH.' " hl'!
.' Ih'1 hl 'h' '"
" ,' hll ' 1m
",) h, ,', bnv ,, dl: II
II) 11,11 ' "" h"l
/)
hi lh "1 .,'
Ifl) ',"HUh ' "''''i ,Ih Ih' "'" 'H ,
1) ,l,, '''HI.. "h' h" 1, ""1
III,
II.
.H QlI1'1 pl ~ ~ I' "l lit'
, .m "" f
11 ,II,HIl'1 ,111 " ,' I 1,1"";1 ,', ',1"', "III Ih,' 11 IWI
, 1
nt m uh" """
,'I' HII' ," I ,'II I ,I "I I,ll 11 ,,,11 "1,,, , 00"
;11 11.,",' 1' ,I k, 1',"011. 1111' ,'11' ,11"11" "
, 1 nh"""
I) I I'" " ,hk '1 "VII'" 1', h', ,,1.11'1 hl'l" " 1' •
' ,n 1,: ;)l'~ q hr ~ '"
!,' '" 1 ),'1 , ',,H, ,",, ", w "Ih' ,h ' " "
" 1....', 1' c d',{'n'
'III' 1,1""'1' 111,'"'''''''' 'I'll' 1'1111'',1 ,11;1'",,, " 1,, ' ,
11, ,,' ~";I' V, ,I «
:) 111',1111" ,11'11 mll' UIII''',
h) 1'11 11111 1111 ' halhlh,
,') W,' ';lh',1 ' 11mll' ",:"1" ,
,I) I h:lll.. ,,1 II" ';'111' 111",,' 1""..'1",
,') 1,1",,' .."", ',
n I'" 1,.',1 "" 111 ,,'I WII''' '11 "' I, ,II' ':1< II<' h,,',1 III Ill~t,
,) I IllIlI ',I III 111' ,11,'1
II) I ,,,k,1 "1,1 ,'kl,II,lI'
II 11:1' Ihllh ,I '<IllI ',I II", 1'",1 I,'''' "l,,,'h~m~') I"" ,I" ,II,..nlI" 'I
II) h,ll 1,lh ,, ,11'11," ill Ih') " ' ,'I'll 11,11 'h' h,, k'I~'<1 Ihe, P
1I1h'" I' : 111 , ' I
ill I h;1I " lit' ,' i,l 'Ill' ' 11,11 ,h~ h,l' ,1,<1111«1 III~ '<lI~ "I nllUI I Ih
,',II' ',I, , '1"
2, I h,' flllhl 1 ' , 'tlII'tI' " H'I ' IIIII'ld II ,I ,lIlh ,I ,« 1"'" ,0, ahalt
,II h;I' lhi, I' ,',11 ,I"
h) lnt. h,ll Ih , ,,"1',I"](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-261-2048.jpg)
![1.1
1
THE STUDY Of
SECOND
LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
h"n the tield of second language acquisition) 0""
lanDer t .. . SLA F uers v .
eo ..... productivel" appIJed to . or example ... I, ao
ous
•
that can l>C J , we "no lind'
h ' acquirintT their first language (L I) have grammars th W that .10
woarc" . tbd" . atar
and that their utterances are not JUS a llTUtalJons of the adul e
'11 e~ second language learners too are develOPing a t target.
1 s., . . lik gra", S1
tl'C even if it is not native e. ·"mar ,L 'e
systema "'&t ~
I the case of first language acquisition, we may ascrib
b
n
h"een child and adult grammars to either cognitive Or biol
o
e.the differen
e,w d I . glcalilh_ re
. the child. In the case of secon anguage learnmg by adult """aturh_
m ·th . . s, how J
cannot say that the learners are el er cogmt:Jvely Or biologic /j . eVer,We
R ther they are subject to an influence that is absent fay IllUnature
a , . If Le' rom the h' .
s'tuatioO" the first language Jtse. t us diagram the situation ~ CIld'
s
I . as 101/0WS:
Ll lnterlanguage Grammar .. L2
figure 13.1 Influences on an Interlanguage Grammar.
This diagram illustrates the fact that second language learn
.. ~~
systematic mterJanguage (lL) grammar - so-called because it is . 11 a
h dl dh Jnuenced
by both the first and t e secon anguage an as features of each.
Therole of the first
One of the most easily recognizable traits of a second language learn '
...... . th . b . bl er s
speech tS at It _ears a certam resem anc~ to the first language. Thus.
someone whose fIrst language tS French IS likely to sound different fro
someone whose first language is Gennan when they both speak Enolis:
Consider in this regard the fOllowing typical pronunciation of the En~lish
word hUl'e by speakers of French and Gennan.
English target French jpeaker German speaker
have /hrev) [rev) [hccfJ
...... 1:1.2 Phonological transfer.
The form produced by the French speakers rellects the fact that French laeb
!be pboneme /hi while the pronunciation associated with Gcrman ,peakm
can be traced to the fact that Gennan includes a rule of Syllable Fmal
0IIeIrueat Devoicing (which changes the Ivl to a [fl). The tcml transfer is
10 deecribe the process wherehy a feature or rule ffllrn a leamer's fil'l
~··Irl CInied over to the IL grammar. Other examples can be seen In
I.
SECOND LANG
UAGr A(ffiJtSITIf)
Table 13.1 More phonological transfers
505
L1 L2 Example
COmment
Spanish English [espeak Espanish.
Spanish does not allow ;:---
Consonant sequences
word-initially.
English French tty] (you) -4 [tu]
English does not have the from
rOunded VOwel[YI. The Engli h
speaker subSlitutes the [uIsound.
Quebec English Over dere.
The [ill SOund is reptaced by [dl.
French
European English Over zere.
The [ill SOund is replaced by [zi.
French
English Spanish [para] 'for' -4 [para]
As English does not have the
tapped [r] as an allophone ofIr/.
[r] is substituted.
!!---------:T=h-:e--::fj-:rr---s-:t-:lan=gu=a=g=e-;i::-s~n~o:t~th:e~Onl=Y-;i:nfl~u:e::n:::ce:-o::n:-;;:th-:e-::in=te=r:'an-:g=u:-:-a=ge:-gr=am=m=ar.
The role of the L2 since some properties of the IL can be traced to aspects of the L2. In the ca<;e
of a German speaker who is learning English, for example, the LL grammar
will contain some features of both Gennan and English. Consider in Figure
13.3 how a German speaker learning Canadian English might pronounce the
word eyes.
Figure 13.3
Targetfonn
hUll
Result ofFinal Obstruenr
Del'oicing
[als]
Resulr ofCanadian Vowel
Raising
[AIS]
h 'OI'Cl by aGerman-speaqIeamet
One possible pronunciation of the EngrlS' eyes
. th rule of Syllable Fioa1 0IIIIIMDl
Here. the learner first applies e . lau} to [lIS) ButdIe __
. d f om German). changmg . ...:. ~ ..
De'oicing (translerre r f the ••roet Jangua&e -10 ....
~ . d' e knowledge 0 -" '--l..' ......
also has acqUire som . . which stateS tbat [II) _ _
rule of Canadian Vowel RaiSing. lbaDbtoIPfIiCl....ut..
. . . . the same syllable. ... ••
vOIceless con onant In. . e the input fooD fI1I/
Final Ohstruent IX'olclng Rul •anadiaD RaiIiDI- 1'IIiI
consonaJ1l ([sj) which tnggthee~":_of.iIW' £ .....?'''':'
. bout ........w
sho us something a ')
of hoth the Ll and the L_.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-263-2048.jpg)
![J whi<:h i.. wdlfonned in Greek hUI not Eng!' ,
cluster Ipt '. I!Jade in the word Irelico/!!.er (also from G'Sh, I;oweve
hange was ' . . reck) .' t, Q
C • d 'th th~ phonological pallern or English. Since' 0 'lit,
complre WI II alt~;
·t' )1' th'lf has n:ccived a lot of attention in SLA
One 'lues f ( ' . • reSe
nds are harder to acquIre In a second language h ' arC
his
some SOU . h O t an oLh "'hClh
,
. ,ds an: simpler than Of ers. r perhaps sam ets p ""I
some SOUl . • . • . • e sOUnd . . eth
. " r spc'lkers of a certam language to acquire Wo Id . 'YM-. 'I!JI
easier o. , . . . . U II be <Ills
, spe"kef' to acquire English or Vietnamese') As' cas'I. are
Japanese . u • • • • m'gh . <r fo
h .• ar' not ,imple ISSlIes. We cannot talk abollt the c' t be e~n.... r ~
I esc to ' h, . , h' ,ISC Or d" .-<qeq
. languages, but we may .Ive somet II1g to SHY about' '. IfnCuII '
enlJre . h h ' . ' Ind'Vld YOf
When linguists try to deal Wit t e notions of ease or sim Ii . ualsound
f· Ihe notion markedness. Structures that are simpl' p Clty.they",,1
usc 0 . ' c and! .....e
In in human language arc said to be unmarked Wh::--=,
Or eSPeti II
comm< . , Ie slru a)
complex or Ie,s common arc "lid to be marked. So W ' . Ctures ~
areound Ihat is found in relatively fev. of the World's la~g e rn'ghl SaY'L
as . . ' . ' uages (e "41
ked while a sound that occurs III many of lhe World's la .g., [01 '
mar . nguages( 1
~~mark~ ~~
Markedness is commonly a~proached from the perspectiVe f
Iypology, which is concerned W Ilh the comparati vc stUdy of sirn~1 language
differences among languages. As nOled In Chapler 9 re ilniJes and
.. . . I ' · ' searchers h
discovered certain ImpilcatlOna ulllversals of thc form 'if a la ale
. I ' j' I nguage h
il will also have y'. For examp e, I a anguage has nasal vowels e ~x,
then il will also have oral vowels (c,g., raj). Crucial 10 thc und (.g..,[al),
. . . h C h h' ' . erstandlno f
irnplicational ulliversais IS I e ,act t at t e ImplicatIOn is unidirect' .0
. 10nai Th
a language that has oral vowels does not necessanly have nasal v I' u
. . , 11 '1 kd h -. Owe s.,%
allows us 10 Identity a as ess mar'c t an [aJ, In aCCordance 'th
J' . WI the
following genera Ilatlon.
6)
x i more marked than y if the presence ofx implies thc presence of . bUI
' ., nOi
VIC' versa,
It iJ interesting 10 ask whether IL grammars ohey such implication~
uaivenal and whether this can tell us something ahout the question ofea~
_diftiadly of learning,
IIInldl_ Dllrerential Hypothesis investigates second languagt
.1). . . .1IiaD by comparing the relative markednes ()f structures in the LI ali!
".lIberthe earlier example 01 Syllahle final Obstruent DeVOICJII/
explain why a word like hunt' 'dog' is pronOllllCCd with
German IpCakers learning English typically transfer yUlhlt
a.voiI:iq iato their IL (produclOg Ihlrt) for [hied) 'bid lid
..... between ItI and Idl at the enda of......
- 1__- diet die principle underlying tbi pllea I••
to make con thII 'Jf* LI
ot data we dill ...
S(UJNIJ lANG
UAGE ACQUISITIOf,j
French makes a contrast between [II, d .
not, as Figure 13.7 indicates. an 131 In places where English doea
English [SV l31
Initial .!:!ure [Sl' *f31'
~ant,(UIl' ~ens ([31)
Song 'peQple'
Medial a~ure ([Il) , a~ure ([31)
~!!£her (UI)' bou~er ([31)
to fill up' '10 budge'
~a£h~ (Ul) I a~e ([31)
axe 'age'
Final leash ([Ill 'Iie~e ([3])
figure 13.7 The (J1
![l2 morpholog
IS,
0 en , uh)cct. > null ,uhjec[,
Therefore. null ,Uh)CCLs "ould !>e thoughI of a, mo", marked
.:-onsL'quemh. more dIfficult 10 acqUIre. The ~farkedne" Differential Ii~ and.
esi. predlch thell ,rruclU"'S that are more marked Iypologicall) "iII-
difficull in LA !>eC~IU. e they are more marked. The SuI:>. el PrincIple Qu
other hand. predicts thaI stru,tures thaI are more m.:rrked " ill no; on tht
difficult, !>ecau,e there will !>e clear eidence that the LI >Cltmg leu
- . . - . "ron
Although onl} the • uh. el Prin.:tple >eerns to make the .0rrecI prediction'
the case of the null suhjech. funher research t. nece.-aI) m order to see "hi~
approa.:h I. !>ener ahle to handle a Ider range of data. h
The slud~ ofsecond language morpholog) ha> a -lightl) different flao~
the ,IUd) of eIther L2 phonolog} or ,ynta't. L::> phonology has been Studied
for 3 lonf time. though the anal) c. have changed to reflect change In
linguistic theor:- L2 ) nlax b a much) ounger field. and mu~h of it ha; heen
mfoIllled hy current hngUlstlc theor:-' By contr:l: t. L2 morphology ha;. been
studied 1ll0I'l' or Ie. . in a theoretical acuum. In the I970s. a number of ' tudie,
collc(te-d data on the 3"curac~ of second language learnel'> on a varietv of
mOlph me.. Thi. resl"Mch dre on prc1ou, . lUdic. In lhe field of fir
langu4fc .:-quI'ltlOn that had attcmpted to dl"terrninc Ihe order of acqul ilion
f morphLml" In LId ,elormcnt. The deelopmental -.equence in Table 114
" Ii und
"ahh·l~.-$ l"lt-,c-'opm"n1dl Irdcr lot lust lane
It,
I. -,"~ rh~ r~,~nl panl.:'ph... alII
Plural -.
; rre~u'ar pa....,
~
5.
b
7
Table 3.5 De elopmental order for <.econd lang
uage .u.:qU ltJon
1- -iug
2. Copula />e
3 Articles
-l. Au-..iliary />e
5. Plural -"
6. Irregul:rr pasl
7_ Regular pasl
3rd person -s
9. pos.sess.iYe -s
There are man)' imilaritie. but there are al;o some .'ff
. • Ul erences For
'xarnple. note that 3uub3r) and copula be are acquired at arelao .
t : . ' . 1: ) earher
point 111 L:' than 10 L l. and that the po.sessl'.-e morpheme -'s i; acquired1=
in L2 than in Ll. To anempt to e't~lain these panerns, we need to 100 - aIi e
more clo el) at the . ~ct= h:u unplement mflectional morpholon'
In the ynu" secnon we ,,;} maL m English. main verb, do ~ raIse to
Infl. Howeyer. F igure 13.11 on the next page show that the ernb< doe, ru.<.e
to Infl if no mod:U i present (:.ee se' tion ~.: ill Chapter =)
191
b.
• -0 modal i: present. the aU'lliary ero move, from IIl>lde the
'p to Inf!.
He i, yp probabl_ t eating].
•
1
A Illl 1" pre cnt. the u tli~ ero doe: not ran.
H' .hl u,d ,y p probabl) be e t111£l·
*He h e yp prob ~. te
•](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-271-2048.jpg)
![mtaactJ n ) of II peakerwltj lntaprel hngUIStic '
and den lUes of rdatl.),;hip t W"lduaJ lIrllllJ<JIl III
JI)YlIlJ
She demuy of a nel"'OIt 15 ,ela d II) !lie POIClIllal j ..
•~".. member of thc nel",,,rk and call IX! eilhel cJ,~~0, tQ
_ ••""'""t I f '"11)'1
pc
0' laJ oe('" 01;; WI I consl I {J t.
...erytJllc: in evcr"
, . . J~~p •
person phn' wm' role (Jr,~kllll net"'I" ....hl~h Iyp In lot ..
~L'~ of the rughe 1 and lowest SES IImuP • clIen a K'dly t.~ar._
Y'"~- f'eat ,,__. --'1.,
nn' are on lJ<!akt'~ '/lICj arc Ihus as ()(;Ial.,d wilh laflu, "QI t>f ""
'" - k I .,Uag" lliaj
IDee peakCl~ In uch a nc(wt,r - oWing 10 1 II! fa<;t Ibal II
the alne relallvely Jrmlted M.:I of peoplemallulllher ••1d:;; IlUtlilq '-t
relauonshlp remfor(;c each olher'~ pcA;:(.h habil~. ('I.> ~Jent lid:
among the high C;l;'s gr()ups relOft)rce eJlher a landard ~~ 'lll 1J(f"IrI
" ith high blatU>. (,Joseknll nelwork!; amllOg Juw SI~S grouj) ar 7
1
et] Qr
standard pcech varielles. e UCI (Qr ~
Social netwllrkl. have been likened 10 a (,hinel;(! f~n (as III f
wludl each group i hoth beparate hut at the arne lime e)(lllbl~g:e 14.2)
other groups and all groups converge 110 the pcrf>(Jll at Ice', Cl1ap".
, . . h f" '1 II"" lh
nature and frequency of mteracllons III t e anlJ y grc)UP will dlf~ f ~
f h
ler 'rJlllI~
among fellow workers. JIlemher~ 0 t e ba~e $p<,n~ team. neighbour -
like. In 3 sense, buch btudles can /end weIght 10 the notion that y, : and the
those we talk too. more cspe<:ially where those interaClanls are an:c~" L
network_ IlIieknn
eighbourhood
IiKurp 14.2 SOt 1.11 fll'twI"h.
I igulc 14.3 hows a portion of a c1o~cklllt network inve ligated hy Lt ley
Mtlroy in the working-class Chmard area 01 Bclfa~l. 'I his network had a 1(1)
pn ccnl dcn ity index; that is to £ay. everyhody in the network of the
n; alchel's oflglnal contact (John R.) knew cvcryhlKly else and talked 10
tllem Jrc<juuJlly. Jolin R hiJII'>Clf lived III a ncighhounn ' hlod; of flat but In
lalJlily lived in tht; t'lonard He introduccd Le ley MIlroy to hi, fnend lanlD
Convery who C IllllJlcdiatc and extended Jarnrly and Ir IClllh aI-o licd In tilt
CJ<lnanJ lind IIld up wllh each other olten
A
,.-...rnnof (k.onardnetWIX~"'"
figure t4.3 1"'"--- '..,
Principal
components
analysis](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-283-2048.jpg)
![Tall.ing .lhout
OIl1t n .1Ild OWIl
In L L TI
Oth r dllh.ort"JlCl' hc:leCn mt.·n·~ and ",omen'" Ian
,f'V"JlklOtt I l.wch ClHtlmumllC' arc ,cc!n 10 women', m gUage in t
"_ " '-- _ orC! c
polit~n~'s formulus Tn~n.' are a num,,,,r at Way in h. r"<ju~L
l Il1l11an,h) can be ill/ligated III Engl~"h Instead of "mply"" a'~h ""J...,''It "f
'(h',n t/" w",'/"II"I' we mIght say Pleuse opel! Ihe hUrd )' ng l<lS
I .,' • . , 0
," •
pIt (1[" ('pen thl" u"IIuloH' . Could .O~I open the l.'lIJdoh·')' , ,' "'lild
opn,illg th,' "'/IIdtl"'~', 'D~) yolt fit~d /I slUffy ill here", and ,~oUld ~o~ "'"
III It'" dirt'd ;1" 01 mal..IIlg Lhe requesLthan the slraighlf on, ~
~
~nd II i, "'aimed: w(luld more likely be e~,ploYed by womc~fI>.ard illlPcrili~
SImilarly. ,,,me sllId":,,uggesl Ihal women use more verbal
dl' m~n. These an! words ,uch as perhaps or mavbe (a, in ~~- hedges h.
,r. '/ I'd .) h' • COuld 1.'<II
S:O 10 lireel't' II('XI SIIIII/IlL r .lor OUI zo I G.' S W Ich are Ie , Pt'''/rq
~lmVe"alioIlS Lhan ullerances wilhoUL hedges (e,g" e .,hoUI;' a"Cl1ie p.
",',t ,/I/I/11ler for our /lOlidtll's), (See also seclion 5,3,) go In Gr. In
, d ~
Finally. II has been nOLed that men len ~o use more vemacular
to slandard fonns, Men, lend to altach ~Slllve v~lue L
O non-slanda.s op~
Their use is scen as havong on-group co~ert prestige (as 0PIJO· d ard fOnn
Idd ' d ' 'CLOth"
P~'sllgc of sLandard fomls), n ee , on a stu ) on o rwich I
'L eOen
". ' , . ' Was fo
mcn onen claimed 10 use more non-standard fonns than the)· a und!hat
" ' _' , CtuaIl) d'
Normally men also usc bad language ~onsld"rably more tha . Id UIe,
'I I .. I d d n lIornen
helon,!! to Ihe same SOCIa C ass, n ee , among some men iL ' . ho
. I " IS cOns d
lIIacho _ rather than plaon vu gar - to spice one s utterances ' . I erect
maximally taboo four leiter words like shit.fllck, and CUIIf, nehl) 11th
What do the Lhree phenomena lhat we have considered have'
. , III COrn
Wh) docs women's usage differ from that of men? The answer see. 1110n?
, ' · h ' · d ' d ' mStohave
do with savon!! fnce (I.e.. ' OVlrIg respecl an consI eraLlon for olh) 10
less frequent u,e of politeness formulas, reluctance LO use hed ers ,Men's
, , ' I d ' ' I ' ges and th
predileclIon lor the vemacu ar (~ IrI parttcu ar bad language') has e
artrihutcd to the fact that In the SOCial construcllon of masculinit" be'l ,been
J' ng tOugh'
_ and hence inconsiderate of the face-protection needs ofthe addressee_ '
, d' B ' h ' f f ' IsofLen
conslderc a·lllue, ycontrasl. on t e constructIOn 0 emmi nity the 0 "
S . h I' " ... h' f beh' PPOSHels
the case, n. IrI t e mguIstlc "c aVIOur 0 women. aVlQur that is con 'd
_ ' SI ernte
and proteels the lace (,fthe ,Iddressee IS preferred,
Since 1' arc discussing gender-.variable usage here we must elnph '
. , aSlze
thai all of the aoo'c ays of phrasmg a request are availanle to all speake~
nUt are not ,'qually selcl'tcd ny male and female speakers, An important fa t '
that :llkets the u,,: (If politeness formulas. hedges, und n()n-stan~ o~
emacular forms is the degn:e ()I formality of the ,itual lon, The more fnmarl
. , q
the sItuatIon the mure likely are ,speakers of either gender tn lise slandard
lilrTns, h,'dges, und politene" formula,s,
Thl n1("t uhvluus ay In hkh gender difkrl'Il""s Itb Icspe(i tll,lll'fcr"lI!
arc manikstld lI1!'ngli his grall1matu:al gender Ihe lIsl'uf hI ·lish pronoun,
Is ll1struct I.' III this n:g;lrd, We do nnl e11lplo) h,', for Inst'll1n" to rl'ln "nl
to iliaI s. In ,standard English, It Is preSLI ined .IS a 'l'tll'rIC thud rn "n
slllgular pronoun hen tht' gender 01 the I 'kr"l1l is llnkn,, n HI 111'1,'';1l1t
Thu"', . C might (n..:nunter "
a.si.~mlU 11( /(l(/d"?· eien ,t ~~ b •
women, Howeser, n"wada ~ni~ Did ""'"
hear ul1erJ.nce, ,uch a, the f- 11111 lurall) af rtt~ -....
. . u a.....na •
/II/() their ~"" h,,"d.' ( ''''ned h ." 0 Of) e"" b l'tt.:b ~
'II'/J' d()11 I 't' ~() 1001<'finl erJl (artntt YO< lIh ~ ~ """
a lele,.,On talk·,ho.... h'h), I ..~r and ee haz ,..~!l 'i lilt "'"
. d Ii ' nl"" ~ ""'It ....
(gender-In. e lOne) Ih"y, hl'h nl~, ... ,_ c .... 'O' ....
, ,. E· C """,d •'14" .... t'--
prc,cnptl'"'''t ngl"h and ",h"'h d • lfead I ..-
, C enOl' n It()n - -
of unspecIfied lor po,,hl m,xed C 1UIlnddinll 011":----
h
· . h . • 2ender r • nUm"- ", ......
of I IS ,on, t e pronoun"'k and h' rOr ltaI.. '''<f alllltli~
of a ,ng.l.e gender ho,c gend' . " are rc ."edf~ ,"'boIII1tr lih._.
cr h ....no, "I rt.le~ :~....~
EnglISh nouns. thOUGh not n, e10 1IId........
" ~ 0 enl) rnar- .--
tho,e 10 Latm, Ru"ian, or man) h cd for llfanunan
women and men, Genera.11 in En lother language,. do d' Lal &t1'Iltt I,L.
- g" no .' I lliIgu,... "'"
are at once both m:bcuhne and. .' un rekmn~ to >n ~
, ~enenc thu th ,c~n <lC
fireman, untIl comparative' recentI ' . e trad'bonal I ~
, f ' - )'''''ereu",<!'''''L tnn,flO_·_
those pro e. Slon,. There OCcaI'n II .~"" for~ •...... or
. . . "na arc f ..~nand .........
occupation, (lIlalla~ae,-" .I,u/,>lr' ,- , ema. f,'<m, for ,L.. ·''''>In
ed
lS', 1I,lre" "ro: nante. ...
have evoh to co.nnote more than ' h .. , P"fle '.' IlSh....... ..... '"
, ' ]U,t e gend ~ .....
occupation, •• an) obse1'.er- feel th th. er 01 the pr3Ui"
at c"';md . " !Itt of tht
women ,0 labelled. A oman II ho ac"· - tmllar form., _ ,.,'
" L In hIm, po. dI •"Wl1t
as an actor m an mte1'.I(, not as an <leI". h. Inte ) Id<nllflt! ~I!
her someone who :I! enou, about the cO"t··e"ad that a<'lo, <:aulolt! f
ra . ....h.lc acl .1' or
The fonn ·nidl! hal been under (on>ld'rabl' , ..." l.d lO,
, f ,C C'I.'Oltln In th
respect to Its re erence, The pe1'.·a>i'ene, I· ",' cfIXentpa>l"'t!h
, . , " 1 moUc-reiere ' .
!!enencallY (3!> 111 cllill mlul!, P0.OIWIl "nd 1 nba ,>nn, u.'>Cd
- . , Q ,useUIlI of fa ) h· .
many obsenel", ho have felt hat 'u(h Ian n 01. d. tIUltd
guage not onh !'en
value but abo perp<:tuate, and reInforce, then1 Thi . tet t!l
,. , . , '~~hm~
move to ehnunate genenc masculine t nn, from th I U '"" 11
• ' e angu~c In man
instances, the ,uffl, -1111111 has been chan,'cd to "'nd'r n ~I ~
, . . e e' c, cu..Pf' on 0Ibet
morpholo~cal rrocc,-;e, hay e reulted in the creatIon 01' f
- , . llC'ollI1ru1
l'0snlltlll bec(1111e, J. die: arna, a jirem,m )e:omc, a jiff ji~1u '. and a
dltlin'WIl be :'1.1111 'l .-lWlrp r'OIl ,)r charr) The IUII'Ulnof Ian hc..'ame the
MI(St'UlII vfCil i1t~ati(l1l
Ch~Ulg.e, ha' 011 " C"111e a~'ut In the use of pwn,'uu , In many ,
reg.l13li 1n , la', ,mil Ihe like hl e neen 0: nIl n to eliminate iii '!irnl1lI101}
mas 'lhn' I"tln" I '"J,lcing them ith f,lf11s such as IW. Itt Of the gtnda.
ncllral ,ing.uIJr ,/1(,
R"I'I,ICcm 'nl 01 " 1'1 I1llUll' ilh gender-neutral nn , and a [ I/O lII1jllSl
1l-I til th ' u,c ,11' thirll- 'r OIll'rtlnoun' (,'nwbute. of CI'ur;t, l"lht~
,)" ,I k s t>I, ,,:d l,mgu,l£c, Jwcalc' of the le (ill u; sed earlCf bit
1,l11g11,lge dl " 1 t J11crd~ mi~'r let) but tathel mould! II would pomI:
Im1h'' ,til 11,1t' ide r 1l£lllg examrl of Ism Wll1l.'1ltJfsboIlld
I"f, tl11 'd, l)cli:rcllloll Us" ,,f langua b) I men {the ry ~
l)1ll111,,, ,'r h d" , for c. lmplcl uld be uW
lantcd
l1lI'ft of.
, ..I ' t of men will IOIIJ(n tn ~ Ileal
lx'h, Wl[, . n lu.... tre m n](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-287-2048.jpg)
![2,5
Euphemism
.ang
D3
gc would t>I' I" died ou!. FOl", in 11us vie", a., long a
e I, the) reJDforL'c the ,rarn, quo and lea,e women as a rru:: So: Illeq
CFor further C;31Dpk of the unequal tTeaunent of WOrn glnatl/~
, ~ 6 '--I "n and ."" b.
cODle~ofum,ersi!) ,lang - ,ee,~ecuon -, '''' ov.,) ~n _..'>tip
Of our , ImporWll though II IS for the reawns oullined ' Illlb"
reform m It :f.s DOl suffiClenl 10 guarantee equality, It is in;,bov" l"-tl
that th~ are manY languages thai appear rea'onabl" n 1ruCllv. ~
~._ Afri hi J on"e' I(,
Ban!u languages of SU?-Saharan c~ w ch make no gram>liM, - e!;.,note
dl
' u'n'[JOlL' on the hasts of sex and which have relatively f' lllahtoJ 1Itc
, L , ,eV" get,,,-
leXICal ilems - hut ,w hJCh. nonethdess. are used lD sOCielie ;tndtr'bl--q
man" deeplv JO !!Tamed sexIst amrudes, FenllTIlsts recog " hleb h· ~
J " " ' I f ' ntle th ...."1'"
ellmmating seXISt language IS on y a part 0 a WIder programm e [<It, ,
and ,ucial reform leading to a more Just dIstribution e of Poli1Ut.u
tIl lXlW le_!
opronunioes, et ,"Id
Euphemism i tbe avoidance of words Vl.hich rna) be se~
'rb' Ii en ~s 0'"
obscene or ,omehow dlstu 109 to steners or reader<; It "en!..
, ' ' ' ems hi ·e
eupbemized are srud to be tabooed, The word taboo was bo ch ••
, ' rro....ed r -e
Tongan laJlguage and, ID il'. most general ,ense. refers to a proh'b' rorn the
" 'th ' I I ILion
use of mention of. or asSOClatJon WI partlcu ar objects. actio on the
As origmally u,sed in Polynesia. taboo had religiou conno~:il~~Spers"IIS
socJOlm....uistlcs II now denotes aJly prohibmon on the use Ofp"N • bUt, In
, c , ' -dcularl
items, Taboo and eupheDllsm are thus two faces of the same COlO, e~lcal
In tbe English-language speech commumty. the most obvlo
not reltglou.. but have to do with bodil) functions. body part.. us d
tabOo
; are
, . an death
addition. there IS a notlceable tendency for governments I ' In
" 0 reSOD
euphemism to mask otherwIse unpleasant concepts or to conceal' , 10
their poli"} Table ]4 6 contams a' ariety of types of euphemism, ,,~!CI' uf
neen employed in tbe past or are currenCy ill use, h have
Illble J4.("
[uphcmLtm
pm'Ule parts
mm loc
pc.""I"Te
cpld leet
hudget
pee
11 I wn
plIll It
pa ilW,
• w at'
cowardlcc
_hear
pl 6
rd or I'!{m ESlOn
vugma. cum etc •
Slang b a label that i frequentl -
usages of nearly an) one in th YUl<ed to den!)te ceM ..-
. " e 6?eel;h c •-.u mfurtna
1D Engh h ill the ffild--elgbteenth OmlllU!llty 1he term or iIIl4
vocabulary u~ed by any I.e! 01 r ccntury, used In refe:at. 1!St.~
language of a low and vul pe n, of a luw or d' reJlutab l(; ~pt;la
Dictionary), oVl.adav It },ar£ type (acco dmg 0 .>._ 0 It chariICer
, . ~ Otten appl ed ''I'; rd En
adolescents or othe v.hu are pe' I to aspe~1s of .>.~ g h
celved as h~"C,_ "'" 1art""".,
the language, r-=.wg fIOtH'tandard v""""e
51
. anell of
ang eXlst.s aloogliide Jargo WId ar
members of a cia of """"h Yo gOt Ueattd below m=011 ~ 1
, , ...~ anetles of hllllled ~ I"
commumty Eac of1hese last t....o menulned' , usage m Ihe bpee;b
f
-,,' Vanelle wb-" h
o an occupauvwu Qr 6OC1al "r,)up f: • ower C l1racto:n~Uc
ber f ak
t>'- Th COil llIed tl) i1 C
num 0 pe 'cr; and t cure to outs'd Sl umparatlVey mal
and subject to rapid e e l Q[t WI~~ rea:~v.'ueltmaYbeneetm&
numbers of speake Par"'M' hl? mlJlt !amil1l1r Wl;qt
'th ~ 0 ever are en much SUClaied
'0.1 roe and bl! u;ed In """"" of
.....~n aoobc'
f ol.ldant~ Willi oIher](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-288-2048.jpg)
![English
multilingualism
l rh"
Like mosl olhcr countrk in the world looay. England I. mululino 'I
' th ' f I ' , ..ua .'!'hI
I as :hown in a report dxumenllng e eXlt!n~ 0 mu llhngllalism in ch '
enlilled Lint:III,llic .l /uuHllIer III England ~ hlCh IS as commissioned b)0011
Department of EJucatlon and ~ PUt>~1 hed ~n 19 ~, The report demonlra~
Ihar In man} ma,l([ clues ,thae ,are "Jgm~cant mmont} cOrnmunilies uSln
more than (lne language In theIr CI CI} da} 11 es, ormally. In such g
, d " Id corn·
munllies, while English IS use lD lonna e ucauon scltmgs and in de I'
. h' h J'f' h ' alngs
with the state s bureaucratic mac me, orne J C,' opplng. recreational d
. ' I an
cuhural actillics are carried out m commumty anguagcs ueh as Greek
GUJerati, CanH'ncse. Turkish or JamaIcan Creole '
Table I·U5. which shows the main languages reported in five Local
Edu.:alion Authorillc (LEA) gives a good indication of the C'tcm of
multilingual! rn in England It al 0 how that thc distribution of minari"
languages is ICry unclcn In anyone area a handful of' important 1111nOllt;
language, may aCCllunt for 01 er 5 per cent 01 the total Ilurnncr of Illlnom;
language speaker ,TIle dl trinutlOn of the diflercnt languages reflcds pattern'
(If ell/emcnt b) irnmigwllts, mo t 01 whom came to the UK alter World War
II. 'l)pll'llJl). inunigmllt I /lded til ,ttle ill .Ircas w h~ re ignilll';lIlt numncr
of other members of thell cthlllc grllup were alrc.ldy 11 111', Thl IS to be
,pcctt:d m~c earh r immigrant <':lJuld otTer n w alll ;lls a '''t.II1CC 11th
ho~ 109 dOd pro Id lh 111 Ith eIahorate upport network
3
R[GIO
OIIl[l( t 11 , 110
(, I
If ,,..
Url.d'"rd
( 1) T('Il. Tl'"). 'It ...20
pup," n::tln.h:u
It.mgut,.,gc olher
lhan Engh...h .
hnmc
(2l Tul.., no. 1
Ilknlllwbly
d,shm:l
anguil 'co.,
(oP<>rIC
O
131 The m,,,'
Irequem)
reponed
poken
language or
language
grouplll!ls a.<
a 'he of ()tu
the neare'!
whole numher
81
41
Van]ah. 53 Van]ah, ~9 (I L
.' ,. ' '1'tC. 34 Pan"'" "
,ruu 1'1 (il~ra, III Turk.sh 15 ~.~ "-iobi I
Gu)er.1I II rldu , c It.han 14 IJIdo 11
I"" ••' 9 l'nlu
Bengal, ,HIIIIII 3 (j IS ~
Pu'hlu } lahan Uleta" b GU)etII, 12 n.. ,
2 lahan b ChI..... 4 C
Iilh~n 3 lIen",1I ~ F ""'"', ,
... ~ f<n<h· Pofuh 1 TIIIub
Poll h I V,,1i h _ ba.ed German 1 ~
Hliloi I Chm~ I Creole 4 HllIfl 1 '-d
Chine I Cr.olts* I Bengah 3 Creole' I C
C"'Qle ' I r Idu ~ FrttICh I ~ ;
Ubaman I Pan]>ill ~ am.... 1
Span! h 2 llaliln 1
ChIl",5t ~ IIiIIdi I
French FmdI
(4) Toa1of ) , 91
- - -](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-292-2048.jpg)
![h 'I ' ci,ill~ anu sidillg, You could also invest'
sUe' . ' . 'k I , I,' , Igatc k
h 'me' /tJ in words IJ 'e IOte ,At':/lls. lilt'e I t"e re I'
pont: , erler, let, I ~ l?UtiO
8 Group' of people el'en a~ small as one's ramiI eI8'8elo~Qr,~
. /' , ! Ir 'S hie'h set them oft from other groups, Y can Sk '.(ft.) "~
e.1 l t . , , • and p , "ate I'
, /'u'llitl, ConSIder your own family s sociolect rovlde I~. '
'01.. h'h bl' andp' all],uI"
)Iher features W IC you e leve to be uni OInt Ou casu "<
or I h C 'I 'I ' qUe, C I an Ie",
'milM ilems from t e ,rum y SOCIO ects of two Oth Ontrast YIcr
.'
" , er StUd theSe IC~
9 L st ,tnd classify (both semantIcally and morphol' ents, "'itij
. I • , oglcall
'ords from your communIty as you can. Do all g 'Yl as '"
" ' h I h roups t' "'an
a particular community or sc 00 s are the same s 0 adole, YSlatJ
'OVS ofspeaking differ? How are they alike? lang? /-foh,SCents'!
II"J' '~ d I~
I, h h 0 the-
10 In early Modem Eng IS , t ere were two funct' , It
• 7'1 IOnlng
pronouns: thou and ye, l'IOU was used by SOcial SU e ' second
(including parents to chIldren) and ye was Used p flors to ' Person
' T.Z h b by th lOren
addressing the supenor, IOU as een lost fro e in~ , Ors
(' h " m gener I enor,
IanO'uage, Only ye In t e lorm you) has surv' a uSe' In
'" , h' h IVed In In 0
discussion of address terms In t IS C apter, what ha ' view Ur
s caused th' or the
11. Describe, with examples. some phonological, morpholo' ISChange?
and lexical differences between Standard English glcal, sYnt '
f Qda ~
dialect. You should use some 0 the reference item I' non-Stan". C
s Isted ab "<ltd
Sources, oVe und
Ct
12, Choose a conte~porary English-Ia~guage play Or fi lm, Tr '
examine some dialogue, If no pubhshed version is av 'I ansCnbe and
' d d' h d' al able f
consult. List an IScbuss t e
d
ISCourse markers Used in the dialog
Or You to
out how they may e use to achieve temporal sequ ' Ue, P
Oint
'1 f th dd encIn~ of
related. IllVO vement 0 e a ressee or audience 0 ' b, eVen~
, f' T ' r Interject'
speaker's own POlllt 0 VIew, ry to compare this fictional d' 109the
real-life conversations, Show how the play or film resembl~:logueWith
resemble naturaJJy occurring talk. or fads to
13. Consult with a speaker of another language regarding coh ' ,
'h' h 1 U . t" eSlve deVice
III tS or er anguage, slllg re erence Items listed above u d S S
. , n er ourc
try 10 determllle some types of such deVIces used in that langu es
't- 11 ' h f' , age, Look
speci Ica y lor t e two types 0 reference mentioned ell' ,
b ' , A 11 f' h h'b' , , IPSIS and
su stJtUllOn, re a 0 t ese ex I Ited I~ th.e other language? Do the'
appear to work III much the same way as In EnglIsh? What other device;
does your consultant suggest you consider" '
TYPES 0 F
WRlTtNG
I.t
Writing and angu -
age
Michael Dobrovolsky and W'//'
IlamO/G d
ra y
Outside ofa dog, a book is man's best friend'
inside of a dog, it's 100 dark to read, '
,.. Croucho
Speaking and Writing are different in both "
, ongln and '
use language IS as old as humankind and tl practice, Our abllity to
' ' , re eCls bIoi '
modification that has ocCurred in the e I ' oglcal and Coonitive
.. , vo Uhonary b' . e
Wnting, the symbohc representation of Ian , lStory ot Our ~pecie,
a comparatively recent cultural developmentu~gem storable graphIC form.is
five thousand years and only in cenain pansavlfnghoccurred v.ithin the past
.. 0 t e world I The
between speech and wntmg comes into sh.rru>r foc b' conlra.t
" - r- us w en we conSIder that
spoken language IS acqUIred without specific formal' 'tru '
, ' InS Clion. whereas
wntlng must be taught and learned through deliberate effon Th '
, , ere are entire
groups of people III the world today,.as well as individuals in every literate
SOCiety, who are unable to wnte, WhIle spoken language come, natural! to
be, "d Y
human rng, wntlllg oes not.
As different a, they are. speech and writing, hare one major characteristic.
iu t aspoken language shows an, arbitrary li~ between sound and IJIeIIIIIII.
the mou. ,ymbols and techruques used In WIlnen language show •
arbitr:lf link between ,ymbol and sound.All ~tingcan ~ groupedIIIDtw
ba~i.: t'res..:alled logographic and phonographic.depending081beIrit:IIIiIta
of IingUlsll': r~presentation they use,
• f' Greek I~ 'wold')'"11),
The teon logographK: rom "'11~ _ .....
111 whi.:h symbols represent rnorphemesorewa
logographic writing
logograms](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-306-2048.jpg)
![..
- - - "'-~I- m31 'f ,-"ihz:lIjon, developed On the -' ~
- nurn,~f l , , ""lien
-n -;) :Ullne more ll13n e'ghleell writing " can en.. '
~f·);llI < - , }Slellls ....1In....'
--A AnlOll>! them mo~e 01 the ~f:l) ans of the Vu have ~lI. L
• lH-"~. ~. - _ _ ,caLan ..
- In I'<llh ., cern, e Lan see the evoluuon of' and the
Me , 1 , - , -" did PICIOl!h_ A.».'
.utl p-lk nec,,- 1m SIgnS, JU-,>I as the EgyPtian hi :'""'IlS "".~ N
!l ' - - eroglYPhi ":"" b....
m - "nOlI -'..' c-s 1]Jl('~
~I un .yml'<ll, are called glyphs. Some were
. ," lid read,.
I ~,mm,)_ BUI me "nang y lems re e on other II<~ ..., "'""
_l .,. l e d ' -> Oflb ,-'~ I{
Th: ret->u principle as emp oy - omeumes onl) PartiaJJ, e '&!Is _
o(the _I!:n fOf a -moking bundle ofpine, f !
1aa3l, to }, as in the~"
U.t" - 'uJd be ' feprese ,.~
prep"-j{ion [3,', ~!ayan ~gns c~ combmed fOf their !ltthe Iocai,~
:uooe III fonn ot yUab,c wnnn~. Glyphs that mh YUabt'I
'.,..l!!r.lP/uC repre:.emanon are aJ 0 tound, c "lltin.
~~: .,
mJ
lord pa )
-na
jP"QIi" lord PacaJ
hield ca
.a
firure 15.23
-orne ,-meri~ loriting ~_[erns do Dor date back [0 a di-uuJI an. .
the lonizauon of. 'onh America b)i Europeam. a nUmber of ~_.-.~
(be/oped to pronde natie people with a : nn of wrinen co~ crt
In one eU,-kilon case. the Cherokee leader Sikayi ("~uoia) de .
U ( h . F' 1- , "'-'! 11.<et! !
-~ C ~~np[ On ID 19ure )._-) ot fT!')re than eight}" Ymbols, _
don the ,hape ofEngh h letter. and others newly invented,
'a e 51mbol a.uE' S}mbo alu Symbol alue Symbol "
a
a
R
'"
?
I
Of
e
Ie
T
Y gl
.J iii
f' IT
H 1m
{)
A
..
6
3
o
go
110
10
(» 11
J
r
M
~
!be
(:, .i, -<- t t> 0, Ii .. ,
" pi, ~ V pi > po, po < Jill
n .ti, .tl .ti ) to, to c ta
r M, el 'I et CD, eD CI
P IU, III 'I U d to, kO
-
III
r iii, a(. 1 t ." ., •
<r M, Ill. ... lit IJ 110, 110 &
•
r' 4..c., 4-<- H ; 40, U ..
~ f/i., yl. L., !ll .t rIO, ,. .. II
Finals
I P , ~
- C , k .. 4 »• .,•• • • ,
Fi ure 15.•5 _ern Cree syIabary
.A
nipl leaf ~
f~we 15.26 TlTee~n leslemCMe](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-316-2048.jpg)
![:-3lJ ......~en[ communication i
,...,1 and aI : u"'d '--
. , mol<i-. In :-[': mamm ,. ChelllJcal, uy ~
~ -, r (01" ,omm"ru.arn e ptUpO. 'are called ph" "Sed h) .
' -, , reprodu.oth e re.wme. through !he reI retnolles ...
mo...m ' -= .......... 3 f,> of the", molecu]", need 10 be ea..., Of a nI... t
, all: vm} d _-,. """nted h.. r_""
I1nn~ zig-ag UP1fl 10,," ~"" Its i>Olenlial Uj a 'llaIt
f.... t I> ,:;m - urine-ru..-ed pberemone as an identificati~- Dog <iIld
' 1)1"" and tD3J1 non-human pnmale hale '''''''-a11l1art lo _ (>.
lbe!r t m •, . -.-..1 J~
IOC • rurr<'''' ~ ~
Li hI Probsbl~ the mO'1 ,,:ell-I~"n l~~U~r in _'Drth ~
tir:ih <JC hghming bUfde·
TIll•.ma r ~dlngl _e uses ligbl f1as":~-IlC:a II .
em' 10 '.;nal jc I n~l~: .ex_ an ()Calton_ Different s .~ In
tn :1' h;) e d,iferenl :md di ungw hmg IIghl pattem _ Pecies Of ~
- '" Cenain ·pecles of eel: in the Amazon Rler "'•. _
£hctticr. . ·al- b f I - """In Coo...
""""Ik'e and temron . I~ ~ mean 0 e eclncaJ irn~.J -....,n
Jr ,--- 'mal 'fi ""'5es
fr: ncre Eachpecre:. '''tho. atfa !"'-' IC freqU~ ran" at v
rr3ll'lIllrung frequen',e._ like ;.e 0 mUlO and lele>; ion . , ' •
0 erJ.ap. do lQ.
Colour The .:-oJour (or colour pattern of I?any anirnal pIa>· an _
n theJr denufi;:-auon b) member' of therr Own pecie> 'ft:' "''''_~
li e 1 .. / 4 !hi _...,., """"
The::t .han:e coJour,requent ~ anu colounng i Il.>ed ~
:e · lhat in IUde temtonaJ detence and maUng readines_ _ or a
P ture TIll 1':1 common rorrunnru~~e deice among animaIs
for eump e, Ioer the fr nt pan of _ err OO<le and eXlend their ~ ;
,,:nen the) are p 3}fuJ The_ 10,,: er theIr hole bod'e o !be Yound ": ~
Pastu :anon I found in both human ben
ill ~-](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-324-2048.jpg)
![fljcurt' Ib. ,~
Dlscrt'tt' signs
,I
/ • II ' .,," Illl' I.ll ,.11 "'P"·";UI1S.I, h, .111d ( of Ilw 1111C
"'inOll' 1-!"u l i OM - " . _ '_ . ~,-14~1(' rn k
I ",,1.. nil I t'(lIltinUllJ11 t'XP/(·!sstng It-',":..•1, h.1 Ill'UIILll f1e", b 011 E : ' y . '.p
/lI..rflH·l·P' . ' . I . I,.;, ,e>., r~.
, ., If ......1.'.. t·,.tlt'flll' 1t'<1'. L1C 1 t.....xpn.·sslon gr<.ld(s into 111 presses s~ L.""'q
It'lt ,Ill( I C' l - I / (' next TI 1I&l1t
• I , . I ."lIt.'..... nmlul{'S 111.1 gra( t....( 1ll.1nnl'r. . 1ehal'd
Illt'I,.I)("II(( 'I~on
/),,,"I,'Il' s'~II' (Fi~url' 16.6) nrc tfislinguished frOl11elch olhcrb
,) ddTal'nl'l's. There IS no gradual Iransllion rro Ycatego,.;
("ll'IHI'S' 111 one' «Cal
nt'!. rhl' wortls of 11lIIllan language are good examples or d', Sign 10 th,
Thl'fl' i, 'lll illll'l'llletiialL' stage ht:IWL','1l Ihe ~'ords SlOp and Iscrete Sig
nl
'
, "I'l Ilnl which call he "pressed hy olhl'!' dlscrele Words go In EngliSh
,ll ' • h f" .• ' - Or COmb'
t·11"'·lb ,u,'h as 'slarl 10 go . T l' llgllal ulspluys of Watches' Inationl
,1 ... . , - <Ired' ,
lId/. "nel' Ihl') pmgn:ss Imlll olle "~lI1l1te ('~r ,'veil second) 10 Ih. ",crete ",
'r'llhli,,,, Traffic lighls. I(lO, are d,SL'rl'!l' sIgns; ther.: is no de next with
Jl(l f' , . gra Ual sh'"
fWIll grl'en Itl yelio IV red. . Ifllng,
~ ISl11pl
~~ ....., ~ ..-~~ ~
~4 ~ ,~ ~
e
/g;)ul
.1 /,
c
,.... 16.6 StHllt' ,h, 'I'l" ,,~''', " dl~it,lfli']l( d"pi.1V; /" Ir,ltli( fig"h.
11 three tyPt'~ <l[ si 'ns - i,'/llIi('. illd<, lcull.l 'IIII'I/llIIlIIic', <lIIlI,I''/II!lo/ic C~n
be gflldcd or disl·rt'tl'. , photllgraph is inlllil' and di~rrl'll" blll a thr~atcning
anin 's gflldual harin' of its fangs is il'ollll' and !'Ialk'd r-.l11rs~ c,x1c I~
ymboli and discrete, hUI a slowI) dlllllllin" Ii Iht that ~lgl1als lht' beginnmg
alhealricaJ perfonnanCt' i~ S) IIlholil' ,lilt! gra,kt! S~ mp(tllllatk ~ign 111,
m be eli rei (the tnillil' light a 'aill) PI grallt'd (till' l'l) ing or a child (lr the
b1USlllllJl.
bl for a discrcll' si '11 to ht' intl'rnall) '1,llIt'lI, ,11.1 l'wn tll ,hp
Figure 16.7
Cry
(voiced
expiration)
Audible
intake of
breath
Time
Cry
r
e
•
III
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
s
o
b
The graded contimrum from sobbing t05Crearmgtheheitla!he~ancI
blackened area, representsthe a~bility of the~and!hewidlhals_
both sob and scream are dl~crete Signs. el'ertthougheachpiesm!he.
,tthet' tremt: ends (11' the continuum.1hcninodifticIItJ 1 au ....
~~)nd a~ one or thl! other. although it is difficult110 ...-.,___1..
hccomes a 'scream', Thus we can say tbal '......
dis.::ret~' s mplomalic sign', but each of lila .......,••
gr'ldati)n~ oerlap. The same is true of ...
l'OtlUllunicallon,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-327-2048.jpg)
'111~ phsllCsymnols around I" ohtalll.l rew<Jrtl 'Is 'I t C
nc'relS" II eo' . . . " , . , " , PJ~Zlc h'
. '''''''II'l/y 'lssm:lalcO ",th langu.tgc. It h.ls heen suggeSted tl I ,It
I' 1101 1Il"l .,." , . , . . • lUt S' ,
". 1 'r/clf/lIin" 11ll' s"me 1.1110 01 puuk slllvlllg anti l10t tlCI110 I ' , <I:,lh
W,IS /, ." '. " .,", I sli U
lIlI
hUl1lan like IInl1ul,ll( 'lIp,lulIes, , , g
'/'1 ,., slUOICS haw Il'd 10 a r,'surgl'nee 01 IIlleresl in hUlna ' '
Ic s, '. " , , n- ,11I11I1'1
1
' 1llIlIil'allOn, / ,<tlll!lIagl' IIstng oog~, ,'ats, pigs, anti evcn turtles hllV b '
,01111 ' . , , .... '.' 'h' e cell
reporlc'dlclflhousands 01 years, / h' ,"'I~IS of I1IU~, Of, ~hc eurr~111 critiCismof
'/1 /'Ihl's,' nr1l'nlll"lw, rests on the pCI fOlll1.1rlle 01 a horse In Gel'ln'
,I 0 . ,Illy <It
the' lum of 11m ""III1I1Y
------
Wilt''' //1/0' Il'illl IIII' ClIl, 11'110/.1 In 1/1' llilllll/' C
'tll /.1 //01 p/ayillg wilh iIIC'.'
Ie Michl'! dc Montaignc, J..'s,
I'aY,I'
In II}04, a IkJllI1 school karll,'1 IIdllll'd Wilhellll von Oslen c:laimcd tn Possess
a hilI'S thai ,howl'd ,'vld,'lIn' of II hUllIan lil." eapal'lly 10 Ihink, lIis horse,
lever Hans (tit'!' /..II/XI' 1/111/. J, could supposedly eakulale and l'onvl'Y
messages hy lapping ClIlI tlut1lhel s or IUllIlhc'll'd /t'IIl'ls of Ih" alphahel wilh a
front hoof or hy noudin - his h,'ad,
perim lIIatioll hy a Sl'l'plil'al SCIl'lIllSl, (hklu !'Iun -.
Sl,l'v,'nlually shllIl'd
lev r Hans was nol so IIllldl a l'll',III,~ Ilull""1 11 ill'arcful OhM'1 Il'I. Thl'
perc IV d cu s Ihal indicalcd Ih,lI h,' had pc'IfClI t1Il'd ,'ol/l'rll , Fill
aa;pJe.• van t nIOvolUlu.trily lIloHd IllS head l'1 sll -1111) Ill'n ,ll'llrtl'l'1
bid n reached ThiS 1Il0VCIIl,'1l1 ,IS llulsld,' Ihl' 1IC1lt11ill,WI""l'lual
Ituman obs rv rs (I ss Ihall Inc lIlillllllll ll' l, hUI Ihl' hOI" h,ld
_._•••"." wIth th ~orrell anscl. hen OhM'I,'" did /lol ~nll
~Naon, or wh n (I v r 1I.lIls a hhndloldlll, hI I.uled hI
"NI",,,, "'M"'I
Clever Ilans's pcrfclI'Il1ance rc ' I . ) f "I
' tI ' su tculn
hetween tralncr an anImalthtll depenu IIl d"",'Il
'ven by Ihe trainer.The ClcYer Ii. SOnthoanlll' I"t, a tYIlt 01 I
g
tl'~cssage, which ncctl "Ill inY()ly:n~ Ph
.cn()IlCn)~'IS'.lnierprtt'nt~
.. Th h' hi tI conCl(} lin tJ.c II __
humans. e Ig Y cvelnpcd per U, CI)IlIlU' "C1I[tlon...
. cCPtual ,b'I' nltali ,-__"
ammon to many anlll1als, Many . ' a IIty dISPI' "n <>n lilt II1II..
c
gorilias Ihat lise sign language a,,~CICntlSt' believe7h"0 by ('eo;tt 11_ fII
' h' pen()rll h at chllTt '_
demonstrating nOl 111&morelhan thcel' , lIt Or lan& .~ l1li
The position is explai"etl a., foil CYerliansPhonllll uage'hke _
. I h ' llWS , liull' . en"n. _~
their anllna e arges to succeed. Th' d. an IralOtr w'
. h b ' 1 eStrt' ant Vtf)
'letions, whle can e sel7.ed O
n hy Ih . 1 tralllated ' ITttJtb 1111
~bililies: it is lhese CllCS lhal detennin,chanlllal lIuc to it,'~tlllnvnllltllary
, ' h'" etc anlll' I' -cen ltrr-,~,
example o f I IS IS pOinted O
lll in Wash ' . a S?en'Ill'tTt. _
......
d tI " oc S SlDnln ,. anee I. 1"",-,
h'ls been recor e. on film (FirSI Sigll f W0 g0 k~k~ IN ~ ' ......
Ih
';S interchange shows that the. hUlnu.no uhoe). A carcfui e.:~.~~"'lIicb
. " repeatedl h '-"'IliIiot!...
signcd and thcn pomts rapidly al the. cup P b Y Ollis OUt the ob"'" '"
, I h h ' , ro ably nl . J'o" III~
mtenltona on t e ulllan span, lne oj this clti
Some so-called lingllistic aClivily l11ay be h' n& til
the Clevcr Hans effect. Some report, of c e. l
c result of fact~ other "'-
' 'd, ' .. , , . r alive lgnlO h _
WTI'R fllRD, an.: ISmlssed as reflex slgninglh I 'h g, uc WIIIale
' ' h . a s 0, no Inl .
comhinaltons on I c pan of the chtl11p, Report f h . enllonoff~
of IV It (she oceasionally produces the opposile',~)g~ l~~~;"a (oko ~
as I I' for D()W~) are also COIlidered to be exag done TeqlleSled, SQCh
" , " h . gcr,llc or 'Imnl. wi......
thinking h) [<:scarc ers, "'Y J ~.......
Some rC(l<ms of Iingllislic behaviOUr are attribuI'd I .
• . ' " , c 0 tnacCtJrate IX . .
syslemaltC ohscrvtng, (I"or cxample,tfWashoe answered 'W!V.T'SllIAT'.
am nllun sign, the answer. 1 as constdered correct) Other
att-nbUled III t)croptt~nisllc In,lerprelation of .ign , (Koko I : - :
intcnlionall) produce rh) mmg sIgns - Ihllse ihalillt very SUllillrtollle_
a. kcd for or e ~clcd) In ,hon, those ho do not Vlew~....
,md "mhol llul1Ipulati,'n as IinguI'licaly relevanl laimlhlllbia.....
I~ m(~rc impl) ~ pbined . ansing from tnightfOlTllll,.... .....
'i. II n nl ,)r fHlm tire. ag~, and not a reIIectioa Ii. . .
J , ,
t n L ,on rc car(hcr t1l'I~d, tranung IWO plgeoIIS tolllla.....,..
, n t Jl 1l"1 mean Ihallh~ ltird know thertllesef_rIIOI
_
.4 Ilwl , , . litm,
lhtKrral _,Pl'
~batt](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-336-2048.jpg)
![1
o Tf t}'( ~ ~'I' ll""-llil "tit..,
", hI" i... on.!alllzcu around ~lIbtit.'lds of linguistics th.
I hi' I." ~IP c.: r. .. • • . • . d h ' at are d'
'h' 11'" III IhIS D<.l<.l~: phonellCs un P onology. morph I " cuRsed
,II 4,.lrh(.'r I.. .IJ t . . . 0 ogy
. (., rhcfl.' is also i.1 ~eCllon on computaltonal lexic I • sYntUl>
IIlU ..;,-'m.w II... . I' h h 0 ogy a '.
' 'U1'I/ ,js. The tirst part 0 lee apler shows how ea h I1d IC~I
(lr l.."llrpU.'. .. - - . . • . . . e li .
~ Itl - US ...U 'I' the basJs for ..t l OllljJlIlllllo lla/ ling Uistic Ilg
lfls1
;
",/ll", " L. .. 'h ' , . ' . sUbtield C
., 'rt 01 the chapler S o's some ways 10 whiCh th . l1re
"'CClHlu p..l eSe v..
L 'I 'II',S an.. ~omhjned to create computer systems that use Ian anous
~Ul·~).s L . guage.
COMPUTATIONAL
PHONETICS AND
PHONOLOGY
--~--------------------
t. ,
1M talking machine:
~h synthesis
AI Ihe 1939 World's Fair in New York, a device called a VOc d
displayed. The machine. developed by scientists at Bell Lab0 er was
. b d ' d Oratones
reconstructed the human vOIce y pro ucrng a Soun SOurce which '
. ~~
modified by a set of filters. The values for the fi llers were derived fro n
analysis of human speech. The vocoder system consisted of a Sour~ the
random noise [or unvoiced sound. an OSCillator to give V
OiCing a e of
' . , , Way t
control resonance. and some sWitches to control Ihe energy level. Th's 0
. . " Ch I was10
simulate the vowel sounds and fncatrves (see apter 2 ). Then ther
. , e Were
controls for the sto~ consonants Ip. b/. It. d/. and Ik. g/. An amplifier Ihen
converted the modlfted source slg~al Into sound that resembled the hurna
speech it was originally modelled after. n
The vocoder was nicknamed the Talking Machine. It was a crude de .
' . vIce.
but il demonstrated that good sp:ech synthesIs could Indeed be achieved
given the righl values for the major frequencies. and the right methods i
concatenating and modifYing adjacent values. Early systems used differeo]
technology from that used today. but the principles remain the same. The gO:1
is to replicate the wave forms that correctly reflect those of human speech in
order to produce speech which. at the very least. will be intelligible and
aesthetically pleasing and, in the ultimate. could not be distinguished from the
speech of a human being.
Chapter 2 gave a summary of articulatory phonetics, that is, how sounds
are made when humans speak. Chapter 3 covered some aspects of sound
systems. Speech recognition and speech synthesis rely on a detailed
knowledge of acoustic phonetics as well as articulatory phonetics. although
there are correlations between the acoustic and articulatory propertics of
sounds. Acoustic phonetics is the study of the structure of the wave forms that
CODititute speech. As explained in Chapter 2. the lungs push a stream of air
CbrouBh the trachea. The airstream is modilied first at the glottis and then hy
..roo,ue and lips.
SIda IOUDd can be broken down
fiaure 17.1. The figure
into its fundamental wavc forms, as
shows a spectrographic analysis or
1500
1000
500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
]500
1000
500
msec 0
( i
200 300 40 500
(I I
•
1 --
'
i
:~
Hz
Figure 17.1 A spectrogram of the words heed. hid. head. had. hod, h.Mm1nxt_*d
, pe.:trogram of the words heed. hid. head.1tad.1tod. ........._ .....
as spoken by a British speaker. The diagrams give a....
the duration of the utterance on the IIorilaiaI ...
frequencies in the wave form on the verticallllL n.
formants. show up because they have IIIIR _.,• •
'ote the different locations ofthe fon_......
the different vowel.. The ound IbJ .
across the spectrum because fbi isa,,_._
constriction l:ee Chapter 2). 11Ie __!!
resembling fU/.l or tatic. The Ifr
'voice bar' resulting from.....,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-344-2048.jpg)
![l '
) (~nt' ",I' Ill1t.uilHl that lin"'~ '"
/ (Iwtntiun l - . . l'glll('llh
utclSt"Jf",t.·nf~ , ' I Ulllll IIlh..':-" ilh
hlll~'" ,'r h.'ann .... ~~ .1'" 'n·,ll.' l!t.'l!llr tlhll ,,~nt.·s '-" the specifi. .
. i n u,rh hll1l.'IH. L ... • .'1' 01 a '~..L
-u,d... . ,I.' r,.t 11/1..'). . •. . • 'U
lc.." ." tn " • tlMt L.·h.lra.:tt:I1 J'.':-; ~ol1nd, J.rtlculalt'u bel'
.... d'l • I fl.·.HUI . ltnd th ~
fI,a( 1 til the ,,'r.lI ,..•1 It) . . e
J J.ltal f(" 'tal! ) rh' p..l.rt llf the.: tong.ue that I~ hindlllOM b "
Bad. (of the ton!!Ul' e Ut stIli lies
111 d14.' Jlhlurh. _I unt i.... nlade with the tongue positioned in U
11$'" lone! .. ll:t.:, ,iu! vowel soundS in hoot and hoard). lC bac~
h roll' 1111 (c,!,· ' h -
llt t L'l' .. l.., . orJ f~lnnalioT1 pn)cess I at creat!s a new
Backforlll"twf I ' uPf,oscd alfix from another word in the hugll' Qrd by
Ill" J ~~I III ; - . . I ' ) ~ dgc (e
rcllHl c. ft .rlhfllllCh tJ1C remO'3 of -·or . .g.,
d 't • line trll l11 t ( I ( .. dd d I '
f' " , . I hlch 3n alth is a e (e.g.. ·"0.... " Ihe base for tl
B se Th~ ronn " . h I't' I . Ie ani
.., " li-.-" Ihe hase tor te a " .,', 1IlIll''''''l'1Ii'~d) x
nb(",l..s,I11(,./(/1 .. . 1 .....
.., I A'" I' landl thaI shos the least 1111 lICIICC IrolH the "t'
B 'iled lIe" < - . . , 1 .. ,lnd'I_'
a..' . hldl il arose. (S,,<, al"o ....ero eel 'lIIl Mesoleel) •'U
laJ1cuagc fnlnJ - . . "0- h' - . . . '
- S ,. inn)" Ill!! hoth lips «.~.. t < 111';[ sound 01 hOlle,,)
BiJahials . Ollnus - . , . . ' ' .
, , I ' ,,,,nil or C"I1lI1lUllIt) Ilh a mastel ) 01 two languages
Bdmgua ," f'" . . ' b' . S .. I ~ •.
, lrphol(1"ic31 ciass of I'a sma emltle anguage c1l'lra t .
Bin'an ," fll' ~ . 1 -. " C cnZed
, 1'cuhr sequence 01 skeleta POSlIllllIS Oil whIch Ihe '
tn a PaJ I • . . 1 . ,ICIlIal
- . '111 and l"Id segments are mappe( (e,g._ CCYCY repr .
cnn",". -/'()Itlpielcd action ' 111 Arabic), (S" .. also TempJntie 1110 e',
CIIIS
'P'ISI tens" l rp 10'.
~v,) " h h'
Blade (of the ton~uc) The arca ot the tonglleJlIs( e IIld the tip,
Blend A word thai i,s aeated from pans of two already e.isting items (e,g"
brullch limn h,.t'lI~fc/.l"r and lllll< II),
Blissvmbolics A COlllcmpOraf) delelopmenl of plc/ngraphic wntin h
us~s a Ilumncr of n:combinabk symbols repn:sentlllg basic unf,s( ~~
meaning, primaril) u,cd for non·speaking indil iduals.
Body (of the ton~ue) The main ma" of the tongue,
Borrowing source of languagt: change that involves adopting aspects of
one languagc inlo anolher.
Bound morpheme A lIlorpheme thaI must be atwched to another element
(e,g.. the pasl/ense marker -I'd),
Bounded foot A unil of metrical rcpresentatlOn that consIsts 0(" a stressed
yllable and no more /han one unstressed syllabIc,
Boustropbedon The praclice of reversing Ihe direL·tioll of writing til the end
ofeach line. Iypical of llIany old writing systcms,
..... apJuts.Ia A non fluc,nl aphasia in whid~ Ihc " pcl't:h is wry halling,
IlleR are numerous phonemiC errors. and there IS a 1;lc~ of Inlonation.
..-..... The area of the leti frontal lobc that plays an Illlpl1llanl rok'
ta....production.
1=::::.~~ynl8ctic notion Ihat is involved in pnlnoun intl'rprl'laliou
.. : NP. c·commands NPh if Ihl' Ilrsll';t(L')!my ahoV<' NP,
........IDIIIIIi.~ioll. short bursts of sOllnd (I simpk palll'rt)s 01
lllltCS. tpi 'aH us ~l as w'
, 'r Silce "h S ~ l"IH1V "
(·I",,,~I"C . C , ,',. MIIt~r, '"lh"I~"
(""'usc "1110rphoogtct C'II ~~ , 1) f'
• ' . . ' • 'II-tl," I al.~
ownt s gl,Hllmatll.:,,1 lie , t 1.1 . 11 ' l~n'l
,t I ,t 1 ' lIhl ' 'I "xl.-
cOltfal" )l: ween 1(' tnd Irm)· 'lhr~ l1hlt
" It II -rl I . q Ilh ""'11
("uSC It, ~".. Ie 1C requ .• l~q . llt Ith._
, " , . 1<I1Olt I , an,,·"11 ..
1~ 111 a p,,,1l10n to whIch " . I 1.lt.v • I II" ~,
' f <ase C'ln .. . of) N' I tt •
Cntllphorte re erenee The II ' ne aSSI"I' In. I • ~
. .. • ,e 01 n • •dhe l. 'til"
dll~(,OUI Sl:. NOI10U J tile t' :s.I.:u
"
nth'll • ~ I
ccntra' SU cus 1 he sulcus tit • '.'.1 I "
I I I• ' lIt eXI' _
, II an h
III the atenl lSsure [llso cull , nus Irllll l. r I.ltt
I I d tl ed the I". I I~~
Cerehra } 00 ow stUdy A "slIre 01 II "~III 'It
I ' h tecltl ""lal"· 'e'"h
III Ih~ 1'all1 t at uscs 1I rud ' II'1Ue I) ~III f.lcr...
' . ~)-~QtQ ~ I)h'l! .~'Q
mLlch blood IS gOll1g to puni, I' j1I! U
C
leq I 1111& III
, T
<II ,r " "1 r tIl nr ,., nil"
Cerebra cortex he grl!y W' I. '" sol Ihe II "''''""1 I ""II.
nn"cd lall Ill. I
of (he hr:.tlll and IS the seat of, , ,11.ISS Ihal ' Q hot...
I
. b cognllV. f ' It, Ilk.
Cerchnll lcmlsp eres The I-I
't ' e lInCltllnll I .1 'ap II,
, d' e <
lIld noh h 1~ Ir lilt
b) the longllll Illal fissure, e t alves nf
J ' the Cer,I..
Ccrchro·' uscu ar accl.dcnt S " ·""(n
Th
ee "trQlle 'lC~tI
Characters e lIll1ts of Clint '
. f CIllXlra", C
whIch consIst 0 two pans a ph ,'] hlne,. l.
f
. oneltc dete' "n"ngr. h
Class I group 0 Sound, that ,h, fln1nalhe d P , III<lII nI
d
' are, Cen' an a......... '"
v(ll.ed sOlin s), Uln ~h"ncic .__
d
prnlO!rtl
Class no e A abel thaI repreSCnt . ttl all
h I 1 d
' S each [cal
hic:rarc Y (a so ca C slmpl) a nod ) ure grlUpln .
• A dt- e , ~Inthtl
Clippln~ wor ormatIOn prllCCs tho . ~
. . .11 'onne
dectmg one or more. yllablcs (e .' (t' ns a lIlIY"lIab
- , . '".. pro rom 11 t' ,I<; "'<q""
Clitic A phonologIcally dcficlcnt " I d'I I . 'II. eS.(rl. "j
n r - I"e lor I·... '
that mu~t be attached to 'omc word be . . m I I C It in J 'f.!-.
cause II cann I -
Clo ed~llable A yllable 11th ac~1dae be " IlCcurlnllOlilioa.
co-articulation E len ion Ilf anIl:U.•tln·g~, Ith syllable Inc_
, u .) "e lure, uled. -·or...
one sound to adJ (em ounlh, Inbe~
Co-operathe Principle. the The general )e h'
I
, ' I ' ran: mil, &uitIeIiIeIIo-a..
under Ie C)11 er, at10na mteracltons: Make your CltIlI .....
t~) the (01 'r ,til n , bIIIiIIa _ .....
Cod" ~C) Th • ,I 'mcnts that "'110 the nucleus in be
lrfl 111 '14 ' ml),
Co~natc (lId ,If dllfcrenl anguag thai ba~ _ ...."
l.'l'llHm'I'~ tltl.'C, hown b) sy temalic pboocIitCIIIIlllli••
l~h h alh r ,Illd (i 'rman hler).
Cll'nitiH dCHI~)pment The emergence
,) that mak up !be u__ •__](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-364-2048.jpg)
![/lAP u( R't tiN ,lI" If( C;
. • tlw ..he pllra...c structure ruJe Ihal states the '
(~ ",rdinatwn HuItt .. " .. ." )0 X" '" Con X". COln p O"
« JJI1IU.' ,UlH.W rl , , , I~
flOllt)' lIl"l)(Hl • t _,I u,cd 10 determine II u group 0 1
rd' .ion ft'st L I' d words .
(,'N) .OH , • II lP i.lI101hcr group 0 wor s with a COnju .' IS a
l,,"l'.liIUL'1I1 P 'lllllln~ ne tlOn sUch
.1' (/~Id()~ I'I'. "he operation thaI groups together two or more catc , .
("<H,cdm"lwn ,ttl the heip of a conjunction (e.g.. M ary al/ I rOlles of
Ihl~ ...11 Ill.' I~ fX , (, I Ie whi'e
!III!"." ). " .• {-aWre.: thal characterizes sounds made. with the I
Coronal p 'ltl, ~ It I sOIl. ongue tip
· 1>1 ,<.Ie ra"c<.l (c.!!.. l .
(I', ,., .., of wntlen or spoken maten al gathcrcd to 'h
Corpus A (NY h d get er ~
. .. ... . Iy'" Nowndays. sue ala arc normally stored i'l Or
Jmgw....tIL ,tn.1 . ... -. . Illachine
fl." luahk form on a compute.. .. ~
, II ' m The "'und/e or nerve fibres that serves as th
Corpu., ca osu h . h . C 111"
. . ....tween Ihc cerebral emosp eres. allow,ng the t a'n
cnnOt.'dIOn IJt; Wo he '
h
' ,. to communicale with one another. 111,_
sp ereS • I b d h
• b' ry morpheme A margrna , oun morp cme lhat only 0
(ran ~ r . I CClirs .
"sin!!ie word in a language(e.g., crall rn camlt',.,.y). . 'n
Creativity The chameter/sllC of human language that allows novelt
innovalion in response to new Ihoughts. e~p~nences, and situations. Yand
Creole A language Ihat Originated as a pi gin and has become CStabr .
us a first language in a speech community. Ished
Cricoid cartilage The ring-shaped cartilage in the larynx on which the
thYf(lid carli/age resls. , .
Critical Period Hypothesis The claJin that the penod of child devcl
. . .' d t· I ° Pl11ent
las(ing up 10 pu"'erly tS lhe OplllllUm PI!IIO or anguagc acquisition' a
Ihal Ihe capacily 10 karn language with ease wanes. ' fter
CT scanning Set' Computerized Axial Tomogr aphy,
Cuneiform Writing lhat was inilialed in tht! f.ourth millennium Be' a d
. n W
as
produced hy presslllg a wedge-shaped stylus Into soft clay tablets.
CV tier Sl't' Phonological skeleton.
Cycle Each applicalion ofa mle on a particular level of representation
Cyrillic alphabet An alphahet thai cOlllhineu adaptatio ns of Glag~r .
letlers with Greck <Jnd Hehrcw ch<Jrac:tels, evol ving inlo Ihe alphabets t~~~
are used to reprcscnl some 01 the languages "poken in the former S .
. . OVlet
Umon and III Ihe Ba/kan.s.
Deaft'rj~t.Ion A lype of segmenl,tl Simplification which turns affricales
IJIto fncallvcs oy eltllllllaltng the Slop portlOll 01 Ihe aflricale (e.g., Id I
becoming (31). :I
a..lIIon See Nominal paradigm
~ A Iype of <Jl'ljuin:d dyslexi~ in which Ihl' pallcnl produces
• MlI'd that I relaled 10 Ihe word hl' or shc ts ash'd 10 read (c.)! prodUCing
wIleD eel 10 read mother)
1be truClure gcnemted hy Ihe phr.tse Slllll'ltll'l' rub in
."l1liwidJ tile ubcalCgorizalion propertic.:s of 111l' he.lds,
TIle eakening of a geminatl' l'onsIlllanl 10 a non geminalc
_1~I-.(aJ becoming (I/),
Dc~cncr..tc .ruot Ametrical I ~---~~~~~~~~~"''''':::::::::
"ini mal loot. {)Ot tha. t IAfj
D~..rec word (Deg) A rUnct,· <In'''I,"I "nl '~~
.. . d' ''''al y. • '"
prepOSlt,on or an a jCctivt: (e. , CUtcgIJry I ' • "";uj .
1
10use ) g., q~lIe In hal ItI> ""'~It.!
DeicticS Forms whose Use and q~II(. "r'd~·' Ihe lltt ~
speaker andlor addressee w' h,nterprelat •v'ry In 'tlot.~
, ' 1t 1n • 1(0 Qt. (-ry 1 it.
there). a Panicul. ·lltnn'ln 'Q, ,"-
Delayed release Amanner feat .r settin( lelht I,,,,.,,,
consonants. Ure that eha . .g., Ih""..'" 'I! lilt
A racter ''«' , "-
Deletion process that rel11 'I.e, all . ,./
'. lVes a -nn
(e.g.. the pronunclatton ofji"th . .egment f <mlYall
. r A J' .,as ftf romc ~
Deoasahza IOn common sub : . S ). Crtaln ph .
tion that involves the repl' !o.tltullon prOce' (Inet'C:(lnlt
( acement" In eh'l ~
counterpart e.g., come is pron of a n' I d lanu
. Th oUnced k ..sal SI- .ua~e,
DenotatIOn e set of entities to W ' "b). ."'P by a ""qUi i
called its referents or extensio hlch a WOrd nQn-n~1
S d · . n). orexp .
Dentals ,oun s made With the t resslQn f
D
erivation A process that fonn
lngue plaCed a.ain re er, (al<]
. th s a WOrd . " 'torn
distinct. from al of its ba.se th With am. earthe,"_,
f h I rOUgh th eanln. ' -1.
form atIOn 0 e per (N) from help (V e addition of· and/or Ci1lt
Derived (phonology) Resulting fro ))h' . an affiX (e.•~':Y_
d 1 · mteap' ."UIC
to un er ymg representations. p Icallon of h
't' A h '. ponolo'
Descnp Ive c araetemltc of lin . . g(:all1l~
I· .. b" gUtsttc re
human mgUlstlc a l!tty and knowled search that seek
preference to another. (See also Pr""~ ~e,.not to preSCribe S to descnbe
. f t Ch '. ........nptwe ) one ly,l_ .
DeSign ea ures araeten slIc<; of h ' ~.., In
compare animal communication S~ste uman language that ••
, (D ] ms wah hu we UStd I)
DeterOlmer et) A functional catego h man language.
( I h )
ry t at se!"les ,._
noun c.g.. G, lie. I e. e , ill> UII: sptclfi
, . ti ( R ltIa{a
DeterOllD1S c parser efep, to a par'~ Ih.' .
. a1' th . ~r at ts obI ed
origmal an ~ I. at 1 Propo-.ed and· . ro' Ig to ~ck I) .....
' f ' 1.0tdden tl..._"':
when nc In onnau n ~ d ubt on Ih . . 0 -ilnck _
Parser.) e tmtla! analysis. (Set ..
Dewlopmental error. Error that cur in L Ian
k arlllng, that re ult fmm the manner In which ~.u
tl1l' 'h. lIl, m { ~ I ( ;" d u1 fromov~eneraIizaiaa
Dr, l'lllpml'nt.l Th ta e f Imgwstic ~
rd.ll i, '1) III , oro Ian u 'e learners.
1I 111 ti n In ~hicb a SOUIIIl
I ~d eg,lbtl.
t p preceding it
d t phonenc
mool t](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-366-2048.jpg)
![( a ...(.~nh:n...'t.~ (h.1t !'oope;.tlcn-. judge to be
Ik-al Iltc' '1,11lI' , • a !>Os,ib
G.......... 13I~U,ICc' e
. nr~ ,,fd:k.:Jr ~~... C'lh. ~J'(S lh;.lt .t.n: e.pre~sed as atThe
':-1ft'(! n·"''tP· f . 1>, . . s Or n
G......Rllltk -' ~ (ht' ",-"t.'lh..'t."pt (.1 0 l.gallon ~lS e"press d on_
k.h.3r ."'3t(.'~~'I1"·'" (L~.' .e by the
aU lliM) , ...'Ii' 'PUI':)~'n"'I.'lun( , hitt... that h)ok place belVeen Prot
, ' m', , ..." The .' O-Indo..
GrtIII· J 1"'n'(l'.....(J -n113111('. .
Eun '3Il .lll h" Ih -' "'C'rebmll2'oI1t:''' IS folded ~.)Ul {singular: '
• Th<: In.'''' (.1 K grus)
<;,-n ' , II h.I(l.oIl': ,<,ripl used 10 repres,:m . orean. the sy~,bo"
H......' llte, r'd I 'p"""nl thc' s~ lIables of tndl Idual morphe S Of
"bi,,-h an" !!f'lI~xThr~ ...~,~eJ dement of a metrical fool. llles.
n--o of.. rootl < d h' h h I
~ ( . I Thc' H,rd aroun IC a p rasa category is bu',
Hdd (ofa pb...., I I (e.g.,
: .. A. P . rdl The nlL'rpheme that detennine.' the category of th .
Hdd (of .. '''' . . e entire
e"" ern'" 111 gn.·t·/~/7 ). . .
,,,lrd(.:" 'lIal>le ith a rh' me com:umng a long yowel 0
H n' ,'.blb'e .'" " ' h ' ~ . r a sho
n, '. d I> a( lea'( <'Ile consonant. as 1'.0 moras and is s'd n
<,"<,1 fc,II<,,<" ~ " hI ) al (0 be
be:!'" (,-, ,1/'s,1 S~ liable."elg. . . . ..
, --.i ...... -n E!!pua.n plctona1 writing . ~ stem. hlch later d
HJE'._·~ ...,ICS ' ~'. , e'el_
lJX"d tnh);I mi'eJ nung ~~. (enl. .
K';" A d"1"31 feature thaI ch3r.lctenze' ·ound. produced with the tongUe
bod, mised. . ' .
u ...... -e1 '"m d thaI IS made WIth the lOngue r:used (e." the
a __ '0" .'" ".. VOWel
, JUnd' in b, ,II nd '!.!..It'). . . . .
Hingana The lapane"" ,~Jlal>at! thaI IS used m conjunctIon with katakan
and kanji to "rile Japane"" . .. " . a
lfistoricaIlinguistics The ImgUl. tiC di"clphne that IS concerned with th
description and the e'planation ,)f language change, e
u ..........rases lueran,-e. produced b~ chIldren III hlCh one word ex
...-..- . Id L., . , ' ed' . ' pres,
the t) pe of meanmg that ' ou l"'Pi~'~()(Jat . with an enttre entence
m adult pen-h (e.g., up u. cd to mean ' c" me up ).
B_gplIon" The nUaUl)!1 m hich a ,ingle foml ha. two or more enu' I .
~ Ib' I " , re~
distinct meaning (e.g.. (' /I a. o....la orgamzauon: club 'a blu~t
treapOII'),
1IJpe.0H IKtion . ouree of languag change that occurs hen a peaker
wbo i attemptmg to peak another language or d:ale..:t overgeneralizes
JIII1icuIarrules.
A bounded. right-headed metncal foot (e,g.. ('ol/c( I).
A 'gn thaI bears ome re emblance to it. referent (e.g.. a
ofa woman on a hroom door).
medIod of leaching a econd language to children in I hich
IR....". most of their course and. hool actlitie, 11 the larget
uni ersal of langua 'C "htdl pe ·Itic. that
...., uupb the presence of nother (hut I1<lt 1<'<'
in me language (uch a rec),
(){'C u ..•• ~ , .
.USivc A perSOn Conlrasl . In ..~ l...
"C . lb' In SIl ..,. ' .,
. ddr<:ssee IS 0 e mcluded . . Ille I. 'Il,,,,,,,,
<I,'Oll)heme. (See also EXClus
l
.
•
n
the intc:rngU~g" I' . ~'-.
I ' T ' eI ' p "1~1I "~l ' "
corporatIOn he combinati . . "n nil' In<l.<::,,_
10 d b on III "C r, ."" 1"-
fonn a compoun vcr . a "'Ord ( 11 lIh.........
, I ' A' u'u, II . -, "'" ~
(nde"lca sIgn . 19n that fulfils . ~ ~ ~ n ~
I' p,call) by beIng a panial sampl It, fUnclIon b nunl "'iiha
d'irect negative evidence Th e of it (e.. "~ ><lInt . ~t!t II>
10 r" . e assu ~., Ule Ir Ing ....
in the Inglllstlc envIronment mPtion tho at"III t I..,. ttl
c.idence.) are Ungrarn~ at nOn'llct
<Ii <Iiilltal) "
In th '..alIcal uttln .
nti" An a I~ at OCCurs Within . <See g Irt.....
J...IFL (InflectIOn) The node th
a
base. also ~;;.~
1" d d' at ap"" "'""'t
structure tree an ommates te ...~ar, dir
'person and number); the const
nse
as Veil as ~~~I~ Under S .
INFL . 1tuents f Uler In a
·t"reement. IS often abbre .. 0 11-.l'l.. .. eIi:>al infl . ~
•=- T h ' 'oilated t I l""e t:tllllt
Inflection e modification of a '>.Or .0 . Pan in 'ub [I.e,
suhclass to whIch It belongs (e d S form to Indic Jt:t_ tII
suhclass). .g.. the ·s in boo~te the ~.._,.
I struOlcntal motivation The d . Iltarks U;;.~
n f ... e Ire to h Il1ItaI
language or Ull Hanan reason . h _ ac ieve T .
- , ' . ' .ue as Job proficle"",
Integratlye motivation The desire promOtion "') III a .....
. d to aclu' - ..
language In or er to Panicipate . ee Pm" .
. In the .. IlClenC'·
cornmumty. SOCIal life of . III a ne..
Intension An expre ion' inherent ~ . the ~
. al 'Ii " . nse theco
InteractIOn SOCIO DguIStiCS Soc' Ii ' . . lIcept> that '
.th th I 10 ni!Ul>ll IteV1lkes
concerned WI e anguage used in " . c re>ean:h ,1.__ . •
.J>eech SItu . "I4l IS -..'"
Intercostals The muscles betv.een th ·b. allons. -,
- en,thath
pre-sure neee-sat: tor -peech prodUction. e p t() lllaintain lilt •
Interdentals Sounds made ith the tongue '
[8], [0]). . ~ p ed~eeulllt_t.&..
Interfaces The ~ a~ - 10 hi h componen' of
phonolog~ and ~, -uta:· re rehted I ea hother. a ~
Interference t T fer,
Interlanguag "M;mn,~
at .1 p.liti 'ulJ.r '0
Intermll r c nlru 'Ii n
l)tl th nal. i· 'f 1l1Ofph4.)prtO
Internltti nil Ph n tic
'ril m Ih' Ul d f
1 n. H
PI h ",...,...""'"
rd m run
rb that
In that"'-...111](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-369-2048.jpg)
!["Irl" &y.... C.l 1... fit ...
'nl (h.lt dvt.·~ not pt.·rmit cxtfm:tion of a compone
Island 1.:t.)lI~Utu.~ hr:.l'l.' lillo' D,I1'e ami Pam). n1 Part
l'" C' I CllllrJ.O.IIt; r "I Jhlec( map [0 represent bOllndarie b
c:.~ .9.' LIut.' Jr..l n lHl ~ • S Ctwe
e
lSOft'os' . n
JI.llc....·ts .. h' ( IS nol known (0 be related to any oth .
. I ml!uagL r .1 . Cr hVin
,,,.,I..,t' '. B'. <l"C Kutcn,,')' . g
lancua!!~ (t:'.,g:.. .), L' ll''''U'laCS vhose words tYPically consist of
• I uug-es d e 4:: ) (M only 0
',olatinll "~ll. ", c'lilcd analylic languages e.g., andann). ne
tn(lrphctn< (al. 'culiar to some field (also called oee •
"""oulal) p" Upatiolla)
JaJ'jlon
socioleell. . As 'mptotn of severe cases of Wernicke's aphasia in .
JaJ'jlonaphas'" ..,> Pry few real words of the language. wh'ch
" 'h conlalnS ,e Ch' h
thc 'p"Cc . word for the mese c aracters used t
Kanji The Japanese 0 Write
Japanese. J ' ese syllabary that is used in conjunction With h'
K takana The ap.lO . ,ragana
aand kanji (0 ~Tile Japanese.
K See RadIcal. . d '
e,- I ~ alUre that charactenzes soun s articulated With
Labial A pace e one Or
both lips. d' ade with closure or near closure of the lips (e
Labials Soun, m .g., the
. "a1 sounds ofeall, !zan and !flail). .
IflIt] 1 Sounds involving the lower hp and upper teeth (e g h
Labiodenta s . ) . " t e
. "a1 nds ofj;reedom and )!./Iltage .
~h rou ' h ' d
. I' Sounds made with t e tongue raIse near the velum and th
LablOve ars
d
d t the same time (e.g., the initial sound of wOllnd) e
lips wun e a ' . . I d . h th bl d - .
. al A laminal sound ISartlClI ate WIt e a e of the tongue.
Lanlln h' Th I th·· th . '1 .
b'oprogram hypot eSls e lypO eSls at Slml anties am
Langus,ge e'nect linguistic universals both in terms of first langu
ong
creo es r ' d . age
. 't'on and with respect to processes an structures which are innat
acqulS] I ' . e.
La age Contact A source oflanguage chang.e that IOvolves the speakers f
ngu . 'hh k f 0
one language frequently interactlOg Wit t e s~c.a 'ers 0 another language.
Laryngeal features Features that represent. vOlcmg states.
Laryngeal node The node ?f the feature hIerarchy from which branch out
the features that capture vOlcmg states.
Larynx The boxlike structure located in the throat thro~gh which air passes
during speech production, commonly known as the vOlcebox.
Lateral A manner feature that characterizes all and only varieties of I.
Lateral fissure The tissure that separates the temporal lobe from the frontal
ud parietal lobes.
LIIRnIlricative A lateral sound made with a nalTOW enough closure to be
dauified as a fricative.
1.£ .......".. The unilateral control of cognitive functions by either the
Cll'dIe riJllt side of the brain (c.g., languagc is latcrali/cd to the left
I,.......re in most people).
SouDda made with the sides of the tonguc lowcrcd (c,g., varieties
Buglish morphemes of classical origin thc majority of
~hich are from Lalin
IndIrectly through F . Maoy c
. L' rench uch • )
Irom attn. IIr '''nte 1lI"'Ilht ".
Lax vowel A vOwel th . "lher ~"IlI. Ita~t
. I t' I I at"nt d llIan,.. h...
tn re a lve y css vo' I a e"'-lt' ."" I,. ~ ~
ca Ira "a I ~·l"".-
bur). Ct consln' . Pae<~ --.. ~
- • Cl(>n ( "'"01, f
Learrung strategies Th e·g..th•• lhe ~>n
uage input and develo e. Way, in whi ~'>".I ...~"'-_
Left-headed unboundnPdlflngul~tic k.no eh langua. '~'IlI1lItir~
h d' I ~ OOt Wltd·e I..",. --
ea IS ocated OVer th I An Unbo ge. -'><1' """'.
Length The aUditory e eftntOSt SYllabi Unded llIe" ,....... l.-
I h propeny e(e ".tal f ~
sca e t at ranges from h of a So .g., pr(,,,,· '"Itin
Lesion Severe damag s on to long. und that ena~leI. ~ a.e
Lexical ambiguity T~ to the brain. e~ u, 10 P~ .
form has two or mOre e result of hO
nt0Ph
It <lit ,
Lexical category ThemeanIngS, either r ~ny Or PolYe
adjective (A), and pre Word·level sYnta:tatedor nOl. Illy inlhat, ......
. diff' POSI1on (1') Ie Cate . -......
LeXical USlon Lin ' . ' gone~ nOll
d gUISltc ch n( ')
wor s and then gradual ange that first . . ,~tI! (I
language. Y spreads thr manlfe,>!, itscl
Lexical gaps Gaps in th I . oUgh the V"",I.. f Ot '-'
. e eXlcon h -""'IIiary 0(
or contact WIth another c i t at resuit fr ~
Lexicalization The proc U ture. om technol~ .
a language (e.g.. the co~~!~h~~e~y concepts are enc . ~
by the word roil). molton' and 'manner~lbe""GI
LeXIcon A speaker's mental d' . ~-....
h t · lCltonary h' ' -
t e syn acuc properties m' ,W Ich contains'
language's words. ,eanlng, and phonolOgiCal lIIfOlllllliaa..
Light syllable A svllable wh rh ~
. ose yme c .
one mora and i said to be light (S onlatns alIloe....
Lingua franca A third lan"uag~ ilifftalso Syllablt-....
diff I e ~ a IS usedwhen
erent anguages come into contac ~_Sl(",_
each other' language. t and are not fully -_1111
Linguistic competence peakers' ab'itv
1· , d I 'J to IIldIt:e
un mute number of utterance. including - • •
Linguistic typology An approach to Ian::-1•.1Il
language' accordmg to ilieir tructuIal C11111C1....,..fIii
genetic relationship .
Linguistic uniwrsals Structural clw4'
language, of the world.
Linguistic The di ciplinelllallllll.......
Lobes ub~tructure' of tile caeIIIl
dlstlllet re. pon ibilities(e.g........
Logographic writiD&
mnrpheme or even emiae
l.ongitudioalllssure .,......
the back and sep.....](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-370-2048.jpg)
!["{ l" TIC ...
L . ' 'Or'" of a _
...Olllld thai enable." lh t
J I ", 1''''''< - . Q pIa
... rhc 4tH I. l ... ,ft (ll loud. Ce it on
J.oUd~
/'... fhal r:ulg.·... tn."n . to 'hanu..-(cril'cs ,-ovds made with the t
:J ..... ;1 I.. • {lin' (h~tt I.. . . ' h i ' Qngue h.... •
Jdf':.11 h.'.I. . 'mfal po-sltlOn In t C ora cavity, VUQy
10M J tnllli al.t: h h I
" -ch 'lnH'rt' h ·... m.tdt." wit [e tongue Owered (e g h
Jt..UDI. ~. tn.·' r ~I( I , ', l e Vo
10M HUH' rJ t',1f dnd I!l£ Wei
' ' lllWJ... w ch'" ~l ... -:rmn~la(jng from one language. SUch as En .
-h 'ne tra".,lutlO
n
h" French. using a computer_ ghsh, to
, ..., J ~. "UI.· "IS . ' h .
. a"orh,'r IJn!!UJ!-'die/ionar) A dIctionary t at appears In cOmpUte
• ·hin.,..readable . llinu checkers and thesauruses, I' form
' ... /' ,nd ,n 'I'" " th .
- u 'h .f' !har ," Fe'ltures that represent e claSses
. , features' I conson
'f8J'or da.<s . 'd glide. and vowe ' ant,
.- . 'II itqUl . d
ot" [flJ,,n1. n.1', . A secondary strategy use to recOnSt
' / strateg) < d ' h rUet P
'8J·oril.' ru es, . lhal the segment Joun tn t e majority of rOto_
' .• t -npulate. c (S I Ph Cogn
t<)mlS u .
a
S d be the proto-Iorm, ee a so ooetic pI ..ates
should be assume W aUSlbllity
srrateg)',) Features that represent manner of articulation,
fanner features h ode of the feature hIerarchy from which bran h
- ode Ten " c O
Ut h
.fanner n 0 manner ofarncu/atlOn, I e
!hat relale I ' f i '
featun:. . uJ tion The vanous con IguratlOns produced by , ,
Manners ofartIe a e velum, and glottis in different ways (e POSition_
ing the /lpS" wngu . ,g" nasal,
fri arive IIqurd), " h '
c '. Those characteristIcs t at are conSidered to b
Marked trald/
ts niversaJly rarer in languages, e 1110re
mp/ex an or u . Th' h h "
co D'....erential HypotheSIS tS ypot eSls Jnvestigat
Markedness U1' k dn I I ' es the
' that the degree of mar e ess pays a ro e In econd la
assumpuon I ' k d f nguage
' " by comparing the re attve mar e ness 0 structures in th
acqursrtwn eLI
and the L2, I 'fi '
Markedness theory A theory that c assl les trab!ts or patterns of languages
ked (those that are conSIdered to e more Complex a dJ
as mar th th ' nor
' ally rarer) and unmarked (ose at are conSidered to b I
umvers e ess
complex and/or universally more common).
M ...: An array of features that represents a segment.
BUlK , h' h I
Matrix clause The larger p~rase In ~ IC a comp ementclause OCCurs.
u_":_ ofManner A princIple that IS thought to underhe the effiCient
,YA&UIII A 'd b' - d use
of language and is fonnulated as: VOl am IgUlty an obscurity; be brier
and orderly.
Muim ofQuality A principle that is thought to underlie the effiCient U
se of
IaDguageand is fonnulated as: Try to mak~ your contri bution one that is true,
(Do not say things that are false or for whIch you lack adequate evidence,)
....... oIQwmtity A principle that is thought to underlie the efficient U
se
ClfJau&uage and is fonnulated as: Do not make your contri bution more or
iabmative than required.
A principle that is thought to underl ie the efficient use
formulated as: Be relevant.
. " ltpCIIC1Jl1C princiJ:lles that ensure that conversational interactions
.,c:r..GJllnlti1
ve Principle.
1··.....······1"J •HOrI"e ';E;~----------___"",,;;:
Mcr~er A chan"e ' Or etlntent Ih
eo tn a h at· j
phonemes collapse' P "no", "'gn., 90...
. into on ~tl:a ~In'¥ ...
that language, e, therchy >YICtn "y,
Mcsolect A creole V'I ' re<luCln. thin "'hi,"
' nety th • e ~'t
terms of the amount f' lit >il, c nu, ..~ '-
Mctacogmhve strategi enee Iro etn 'n __
" olnflu uctli Il~
d l'b ' es Le· , 111 Ihe Crnl
e I erately 10 L2 learn' orrllng >tr' 'tondard. <:ct 'Ill!
Metaphor The underst
,ng
" ateglelh.t l""lIta
lt
"
times responsible fo' ~ndlng of one "'eult(j~ ...
terms of 'war': She a~'l~nguage chancnncePt In Ie -.....,,,,,
Metathesis A process t~'lared hiln in~~ le,g, 'arg;' <>1,
Saxon a[ks]iarr becam at reorders a edebale), Iltnr UIll1t...~
Metrical reet Units ore ask;, Old EnD
li heqU~nce or """011 ..
d metnc I . b b"d._. '"&Ilc:
an one or more associat a structure ~arne b nl; Ie"
Metrics The study of st cd unstressedSY1~Onlting o{ "d ), ,
Mid vowel A VoWelth:t
ess
Placel11ent. ables, a,r.n....
(th ISmade ' '_
e,g" e vowel sOUnd in lilththe10
Minimal foot See Dege s£r), ngUe neilherrai~
Modified input Simpi~e~ate fOOt, ~~
also Foreigner talk.) Ie speech direCted
M dill at nO
nn .
o ier An OPtional elem - a~ve S1lo>l._
in that blue car- thaI GI enIt that deSCribes ap '--n. Uet
, ona Ike ' ropen
Module (psychOlinguistiCS) A S In tileCar rhar Gl Yo!a~(t.c..w..r
mous from other processing unit of prOCessing .~~Iikt!).
Th' , Units """ IS ltlil!iv.l..
Mora IS IS the minimal rh th : , -."'J.....
of the syllable, (See also Sy~a:C:~It;itbeiongS10lberb
Morpheme The smallest unit f I elghl) YIIIe~
meaning or function (e g bo k
O
anguage that tarries ;od
" ,OS ConsISts f ,"- '"'1lIiIIIiaa""'-
Morphology The system of cat ' 0 "t<:IWo __ ........
_
, d - egones and lUI ' -'"-_
hon an Illterpretation, Its IDvo!vt:d iII........
Morphophonemic rules Rules that
morphs, account for al~
Motherese The type of peech that is typicaU
other adults to young children (also y.....
Motor aphasia See Non·fluent &lbIsia.
Movement test Atest used to determineual!lllli~'IIIII"
by moving them a a single unit toilWllll:llaa.....
lurmur The glottal state that produces _ ••••
relaxed enough to allow enough air to ....1
....
whispeI') effect (also called ~
Mutual intelligibility The cri&aQa.".
hetween language and dialcct: _l1li.
can be understood by socaltl••
the same language.
Nasal A manner fealUle _ _ _
lowered.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-371-2048.jpg)
!['t , • t I JIt ...
. IHtl'1"hlhlgl'"'~lf pn.l.'l.',,,"' Ih•.tt duph.....all~s )..
Pard,.' n'CII",Iit.'urwn I • ( . b' III J:1t!.lIl1~. IlIl.bllll 'run' and Iu/ ~;llt or lh~
N'''''' h' ~ hh,'h HII''' I"" t. u 'll/r ',viII
nUl') , t1hlf11htllll!! i...,.JJ pnl,"t,.'" (hal Ill.lrks .1 gr"
Parti,.' IliliU",,'t·tU)11 ,,1 ",f I fIlllr r1k"lI1l' (l.'.~.. thi"k/lhou~"t) anttl1~ttiC~lI
p 1'1 h,' rfl~ p. . _ . • .
"l'Utr.I ..r h . • ,,,'lHl'lh.'-l' III .. 111,,:11 IIH.' noun phra.'iC' hearing the
Pa"';u' ,,'nlt'II""- ,, -'".-1(l.',Co .• 1I1f' Il'por! wax 1'rt.'I'ar('d 11"It .. lhelile
I',It.. I' t.'lh,y,h'd I'''U .I'" .. • «. o"""itree
mMn). . . ... III hk h the meaning of a Vord bec
• I h...• 1'1'''-''''' . I '" onlcs I
Prjttn,wn 11 U,cd hl meafl simp y gil" ). ' cs~
"" «(.',c Jl t'nf I' h
I:" ,>1/1," ,', ', ,,) The s lIahk he ore l every "Ist Olle ill 'I
't' 13ft' (.r~l n) t: . . II u' .. vOrd
Pt'nll '" 'I I ·i ,·,1 l,;,IL'.:on Ih:1l Iyr
'
'''' y ISlingllishes 'I '
IIH)fl' H) ~)~ I.. .... , '!l IOno 0
""rson I ' '~l'rl Ihl' Sl't'l1l1d persoll (Ihe aduressee ) 'Inu '- e- l e
Ii It'r'~lll (f h..' 'IX' . ~. h d' 'f' • .. lilc U .
U-..I I· , 'bL'l (<,.g" 111 f:l1g h' h, I e If erence belween I, llrd
l1rrL""~(lU (jf1.(lUl t • .'0ll. ~llld
.•" {ht 1/1. 'i III fs llIade Ihmugh Ihe modifil'atlon of airllo '
Ph nn""8/' . '" ,. . " I " In lo
a.,.. • . -rinc rht..' h)lJ ,l!; LJC ()r COn .slrrCllllg '1(, pharynx. e
hln 11 In n. tr.ll. ... .. h I
P '- 1'/' ' " '1 "f Ihl' Ihi'll"I helween I e IInl i.l and Ihe laryn
Pharl n 1C.. iHt:. . I " . _ I ' '
• •. eh 'Inil'''1s u",~d h) aluma s speclilca I) lor <'omlla " '
Phl"lTm()n~,'j ( tnh.:UlIVC
pU'1'<,,,',s, , , IUlld USl'd 111 hUlI1all language (also called a speech so
Phone I 11. " , 'h' , ,,' , , ' und ),
rh' phonolo",cal 1II111 11110 Ich PICdlllahlc varnllls f'
Phone-mt' l: l:' • T. I' h ~ ,0 nOn
I'·, e"lIll'lIl' art' grouped (e,g.. 111 leng IS ,III and III bclon -
l',mtr.b 1 l ' ". , - , g to the
pho/lt'llIt'II;), ,
Ph '(' paraphasia Specch errors Ihat result fmm phonemic ' h '
onl.'nll ' Sll SlIllI_
lion, ;lIId llnll,sS/(lIl,' (C ,!! , ,1/'(1,,1/ ilia) he pronouncl'd as 1'0(11/ l,
Phonetk determinll'hl' The pa~'1 of a Chinl'''' characler Ihal provides
intilrllwlion ahow IhL' pronUIlL'I.llIllll or Ihe eorrl'spolldtng morpheme •
Phonetic phlU,sihilit,r ~lralcJ.:.l Thc pril1lar~ slr.lIeg) llsed 10 rl't:on:~truc
pnl/o-ti>nm; il rl'4Iml'~ a,l1) sound c hanges poslIed to he phonetical! I
plausible, (St'<' ,,1.1-0 MIIJorll~ 1'1111', slratcg,l, ) , Y
Phont'tk sound change A '('II/Id change thaI rl"ult, III a Ile allophone of
an a1read) t'xi,ting phOnt'llll',
PIIouetkaJI.' condlliom'C/ sound change S(lund l'hance thaI heg'I11 ,
~ ' . - s as
ubde a1lera,jons in Ihe ,S(lllnd pattern 01 a languagc' In pan lc ular phonctic
cnvironmenls,
I'loaecks Th~ br.tnl'h ot' lingu/.IIl" thaI naill/nl's the inVt:nlory and
IfnIcture oflh~ sounds of language,
.....1fnpIJk wrltinJl A I) pe of Tilillg in h,ch S) Illhols Il'plesenl
qiIIbles or5egmenls,
.......... da8JJie A sound change Ihaf rt'slIlts in 11ll' addition, l'llIllina
IeIITaIIg m nl of phonellll" (l'.g.. splils, Illl'rgc IS L
........ Iype of al'julfl'd d)"Il' ia ill IHeh 11ll' palienl
the abilily to USt spdlill ' to -sOUlid rult's anti can onl)
or h n before,
rhal denv phonelic rl'pl("<'lIlallon, Imlll untlt'I-
ling for allemalions amnII' allnphnnl",
I'honolol(icul skeletOn '
)I"m()hl~y The COln ,~" ,. Sk~I.
principles thai dCe POlle1l1 "I " "I]
• rn11nc 1 ' grO
t
Phonotuclics The. low () ' l1hilt
Se 01C lind, nl.~
Phruse level The 111 ' 1
1
1l' lr"I/I P,,.,. '
, CnCul I ''''I h "In· I "I,,~
IS repreSented. " ev(.', un q". ij "It.~_
'hrnse One Or 'nore WIlIth I <>1 -" ....
I • ' I ' , WOl'd, lh' Ir<~ D1ll....
wo eVe S, .1 phrase leVel , ,Il 'Ire hu I 'P4tlt~, _""
II,,' "pple, Bob, h"rried I ,ll1d aW
ord I' '''lund. . I~& l(~
"hr"se structure rule () class), cVel,anu: 'k<I'''If' '-~
phrase (e,g" XP -. S A ,~Ie of grll 'I"" ~n, ' -
"hyl" The groups ( peclhcr) X) IlI111afthai ~,' ~lI
" , "" . Inlo whi '- ' '"1.,h, t ..
slocks me placed (al Cll PlIrp "()Il]
,'ictogrnms PiClOI':'l~o called Super~ltnCdly rel"lcd ""'~lI
' , • Icpresc Oeks)~1l] . ,
Pldgm A speech variel ' ~tUiol1' of 0', cnndllll
dIfferent languages Y lh'll dCVCln bjtq, tlr e'. ~
, corne ' "P, lih 'eo,
languages, Illt) C
OOa el] 'Peale '
, , Th 'C UOd d 'r, If
Pmym e ~YSlern of " 0 nO I. lWQ or
uscd fOr Such things a W
nllng MaOdun, nl ~ ~
T ' Sstreel " n With -ooq-
Pitch he aUditory propc .Igo, and hr'Uld a IlIOdifted I
that ranges from low to h7Yof a SOUnd thule nalll." -"tin ~
Place features Feature. h
gh, nahle u, 0 pi
Stat rep <lCt II
Place node The nOde of h' ' rc,enlplace f. . 0Il'1tIIt
major place features t e leuture hlerarc: anlcUlullI!,
Places of articulation' Th, ' . i Irnlll hich ~
to produce different soun~POIOts a lhich th' ' tl!l __
Plural A COntrast assOCiat~'d ' e UIIItatncanb:-..,
d ' , e nh th ___
an assoCiated Wllh noun ' th' ,e nJOrphllloOi al
' f s Ut relen l • C ca!Pa.-,
Pohteness ormulas 'US 'h' (U group, --&"-, Qf-...
' . ' IU I leh re ___
dIrect (e,g" Could You ,hul I d quest, 01 com",..,
~ Th ' IIC OUT ') in to
•
A
. '-_ _ ....
Polysemy eitu3tion In h' 'h ' ......ofS"," rlItA.._. _
I " ' I~ alord has tv; __
(c,g" mg It ' ntelhgent', brl~hl hin" oorlllllt......I.......f~
i>ol)s)'nthetic language Lan»' tng ),
" gu3ge In IlObich .in....
lo~g stm~g., ot Ie Icale3tl'gllne and affi _ .....1_,.
01 an l'ntm: "C11l'n 'e in EnglLh(e lnukti'ofIta...._.
J·osithe e,idence Elde~~e obtai~ b ~
fllrllled 1Ilh'r.ln,' II) whIch they are actually
--.,_.~..](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-373-2048.jpg)
![rFA~p("",~ lINl.;L 1:->' II ..
lhra.
..l.· and (k.:cur.. betore irs complement (c.g.• int
P~P',·"I(jlln:tl I 0, Vi/h.
lilT ' : . charJc[Co,rjc of certain non-li.nguistic approaches t
Prt":scnpfH t' A ' .. k t 1pR~."L'ribc one syste m In preference to an 0 &rUrn_
mar rn rh.l( rh(.·) "c:' l Other. (See
Desc ipthe ) . f' ,.
ab" -: .r The ""umption or be"e Imp led by the use of a .
,...."...ppo-
..uon PartIcular
(In:lll~ 't~.l.·tur.;:he most prominent ~tress of a w.or~.
Primsr, sl,.",.,s Is Analysis A hJghly quantHatJve approach
'"", Compo"e" - b ' th to sOc'
Pri"CI..- . • -h using statistical tec n1ques at aI/ow the i . 10_
IjlJ£UI.,UI.~ re....t:an.:: . u~ber of linguistic variants. nVeShgator
n~31ar!:!en ' .
10 e ,,,",1 " Th ' principle that constrains the Interpretation of
Principle .. d e formulated as: A reflexive pronoun mU
St ~efJexive
pronoun.
, an I.' d 't aVe an
- d nr that c-comman s I . . .
.anr.ece ~ The pJincip/e that constrams the mterpretation of prono .
PrinCIple I ted as' A pronominal must not have an antec d I11Jnals
and IS formu a -. e ent that
c-commands It. . . . I .
. . I fCompositionallty, the A pnnclp e underlYmg senten .
PrinClP e 0 T h ' f Ce Inte
. that is formulated as: e meaning 0 a sentence is det . r-
pretatJon . art d h . ertnined
th aning of its component p s an t e manner In which th
~ e= . ~~
ed in syntactJc structure.
D-.~~!!.. Articulatory adjustments that OCcur during the prOdu t'
~-~ . ../. C I~~
h (e g deletion. epenthesIs. asslIm atlOn).
speec . ., ' . f .
Proclitic A elitic attached to the begmrung 0 a follOWIng Word ( ,
'the' in I'ami ·the friend ' French. (See a/so Clitic.) e.g., I
Productivity The relative freedom WIth whIch affixes can Combine With
bases of the appropriate category
............,~ive assimilation Assimilation in whIch a sound influe
• 'V5'~ . -d I'd d . nCes a
following segment (e.g., Jlqur -g I e eVOlcIng).
Pronominal A pronoun whose interpretation may. but does not have t b
. th 0 e
detennined by an antecedent In e same sentence (e.g., he, her). '
Pronoun A word whose interpretation can be determined by an th
. h . 0 er
element (an antecedent) In t e same sentence (e.g., him she them I
herself). ,
' , se Yes
Pronoun drop parameter See Null Subjects.
Prosodk morphology A theory that highlights the ways in which Prosod'
. . hI ' I IC
units condwon morp 0 oglca proces~es.
ProIodkproperties See Suprasegmental properties.
......lorms Fonns of a proto-lang uage, written with a preceding asterisk
to indicate their hypothetical character.
.....European The proto-lang uage from which evolved most of
JMsuaBesofEurope, Persia (lran)_ and the northern part of Ind ia.
A language reconstructed through the methods of hi,tor-
'DIe best exemplars of a concept (e.g .• rohins Of magpie, are
_ ....- coacept ·bird').
lana used in some languages to indicate that the suhjccl
use V I Willen WithOut an hlC r~1
. (S I 0 oven u'llf h
entl ly. ee a so bViati" ' uhil!<;l . I tc
. I Th .e.) hnd' "n~ ......
°adlca e pan of a Ch' It~le .rl;,j _q
I" • lne "itt 111ft
morpheme s meaning (al . . ~e C
har. .ltrt""'~'"
. Th' ~o Call d aC
",r h ....'" ,"',
Readmg e mterprelatio e a (e I al ~
Real world knowledge F~ fOr a pan/I)' pr')'i~
I h act~ ....... -u ar tl~
do not aug and rOcks do . """PIe kn uller~n . li).
knowledge. nO
I ~Ieep). "'" a""uI~' ""
. A ~~ •
ReanalYSIs sOurce of I l<,"eQ If "">rId I
attribute a compOund Or ro:~gUage C
han I Iletiflt~~ ~
not broken down Into com '- affix truge that In Y"Q~
Rebus principle The ext PO
nentl1l0fph ClUte III a~"I~e ~
like the word whose meaensIOn of a sinel1le, (e.g..•"td lh.1 (I~
P nlng th · "n to, ''''''' +b'
Received ronunciation m,p) e SIgn tept any ""ltd II...~'g.,) h_
h· h ' b d Th etnltQ . "'4l
w IC IS ase On the upper_ e Preti i lnilial 1 PI,%
is generally regarded as re . class ' !leC:h gfous aceenl
Y. ,
glonally ° Ihe f)( Il .
Reduced A dorsal feature lh neUtral '><:luthea, 'Uilb EA••..
at cha ' 'Iofl'.!t ._~
Reduced vowel An (unslressed racteriz.eso I ~~
the tongue in central regio'
n
0
/VOWel prOdunY'>ChV;a.
[l]. (See also Schwa.) the l1louth!,Q%
V;lth thth ~
Reduplication A morpholog' I Ill>Ou%c_ Poi1II,
h' h . IC
a proee .., ~
base t~ w. IC It applies. (See al 55 that dUplie,,_ ' III
reduphcation.) So Partial ....., all or
Referents The set of entities t . ~~~~ ~
cailed its denotation Or exten ?whIch a Word O
r ...
• 51On ) epr~
RefleXIve pronoun A pronoun th . 1Cl!efQ
(e.g., himself, herselfJ. at mUst have ac-toTnrn."",
Regional dialect A peech V
anet . '-..uJ&~
(e.g.. 1 Tev.foundland Engli hl. Y'POken Ina P<Uti.CUlar~
Register A peech Variel. appropnate. ...
fonnal v ca. ual . to apanlcuar ~
Register tones Leel tone hat 19na}. ~-_
R egre iYe assimilation I1ni~ ~arung diff~
. . on In which
precedmg egment (e.",.. ill f· t e a __
ma~ become [p1in anti,ipati nof the ~
'die r..a
in the phra e r!tar pen [ <rp penl _ P 'dIe _ ....~
Related langua e L guage that deveopcd --ItIII.
",e.
uti 11 t
h. mg trnph](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-374-2048.jpg)
![and thllt ,",:,-w, IIlHllI..·...h.lh."h tx·,h.·~llh :p (l.•.~•• ~~'i"
((/)( phr~' '" 1",
.. ) I~JNl' 1II1•1
.g • "t lhL". •h.:O(I'''£I(.' prtlfX·nll,,~... uf speech
"':_""v~nult 'n .,,-, ..JU~llh.lO. dnd Inh:n,u} . 'ounu
.~- tb If t '''Ilil ...... .
"tu.:h sht),,"s Inlllh..~l1r th.u rn>Jlh.~t..·' ,"'pel."trogranh
Ph n In' - ....... h
. ~rnJgnl . CTl'Up hlht.
" 1l1Cnlv.:fS s arc both u . ..
• ".....·h "'lDJmUm,I~I "f 1.;IIEu~gc .!nd Ihl! numlS lor its apprOPri~:"CUIUr
tmgU;lfl or at uSe In
" tal l)nrl"~r. n... ... lIl1ularion of the process of decOding th
)"'nJlltl" '""- - e SPe
. 'p<-«h ",,'t, . JI lir,1 'II!P 10 L1nderswmjing speech. ech
"11,.1l1e""1.1111 . . h' h h .
"gll.1 • . 1.:';lI,lIu;llion In W IC I ere IS approPri
•·".....·h ,;(w.ll",n " ate USe Of
I.tnguagl.'- ~ Phone
· h ,,,und ., t' . . - h d . b
• p<-« h' Thc ,iIllu/a!Jon of speec pro uct,on YCOIllPUt
·.......·h "nr I'Sr~ ' f I er.
• r--- ' . Th' language or lorm ° anguage used by any
'p<-«h ,arret) C - group of
",·.!kL·CS /. I h
· "~ ronunciation A source ° anguage c ange Whereby a
s,wlJmg p 'Iris"s Ihat renects more closely the spelling of th ne"
Pnmunc,..'JaCllln I. • • t e word
. onouncl!d as [oft;>n] rather than [n anj).
1<' ,T ojlt'" pr f h
· '''''- 'wation in which allophones 0 t e same phonellle co
SpIlt . ,I hI ' f h d'" Ille to
··ch each mher due to t e oss 0 t e con I((Onlng envlro
Loncrast I _ nlllent
I · . one or more new phonemes. ,
re,u Clng In " , . • .
Split brain experiments StudIes that mvestlgate the effects of urgicalJy
.c"ering the corpus callosum. ' . . .
S 'sm A slip of the tongue mvolvmg the tranSpOStllOn of the' '.
JHHmen . InitIal
sounds of word.~ in an utterance. . .
S read Glottis ([SG]) A laryngeal feature that dlstmguishes unasp'
P . Ir'lteu
from aspirated sounds. .
Standard language The superposed vanety of a language that is elllpl
d· d d h' d ' oyeu
b} the governmenl and me la, us~ an taug t In e lIcattOnal institutions
and ;s the main or only wnlten vanely. ,
Stem The base to which an inflectional affix is added (e.g.. modification is
the stem for -s in the word modificatIOns).
Stimulus-bound communication Communication that only occurs when'
. • J ti It
i triggered by exposure to a cerlam Sllmu liS or or certain Specific ends
(e.g., the warning caJJ of a bird).
Steeb The groups inlo which purportedly related Amerindian language
families have been placed.
StGppiog A Common substitution process in child langllage acqUiSition that
iDvolves the replacement ofa fricative by a corresponding stop (e.g., zebra
pronounced [di:br~J).
Sounds made with a complete and momentary closure of airflow
fl!:"t_••tbe vocal tract (e.g" the initial sounds ofpleasure and grab).
The mental processes used by language learners in forming and
."ilJipoilftcses about linguistic input and in using linguistic knowledge
l!IIJI_aliVesituations.
The process whereby extrametrical syllables are
Stress ctash I. C{~'ll- 'I
• " Igl11' Ie,,,, (
il11l11<':' Hliely neXt I" "tH'n (I PI...,.
cU.'h I I I 11
corn!spomhng 'Ire". lither' '"~" "I
I C on 11 tin III Itl
Stressc( vowels VOWels 1c level,," I{' I.
Vtl
"'h'th
due [0 the eombineu fl th'l l<rt h,.... 'I" I "".
e cC[, Pcrc ty,._
Strident A place featu 01PItch 1.'v'<I ...,
d r rc tho "ll I ., ItI
Itves an a fncales (in E at aClIu (nt, <lIVtl
Stroke A haemorrhage In!!olish,h I '}ICaly (b~;n~ 'ttt~i IlI<.r lI
causI ng bratn darnagn( n
l
the brain (: II d31" "IClt", '
~ aSO, '''b'b .'" he
Structurally ambiguou called 'I e 1<,<; I:dlltq Il<~,
h S 'Th ' tete-, "g, , bib.:' I
whIch I e meanings of Ihe' e relall{)n n;u-atUI:' ru>lur
e
""'"
than one way (e.g.,fclsf eCI Ir COIllPonen t....ttn a''&ttitl., <I iIIl_
Subcategorization The Irs lind IIl010r .t W('rds c~b'"1<: (~IIt) "l
options (e.g., the verb de~~~~:I!ication()~~~I). n"" «Inlh~ III
Subject The NP oCCurrin .ISS
UbcutegO . 'ds InttTnt 'n "-
rador). g 1I11Il1CdlatelyTi/Cdfllr<lt"lI)ftbtlrl;"
Subject Constraint the A under S Ie ~PI'llltnl ~
f ' c o •., hen I
clements rom being remo nstralnt nn • III '"
Subset Principle, the Th:ei
d
frOIll aSUbjec:ransfOrlltut(,n 11<, Q
correspond to the mOst restr~lttal Or defaUltPhrae. !hat !ltv
fewest patterns). Cltve OPtion (i ~etllng of a ~
. t' A .e., the l>ar:.~_.
Subshtu Ion tYpe of aUditoril OPtion tha;~'1Qer '-In
of one segment With anothe . y based Chang . Ptrtnl 1bt
1 d [ . rSlmtlar ' e tnvol .
(f] rep ace x] In some Words) seglllent(e.g ' Vlngthertjlb.-....
Substitution test A test used' to .,tnlhehillJryo{F::~
constituent by replaCing them . h detelllline if ~
. Wtt as· I a group
Substratum Influence The i fI ' lng eWord. of "'otda
. 1 n uence of " ,
dommant. anguage on a dominant la a .l(lliticaly or
of words mto English from Am . dnguage tn the area' CUllU!ally.,..
d R 'd' enn lanlangu e.g.. lhebo.....~-
Succee s . apl , Jerky movements of th agesl. '''--a
for an object. eeyes Used in reading
Suffix An afflx that is attached to the d . or~
Sulci The area where the cerebral coen
n
Off
Its base (e.g., '!YiaGIIirW..
.nfl ex ts olded·· '---J
Superstratum I uence The influe IU(sUlgo;r.--.._
. nee of a poll' --..
dommant language on another langua' ticany or
F h . gelDthearea(
Nonnan- rene on English) during the Middl E ' e.g., lie......,.
Suppletion A morphological process that m~...~gisbl*iall
I . ·-r.liallillll.......
by rep aCIng a morpheme with an entirely ~
be/was).
Suprasegmental properties Those Pl'Operti.cs of _ ...
their makeup no matter what their plac:e or __!••
loudness. and length (also called prolllMl£......
Surface dlslexia A type of acquired dJIIaIiaII
unable to recognize words as wholes, _1_-,
a set of spelling-lo-sound rub
Ijretftl)·](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-376-2048.jpg)
![00 27 54-
~ ~on.md.~91 '-~
lmllam n and ,,;-
lab ,_ . - ~ 4
dent.> ~i . ;5.1-4. +l9
dJs . - - •.,4. 58--9
trt'/:ndaru:n .tn<f. 54- 5
8
• C!T1.atlOn ilnd '75
otta... "'17 R ..,- ' •
non £nih-h:5~Jo()(J
palatal 59
ph >nota t
puc.h an~ ~J arid. 88- 9
unnersal, and. 374
ln$ .
U ular 'i9
Straregle;';r L2 I
Stra} sylJahl earne". 527
120 e adJUnctIon.
Srn:ss 48-9. J13-' I
255...(j(). 359. :13'
668.670 -
ai,rerna
h
ring. 114-17
cas . 258-60
compounds and. 153
255-7 •
metnc and. II 3-21
~and. 255-7
..._rmd.4S-9
P-lof. 142 157
346-7 • .
...-,..49.113-14
111-11 .
..__ .... 54 91-2.
~.•___
__2S1
_ ..411. . . .
~I "'~)II"'-I:"
r'" , h rh".tbm:tnO
-<>0 •
ua 'i~NOU: Wld.. , hJ
m""-' l. l~U:~f) anll4q
IOZ ""'0-. • Wo,
tn) e " e~br Oa: 'ul
.' :mn ldent .u-
, ~r;J,U'C' l..'ap;.lL'U)
~truclur:~1 :J~I;II '- •
. IJUI.'1ure ut W~!~JU~IY. ;X~-.6
q)uhlplc I• • I.L -xo
~C)ole. h~5 :el'i. J·n-9
Ubc.HegOJ'l.lal",n. 1Y6-7
Sutxo I~S-l}. 205-0, 6X5-6
l'[ ",.. I Us n.Uure
gr.lmm..llical
of ,:;ol.leJgc:. 7-'), 6N
"" 1~"£f! rnl(:es~lOg.
S
SUbJCCI Lunslrai
ut'lJ<.'d • IQJ "'3
01
, The. 214
68.1 . - -In. 66-1.
'oISC .!OJ 106-8
~~~fSR~es and. 2tll -::!
.5 j~ :;dparamett!r.
5.15n .5 1 1<-~(),
m,:n 520
p.I'i"IVe" anu "'),
2X9 'i' • 0- 9~ H.
h~ril:.llld,2t;9 300
transfonnatHlOs anLl
2 I4. 22X. 2Q(~I . :!O].
uudcr~wod. lotJ
I..('rU oruer <lUU 117
lX'- .... ·9,
S ~..j
,.uthC,t Pnn..:tplc.5IH 10
~uh"'lUut~on. 126.470 ...
S
U~...[ltUIJ(ln le~l. ItJJ-l ""7
u"~trarum. J~ 1-2 .--
Sufi: . J.1R
mtlectional 0'.
dcr~"ational. 161
~Oflle English 3
deri vational suft-
145.,(, . IXes.
Sulcus: .j 17. 41 9. 420
~umenan writing 595-7
Superstratum. 341 342
~UPPletion. 141 -2'
uprasegmenlals. 41 - 9
.178- 9. 668 .
Surface dy lexia.430
Surface representations
onhographic. 674
phonemic. 674
Surface structure. 204-5
Inversion and. 205. 207
IlklUUtlt: ruL:
'J-~'l :0. WlO
UhM.,H1coror
'ltl 7 ru <tno
S~ltt.J:lrl..H 211 lo!
.'".....~. h.m. I)
. '-7, :'i"~, 547 N)
S)lIahl~1~4~l~::!U 7 -t.) ,
Ilo.tUHJ: <In./~dl...l)
~ntI08. 591 ah. 34. .54
om -.597- 8
SylJ.lhlt.: Ph-9.611 - 12 .
107~nlogy. 90-5.
umblo;yll' b'
Syllable Fin~ ~~(y and, 91_'
Ot!voit.:i ~lruent -
Syllables. 2-1. 4~g/()5. 512
aJlomorph . K3-95
closed .. s ~ and. 245
defined 6~)pen, 79
hea..'y, 94-5.
9
5~l
In langu~lgt! re .
450....1 P X:e5lng,
iJgh~ 'J+..5
nat~ralnes.'i and, 36'
procC:i.'M!'i and ~p - .1
110. Set' "i,'o-sUH- 5.
phonulogy )'liabllt;
seltlng up, Kf>-9{)
~lrcss and, lJ3- -:'i I
II) 21 . 1J6.
!.lructurc of. Ii: 94
IIl7 ·X. 2~7 H .
41>9 70.5J.1 '16
unit... fli '
,I n:prc'l'IHalulO
<iOu, I () .20 6K- 9
102· 1 . .
":l'lghl, l)~ 5,516
",f1tlll~ .lnd 19- ""II)
5lJ7 :-<' -. 59~.
~ylvlanrl...s~re -+"0
Symbolic 'Igo;. 630.-1 ')
. 1>:14,1>.17 65' ,03_.
Symptomatil..' "'I~n~ ..
~~(;654
631. 632-3:6.17 .
64J-...l. 656-7 660
SYIKOpe. 322. .3:!3, ,3', n
Synon)ms.269 . 1.363
Syntaclic analysis 669
69()""1 . -70,
Syntactic t.:ategories. 182-1
.214-16.477 -.
cntena for determ"
183-5 IOlOg.
Syntactic features. 668
Syntactic parser
computational linguistics
67(>-,82 ...
psycholinguistic. 454-7
457-8 •
Syntax. 4. 181- 244 666
669. 697 Se~ al'~
TabOO, 554-5
q~ ~~c::~~~------~~~~--------------------..
Te),t. ~OR. SKl 5,6Kl
l'cx.' inuy~I~, 66(" 69, ~
Tt!x ami dll'tt.'uur...e ltoaly",'!o Nt' MUltOIt'"1 2
1
,
69 , lhcllOI(; fht& 1e1
Tt:x.lua coheslun. 5K4- 5 2~9 _l)'l
TeJll,ua compcu:m.:e. SOR _lj Um~ersa (irammM 1.11
ThctnlIC roles. 286-91. 41) _5-1o.1.'!C.--l1
486-S, 685. 6l)()' Wh !;1u'Iemcnl, 2h~·1
Theme rolc. 23()-, . - -:-' --1. 'lK4,4'6(}-
'286-92. 411. 4.'.1 Tra.m.ltlona (,;0"..'"
The,auru
s
e
s
.
612
411 1 C H,"'.
Thorpe. W.H .. 656 TranMll....e leTb.., 61 065
Thyroid cartilage. 1 1 6&3, 6~5 . .
Tree diagram, {~ne
Tiers, 0-'2.253. See ahio 86--1. ,'9 __1
n
'S·e:.!,
A..to~egmenta ~"
noi.on~ a'-':o Structural
R
ambguy
epl'e!iien(lions~ bui.dmg. '236--9
Prosodic morphology Tree sruclure~ (word,)
Tilde. 51. 58 3(>-,1'
Timed-rending experiments, Tri.,6-'2
444-5 Trochaic. 114
Tip (of Ihe longue). 26. 29, Truth conditions. 213
33.50.61,91.100 Two-word stage. 411
Tokens. 628. 648. 651 Typolo~ 361 2 '
Tonal assimilalion. I 11-12 b" -, ,14-9,
Tone. 43-6. 41-8. 605 512-14.520
assimilation and. I I 1-12
placement of, 142-3
representations and,
Umlaut. 141.318.320-1
Unbounded foot. 13-14
111- 1'2
universals and, 378-9
Tone language. See Tone
Tongue. 14. 25_6.33.34,96.
12'2n
co-articulation and, 50-I
movement in diphthongs,
36
118-19 •
Underex.tenslon.4S4
Underlying (basic) fealure,
103,105 .
Talking Machine. 666
Targel, in priming
eltperiments.443-4
vowels and, 36-9
Top-down parsing. 617-8,
682
Underying representation
103-4,245.246-51 ,
431-2,614
Underlying semanlic
infonnation, 691
Urnt' of metrical
representation,
13-14
UnilS of phonological
analysis, 68-9. 83.
102- 3
Targetlangua!e..
in L2 acqUlSltlOn, 507
in O1ach~ne translation.
696-8
Teacher talk, 529
Teeth, 14. 26, 29
Telegraphic speech. 426.
429.432.477-9
Template
bird song. 641
phrase strUcture. 190.
194-5
Templatic morphology.
252-3
Temporal lobe. 420. 428
Tense. feature. 10 1
Tense. verb. See Verb tense
Tense vowels. See Vowels:
tense vs. lax
Tcmlinals (words). 679. See
ll/soWords
Top-down processing. 449.
454.456
Topic. 299-300. 301. 383
Trace. 208.212.433
Trachea, 2 . 666
Tran cription. See Phonetic
Transcription
Tran.fer errors. 506
Transfer. negative. 504-5.
511. 512. See also
Interlanguage
Transformational models.
682
Tran. formational syntax.
182, 203,229
TransfomlatiOns.202-14•
238-9.337
acquisition of. 479-81
constraints on. 23-4
inversion. 203-4.
Universal Grammar. 24-21.
493-5
L2 acquisition and. 512.
516.518-20.524-5
Universallendencies.314
Univen;als oflanguage.6-1.
86.88. 8-20.
361-2. Set also
Uni"etsal~
MarkedDcsStbiMJI7;
ParameteR
childanguaF""
469-11
~
aeoeS
expIei i •](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/contemporarylinguistics-anintroduction-230220214041-b3be7b37/75/Contemporary-Linguistics-An-Introduction-pdf-387-2048.jpg)
![a"'nMl'OIt"''''1I ',,'rIc
gnunmalh.'U:lUOQ and.
: ~ ...
1O1.·..... i'-ln .md, ~Il-~
1m.·~Ulat. (>64
Ilklll111ir.:r. .1. ~::'5·6
",U(II.)II, ::,stl-2
phr"'~ ,Iru..:lure and,
hi..rlWl..·.:aJ tmgUl,n.:<;..llk.I.
'"
Imph....:uwn.:tl•.17....
~T' so, JS~ 3S.... ('t,
....3~n
IS;;: .•.)(}
lfl1ll.'p..,J1 Gramm.tr and.
nl(...-plklllb~al• .lSI).. ~
l~
phonoJ"gl.."3.I. _r~ :-;<l(l.
}S7
::'1.:'i.::'1~::'1
emt.'r·, Lm. ,159-6()
"t.'ne[ mllnJ."C"l. 64+-5. 657
Vili. 507 .
~"J)f!k:th..·. 2J~-':!~. .1S~-('I,
3S~-·t,l
lx:.ltlulary. ",7'>
~K;JJ ":llnJ.i (H)C.II fold:.). 14,
:;!O-.l. 27. '"' 1-42.
f) JX1Jll,S) and. _17~q
l!nmad.cd. SN' Iar/...l'dnes:-.
,,,,,,-,,,
l ....lJ;c.".686
l ,'uJa.';:"T
l'ubr.>.. ::7. 5Q, 62
dan•.:. :'9. 60
("3l'S. ::6-7. 3-+-5. 60, 319
,,;o-arth:uJarion and. 51
fcature:-. and. 101
pht.')no(;Jc(jt,;>; and. 04-5
Ve-lum. '26-7. 51. 58.101
,."O-artIcul.1tion and. 50.
51
na."3li7allon and. 53
'c.*f"h .h"'J,ement Parameter.
51S
em Rai,ing. 219-222.5 J8.
5~J-2
Vc.-ro (cnst'. 8. 46. 184. 216.
234n.664
compound... and. J53-4
infle.,.·rionand. J60-I,
16]-1. 168-70
mternaJ (."hange (ablau[)
and. 1./1
ooo-Engti,h.169-70
suppleuon and. 141-:!
tone placemenr and.
142-3
universals of. 283
Verbal hedges. 552
Verbal parad'gm. 168-9
Verba, 2-3. 135-{i. 182-5.
297-8.481-2. 664.
685. s,~ also Verb
-
oomplemall. of. 197-8.
226.685
_WI'IIOII ofnoun 10.
3 157
f I U-..u pmperues
'IS
J:;=~~~673, 685
ofchimpiln7ee. 648
~"k;al t.rt'le-t. 20. .15
"lx'all) h.tndic3ppcd. 699
Vocoder. 666
·.oi~c b;Jr', 067
Voice feature. 69, 95. 96. 98.
99, 100. 101. 105-6.
III. ././9
Voke lag. 31-2. 51. 1220
.(lil,.'cd ...ounds. 22. 23. 27-
.15. ././9. St·, also
Vowels
Voi<.:cles..ness. 22. 28-32. 33.
.14-5.52.5.1.72-7
Voicing. 22, 3640
<1"plrallon and. 31-2
':Issilniialion. 43--54. 248.
~70-1
co-articulation and. 51
language t:hungc and.
.118. .114. .131-1. .152.
353-5
Vowel harmony. 361
Vowel laxing. J27
Vowel lengthening. 92-3.
107. 2~9
Vowel redu(':lion. 56. 322-3.
.1.15.354-5
Vowels. 23-4. 35-41. 666
acqui!-OJlion of. 468
co-articulation and. 51
<...ontra~ls. 71-2
diphthong'. .16
fealure matrix for. 99
flopping and. 5~
lionl and back. .17-9. 96
long v,. 'hon. 39.48.
71-2.75-6.92-5.
107.329. :'76-7
monophlhon8', 36
na....u. 27. .15. 51. 5.1. 58.
79-81,97. 109. 122n.
375.376.
non-English. 57
pilch and. 41--{i
pbooeIic ymbols for. 42
pure vowel •36
awduI:ed, 40
'lluple H~"eh. Jb
...lre'is und. ~8-9
tense S. la:~. 35. .39-41
71. 78-9. 92-5.101'
107.327 .
univen.als and. 375-7
387 .
VY!;l:oL<;ky. Lev. 491
Ui:1l1 Sll"e~t Journal. 686
Washoe. 648-9, 650-1. 65"1
Wave ronns. 666, 670 -
Weak g~~~~tive captlcity.
weake~~! (of meaning),
Weakening (of sounds), 318.
~~~5. 348. 353--4.
Webster. Noah, 616
Wernicke. Carl. 428
Wernicke's aphasia. 428-9
430. 435n .
Vemicke's area. 422, ..H9
43~ .
",h Movement. 205-7
211-12 .
relative c1au~s and
227-9 .
thematic roles and, 289
Universal Grammar and
219 .
IVh quoSlion,. 219.480_1
SeeCllso WII
Movement
'hispery voice. 23. 59
'White nOise', 667
Word-ba.,ed morphology.
137.672
Word boundary. 103
Vord formation. 144-60.
559. See a/so specific
pmct!Ht!.~
acquisition of. 471-6
compounding. 151-6.
556
derivalion. 1+1-51. 556
Inflection and. 160-4
language change and.
340-1
,lang and. 555-7
Word frequency. 693-4
Word game,. 45(}-1
Word manufacture (COinage),
159-60
Word order, 5. 7.166
animal communu,,'UlIon
and. 649 ,50. 654
chIld language "od. 477.
49.1
in hiSlory of English. 314.
337-40
honoogiCU
p and. 69 ..
sychohngut.l-iliCH 44 3
P rescureh to.to.
sctTHlotic re~~~~';
uroonl'f 132-80
~l~lIC~~r~o;:'e~!., 100. See
Work1ng,t Y'APph cuuon<,
II .~oe Web, 695
world W'~9_20. 591-624
Wnung. . nd 429-31.
aphaSia a ,
619
Chinese.6Q4.-6 h
English orthograp y.
613-19 -604
history of. 592 9
Japanese. 607
2
I pes of. 59-
Y . language,
wnt~~chine translation
and. 695. 698. 699
language, {I,.".
wnUc.o target
language, (fJ~
Wug-le<,t.414-5
X' categories.. 94---6
XP Rule. The. 90, <.IS 41,
204-5.226
Yes-no que~ion$. 339-.4(),
513--4
acquisition of. 4R(}.-1,
49
inver!o>ion m. '20"3--.
207-9
Universal Grammar and.
21-9
Zero der"i.vaton. See
Conversion
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Contemporary+Linguistics+-+An+Introduction.pdf
This document is an introduction to the field of linguistics, covering topics such as phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, historical linguistics, language acquisition, and the relationship between language and society. It is intended as a textbook for students new to the study of linguistics, providing foundational knowledge across the main areas of the discipline in accessible chapters contributed by different authors. The goal is to give readers a broad overview of linguistics as an interdisciplinary field involving the scientific study of human language.
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- 1. , , I II/IIII /
- 2. ll-arnjn~ bout L.tn'ua 't' L t'n..r. Iltlilor . For cI lull I p..1 II Contemporary linguistics An Introduction Edllt-" "I W IlI IM,I () ' (.I-!tIlY Mil H ,II 1)( 1IIK(JVIJ I '>KY II-!AN( IS t.: , I AMllt II 0'1 1 20m Ao~1 Education . T..".... ' D<:wI An ..pM! 01 Pearson donO ......."".."• •SIn F,aroseo Mod<Q . .... ~""'land • london • New 'fori! • A it ' . Seoul "Ta()eI 0Cape Town • Hark)W "'-''W S glpott . Hong Kong OntatlO • Sydney ' TOkYO ' ., Am5lerdam • Munch · Pill' • Milan
- 3. I-dlnhurgh Gat. Harle",. Ess""Cl20 211' I nlled Kingdom anti {(){:idleJ C{'IfI"'UII~. thrall~h('1II1"c': world 71' U. on 1M noriJ nide" Ut'b ,II: http: ' " .peatsoneJ.co.uk Frrst edItion Copp Clark Pllman Ltd, 1987 S<cond odllian Copp ('Illr' Pitman Ltd., 1992 Thud edllion _ Copp Clar' Pitman l.td., 1996 All nghts resen ed: no part of this publication may be reproduced. S[ored in a retrieval system. or lransmitled in an) form or b~ nn}' means. elcclronic. mechanical, photocop},ing. recording. or otherWise without either the pnor wrilteo permission of the Publishers or a licence permllling restncted cop}lng in the United Kingdom issued h) the Copynght LIcenSIng Agenc} Ltd., 90 TOllenham Court Road. London WIT 4LP First published by Copp Clark PUman Ltd" 1987 under lIle title of Contemporary Llngui tic Analysis: An Introduction This adapted edition © Addison Wesley Longman limited 1997 except the chapter on Computational Linguistics © St Martin's Press Inc. ISBN 978-0-582-24691-1 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for tbis book is a,arlable from the British Ltbrary Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Contemporary linguistics . an ,"troduction I edited by William 0' Grady, Michael Dobrovolsky, Francis Katamba. p. cm. -- (Learning about language) Adaptation of: Contemporary linguistrcs analysis, Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-582-24691-1 (pbk,) I. Linguistics. I. O'Grady, William D. (William Delaney), 1952-- . II Dobrovoisky, Michael, 1942--. III, Katamba, Francis, 1947-- . IV Title: COOlemporary Itnguistics analysis. V Series. PI21.C5854 1997 410--dc20 96-23860 Set h) JJ In 101J2pt r,mes I'noted III Chi na NI'CCII , t'i I~ U In O<l os 07 CIP To the memory o( our friend and colleague [wa Iwanicka 1950-1986
- 4. Convincedat once that,in order to break loose from the beatenpathsof opinions andsystems, it was necessary to proceed in my study of man d hd d ' , ~ societybyscientificmet ° :s; an In a ngorous manner, I devotedone , , " , year tophilolog~andgrammar;,/ingUlstlcs, ,or the naturalhistory ofspeech, being ofallthe sCiences, that which bestsUited the researches which I was about to commence. Ia. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, What is Property?(, 840) Table of contents Dedication Epigraph Series list Acknowledgements Preface Preface to the original edition published by Copp Clark Pitman Ltd, Canada List of technical abbreviations Language: a preview WIl.1JAM O'GRADY, MIQ-lAR DOBROvOLSKY At-V FRANOS KATAMBA 1 A creative system 2 Grammar and linguistic competence 3 Changeability: gr-arnmars change over time 4 Biological specialization for language Summing up Note Sources Recommended reading Questions 2 Phonetics: the sounds of language ."!CHAEl. DOilR('IOlSl-.' -NO fRAl',OS KATAMBA 1 Phonetic transcnption 2 The 'ound-producing system 3 Sowld classe -4 Con 'onant articulation 5 }'Ianners of articulation 6 Vowe:; 7 Phonetic trJIlscription of RP vowel and consonants 8 uprasegmentab 9 Processe , d ' d) 10 Other yowels and consonants (a ance Slimming lip ,'limn v vi xiii xiv xv xvii xix ~ 9 13 1~ 15 IS 15 16 8 19 :0 23 :5 27 3S 41 .tl 4Q 57 6: o.l
- 5. 5 S,II/n'r' R('(t"lllNOI./f d I'"dllll: {!lIf'It,,,,"," I'honolo1:Y; tIlt' tllnC'linll .lI1d p.ltterning of Sounds Ik. II I t pc 'U"'~ 1 Ms.., NlI, '" ""," rl ft,; " '",,!lL I St'gll1(.'nh in .'oulr,I'1 1 Ph"m'II,',III, ,',>IIdll;,'n,'" "III,lllon: I'huncl11e~ and allophone, J "hon,'II" ,lIld I'hom'I1II"".III,"'r;l'ltnn ., ,h,,,' Ih"l'!llll,'nr: '} 1I'lhk' :; I'"atlll" Ii Ikril ~tion, 'Ind rllk onknng 7 R"pll"l'nlalion, (ad, illll','d) H .'itll'" Jnd lIlL'lri.', (ad,an,','d) ...'l1l11l11illg "I' ~' ·1 '(/'); ..~tJUIl'(',,· R,'('cl/III1/"II"c'" readillg AI'I" 'II'" I: /lull.' .ti,,· ."'{I·;ng 1'11I>IIolog.l' I'mh/t'lIIs (JII' .1/;011.1 Morphology; the analysis of word structure lI 11,., n (,J,: 11 NI1 IPI ' I~ III l,U 'MtN W(lld, and word ,lnl,'lure 2 nl'rnaliot) J C'ompoundllll:! ., Olher Iypc, or onl 1<11'111<10011 :; Inlk,'''on () Funhcr C<ll11plc, or infllX'lllll1 SlllI/lIIlIIg III' ,VOlt '. ,(lIlll't'.1 R"C'tlllllllt'nd,'d reading ,11'1'flldil: HoI' /0 idclllil.i' 11101/,11"111"1 illlll!(<llIIiliar langllll/wl (Ju,'.II/OII.1 Synta~; the analysis of sentence structure 1111.1, 1 )'1 ,~AIl' ('all'goril's and structure 1 ('olllplcllll'1ll option, J rrallslpllllalions 4 l III' 'T'al gl,IIlllllar ;IIlU par:lllll'lri<: l'anallOIl S ~'lllll' ell'IIIOlh (adl allt'l',l) (I I JIlin 1 pt" ,,1 Sl IIt,let;" ,lIlail si, SII1I1I1/I1/ • "11' • bll 7() 72 M2 R.l 95 1()2 109 113 121 122 ,,~ 123 123 125 132 132 I.,., 151 156 160 164 170 171 171 In 172 I7J IIl I 1M2 IlJh 10J 214 222 22'1 2J-I G 7 8 l ... Rl £ Of C"NllNl~ ix Notes S()un~e,.. R eCOIt1l11f!1Ul ed rt'lulillg Appenlli.'('" H ow In b14UtI t'ee .'ilrll('Wrt's Q lIesliOlI, Interfaces MK,J IAEt. O<>BRc 1vtX.SIo...Y, WIl liAM ()'(,Io(AI1Y AI'II) f-RANl..1S KATAMBA 1 Morphology and phonulogy 2 Phonology and sYlllax 3 Morphology and syntax SlIlIImillg "I) No/e.1 Source" Rec()/Ill1lelltletl reading Que.1liollS Semantics: the analysis of meaning WUIAM O'CRAUV 1 The nature of meaning 2 The conceptual system 3 Syntax and sentence interpretation 4 Other factor. in sentence interpretation Sllmmillg lip NOles SOl/rces Recommellded readillg Qf/eMiollS Historical linguistics: the study of language change ROBERT . "'l~~' The nature of language change 2 ound change .' Morphological l'hange 4 Intactic change 5 L~.ical and ....em~llli~ ~hange 6 The ,prcaJ of change. 7 Languag.e rc,'onstructlon 8 Languag.e change and naturalness '11I11I11i,,~ tI!' '('tt'' 'i,lj/I'ct'. R"CC"/1I11I'lld, d r"Utllll~ Q",>.,cl(lns 234 :ns 23(, B(' 2.lc) 245 2-15 254 260 264 264 265 265 265 26B 268 l 76 l8-1 295 305 305 306 307 307 313 313 318 33~ 337 3-10 346 349 3b~ 363 364 364 365 .,66
- 6. 11 12 10 9 The classificationof 1,1O~Ud~t'S AJ..1 lrh: .,TIN:4E)..'(L Some preJin1Jnal1t" .2 T~ p<)lu~i.:JI ,j;l"lflc,lIi,'n J Gent,tic da. ,Jlkalu>n , IJIlUlIJII r: III' ,VoU.'! SOl/1n'- Rt'('ofllmt'lI<kd "'t/,/lIIg QUt'SIIOIIJ Brain and language ( ....R'I tllBfl,j- The human hram .2 Inestigating the br.un 3 Aphasia 4 AcqUired dyslexia and dysgraphia 5 linguistic theory and aphasia 6 Wbere is language? Summillg up Notes Sources Recolllmended reading QuestioflS Psycholinguistics: the study of language processing (.ARY lll/lEN J Methods of psycholinguistic researcb 2 Language processing and linguistics 3 Putting it all together: psycbolinguistic modelling Summing up Sources Recommended reading Questions Language acquisition: the emergence of a grammar SOl1l<. WHAN CHO AND WILLIAM o'(,RAIJ' J The study of language acquisition 2 Phonological development 3 Morphological development 4 Syntactic development 5 Scmantic development 6 Dctcnninants oflanguagc acquI~ition SIIII/ming III' Notl'l 41& 416 421 424 429 431 434 435 435 435 436 436 4~8 438 448 457 460 460 461 462 464 464 466 471 476 481 488 496 497 Smln°t', R rCOlJ1l1h'ndt'tl n'eltllng QUl'IiOlH 13 Second language acquisition K>tNAk,('.Vl.ID I The tully of sccolllllallgu,'lc ilc4u""inll 2 Imcrlanguagc grammars 3 Faclors anCctll1g Sl.A 4 The L2 c1a"room SlImmilig "II NO/e" Sources Recommt'lu/eu reat/'IIM ApPt'lidix; 1.2 pedagogy Question" 14 language in social contexts R(Jf'lAlO H. ')C MJlIlWlANl "Nt) JWN-.(,.lS KATAMlJA 1 Fundamental conccpb 2 Social differentiation of language J Regional differcnllation of language 4 Mixed languages 5 Speech ,ilUalions Summing up Note Sources Recommended readin!: Questions 15 Writing and language MICHAflIX16RO'v,(llSK¥ INL) WlllAM ()'{.RAlJV 1 Type~ of writing 2 The histol) of writing J The evolution of writing " Some other writing syslcms 5 Enghsh onhogruphy 6 Writing and reading SII/11nJIIlg III' N()/t'.~ SOllTt'L'S RecommellliL'd readlllg Que,lIiolJ I~HIi UI IONII 1 .1 SOl ~04 51 523 ~2l 5'4 S3S 53~ 53h 53" S37 ')40 54() 542 Sr.) 571 576 Sl5 516 SRI> SllI Stili 5'l1 51)1 592 5'15 M14 h13 6ll) h20 621 ti:!:! 1>23 h23
- 7.
- 8. Acknowl dg Innt Pr fac " 11t~'II~I":~ it... II dl';~lpl'1I' lUll, hut" hh',...tu, ,1lIII,t~'1l1t·lIli·tlltlll·U. '" Y,',11 III ,nllW 1·h"l~t.lht'" hit''! hlTn ,'Ih'. h'" 1111111' Lh I th.IIII,IIY ~Iulhlll~ 111111' hi (littl' Ilt1udul tum' hI 1111' t.,uh"ll h'IT Udl'lll'" Itl 'llh' M'IM1,th'11t!lldIIlIlUII 1l plhHWlh· .... ,>"11 . ''''I1.lIlth .... P'Vl hl1h1~UI"lll·!i. 'Ill." lIlh nv.'" Itl ~,.lIld II nil, l,ltlll'1" th;m ~tl'IU'II o;II1l'Yh nt thr ,'!Hlh' tlt'hl 1 lI'PI'd that Ilwh' IU,' qmh' it h'W h'I.IH,' ul IIlll1tthllllll hl1 III ttl ':1"",," ho. h~l' 111,' havl' hnoll 111 11.,h·d h) 11l' I.I',:~ nl., 11 It IUH'~ th.11 .';n J.!1l' lhrll "HId,'''' it ,dl '1 1111,I I"'II..d UVl'llh'W ul Ih,· ubll'. I ·tl,'(lUll 'nd.,y ... hnJ.!II"'tll. Ih,11 amllH,lt tll'l' . llh'n' h,'lI".' h"Tn htMlS ,,~c 'hk.:kctt ('ilU'" III ;1"./,·", 11II.l.lIIBI/f (il..·.I"m·.., " 111110,/11, tltHl '0 1)"1 ",ItHI I,,,,gllntlt,' and Ruht11" (if·tIt'I,,11 "'gll""". " J,lIl1lfJIll"lrtn '"n,' 1u.. h plwuk il rmnp,l'Iu.·I1"1IVl· ~llntllultlt)l. lit tht.' h1vul~"'-'''' ,,' 11"."11 I1tW tWIt:' I " II..·..·" hn II l'f'll11jliUllhk IIltl·~'IiHl·tI UI'vl'Y ul tnday .... "n.,lIl"tI.' hu. lIldullhll'dly. II I' ' Iill IIltpllltant hu h"t!,lIllllIlW 'luklll' In gl' .1 11.IIIr.umr virw nl' thl.· Vii" lnnd,l,.'upl.' lit IHIIHill1 latlp.lIOi 'I: hdorc dl,'~IIl).' tin.·1l IIthl Ihl Huuk , am.l .' 1;11111.." ul till.' ;lUO!" linvllt'II...·' 'pl'clall""" SO ~I '11111: a~·.11 I h"),"'11 WIIII'~ 'Ill 111'"1"""'111) IlI1g""'"'' Ie Ihllllk wludl wa, "'lcm,,,,1 III pltlVitk' ,udl'Ilt' with it .,u1ull!HHlllthng III nlnenl Itn~lI'ltl.·" Soon ~lIh.·1 ttw PIUll."1 Inl Ulldl'lvay, wlutc nn a Vl'll 10 11IlIl~.I. I ('Ul h,"'ln).' 111 ,I hllllbhlll ,""11''''1.,',, "I''' ,111" III "",lh,lI11 (l'l",lI~, M''h"d I)Ilh"" ""I., "lid M.lIk ,11","11' h.,llk (·'I/II.III/",n,n' I "'XIII"" , 11 1",,,,'//1"',,,,, dm:h had l'Cl'n ,lIlapll'd hom ('''IIIr'IIII''"l1rl' I/11'111"1< ""/.1'1' 11 /11/1".111"",,, 1'1Ihil,hed h) Cnp!, (,Ia,k "ilm.II1 lid, (,II1.ld,1 II ; th.... Ill,h' Inltllll.l1l· btH.. 'IU)! 1 ha.' C~(,I IOIl~, tll-n' ,,~,,;I bon~ th,ll It : 1'lIl'IIWI) l'1I Whal IIIV1'IllI"y"III,' I","k w," aIlCIllI"II1' hi .Ill. Ii 1/,','"III ,'on,,,k',lhl' ,k;lll Ill' "Ire ,1I,'a' "I' IhcII,clll'al hng'"'I"" ii' well "' 11',11') hrallch,', "I "l'l'h,'d 11ll~III'U"', h"l a, IInpllnillll, II "hlllh ,I,'le",hl,' ,Ill" I"sloll Wllh,11 h"I11~ 1'''1''""/ill', II "1:1111'111 wllllnlll IWII'!; 1111<1111) p"knll<'al. I hnllj:hl 111),1'11 a "III' ,IIIII '" I ,,'ad Ih"'LI~1I II, I le,lllICd wh IllI hll"k h;ld 1'Cl','llll' II ..I,md'L1d mlllldm'I"'" 1"li"!!I"'I"" "' Nnnh .III'IIC;I I II",rd,,, , :l11",,'d IIh Add,,,,,, We,k, I.Il"gma" "' Ihe lit.: Ihal 1,'IIl'1 Ih,m In III "',,IK,lIe hill ('''''','III/,,"an' I j",~"",", l".,h" .,' 11 11I1I",{"..I1"" d,'," 'I' "dl. II 111111 II<' 111111" "'n,,hl,' "" Ill" III Il'am III' wllh Wilh,II" (l'til"'" il1II1Ihl'had I)IIhl""I,k Iwl1l1 WCll' Ill" ,'h"1I1111 "illl Will.. "",, "'",,,d 11111" Vall"dlolll ,',hi"", ,.1 Ihc "',,'kI ami 1'",,1111 ,I n,II1 ',nh 1I'm',II 1',hIU'" lit <"111'''111/'''"'1'1 /111~""'1< ""/1'1' I h,ll I~ "h,lt hap ,1'11"'1. Ill' 1"1111.,1 'lIl/,,"II,,I,",III1"'" thc 1'",,111, "'ll h",,' h rill' Illl n", 1,',1 " in IlI,II" /0,""" Ih' "'"l'." Ihal ,'llh,' thlld t ",",1111,111 'dlllllll, 11",,''1, II dill,'" til"" II lund I""" Ihl' I'S Cdllll'" pi pal "" ;IIK ,1 IIIIIt) III " 1IIIIllIwi III ""I"'Ii,1I11 w.,s SII<''llIl..,1I C.'",lIh,1l1 111,111,,,,,1 h,l
- 9. I.l'Cl'h and Iheadvice 'lilt! ,UPPllrlof M"r~ Aronoff. Thanh "Iso go 10 <I nUlubl') lit Ill'Ople al Addison Wesley LOllgl1lilU II) IItl' UK and ('amid" ~hlJ Were "'wilYs cageI' 10 hdp and whose aSSlam:c helpl'I.l Illllt:l~l' Ihl' pn:panll)ol1 of lhl' book bOl" Sllloolh and plc<lsilnl. FI;JIlCI.S Kal",nh.. Prefac to th original edition n,Il~' tu 111,,' uPplat'Hlhlll 01 II.,OIU1I"I .Inill~ I! tu I.III11tl.H lIh)t (;t 111 III r Ian!'ut,tu.' prn'IIl" 'tllll~'I1I" willi IUl "h:al inlludtl~ 11111110 Ill(· ~tllIll)l thmlill WI.' ':~111 "l'll'lllllll" SUI. h Ihlll~IIV p'O "l'tllt hom .1I1 IPIHt.:''-I.IIHIIl 01 pit/hi Itl ""III" ""m hllll"" III dillOi. III hY"IIIIl' '" ,,' " , I I ' < I I ' • h'IKllh C 111 I II . I II" '1'1 1'1 H llnllli lor thn (lIUhh,'I1' ttl Ihl' l'u,rlul k~llI).! ilnd l lth.'n IOn t) U ( J I ( I II ' " ·,1 I,k" 'lie oll'le( h' 'rlelln' " 11111,' Ih'"1 .1 IlIIl1ill iI,l,vlly III" II 11 C, . 111><1 I 11I11I1I1I"llIrv ,Imil-Ill' III 11I1~1I"1"" " Ihe ,1I'"ovCI y "I Ih., 1I11J11 ' ~IV<: Y') , I I, "" N' 1111 I"M,I; ,II Inpl III 'lhnll""""I' kllllw,,"dg,' Ihal IIl1d,', II' ,lIIgU,'g , I , I I ' el11l'l1,""e 11ll' "XI"III 01 III" kllllwkd!!,' ," we " '11 . 'i lu IUtrcKll1l.:~ t W I( 11 1 Il: 1I1"Ihlldlllll n y 1I,,'d illlll'~II1S11l '"1.1IY'I' ,. , I Iy 1',1 ., " 'I k 1c"~lIeu pnm,' I , AlihollV h Ih" " IIIl' 111,1 1111).111'1'" I<Xlllll1 < I )Iy 1'III"d" ('III1,,1I1i11i rClld,'r, hl l1, w,' haw II ,'I 10 10 I ,,", I' A Itl<' IllIe '"gg,',ls, wc I I I nu 'h more 1 ,:til "1111 l'lIvcl al1col lllllI"lll'ph 'IIIlIll~lIap'~"IIIII" ~o( ,IllI''''. .. I ' 11'.I"",etl allhl I "' lll 'lIW y~l! a.., I ,' .... have allell1111~d 1111 IlIlrodll." "lIl1lll III!!III, 1 I '1Irl"J''lllllhcr 1 ' 1 'Whll~wClollollv.lllIe , ,IU"c ill Ihc d.:vcn(llllcill nlollft ISllJllllC I t , 'III"" 1 1 'lI'tl1t P Ill as ' ,.. " , h'IVC I'lken I c gem" " ,. ~ Iruilflll approache, 10 .itllgUlSltl:", we., .' "',a,chllvelyUlhel~nl I " , I V'1IIItou"IIC' proVluC , h""1: 10rtwlllca"1Il', 'II'I.gcIICI.1 ,< ~ I n'l l'hlll1el,,' phl1l1 l1 logy, I I ' . I· 1'lI1SlIc PlCIlUIllC , • alld IIlIeglaled "l1plOac 1111 "',," II!.! . . I wllhln Ih" 1t,IInewllik ;" ' I 'l1'lIIl1e' arc VICWCt 1II111 phulogy. 'ynlax, ,Int 'Ie', . 1'1'" S"colldly Ihe 'ell<I"II'e h I II II 'tor'lIed and tnlerr~ a cu. ' _ , pel haps 111 no ul CI a.. II y II ec ' ' I .. tlon II) a hrnad range olollwr ' 11pmach ha.. heen widely tnlluel1ltal 111 "' ,IPp lea ,I .. , I') IIwenly years I IllI g lilsllc p ltenllll1cl1allvClI:CJ "'", ha, heen limlled hy Ihe lIIevllan c Thc eXlenl 01 our 'COnlel11pur,lIl1lc" "., 'II1U Ihe tkmands III I ' , I I< ()reSenl ha'ie cOllcep" , cOIllIJrnml'e hClwecn IlenCl( I . I I "'Illy <:'IC', carly vcr,,'"'' ' , , 'nl appmac lC'. n I. , sophllIcalcd and COIl1P Clln V. I<CC , . ' ny 111,lruclnrs who wele nlll I 'I 'I 10 conicllIJ1ur,ny . . I 01 our chaplers were 1,11 gel I ,. . lIS Ic:d III SlInst'"l1lUl Ie""'",, an, spccialisls in Ihe ,uhl lelds ,n lIuesllOn, 11 , . 1'" (e'(lel'ially 111 Ihe alea ' , ' I ' I lnl'lch In eel Win IS' , a sOlllcwhul I1Imc Iradlllllll,1 ,'111 "l1ded Where pl1"lhlc. howevcl, lalcr 01 ,yntax) Ihall W'I OIlglll,llIy IIIle ." 1)rc conlelllporary malenal III ' I ,. 'Ire used III ple,enl 11 I I' <III srClllln, of the c laplclS , . 'Ie whal " promiseu hy I Ie III c Ih" w'ly wc have allemplcd III P"IVll ,I'll "'ail' lingullil' concepls, . " , 'u'· a ,olttl gruullulng I " h inlroductory lexl Ihal PIllVI es I 'U un 10 currenl wlllk 111 t c nul nne thai <llso prqlares Ihe ,'IUUC;~ I"i,g inlrcllluu'u III mult, kwlkd Ul'"pllllC Fur Ihi' re;lS~lII, Ihe SI~::I~;~cr tieled ;lIIal) ,es), ,llIlIphl1I11" phonology (In prepanl~un 101 "II alion for IcxII:al phonology), IlIlet lllorphuphonclI(: (IISIII1"lIlII' (III prc p ,. r (·11 prCnralllll 101 UllIole l',lcllucd • I II' Ihe "lal11ll.1 I , m:IIOI1 among componcn s e
- 10. nl<xlular uppn';ll'hl, I,'rd1,>rIlI;lllOn ruks in morphol"gy, anu t' pamm~tri.: "MIath'n In 'nt:l. 'ampl~, Of To Ihe " len! po,slhl~, h,I': Juempled I" Inlegrare the bas.. nism, outhn~d to tht!' tirsl £i,e.' ,hapleC' or the book inhl Our dis:' rnccha, phenomena 10 !al,'r ,'hJpk'C' 111u" our dN:ussion llf semantic, hUs. IOn of r '. r d d I . ' .. ' "ton 'aJ rngubth..·.... ll'or:tO <.."1.'")0 angu.Jgc iJLqUl~rnon. ~nu neurolinguistics ~ to some de~"",,e on th<, n"uon., pre,cl1Ied tn our tntroJUClton to gcn <.Ira"" gr~ar. erallve So te.'([book: ,'an he all things to all users. We hope that this boo" pro'ide sruden!s nOl (lnl~ 'Ith apringboard to the realm of s" ~in lingui.tk unaJ}sis. hUI '" ilh a grenter a~preciation for the wonder o~~~lJfic language. the ..ant!'l) und complexny 01 Its structure. and the Subtlety o~un use. It.-, . William o'Grad" MIchael D()brol'(lI.s~; List of technical abbreviations • tin ntit!s) one or mure • (in front 01 words or !!o.cntenceq tmacl..'cptahle # word boundary I Iirst person I primary slress 2 second person 2 seCOndUf) ~trc:-, : third per,on adjective Ahl ablative ca~e b, lIbsolulive case Ac accusative case Adv adverb AdvP adverb phrase Af affix ag agent AP adjective phrase ATR advanced tongue root Aux auxiliary verb B bound root C coda C complementizer C con onant CA contrastive analysis caus cause CG consuicted glollis CLT communicative language teaching Co any number of consonants Con conjunction CP complementizer ph.rase CT computerized axial tomograph.y CYC Cape York Creole OA derivational affix Oat dative ca e Oeg degree word Det dl:lr.!nnincr DR delayed release PEG Electmencephal,>gmtn EA cITllr :may!oti~ Erg I!rgallvc ca!c ERP event-related ",>tential ESL Engli,h a., a second language FN fir,1 name Fut future ten~c Gen gemtlve ca'c go goal H high tone lA inflectional aftlx lL imerlanguage indic indicative inf intinitive lnfl Inflection IPA International Phonetic Alphabet KT kinterm L low tone Ll first language L2 second language LN last name Loc locative case Loc location M man M mid tone MRD machine-readable dictionary J.l mora noun nucleus Nom nominative case num number rp noun phrase 0 (direct) object 0 onset
- 11. I II IfI II ION.. I I " (11·1 "hlhl1 (II (11,IIII'/t II I' I' "1'hI1l1U p ", 1'.:1' ) .. I'rlll"'l'all "'tll""" III I ' l~l'".II''' t ""'J"lh'lIl' ",,11 '" 1'1 T }hHn,"l 1111""'11 lilith' '1111"" I'll 1'1"hl 1ud,' l'III'I~"111 1'1 I'h"," PI' PI ,p,hllh1l1,11 plu.I'~· I'R pfh1lh'fi..' 1'p"',,'III.11111I 1'1, 1" ',,'IH It'I1 ,'~' I',t 1'.....1ft.' ''',' R ftn 111' R 111111",,'..1 Rl ' f ' I,HIH." ,:I.IlI',' RH IH:hr l"l1 .hh .mt.I'I' I "Ip '''''1'",'111 RI' R '", ',f l'IIlltllh,',.lfulll S 0; " SIS S(i ' ' SI SI"'" III r 1'1 Ihl' I 'll 1'1{ III{ I' .I "'~'nt'lh ~. ,uh,~ " " II""", " 'It • lI1UlUh: '1.1111, 'PI h,1 -I,lit" '111'111.11 ,,,',:o,,d 1.1" 11I.1 ',,' •InI1l1 '1"-,'111," Ihull 11"'1)1<' III'" "I...." 1,1'" I I,hl 1)'''''1' "'PH,' l ll""''',11 ;, allll1,11 1111.1'1" Ill' , '1'11""1)1,1'"1) tlllr"tlnd"'d I,',h n.t,." I "Ih 1'111,1'" lI11.tIt 1I1"d 1 " I Rt I tVI .. , .. II M language: a preview lVi/l,.rOl ()'( ".rely tvl;( h,lt'11 )ob/ovo/s/.. y ,111(/ I,.rll( h 1.11, 11111>,1 Ilk.' ~11f (It '.11~4{1.I~:" J Ih,' ','lIt:"I"",",I/! h,1I1 Ih.1I m.Ir~"'" "N ,:/·o..,/( .III~ "It",/-: U"i 1'~Ir' "IJlII,hc"I','utMI' t ,11 ''''l}!.' " lll,lIly thllll!~ , ,ysll'1l or cumn.lIH:~'l1n. " mcdHun fur thlu~hl, ..I Thu.;k hH ill'wry c pn..·,smll. a "'Cla in....ilU1W1•• m~utci' tm I'"lt"l'al ""nl"''''''} a ",laly,' ror na""" hu,Il"ng, 11 human """'gs no'lIIally 'I"'a" "I "',," ""~ lan~u"!1.e "",I ,I " h,ml III 'm,,~inl! nmd, SI!nllt,-'"11 ""'0;11. 'lIIl'1k~ll",I, II, u"",'~ a,I,vi,y lal,II1'I'I,I<:e III ", ah,cn,~ 1'",11 "I ''', III,n, I"" 1 ,,,,,,,, in Illllkr"'"llllng "'melh,,,, "hnu"h, "alur~ ami 11M' "r lanotll:lg~ Thi, h,Il'1.. 1,,"vOlks a I""" il1lrndll"illl' , hl1glll'I'cs, ,he 1",.-iI'I"" ,hu, '1IItI", II""" IIIall,", Whal i, hlnn,1I1 1,II1guag"" Wha, dll:' II mea" ", I..l1lm ,I Ia"gual!d It, ;111'" cr ,h,'''' qu,"lil"", II " liN ne,','""rl "' umlcr"allu ,h, r""'lIfec, thaI a Ian!!",lg,' m,II..,', ,1 ;III,lhk I, ", nllth e 'peaken., ,h,l,e "hI' ha" ,I ·"lIircu II ,Is 'lul"r '11 11 a n,uur,ll 'Clllll!;, rh,' ""'l'" ,Illl ",,,'rsll~ or human Ihoughl ,mll "llI:rtcllce pia", gn:al ",'I1,Ill,l> "" I,mguag". Ik,',IUsC cl'llIn1unicatll>n is nllt Ic'trid,'ll 10 a It "U ,Cl ,>1' "'P"", I;mguag" l1Iu,t ll,' "'Illl',hlllg Illl're Ih,II1,I'" Ill,' ; pa.:l..a 'C "I rcaJ}- mlldc """,Ig"', It lIust ,'na1k '" tl' ,r"Juce ami llll,krsl~uI,1 11,' "I",b. I'hr,I"~s, ,III" "'lI,'n,'," tIS the n,','d ;lrisCS. In sl"'rI, hUllla" langual!c mu'l he l'n'IIth e ,Ill,,,, 111 ~ nl elt) ,111,1 il1l1< a,i,'" III n:'l">I1'': t" IIC Ih"u ,hts, l"1 'rklll"", ,I"" ,itu,IIl,"" l'lId,'d) III ' the c,,'all' ,1,1"'( "I language is ;111 IItm',II,' 11"lIlal ",t III Ih~1I ,kfllll" th' h"uml,lrk, lthlll hll'h inlllll ,Itt"" l'an t,I...,' 1'1."',,, rh, "I '{'II"11 ,,1' Ih" ,) ,I, III ('an be' IIlU,"utl',1 h, I r 'Jhld) 'HlIpk ph nl'llll'lIllll in hlghsh I'" bhlc 1,1): thc 1'1, 'C" th,lt cr,'~tlc' ,clh, {r '11 'hi), 111,1 n,lItllIl' ,ll'li,>n,) It"", ""lIn' I!lughl}, ,>IU' nallllll ' tlung ),
- 12. H lPOII ~RYLINGUISTICS ~~_~_l/n~u._,~ ________________________ _~_ro_,_u_e______________~ leave the b""1 on the be"..h beach the boal ~ keep the aeroplane on Ihe ~n>un" ground the aeroplane cru:.;h the a..pirin into pmn/t'r powder the a.spirin slab the ",an ith a M'ij" knife the man catch the fish ith a .pt't1r spear the fish make the child an "Tf,holl orphan the child A, the following sentences show, there is a great deal of freedom t ~ in the fomlation ofsuch verbs. a InnOVate J) o. I I1Tisled the ball Ol'er the nel. h. He would try 10 slifJ-upper-lip it through. c. She Houdini 'd her way OUI of the locked close!. There are also limits on this freedom. however. For instance an. I . d'f d' . ., ew verb' rare.y,come I a war WJlh the mtended meaning already exists. Alth IS saY10i1lhe robber to mean 'put the robber in jail', we do nOl say ~ugh We robber to mean 'put the robber in prison'. This is becau e the w 11_ PilSOn Ihe verb imprison already has the meaning that the new form wOuld C h e tabltshed Th I . I . ave. ere are a so specl3 conslraJnLS on the meaning and use of .. subclasses of these verbs. One such constraint involves verb th Particular from ( . I . at are created lme expressIOns SUC 1 as Slimmer, holiday, and so on. 2) a. Julia summered in Paris. b. Harry winlered in Mexico. c. Bob holidaved in France. d They honeymooned In Hawaii. Although the entences in 2) are all natural- oundin . can beuse~ in this way. (Throughout this book an g, n~t~1 time exp~essions that a IJngUistic form or utterance is unacceplab'le.) astensk IS used to Indicate 3) li. *Jerome midnigilled in the streels I * . 1. Andrea tI()()lled allhe reslaurant. c *Philip one a'clocked at the . allport. Thc~e e.amples show thal when a verh is ' , . II1U't be given a very specific intci re' .. created from a tllne expression, II s~'l11ewhcre for the period of tim/X,ta~~~.- roughly paraphrasable as 'to be Pans lor the summer', 10 ho/ill' • s, 10 .lilll/mer lI/ Paris is 'lo he in holidays', and so Oil. Since nllOIl(~;:1~1I ~;lII1Ce IS 'to bc In France for the than ctendetl period" of lime th'" .. /ll/elllghl e.press POlOts In tlillC rather tv"'- I ' "j ~ann()( be used t . ,., . . 0 create new vcrhs of this Some other examples I AN(,l M,f A PR( vir w , Sytcmatic. COn,lnl1nh arlo! c!i!..,cnual tn the vlabihry uf the cr aU"'!: prne . 1f 1,;ell~eslabhshcd word" Wl.'fl.' cun,tanlly hc:ing fl!placcd hy nl.'W Cfl!atHln • Ihe vocabulary of English woule.! be '" u,,,uhle that commum.:allnn could he jeopardized. A Similar uungcr wuuld un...c If there were nn con"lralOt un th meani.ng of new words. If Tlte~' WI",,.r ;11 lIuwuii could mt.:an 'lhcy make It sn~w In Hawaii' or 'They wish it wl!rc winter in Hawaii' or any other ,trhitrary thmg. the production and interprelation of language woulll be ch.u".: and ungystematic. undcnnining the ro1e of languag! communil.:.ulinn. Creative syslcms arc found in all asp<'clS of language. including the way 111 which sounds arc cOl11hined to fon" words. The forms 111 4), for im,lan~c_ arc recognizable as possible English words (which mighl he used as names fllr ne products or processes). -I) «. prasp b. nib c. traf Such forms contrast with the patterns in 5). which simply do not have the shape of English words. 5) Q. *psapr b, *bfli c. *ftra The contrast between the forms in -I) and 5) illustrates that the set of posstble sound patterns reflects con. iderations that pennit certain no,el ,ount! combinations. but prohibit others. Still other considerations detennine how new word. can be created from already exi ling fornls with the help of special endings. Imagine. for example. that the word soleme entered the English language (used perhaps for a new ly di covered atomic particle). As a speaker of Engli"h. you then automatically know that something with the properties of a soleme could be callet! 'U/t'IIIIC. You also k.now that to mak.e omething solemic is to solemici~e it. and you would call this process solelllici~arioli. Further. you know Ihat the C I' prouounced as s in solemici:e but as k in solemie. Without hesitation, you alsu recognile that stlll'mici:e is pronounced with the strc<,s on the sec,'nd syllahlc. You would sa~ ,oLEmiCl:e. not SOlemici~e or ~olemiCIZE ) 0 here tS the ability to deal ith novel utterances more llhvillUS than til the production and comprehension of sentence. , part from a fey. Ii:l.cd expression. and greetings, much of hat you a) . hear. ant! n:ad in the cour e of a da con..i"ts of sentences that arc ne to ou, In C,lIlcr allons. kctures_ newc';',b, and te'tbook, you are regularly exPosed to l1td c"l1lhinatil'ns of wort. the cpn:ssion "f unfamibar ideas. and the pre entation of n'w
- 13. 2 GRAMMAR AND LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE inllmn:ltltlrl. (II''Iller.ror ""wnw. the paragmph that you "rl' reading. '.'·hiIL- ea,'h or the,,,.,entences i> no Ilouot perfectly comp ~hU"""nll' . h rc cn "L. J to you. It " c"rc'md) lInhkdy Ihal YOll ave ever ,cen <lny 0 '"', oclilfl'. f thell! This ahJ/il} III pnx!uc·c "nil underlilnnd unfamiliar ut!crances doe en,ure Ihat }uu c'an unllcr,rand or use any Imagmable combination r s n(~ For nallll'k. '"ou douhlb," lind it difficult (if not impOSSible) toO WOrds, - . 'nterp the U((cr..me.: in 6). El'nthollgh all the words used here <Ire familiar Ones rei ares'mp/) IlIl1 arr:mgcll ,n the right way to be a semence of English. .thel 6) *Frighlenell Ilog Ihe cat thaI the chased mOllse a. More",·"r. even though YOll can probably understand a sentence such . by analogy perhaps with 71». thcre is something aboul il that makes it~S/a), less than acceptable. und ,) a. *He broughl 11 chair In order to sit on. b, He broughl a chair 10 sir on, As with other a.'peCts of language. the ability to form and interpret s . b' . I· . , entenees IS sU ~ect to syslemauc ,mltatlOns. . As we have seen, spcakers of a language are able to produce and d - an unlimited number of utterances including many that un erstand , 'I· Th' . . ' ' . are novel and UJllaml Jar. IS ablhly. which is often called linguistic com conSlllutes the celllral subject mattcr of linguistics and of this b k petence. In IOveSllgating linguisllc competence. linguists focus 00 th syslem that allows human beings to tiorm and . t on e mental . . In erpret the wo d sentences of theIr language This s}'stem' /1 d r s and . ' , I S ca e a grammar F purposes ofthJS book. we will dinde the gra . h ' or the m Table 1.2. mmar Into t e components shown Table 1.2 The compon~lIl, of 3 grammar Component Phonel'cs Phonology Alorpho/ogy SYlltU S,'rnanrirs I.tnguis[s usc the R~,p'J/J.ihilir' Ih~ 3rticuhllion and perceplion of speech Sounds the pa!lemlng of speech sounds word formation 'enrence formation th~ IllIerprctulJon of words and SCntc",:cs tcrm grall/lIJar in a ralher special and technical way. 2.1 Generality: all languages have a grammar lIlNC.UI(,1 II PKIV'EW 5 Because lhl'" uuge may he unfunHhar to the: avcmge unIJer",IlY L UU nt, we will devote SHme lime to cnnsu.lcnng evcral fundamental propenle~ ul the s)'''-tem lhat lingui'ls call a gr~lmmar One of the most fundamentlll cmm, of modern linguistic analy", " that all languages have a grammar. This can he veritied by considcnng a few SImple facts, Since all langunges lire spoken. they must have phllnetic and phonological systems; since they all have words and sentences. they also must have" morphology und 1I syntllx; and since these words ami ,entences have systematic meanings, there ohviously must be semantic principles as well. As these arc the very things thai make up a grammar. il follows thaI all human languages have this type of system. It is not unusual to hear the remark that some language - Acadian French. Cree, or Swahili - 'has no grammar'. (This is especially common in the ca.,,, of languages that are not written or have not yel been analysed by Western scholars.) Unfamiliar languages sometimes appear to an untrained observer to have no grammar simply because their grammatical system, are different from those of better-known languages. tn Walbiri (an aboriginal language of Australia), for example, the relative ordering of words is so free that the English sentence The rwo dogs rlOW see several kangaroos could be translated by the equivalent of any of the following sentences. 8) a. Dogs two now see kangaroos several. b, See now dog two kangaroos several. c. See now kangaroo several dogs two. d. Kangaroos several now dogs two see. e. Kangaroos several now ee dogs two. Whereas Walbiri may not restrict the order of words III the way Englbh does. its grammar impo e· other types of requirements. For example. in the sentence t}pes we are con ·idering, Walbiri speakers must place the ending lu on the word for 'dogs' to indicate that it names the animals that do the ·eeing rather than the animals that are seen. In English, by contrast. this infonnation is conveyed by pladng two dogs in from of the verb and sel'eml kangaroos after it. Rather than showing that Walbiri has no grammar, such differences simply d~monstrate that it ba. a grammar unlike that of English in certain respects. This importanl point is applicahle to all differences among languages: although no two languages have exactly the same grammar. there are no languages without a grammar. .-. similar point can be made about different varieties of the ,amI! language. As you are probably already aware. English i' the language of many ditt~re~t communities around the world. The particular varielY of Engl"h found wlthm
- 14. U IS"'L~ ---.---:---- - Equali!}: all grammarsare equal - lri -1 ora particular language. questions "ht:neer then- h 1111)rc: th.tn lme 4 to:: more correct than another. Fro h . . 1m 'h.,,, bell<r or III .uise.:1:-.h)h~t er4.lut.:h"ll t: ._'~,' makesnomoresenselO "aYth"t . I,JJ -m flngu"UC>. It Q Ih" pomt 01 "e" .1 m < . h r than it dO<!s to say that th, 2.3 UniH·rsality: pammars are alike ~ ic ways . E I'h' I><!tt~r than anal e e one ariel) "I ng I' I' ) Ulan the arammarofThai. grammJf of English is h"lIe~ (?r.wotr'CpartiCular I~auage have grull1mars Ihal "II anu "ltl , metres" a e ,'U anguage,· , ' , . sition that the human mind can l>I th 'r~akers tll epres> nny prnpo . . . ena e el' . .'.s a/I-im nanr ailerion, then. all vaneues of language produce In lerroS .,1 thl m~I' of communication and though!. The goal are absolul"" equal as ,",Iru k I - • ." _ anal) sis is not 10 ran anguagcs on some or 'onrernpor.ll) flneUI,lIe ..' d d h c . - . '1' Rather lin!!"uists seek 10 un e"lan I e nature imaeinan scale ot su~non y. . - I d d - .' . I .' m' Ihal allow people 10 spea~ an un erstand a of the gr.unmauc.:1 !'t} ,{e.'i l language. . ' ol,times made bv noting Ihat linguistics is descrip_ Th~=~nrtsW < . " . . . . . .. . crl'ptl"'e This means thaI flngu"ts seek 10 de:'Lllb" human the DOl pres . ' . . . lin!!"~jstic abilil} and knowledge. not 10 prescribe one s)stemf_tOdPreferl~nce II) an;ther. A parallel poiD! of view is adopled to mher SUCICOlII I.C hlSCIP mes as well. The firsl concem ofall scienrisls is 10 descnbe an exp am t c tach they observe, not 10 change them. E"en though il rejects prescriplivism. modem linguistic analysis does nOI deny the importance of clear expression in writing and peech. Such skilb arc qujl~ righuy an objecl of concem among educalors. However. the uifficultics that arise in these areas typically result from the incon. istent or careless use of one' linguistic knowledge,not from any irtherent flaw in the grammar itself. Linguists also acknowledge that certain patterns (I seen thar. Ther was {here. He didni do norhing. He ailli here) may be restricted to particular socia-economic groups within the English-speaking community. As di 'cussed in more derail in Chapter I~. the use of these patterns may therefore have negative social consequences: it may be harder to win a scholarshIp. to get a Job. to be accepted in certain circles. and so forth. From a purely linguistic polOtof view. however. Ihere is absolutely nothing wrong with grammars that perrrul such SlrUctures. Like grammars for other variants of English (and other languages). Uley permit their users to express and understand the same ulllrmlled range of Ihoughts and ideas. ~here are mallY difTerences among languages. as even a superficial cxaminu- dllo~ of Ihetr sound patterns. locabularies. and word order reveab. But this 'lC' not mean that ther' ar> a I" h ~. .. _. "e n Imlls on t e type of grammars that human mg. lan acquIre and use QUil> t th . c 0 c contrary, current rescan:h suggeMs 2.4 Tacitness IANI,I'M,' A PRrVllW 7 that there arc tmpurtanl gmmm••lIc:ul prlOt.:lph:s and h:m.knn"s h.,[cd hy 111 human language, One ,uch print.:lptc IIlVl,h'l's thl.' manner in hlCh l~ntl·nL.:C!io .•rc neg,lted uh unlimitell 'uritHlun. (lne uuld e""'t the equivuh:nl 0 Eng" h not to (k,.:cur in different (l(hllion..., wtlhm the' !"cntcn(c In dlf1crcnl t.mgu~"'l: . 1hu , we might preuil:t thut en..:h uf the f",Uny. 109, pt.)ssibihltc, ,hnulll ~"M;c.:l1r "Hth roughly equal frequency. 9) II. NOI Pal is here. />. Pm nOl is here. c. Pat is !tnt hcre. eI. Pal is here nol. A, il happen" the 1i"1 and f"unh [lllttcms are very rare. In 'I11.ually all lunguage,. negalive ctemenb such us lint either immedialely precellc or immedialcly foltow the verh. The rdative ordering or other elemenb is also subject 10 conslrainb. To 'cc thiS, we need only consider the six. logically possible orde", for a simple lhree- word statement such as Ausrralialls like cricker. 10) a. Australians like cricket. h. Australians cricket like. c. Like Australians cricket. d. Like cricket Australian. e. Cricket like Australians. f Cricket Australians like. Interestingly. the overwhelming majority of the world's languages adopt OTIC of the first three orders for basic tatements. Only a handful of language use any of the last three orders as basic. This once again reflects the exislence of can trainLS and preferences thatltmit variation among languages. These are not isolated examples. As later chapters will sho. some granunatical categones and principles are universal. And where there i, variation (as in the ca 'e of word order). there is typically a very /tmlled set of options. COOlrary to lirs! appearances. then. the set of grammar learned and used by human beings is limited in significant ways. Because the use of language to communicate pre"upposes a .grammar. it follows that all speakers of a language must have knowl.edge of IlS gram~ar. However. this knowledge differs from knowledge of anthmellc, road. atet). and other subjects that are taugbt at home or in school. Unltke these other types of knowledge. grammatical knowledge is acq~ired Ithout the help 01 instruction when one is still a child and it remams largely ,ub<;on...clou.
- 15. 1I Gt ISTICS ·'-,u<>h·'ut li k ,;llJ ...amnk "fthi' ':,,,blder vour pwnunciation Ortnn p u u. ~ ... .. ~ - . t- - • -. ... _b,t ten...e ending ntfl~n .l' ~d 10 me.' tullll' 109. , lml.... III o. humed I>. slipped c. huued . ' u,,, that wh,'reas} ou sa) iJ In hUflled. you say I in slipped and d in bl/~ed. . (oreover. If n'u heard tht: ne" verb jlib. you would form the past tense jlihbt'd and p.:onounce the ending as d. Although it is unlikely that you na~ ever been a are of this phenomenon before now, you make th~se distinctions automatically if you are a native speaker of Engitsh. ThIS IS because you acquired the grammatical suhsystem regulaung tblS aspec~ of speech wnen you were a child and it now exi,ls subconsciously to your mtnd. E·en more subtle phonological patlerning can be found in language, a., the following contrru.ls help illustrate. 12) pint 'paynk fiend *fiemp locked "Iockf wTonged *"'Tongv next *nexk glimp e *glimpk The words in the lefl-hand column obey an ob cure constraint on the selection of consonant sequences in word-final position: when a vowel is long and followed by two consonants (pilll) or when a vowel is short and followed by three consonant sounds (next, pronounced 'nekst'). the final consonant mu,1 always be one made WIth the lOngue tip raised. (The con onants I, d. s, and =are .~ade In (his manner: but consonants such as p./. I', and k are not.) Words tbar lolate this phonolo~lcal constraint (the right-hand column) are unacce t- able to.speakers of Engltsh. Even linguists have 10 dig deeply to uncover u~h ~alterrung. but.1n everyday language use. we routinely make decisions about e ac~eptabJ!ity of forms based on subconscious knowledge of such constramlS. Consider one final example. Speakers of English know that there are CCnatn structures In which the word I ti or to a single individual outside that g:~u~~n re er to each member of a group 13) Each boy who(m) the woman interviewed thinks that he . . tS a gentus. Sentence 13) can mean either that each b . mteniewed thinks that he himself i . ?y In the group that the woman PartIcular person nOl mentioned' t~ a genIus or that each boy thinks that a to e sentence (say. the teacher) is a genius. 2.5 Grammar 3 C HAN G EABILITY: G R AMMARS C H A N GE OVER TIM E I " Nf,U" CI " "~l vir W 'J HO ~t!r. un1) un~ ul thl"",,-lo Ith,,"'pll"lOlllnn'io cntcnce. " pu') lhlc 10 the ",Hnwlng 1-1) The woman who mter.lc cd cu,h hlly Ihmk that he i, a gentu, In 14). lIe can referonl~ 10 ' 1m', ' . . h ·h - j l c{ nc nUl mentluned. In the "Cnlcnl.:C In cuntrast Wit w al happens m sem 'n" 11) I d " _ . . C t.:l: - " It' ~an.nllt refer to each inutltdual In the group eSlgnated by the phrase ""''' Imy S,nce 'peake" are ahle III make thl ~ontrast, they must have knowledge ot the relcvant grammalleal prtnClple even though they arc not conscIously aware 0 It. Linguist~ lise the lertn grulIII/llIr 10 refer to a subconSCIOUs lingublic ,y"cm of a purucular type. Com,bting of several componenLs (phonellcs. phonology. morphology. syntax, and semantics). a gmmmar makes pt",ible the produc- tion and comprehension or a ptltcntlully unlimited number of ullerances. Because no language can exist without a grammar and no nne can use a language without knnwlcdge of i" grammar, the study of grammatIcal systems has come to be the focus of contemporary linguistic analyst" As nOled above, the grammatical knowledge needed to use and undersland language is acquired without the benefit of insuuction and is for the most pan suhconscious. Since we therefore cannot investigate grammar by ,imply recalling prior training or by self-consultation, the study of human lingui,tic systems requires considerable effort and ingenuity. As is the case in all science, information about facts that can be observed (the pronunciation of words, the interpretation of sentences, and so on) must be used to dra", inferences ahout the sometimes invisible mechanisms (atoms, cell~. or grammars, as the case may be) that are ultimately responSIble for these phenomena. A good deal of this book is concerned with the flDdings of this research and with what they tell us about the nature and use of human language. II is a well-established fact that the grammars of aU languages are constantly changing. Some of these changes are relatively minor and occur very quickly (for example, the addition of new words such as ethnic cleallslllg, Spill doctor. YllPpie, glasllost. yobbocracy, able-bodism, cIllIIlTlel. illtemet. (Illtocnme, IIl1kemare. l'egeburger. grullge and acid /rol/se to the voc~bul~ ot Engltsh). Other change have a more dramatic effect on the overall fonn ~! the langu~ge and ty pically take place over a long period of time. The fo~atlO~of negative structure in English has undergone this type of change. Pnorlo LOO. Engh h fomled negative constructions by placing ne before the vert> and not (sometimes peled IJaWI ) after it.
- 16. .1,1 1'1 {J "'n 'el~I1"1,'11/.'11'1 SiI'J b, Ik II 'I k,'lh II II ( ,I<, d."" nlll 'f"'ak') By J41~) ..r Ih r,·. !>.'UI'. lit' ,h u"'J .llfrc<jllclltly anu ,/(11 (0. """I) typil:ally ',,','urrcU 1> .1, It ull r Ih' Icrn. 16) a. J 'I..")c,' nut "h..' lnJl·~. b, k ',11 n,l Ilh,' kill !!hl~S, Ie I a, .1<l1 11111.1 ,Iho1ll IWI' ,'cllluries I,)ter Ihat English c1eveloped ils CurrCIIt pr,I,-li,-,' "I' all<lIl ill!! 111>/10 nc,'ur afc~r only ccrlalO Iypes or verbs (such as d" hili ,,, will, ,Ind SII "n). . I7J <L I I ill nnl ".) ell<' wonk (ICl'u,·' will say nOI th,' wnrds,) b. He did nol sc,' the llllghls. (I','I'US ·He saw nOllhe lncgh".) rhes: moJllj.:atillllS ilhhlralc Ih,' C.lenl 10 which gr.tmmars can change Oler lime, The ,lnl,'lures ccncphllcd in 16) ,u'e archaic hy lOday stamlanh and Ihose 10 15) sound cnmplelcly lilr<'ign to mosl speakers of modem English, Puri~ts lie~ change as decay Through I~e cenluries. IOdlVIduals and organmilions who helieve Ihut cert:: lan.:lle., 01 language arc IWller Ihan olhers hal'e frequently expressed cOllcem OH'r wh,1I ther perceive In he the delerioralion or English. Today, Ihe ImnenlatlO:l,S ,Olthcse r,udsls e(ln ht'found in hooks like J. Simon', Paradigl1l., Lo.11 Refit< 1/(1/1.1 (1/. LUNt/(', 1I11d 1f,I Declille puhlished in America In 1980 and J, flon~) " rh,' Lallg/tagt' 1/'/11': RlICI'. CllIH (llId Ihe 'SllIlIdllrd Ellg/i.'h' /.1.,/1, 11/ Brlll"h School.... which appcured 10 England in 1983. 'Dise.N~d English' 'ome of tht' denunciations of dccillll' h(lv~ taken the ~orm of'd' . I h.·h II ' . 'J . ' IClIonanes In I b t kIt' al rnents of Ihe languugc (Ire catalogued. A good example of such :nd(~u'I~~a,n ~cnl1(l'latcd dleuo~'Ir) which was compiled by Kenneth 1JUdson . 1,1,. YtnlH cd Th" /)/ '(I '" ••r D' ' . 1'-177 In the foreword to Ih"/. an, OJ I:'ellsed Ellglish, It WlIS published in .s "llOn,lry, Richard Hoggart writes: Th,' la'i half·ecnlury ha, seCIl 'Ollie powerful ' d ' , • Ihe mereuslll!,! ,'om'plioll of Ihe Fligr.1 1 ,a" abundanlly JlISlllicd, Criticisms 01 Orwell IIIIU W.II. Audt'n C(1I1'''1 I 1 " 11 ' 1"1 angungt'. T,S, Eliol. FR. Lcavis. Gcnr"c " lilt al Oll,'e Earl" '(11 th ' eo pasSiOliale "SSCrt'on Ihlll Wll"ll ' I, , Ier SI , crt' was tail Pound's I ' " angU'lge goes I th 11t1Ugh1.S 'IOu lCellllg' goes roUeli 100. ' . ro lell e vcry , ubstanee or our .. Iludson'; dictIOnary is Intended to stellltil' . ' ,llIlIl'L, the En"lish lanuua I I' I ' c rot by exposing lhe C(lJ1CCr th'lt " . "ge. IS se C'I f ' luns 10 nearl) 260 page.s, A "n . I" c ,Ion, 0 examples of diseased Engli~h nnnl' . ,I lp c 01 cntncs will give you a /lavaur of the Eighteenth·century reformers SCf'anh 'Sl'f"UOI "IHWo" UII uh''''cnl' word. un (11'~ I.' won ttl gt·t no fI:ph~s ell.,: 'i hn ,UVC.fh ,,' 10 'hc~ 1C'tntJ Hudson scllnds "I II Illng Ime 01 PUI"I' wh.. have 'amh'l ' l.:hunge us cvitlcncl.' 01culpuhlc ~I"vcnhlcv", or wo ~ S.• ~Ictt ;t1l(1 rlhlUctl I tI • r...c . . 11111 <.Ir t..:OOl:crn, h 'cen expressc UboUllhc slacl' III I".ngllsh in Ilther Fnul h ' . 'We " hi" • ,," ,sPC"''''1I e,mnln ant III 01 er ",loflclIl pCflOlls Thus, in IllS? membc I h ' . I . ' ..., . . ' r () I c ( n',d,'u, n'IIIUle ,n lomnltl hellrd a speech descnblng Canadian I'n h. , ' , diuleel growing up among'l UU.r populallon' The speake; ,;hl" t'''d a cth"rruPI I, , I" I I ' . . . , " cc C hl t! u~ ~) 0;( S suc,' n~ Of (I,m l ,hv""111 01 lantl l, bnH lim 'masle,'), .!lor" (tor ,hop l,ji (lor mend ), und guess (fur 'think'. as In J x"e", /'II g"l. Ju<.Igm. by CUrrCnlllslIgc, he ohJected In vain, g The feeling Ihac lhe langllage is 101lering at the edge of the ahyss wa.s particularly strong In lhc eighleenlh ccntury. In l712, for example, Jonathan Swift (Ihe aUlhor Ill' Gll/livN :, Travel,,) addressed a famous pamphlel enlltled 'A Proposal for COlTccting, Improving and Ascertaining Ihe English Tongue' to lhe Lord Iligh Treasurer, Robert the Earl of Oxford and Mortimer Hc wrote: My lord. I do here, in the nome or all the learned and polile perso"s of the nalion, complain 10 your lordship. as Firs! Millisler, thaI our language is e~lrcmcy unpcrIeel. Ihal irs daily improvcmcnc, nrc by no means in proportion 10 Its <.Iaily corrupuons: Ihal the prelenders 10 polish and refine iI, have chieOy mulliplied abuses alll) ab,unliues: and. thaI in many IIlslances. 'I ofrends against every pan of grammar, One of lhe many imperfections that troubled Swift was the 'perpetual di posilion to shorten our words by retrenching the vowels' (and indeed entire syllables) as in the abbreviation of replltalion to rep or the usc of contracted forms of verbs such as ('(III '( for call1lOI and he:S for he is, although he had no objection to Tis for II is, Pudsts have always been eager to identify the culprits responsible for lhe degeneration of the lunguage, Swift denounced 'illiterate Court-Fops, half- witted· Poets. and the University-Boys' for the decay of Eng/i'h in his time, In our day. the characters in the rogues' gallery have changed They uSllall> include modern linguisls and the liberal education establishment. Lingllisls are singled Ollt because modem linguistic science insists, as we have scen,lhat its task is to describe language in all its variety rather than to dictate and polcce 'correct' usage, Unfortunately. this d.:scriptivist Slance ha. been lrustaken b) critics for lhe espousal of the principle of 'Anything Goes', which IS ,aid to have had a di,ustrous effect on the standards of English language tcaehing.
- 17. '1 If "POR~ LlNl l ''I 't , .1.2 language standardization Dr Johnson's dictionary Grammars --------------------------- ---- The French and /lalian, hau alreuuy confrollled, a fc ccnturies before, the arp=m prnt>lem vf linguistic" decline by setting up language acadcmit's. The Italian ,keeuklllia ddt" Cru.f("(l was tilunded in 1582 anu the IC "delltie lrallrai1t'in 1635,These acauemit's proided !he mood hich Swi ft urgeti the English '" emulate whcn he proposed the estahlishment. of a sOeiet) to ·a.<e-ena",' (i.e.. standardi/e) the English langu3ge anti slOP It from changing hy prt'sait>"'g and pn>s,rihing usage, Although thc call for an <lc3dem) I 'l never taken up hy the state. ccnain concerned l'itilcns took it upon thcmseh·es [( safeguarti the purity of the language. Before th,' cigh'ecmh ,emury Ias out, the English language was codilied and ,tandurdi/eu hy /cicographer.; and grammarians. The most notable of IhL'Sl' siandunJilers was Dr Samuel Johnson who, in 1755, puhlish,'dl DiCliOllllrt' oj rlt" i:.ilglish Lal/gllagl'. In the prcfucc, he made the purpose of IllSdiclionury Cl) clear: Tongu"-,, like govenlinenlS, have" nutural lendene), to degenemtion: we have long p.....'ervN our consWllt"'", lei us mnl.t' some "ruggle for our language. ~Iearly, !he dietionary Wll' nOI mtentied by Dr Johnson to serve merely ns a /rsU,ngofEnghsh v(lCabulUl")~ Rather. It Ias meant 10 he a vital weapon in the uefenceot Ihe language agalllst decay As he pUI n. 'every language has Its IInpropncues and absurtilllCs, hich it is the duty of !he Icxicog· h' comel or proscnhc'. . rap cr to ~!r~:m~an~ t~o set ~bOUl the t<ls,," of preserving the purity nf the Ian U<I e ~ual dCkITIUII~UI(}1I anti enlhusiasm In 176') R h" L g g who later becam(' Bishllp )1' L ti . . - 0 el( oWlh. a scholur t on 011 j1ubhsheti h'·· ' 11 . ("ntltled A Short IlIlroell/cli", I F r ' · IS very tn lIelll,," lIanual prdat'c that 'Ih' E · /··h ''.. " .lIg /.III Gral/ll//ar Lowlh cOlTlplainec.J In Ihe . c ng IS L.lInguagc as 1 . k b .. . IMUon allti as It st'md, ',tl tho< I 't' . .'" spo en y Iht! pohtesl pull (.)1 Iht' . " ' , TI lOgs 01 Our t "gamst ne.... nan of Gr. . , . mos approvcc.J alilhors, o/lcnds ,. . , Ulllnl.lr. lie sho . d h "lIIg James Bible allti thc 11l l ' '1: .' Ie. 0. even cht"tcs like tht' ('('11 In IUm'ell· II' " IsO cnllilent lInters like Dryden Pnpt' 'Inti .. , ere lontamlOatcd b ' , ' . ' , ' L,, th cplallls Ihal '11' tl ] error For tnsIUl1CC. 1111 palle II () te SCntellcc bc c al' I e o , g 1 e. t 1e Advcrh 1101 IS plat'cd 4 BIOLOGICAL SPECIALIZATION FOR LANGUAGE t ""'I.Uo., ""w Vllw l aitl!f the ulhary u~"1t (lid IIal tou,:h h ," .. then chtdes Dryul'n tur 'llll" '.1l1nrUIHI"I" '"n. lit. 1 10Ilt,,,.-(, hln no," II ' 'rh" ' I h o· , ,,, I' ''''''Kille ,,< C t.: 11 .upe, 1l'~' I.unl. "ialll he, I 'j", (~/Jt'tltr (l.), vcrh 11m before the Many ot the prCl:rI{l1VC nl"~' ul kn Ita... . t)'~ cn. I·uhl"f). down over th.c la....' 2~O "C(f' l'" .. )J k.h ~ralllnMr that have been han"~'" J 0 :.", ue. lr~.:cd hac.:... 1 A;U hUll, SUccesSive gC'.ncratmlls ul nup,l' h l.... (' .I)wh lh.tn&.., Ul ' W . 0' 'liVe "cen laughl r hen the Quallt,e, of lhllerenl Ih,n", . r' . ' on exampl", ,h., e>' . C I..:l'ImparcU Ih. g.o'c:rncd~ not hy the C011JUn(.:lmn tJiw, 'r (I' . I.: aUl"r Nuun , . lI., or a ('no" . govcrnmenl 01 ClS~',) hUI hy Ihe vern or lh p . Illelum II. nl! I · . e n:p<lSllllln exp' I lIlle ~rst()od. lienee. accon.ling tll 1.owth. one should sa 'Yn~' • rcs!-.Ct (lr us I (nm *y()U lIro! not so u,lI as ""'). So he crilic,·, ...., sYI . are ""l "" tall , ~. , w, I ur Wnlm" 'Y are a much greater loser Ihun III,' by hIS death' (Swifl l p Q llU P ,. • .. , . , . . . 11 ope, I..."", 1>1) rescm-day us,lgc sh()ws Ih,1l the ertlln, 01 the PUWI, Ill' lh I • . .., . ...ave C angu"ge from such 'errors havc nm becn pnmcularly >,ucce"ful. . .Lin.guiSis.rcjeci the view lhal languages altain a stalC <If perfectilln al llmc POUlt In their hlSlory and thai suhsequcUl changes lead tll detenoratmn and comlpl1o~. As noted :lbtlVe, there are simply no ground, for claiming lhal one system 01 grammar IS somehow superior lO another. There IS therdore no reason to lhink thal language change ca~ or will undennine the adequac) of English (or an) olher language) as a medium of eommUnlCa110n. As far as can be determined, the languages spoken in the world today cannOl be traced to a common source. Rather. they seem to belong to a nlmrer of distinct families hose histories can be traced back no more than a fe thousand years. Archaeological eidence suggest· that language e,isted prior to !hat time for perhaps as long as 100,000 years. bUl Yirtually nothing is known about thb period of linguistic prehisto!) or aboul ho language originaled in the fiN place. one!heless, !here is every reason to believe that huma", have a special capacity for language !hat is ~Ol shared by o!her creatures. The evolutionary adaptation of certain physiological mechanisms for linguistic ends has tlCcurred onlv in humans The so-called speech organs (the lungs, luryn.. tongue. tceth, lips. soft palate. and nasal passages) were and ,till are - directh concerned with ensuring the survival of the organism. Table I J t'ompares the linguistit: uses of the major speech organs ith their prim.u·y survival functions in humans and llther mammals. 1n humans, these llrgam, have all become highly spedaliled for linguistic ends. The vocal folds: for example. are more muscular and k" fatty tn human than in non human primales such a:; chimpanlccs anti gllrill." Because of a ven Ilighly tieveloped netork of neural patl1ays, thC) "btl resl"lnd more pre~i,el) 10 eommanJ., from the brain, The same c,en'I1.' 'ct of nl.'uml pathays allo" a high tiegR't' of controltwcr llther ~ech organ" such m, !he tl'ngue. palatc, anJ Itps. ueh control eceeds lln)thlng fl)und In even our c10scst pmnale relati e..
- 18. 14 Summing up tahl< U Tc<lh ~ft.t'l·h/tull"/ion ,'un'waffund;::..n _ _ _ ---:.:.:......-:..----- I" supplJ air ror speech -;-0 t'L'hange l 0,1. U}~cn to pnxJuce voice for 'peech to freah: al 0 (C r~""Jgc: III sountJ-'S lung 10 articulale vowels and to IlHlC' h)t-xl PJd. {(1 rhnlol t consonants - (0 provide place of articulation for consonants tt.) sealllraJ f.:unl)' breathIng 10 articulate vowels and consonants to provide nasal resonance d .' I· d' all·ons of the evolulion of linguistic vocalization. There are ad luona III IC . h' h . .. b .k; f· u"ival respiration. speech breat 109 sows higher (;nhke the reauung 0 , •• . . . . Abd . . d lonaer e~halallon lime than resplrallon. omlOal lune pressure an a =- . . ' b h' ~_I tho t are not nomlully employed for respiration are roug t IOto play mu,. es a . . h . In a "stematic and refined manner in order to maIntain t e ~Ir pressure necdej for speech. Again. aspecialized, eXlen~lve scI ~f neurologIcal Controls e elusive to humans makes this type of breathing pOSSible. The preceding facls suggesl lhat Ihe human capacity for speech is superimposed on already existing biological s.truClures. Evolutton .has pro- duced a refinemenl bolh in degree and III kind through a long Interplay OClween Ihe demands of language and Ihe development of the human speech- producing apparalUs. There is also evidence that humans arc specialized for the perception of speech. II has been suggeslCd, for example, that we have special neural mechanisms tbat enable us to perceive distinctions among consonanlS and that these mechanisms are nOI found in olher mammals. We know considerably less about the cvulutionary specialization for non- vocal and non-audilory aspecLs of language such as word fonnation, sentence formalion. and the interprelalion of mcamng. Nonetheless, it is clear thaI some sort of evolutionary specialilalion mUSI have occurred. As we will see 111 Chapter 1.1,. specific parts of the brall1 are associated wilh each of these hng~lsllc aC:lVll1es. ThtS suggesls that the human brain is specially slructured for 1,lI1guage, and Ihal speclcs wllh dlf'fercllltypes of brains will not be ahl' 1<1 acquire or usc Ihe Iyp's of" ,. . . . . . . c ",'II . '.' .c. glamm.lrs .Issoclaled WIth human language. We I lelUm 10 thIS POlClI111 Ihe penultimate chapler of this book. Human language is eharaclerilcd h' " "ccess In agramma • I·. YcreatIVIty. Speakers of a language have .. . ' r, a menta sYMcm Ihat all h I' Innuliar and novel utI· ows I em 10 oml and internrCI CfJnces. The gra . I' perccplll1n. and patternll1g of, 'ceh. mmar governs the articulation, scmcnees, and the interpr 'tal' pel· sounds. the fomlallon of words lind Cion 0 uttcrances AlII' . . anguages have grammars Note Sources Recommended reading I '; NUl all nuuns namlOg pcriod... lllllnlC c· n k. - - - - - ~ a If: Io:nn,cneu lott cbs or rea<.ons thut are ~liH not unuer...u'K,,o the "(lUn>-, Ulllw ) ~e •n(}WeCT, 'hu • very good "~rbs. 1111 and wt't'k dl. nllt Ihake They aUlumnedJwcekcd til Scuthmd. The disclission of word creation is based un an .tnu;! by E CI' I.. . - - 'WI 1" ve ar~ and I krh (,hr~ lcn nouns sur nce a~ verbs. 1l UmXIUI1-W 55: 767-8 (197lJ Th ' -' • • b' 'd K H' I' . I 'P . . ). " WaInIO 11,1. un.;: liSe .01'1 • ~ C !i artie c cn.on marktng tn Wabiri' in A F. I I " I . ' .Ii sc. trljl Jur Murri, H(/ /t', edIted by S: Anderson and P. Klp""ky (New York Hal. Rinthan & WIn'I"n 1973). The quotallon Irom Gnmm "Iaken lrum 0110 J.'pe"en uJ/lKua.~c: II, NUlur; Del'e!opment and O"glll (London: Allen & Unwin. 1922 (page ~2). Jonalhan <;"'111' .A proposal for correcting. IInproving and ascertaining the EnglI'h tongue' IS {rom W.F. Bolton (ed.) The English Lall.~uage: E.,.",y.> by English and Amerimn Men of LeITers 1490-1839 (Cambndge. Cambmlge Umverslty Pres•. 19661. The di'iCu,,,on 0 Lowth is based on Robert Lowth. A Slw" [",rodllclion co English Grwnmor (London: Millar & Dodsley , 1762). The 1857 speech on the "atus of Canaulan English is cited in Mark OrkIn's Speaking Canadian English (Toronlo: General Publishing Company, 1970). The data on the positioning of negative elemenls within scnlences in human language come from an article by O. Dahl. 'Typology of sentence ncgalion'. Lingui,'tic.· 17: 79-106 (1979). The book by Bickerton. cited below. provides a fresh look 311he emergence of language in the human species. The exercises for this chapter were prepared by Joyce Hildebrand. Aitchison. Jean. 1989. The Aniculale Mammal: All [lIIroduClioll 10 Ps),rho/illguislif.l. 3rd edn. London: Routledge Ailchison. Jean. 1987. Lillguislics. 3rd edn. Teach Yourself Books. Sevenoaks. Kenl: Hodder & Stoughton. Ailchison, Jean. 1991. Language Change: Progress or Decay? 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge Univefity Press. Bickerton. Derek. 1990. Ltmguage "nd Species. Chicago: UniversilY of Chicago Pres. Clark. Eve and Clark, Herb. 1979. 'When nouns surface as verbs: Lallguage 55: 767-8 II. CrySlul, DUid. 1987. The Cambridge Ellcyclopedia of Lallguage. Cambridge: .Cambridge University Press. . Jackenuoff. Ray. 1993 PlJllerm //I 'he Milld. Harvester Whealsheat: Hemel Hemp- stead. Herts. Milroy. James and Milroy. Leslie. 1991. Au,horit)' ill Language. 2nd eun London: Routledge. J I' d Pinker. tew. 1994. The Lallguage [nstillct: The f',',.1' Science ofLangut/ge an III. I.ondon: Allen Lane.
- 19. 16 'J!'ITl~WO~AR LINGUISTICS Qut!stions ."bs creaLed from nouns in aCCordance The followmg sentences conw,", vcr.' 1 of the chapter. DeSCribe ••_ 1. d '~d '" secliOn ~'" ith the process e,en meaning ofeach of these new verbs. ) We-punk.rocked the nigh,t away. . a rosS the arctic. b) She dog-teamed her way ac c) We ~1G'd to Perth. d) We Concorded to London. e) He Maradonna'd the baU into the net. f) I microwal'ed the parslllps. g) Sbe Robinson Crusoed in the Galapagos. h) We· lI have toAjaJ<thesIlIk. i) He Windolened the windows. j) You should Clairol your hair. k) Let's carton the eggs. . I . Lhe preceding exercise as a model, create five new 2 Usmg the examp es III f th . rb fro . BUI'ld a sentence around each 0 ese new verbs to ve s m nouns. show its meaning. 3. Which of the following forms are possible words ofEnglish? Solicit the belp ofan acquainUlI1ce and see if you agree on yourJudgements. a) mbood c) coofp e) sproke g) worpz b) frail dJ ktleem f) flube h) bsam 4. Imagine that you are an advertising executive and that your job involves invenling new names for products. Create four new forms that arc possible words ofEnglish and four that are not. 5. Part of linguistic competence IlIvolves the ability to recognize whether novel ulterances arc acceptable Consider the following sentences and determine which are p<1"ihlc <,entence.. in English. For each unacceptable sentence, change the senlence 10 make it acceptable, and compare the IWo. a) Ja~on's mother left him elt WIth nothing to eat. oj Miriam is eager 10 talk 10. c) This is the man who I IIKI!. a piuure of dJ Colin made Jane a 'andwi,h. e) Is tlle dog ~lecPlJIg the hone agalll'} n Chns prepared Rllbin it ('ake g) Mill cleaned the garden up. h) Max cleaned up Ihe gardel1 i) Max dcancd up it. J) Itbirr you 10 kav.'. k) Ihal you like li'er sUll'ri.c, mc. ~. (oll,idc[ lh< lolloIl1g nlllllCs' I 'peake" oil ngil h It) I I I ' C.1l1 of whIch I nClcpt,lhl' III lillie ll1~ach Ie. ' "" ellli YIhe Ille uiPIIVC rille Ih,Il.lf 11,,1.,11 d a) He doo't know ahout the race. b ) You was O ut when t called. c) Did you send ooe yen d) There'~ twenty horses registered in the ,hl>w e) That wlOdow's broke, ' " be carefut . I) Jim and me arc gonna go campin' this weeke d g) I seen the parade last week. n . h) He been lost in the park for two huuf. i) My car needs cleaned 'cause of all the rain. j) Julie ain't got none. k) Somebody lerttheir book 00 the train. m) Murray hurt hisself io the game. n) They've went to town. 0) She very kind. 17 p) Ah hink ... mibbe she wouldnac ov came if you,c'd telt her. q) We sees her every day in the pub. r) Did him give you de book you a-look for~ s) Phil does be working hard.
- 20. Phonetics: the soundsof language lichaelDobro~ JI:-f.; v andFrancis Katamba HeJlerlv b/Ji.:J/517 3 "ori:/01 gull<rJb. • "-3Iace 5/ee1lS . d ~.~ need 10 p.:ak in order 10 use Janguage. Language can be "riUCh e o.~ od ed b • t ' J' . .., .._.. ....am·-aJh and even pr uc } compu ers In Imlled "a' b I teL~rucu ma::u t.. , ' . . J I U Ot!ertbele. . peech remain the pnmary way "e encode II. Our pe.:ie poke long before "e beg~ 10 "nI~ lan~uage down. and. a we a", in the tiN cbapter of this book, thl Ion? hl~tory of 'poken language I reflected In our analOmica/ ,pecializalJon for JI~ Humans also appear to have pecia/i/ed neural mecbanism, for the pefcepllon of s~ch sounds. Becau'e language and peecb are so closely hnked. we begin our study of language by e~amjn/Og the inventory and structure of the sounds of language. This branch ofIino uisti" is called phonetics. Hu~an languages display a wide variety of sounds. called phon~ or speech sounds. There are a great many speech sounds. but not an infinite number of them - the c1a~, of possible ~peech sounds is finite. and a POnlon ofthe total set will be found in the inventory' of any human language. Cenaln sounds thai humans are capable of producing with the vocal tract do not OCcur in peech. such as the sound made by inhaling through one comer of the mouth. or the 'ra~pberry" produced by stiCking out the tongue and blo" 100 hard across it. Nonetheless. a 'ef)' wide range of sound!> is found in huma~ language. inc/udingsuch sounds a.. the click made bydra'ol.ing the tongue hard away Jrom the upper molars on one side of the mouth. or the sound made by constricting the insides of the throat a., you breathe out. The class of po sible ~peech sounds is also universal. Any human, child or adult. can learn how to pronounce these sounds. There are two way_ of upproaching phonetics. One approach studies the phy~iological mechanisms of speech production. This is known as articu. latory phonetics. The other, known as acoustic phonetics, deals with peech ound 10 terms of how we hear them. To this end. it is concerned with measunng und analysing the physical properties of sound waves we produce hen we ~pe~. Both approaches are indispensable to an undef!>tanding of pbonetlc . ThIs chapter focuses on articulatory phonetics. but also make 1 PHD ETIC TRA~ CR IPTID 1.1 Units of representation f"H I I . Ince the "~Ieemh centll£). elf ru have hec:n made to de", ,);,tcm lor Iran cnhlnllthe IInd f peech Ihe helot" i nternatiOnal Phonetic tphuht!t til· ) h hec:n deve,lI<N.n This 'Y'lc.·m "I tran'Cnp"un 31lempi I" reprelen! e:I ch "PUlg de' h n~~~ 'pe.:c . "Ith a "ngle 'ymhot. These ymbol. are en~lmed In brae to ind,cale thai the tra'henp""n " phunetic IUId Jf. n represen I I 'pelling sy'tem of ,I pan,,:ul.r language. Fur cumple, 1M IOUnd t I~ Ih in Engli,h !Eis is t.....n"'nhcd a 1"1 (pr nounccd eli!. ao In ..::"U) IPA u,cs th" symbol to repre'cn! the sound In "hleh"'er langu ge It heard hec Table 2.). "hether I' I~ Engli h. Spani h. TllIkmen (a Turkic language poken In Central ASIa and wnllen "ilb the ynlhc alphabet). or any other. fabtc 2.1 U", of 1')1 in me Internationat Phone"c Alphabel Lunguulle Spell",/( IN I1tlVUng Engh h !hi, It)1 J 'mis' panish 1x$ (b:>claj '''eddlOg' Turkmen llilak [aoak] "clOt The use of a standardized phonetic alphabet enable linguist to Iran nbe languages con,istentiy and accurately. In •'onh American u age. however. some phonetic symbols differ from tho-.e employed by IPA tran cription F<>r example. the sound heard at the beginning of the Engli h ord ~ark . transcribed as If] in IPA. but usually as [ J in •'orth America. Thi book employ IPA varianll>. but note .'orth Ame~can sym,bo! "here re~evant If you wish to start practising the phonenc transcnpnon of Engli. h. turn to Tables 2.16 and 2.17. page 42 to 43. for eltamples. Am'one who heaT!> a language. poken for the fIrst lime fInd II hard to break up ;he flow of speech into individual unill> of pr~uction: Ewn II. hen hearmg our own languagepoken. we do nOl focus attenuon on mdlldual, und :l! much as we do on the meanings of words. phrase . and entl!nce. Man~ alphabets. mcluding the IPA. repreent speech in the fonn ot segment!> or individual peech sound!> like [a]. [01. [p1. or [mJ. l'.ing 'Cgment •howecr. i. only one wa) to repre. ent peech. The ~llable. prccDted in Chapter 3. I abo represented in ome writing ·)tem see Chapter 15. eClJons 1.2 32. and 42). In one fonn of Japan.:,e writing. for example, Igu u h iJ'
- 21. I J 2 1 HI.. (H,NI). "1101l11( 'N(, ~'''M II.' h,ll" ""'111'" rho' "'~III"111 ,I' .111 Ill"""lulII 'IWl','h '<1111111 1'1 I .. llrl' ~I" ... kill". , "t l·/dl·lh,' . II.ll Ml t}ll',r fhar 'P.';Ik.t·", h,l(.' III,' Jill 'II· I' I "'ll'fitl .. " Il' fl.1t 1 I Ih,lllIak,·., II 1'''''''''1<' h. """Ik "nIl II ,I . ,Ir 'a"l "I' 'I""'l'/I illl • I ' I, "<I~~ .. .. .. ' 'UtHh '"'U Jm'I" III 'I~',','h I'rll.lIl,'I""1 pI III Id" nlll' kill" Oll'J'll'll" I. I "'""111 • , l (1 t ll' • III l' ' 1IIl'Uh..S'lp, of Ih,,' ftll1 t-: lH,' , 'Udl ;I, A o ltlf ·f )tlOI "'1' A I l 1h:IIl'l' I I ( Or#flt '0/ ) /IIt~(,Jillf H Ili ttl( H', ' C~('"If·IIIf1I.,h'l '.·I.!I)I(.·t1I~ ,hltlifl" 111/ . . ' I ttl1d .. .. ... ~. l fCo' 'r'H1~ ') .. l IIhlll I""k fill' '1Il!~l·.," Ihill ""'lIIelll, Ill' illdlll,III.11 I 1"'"'"0 ,C'I.. . .. • lilli' OJ,. I . " nr<'!llle .1111.1,hlluld "t'It 1'1·." 'lIll·d IlIdllldualJ Itl' ' " '11 I 11I!:II"h~ . • _' . 1 ( Il"';.lIh.' • 11,,' rrlMII,' 1I11',ma1lU' ""11I.',·,'h s"und, in hlllll.'11 1 .111 'U "I nplIIIIl 1/ I / J .1 e.1 II 'Ih'" , 1,1 ','glll'IlI:1 I' 1I111,'I,,' 'r,III." ·III'IIIIIl "a Wd/ ,nlll;V '11 ' / . . <oc<" '. . I H - ,l uf 11~ln,· h ".,,',·<,h. II " 1IllI"""hlt' 10 1"pll'."'"1 all In 1111, ,.1' 111/111' . 'II IlIg , , ,Ill 'IW"l'h sll"',' II,. tllll' ',1 ,1. ,hI' "'Ill" sOlllld III l' ''','lh lit,· ',UII,' 1 "I I .. N '"I1Il,h, II j I I " - , Ill , OIl"lhL'!' ll' '"1( . ,n '1',',','I " 'IIJ.1I11 III'analll l'IIUU~h tmrn lall~lI 'I ' I. <", U, ,,, lr.1II,,'nhe ,hl'lll '111" , 1<'111II .' I' . sllulld i, '1111 '11 II' /1.( 10 ,UI!!Ua~" 1o, R t l . . ' , 1"SUIII"IIIFI'lh II. SSlall,I''. ·Iwk. Ih,' l'Il" Illal 1 h"11 pmdul'Il1g Il" soulid I' 'I I "/l " , IW. " Ihl'lf "1" '''~'''"l'r hili Russ,.II' slwakers tlnl' i1wil.s "," h:;g Is I 'P,'a~l'I" 11,11 1I1,Ih' 'h,' '01111<1. ' ",/11'1,'111 ,' lIllll"lI In Illn ' I " . !! ) 1IIII.I,d du(.' .. ,an s, p,lr,lI~s) Illh b Il """l1d. ,,, Jlld I .11,' d"'IIIt:l l'II"II~h Inlllll'Kh ()III"r 'I' I' " '. UI Ihr I . , ,I ,III/?uag,·s IIll' '1.' h ) .... "011· ""'·,1111' II ,III' <' III",d II IIh "'p"rall' ,) Illh"I" (, U "L'r Sound i, PI.t!IIL'L·U 1 111'11 ,III " ' .:1in 1111111<111 Th' - 1II,'(lIal1ll1l ,IS ''IlI''''lill • ,.1<In I . I . . IlIk 01 II'" '/ll'l'ch Prudllt:lion Illolion In 1 01' '1Iet'illl"lll 'I .' If ' 111'1' }, ,I suulld 'UllIn' Ihal"'I, Ill' .lIr III . ' I l l ,1111 'u '~c,'h I" • I ' I Ih.1I nlt>Ulfie, IhL' '''Wid III' .. ' . '( ilL lUll , ,lilt! ;I '<'I of filier, . I,ll IOU' II a I , 1'/1 '· I lUll!!, rh,' SUunusolIl'L'L' I., III II ' ., ' . . (.111 ,uPI' Y ,. S plm l"I'd II) Ih" '"CII' fo.d. , (," H)CUll'(lrrj,) I . 'l, .Ir;tII,Wlll're a "'I 01 IlllIsL'1t·. l'ulIL'd IhL' I : 'L' o,'ated. Thl' frll ' . • I ,11.11 . Ih,' luhl' "/Ih,' III' )'11 I I CI'.' .1." II,' IIl t'ans ,'h'lIT IltL' '. "'L'L'II Ihe 01'11 .. I "'';IIIlII Ihe ,lhlll" II III ' " 1 ' L,l II} HIl' II.ll'LIIYII '.llIl'h " , (tII,1 <'''I'll, all/II ' .. I .. . ' I""'''!!l'' all' (',.lkl'l" 'II ~ , I Ie 11,1,1 L,lIl1y (hgllr,' , I). I h,'''' ( , 111)111 .1' Ih,' 'I/('al 'rllct 2, 1 The lun!lS 1.2 The l.uynx NU',il l"a 11 " thlld IlIkl ()IHI""I1 Ity 'l.'l·~lId "'h'l Ph;u IlX : 1",1 1t1l " 1'111 'N,l I I( IIRun" 2. ' 11w ~Cluntl ·plodllllllg 'y~lt'm 11" , llyn 'h' IlHlt oUrl"(''' 1'l;lI tol IUl"! Wllhtl h ,1 yn ) .UIl' .ur 1 Innhnn In oloer III produ,,' Ihc 1Il'1J11t lly III 'Olllld, III 11ll' wodd', LIII Ilia 'C', we ,,,I.e Ulr illlllihe IlIn!!, .lIId Ihell c. pI.'! il outing 'pecdl 1: ,mall 1111mhcl 01 ""1II,1- arc lIIaOe wIIh.m ,IS It nllW, inlo Ihl' lx:allra~1 '" w will SL'C In 'celoll Ill:!. helm ) . l'l'nain It'vel 01 .lr pre"ure Is necded III keel' Ihe 'l~edllle(hal1l 111 flllll'llollng ,Icadily, rhl' pICMIIC " lIlainlalll<:o hy Ihe aL"lUII 01 V,fl'I~ eh uf tllu,.:lcs (111I1I1Ig inl,1 play ounllg Ihe l'OUN: or an ullcrolilce rhe Illll des un: plimarily Ihl' intcn'o,tab (Ihe 1II11,de, 1"Il:Iwccn Ih,' nhsl .Ild Ih dinphruJ:lIl (lhe lar ", ,hel'lol llIu,de Ihal "'paralc' Ih,' l'he'I'~I II Ifllm Ihe .llxlolll,'11l. As all nows OUlllf Ih,' IlIllf' lip Ih,' tnll'hclI (lIIdI'IP"), 1 Pol''', Ihmllgh a 1>olil-,' stru,'lure llIade of cllrtilage '"I1.! ll1uwk, IIll' I,U'I" «((HI1IIH1ly I.111m n '" Ih,' "1l1"" IlI Of dam's appk; hgun: ~ 'I, rhl' Itallll'"rtlllll IIf Ihe larlll' " fl'rlm:d h Ihe thnoid cllrtilllJ:C, whl,'h sl'lea,l, 0111, Id h~c Ih,' he;ld of a rll'u 'h.-("lIe Ih)lI.id l"allilage re'" Oil Ihe nn' h,lpcd ,'ricnid l'lIrtiluAc Hnl ,he"" 01 IIlII,ek l1are fn'llI Ihe Illnel sid ~ 01 Ih.: l.tryn , 1,lllllin'lhe ("Iired 11,,,11 fold, (I1(',lll'IIld,,The '1(',,11,,10' Ie <.I'h Illach ,I III the' Ih~lIlid .:.mila!!,' al Ih.: In.nl ,.f lhe lal)1, ,nd In Ih Ilf)tenuid ";Illilag," ,II Ih,' h<ld. rhe IX'.II fllid ,"UI he pulled ,11'.111 If d, In d r
- 22. 2. 2.3 Glollal states Voicelessness Voicing ( Iu~ " L~ ~Th'~"- cilrtdJge f CricoiJ / cartilage / Trochea Figure 2.2 f I' b from Ihe back; c, from above. with the '0C<l1 folds In the The laTvn,",' d, from lhe eel""'..:" 'ndicale muscles, a number of which have been The slllal • ~s . Ie I openflOSItoon. , ' 10 show lhe carrJiages more c ar y eirrW>ated from rhe drawn8> 1, Id may be positioned in a number of ways ro produce differ;;;-t The voca 10 5 , ' . F' The firsr rwo glo((al states presented 10 Igure 2.3 arc cOmmonly glor[al staleS, , , h th' d d ' d 'n nlOS[ of the world s languages. T e Ir escnbes the glott"1 encountere J • • • u ," I nderlies a common speech phenomenon, and the founh IllUstrates .stare wa U d' E I' h one ofa number ofgloual states not encountere m ng I' . When me vocal folds are pulled apan as illustrated in Figure 2.3. air passes directly through the glonis, Any sound made with the vocal folds in thh posiIJon is said 10 be voiceless. You can confirm a sound's voicelessness by touching your lingers to the I~nx as you .produce it. ~ou wi.1I not feel any librarian from the vocal folds bcmg transmitted !O your fingertips. The initial sounds ofjish. ~illg, and ~ollse are all voiceless. When the vocal folds are brought close together. but not tightly closed. air passing between them causes them to vibrate. producing sounds that arc said 10 be voiced, (Sec Figure 2.3, where the movement of the vocal folds during l'OIl'I/I!! b indicated by the wavy linc.) You can detemline whether a sound IS loiced in the same way you determined voicelessness. By lightly lOudllng the lingers to the larynx as you produce an extended version of the initial s()unds of the words ;il' or!:(}II'. or any vowel. you can sense the vibral1o(J of the vocal Ill/ds within the larynx. Whisper Murmur Yet another glottal ...tute pruduc.:c... i. tnurmur o1h." . Sounds produced wtth thh gluual confJllur'ltl I . known as. "'bi.'M!r) "Ct~t , 'I d It ~ . 'n .ro VOlcell h ~- ~lre rt: ax.e to a 0 enough air tn C...t:'IJ)c 1 'K1 • U tin:' &'tlCa h,h effect. . • u pn tu.:e a MmultUI)i:l)U! ""'hi pery The. c lour glottal statcs rcprescnt only 'Om f h production at the gtOltis. Comhined with V-tr'll)U:~) ,1 c ,~hMhihlte", ot tlUIt. I . ~ :~ anlCU altOn" m~d' . L. arynx. thcy produce a WIde ran"c 0 nhllnC' B 'f ." C · " "0 the d ' . t:' I' .. c ore eX~lU1mng th. clall. we WIll first consider thc three rna'lor cl'''' t' h C"", In more . ~.~e~ 0 pone Voiceless Voiced Whisper Mumur Figure 2,3 Four glottal state,s: t~e stylized draWing represents the vocal folds and glottis (rum above; Its antenor position IS towards the top, The small triangles represent the arytenOid cartilages which help spread or close the vocal (aids, 3 SOUND CLASSES 3.1 Vowels, consonants, and glides (syllabic and non-syllabic elements) The articulatory difference The sounds of language can be grouped into classes. based on th~ phonetic properties that they share, You have already seen what some of these propertie can be. All voiced ,ounds. for example. form a c1a>s. as do all voicele s sounds. Sounds fall into two major classes. vowels and consonants. Another cJas " the glides. ,hare properties of both voweb and consonanls. Vowels, consonanh and glides can be di tinguished on the basis of differences in articulation. or by their acoustic properties. We can also distinguish among these elements with respect to whether they function as syllabic or non, syllabic elements, Consonantal sounds. which may be voiced or voiceless, are made with a narrO or complete co,ure in the vocal tract. The airtlow is either blocked llIomentaril) or restricted so much that noi 'e is produced as air now pa,t the con"triction. Vowels are produced Ith little obstruction in the vocal tra.:l and are generalI) voiced.
- 23. 24 (()NTf MPOR~R~ IINGUIS TIe s Tht' acoustic difference Syllabic and non-syllabic Glides . 'Ilt!renct! 10 articulation. consonants and vowc l~ di A, a re,uh (If Ihl: d, Vowel.... are more sonorous than con.l)onanL. and frer in the w") the) ",und, d r and longer lasting, (You can observe this .'0 "0 perceIve them a' lou end vowel sounds in your pronunciation of Wo ~f You compare (he c:on...onanr a rU. Itke pel and "'It/.) of vowels aJlows them to form the basis of sYllabI TIl ••reater ,nnonty k f" es A C e r d phonetically as a pea' 0 sononty surrounded b . ,yllanl. can be ~e rnSeonorous segments have a richer Sound Lhan non_y Ie,s rous ,cpmcnIS. d h ' sono sono e Ie the words (/ an go cac COlltalO onc sYllabi - 's ) For cxamp , , c. Ih rou, (Jne, , . 'yllables, and the word lelepholle three syllabi . e d !rlllglllllil IWO S ' fl" Cs, In wor. e s lIables in these words, we are In e ect eOUnllng the vOWeb counting Ih Y 'd t I'orm Ihe nucleus of a syllable, In section 5 71 't V'I'I' A I is thus "" 0 " I be vowe ' , types ofconsonanLs can form syllaolc nuclei as weli It ' shown that certam '. . , ' IS a , h' rc 10 Lhmk of vowels and consonanL' not Simply as type ood Idea, t erelO , , , ' S of g. ' . bUI 'IS element.> that mayor may not be .sYlla.blc, In I) the I 'n't' I artJculauon~. , . . . . 1 la .'ound~ of Ihe words In Ihe left column are all consonants, those On the right are all vowels, I) lake ~b()'c far! ~I [eel ~I jump jl illink ygly !Jell open Table 2.2 .'ums up lhe differences between the two classes presented so far, Table 2.2 The maj"r Jifcrenccs between consonant' and vowels ~"'t'l (and OIlier nHublc elfm"II/I) COl/5(1nallls (/Iflll·wl/ahit' elemelllS) --------------------~-- are produced "uh rel,""rly little are produced with it narrow or ob,trucllon In Ihe "1<.-.IIr""t complete dnsure 10 Ihe voc," IraCI art' more SOIlOroU"i • arc less snnor()u"i A type of soulld lhal,hows propertIes 1)1' hoth COnSOI1Hl1ls ~nu vowels Is l'alled a glide GlIde, lIlay hl' thought of as rapidly arl1C'IIJUletl VOWl'iI, Thl 1 lite auditllr) tnlptl'"ioll Ihey proUUll:, Gliucs arc pmcJuecd wilh 01" anlell ial/oll IIkt' thaI "I a "owd, However, Ihey move qUickly 10 anOlhu ,trllllllati'lI1, " dlllhe 1I1111JI glIdes 1Il"'IlI 11'," h"'l Ihllll·It Ihe) Ifl' IJw~l·h~r In unJeltl.lilon, gild 's 1'.1111'/11 III 111111111111 ~ WIISIIII;II1i, 1111 c~all1l'lc. IIdes C;1Il IlC~cr lorm Ihe lIuclllJ 11/.1 1I,Ink IlIle 'IIucs hllw 1'11I1't'rtll' 01 hlllh ('IIIL")II.tIll ,lilt! I}wds. Ih le'IIll 4 CONSONANT ARTICULATION Airfl.ow is modified in the oral cavity b th - - - __ _ ,. . Y e placement f th posltlomng or the lips. These modifications 0, e l(m%Uc anu h_ f ' I' Th . OCcur at spec fi 1 .." o arucu allon. e major places of articulal'lon d : I Ie p a.&..:c. ()£ .l(I'nlS I, ed' ,~ ' . use In '~'ech ' out 10 In UllS section. Figure 2.4 provides 'ds" 1"'- pnld,uc.;lon are ' . amI aglttal sect' View, of the vocal tract on which each 1 f . ,on. or tUlawa)' indicated, pace 0 anlculatlun h",. hoen AJveopalatal / ; ~a~al cavity Alveolar ridge: (f'.." Palate. P7alLalS alveolars ~ ~ I Teeth: dentals /. ~ I / ~ /-'Bod I fVelum: ,elm Lip : labial ~-;. -Back t- t;, ula: uUlar; Tip ( Root ~PhaI)n'" phaI)ngeal BI3.d~/ ,~ GIIltl, gk,nal TrJchea -----':,--'" h.:urt' 2.4 TI", -,lItrdCt. 4,1 TIll' I(lnglll' Th pnmary lfti.:ulaung rgaD l th lOngue. hich t I) 'Ie 1 can be rill l'd, 1(, "mi, thru t Ii rward or drawn b.l k d even r ned b c fhe Ide of th tongul' an I [) • rat r 10 ered
- 24. 1(, ("'I[Mr,,~ RYIIN(.UI~ ", S 4.2 PI.I< l' of drlic ul.llion Labidl Dental Alveolar Pdl,1I0-dlveoldr and p,lIdl,11 PhlII1CU-': deS("IlplHIfI fl.'It.'IS ", tj'C' ur~a, llf 111l' Inugut,,_ I"he ti arca AI III In.nl 1",1 t>dllllli the lip lIes Ihe Illade. The . p 1. Ihe nat ,. h h' d ' m.lln III' ..""' longue I~ ("".tlled th(,~ hod) ••lIlu' (,.~ 10 mo.,( pan ul ,the tUIl'uc . ,I S of the muulh " ,·al"'.1 Ule llu,"I. n", btlJ} and had 01 Ihe Ion l,h.1l be. III ••. d Th guc C"I .'" rctcrn.'"d (0 ,00nth u thl'" ortum c root 01 the tungue I, . I ..he) ~_ " h <I'lIIall1 ..• . '.. upper p.lr! ollhe Ihrtl.lllp aIY"'). c" In In. I:;h POIIJl II "hlch Ih, aiN~cam can !'" m~dlflcd III ProdUCe a d' ",und I' L'.!lkd ,I place (or POIllt) of artIculatIOn, Places of.' II IcrcOI I . . artlcu"'l luund .lllh,· lop". wllhm Ihe ora cavlly. 111 Ihe pharynx, and al th ' IOn are e gill"" Any ,,,),,,d milde wllh d(lSUre Ilr neflr clo,ure of lhe lIps i, said h OIunds II1volvIn!! oolh Jrp' ure lenned bilabial; sound, invOlvil:': t~ labial hp and upper ,leeth a,re called labiodcntals. Eng",h Ineludes lh g , ~ lo"c, l ' d e hliab heard word-lnrlJally In eeer. 7111, an mom". and the labl~" IU" . - vuentals h·, inillilll}' In!!r,· and 1'1/11 card Some phones :lIe produced wilh the longue placed itgainst or n .' h ' c,III Ctc'h Sound, mucle In Ihls way arc called dentals, If the tongue Is plae 'd he Ct, d . I h' d ,e ·tl.e· Ihe, lCClh. the ,soun I,S SW{ 10 e mter ental. [nlerdcnlals In En i"h ' co , /'h d I ' d glSarCth inllwl consonanls 0 I e wor -' !Jr.• an !.!J,ing. (Some EngllShs .. . C produce , and: u,s denial,s: sec scelron 5.3 for morc delails.) peakcJ1! Wilhm lhe oral cavily. 11 small ridge protrudes from jusl behtnd lh • h Th" I d I . ' e upper fronl reel. IS ISca Ie Ile alveolar ridge. The tongue may touch b. b I · 'd . h d' , or c rought IIC.ar I lIS n ge JJ1 I e pro uClron 01 certain sounds whl'ch ',r" h ' d ' , - ~ cncc escr he I as alveolar, Alveolnr "()llnds arc heard al the beginning of Ihe fOBo~' '( '7ngllsh w(lrd,: lop. dt'er. loaf!. jJp. {ip. and !leek. Some languages sue Ing Spanosh. have an rlhallS mude wilh lhe longue touching the aIVC(JI;r·ridg;. as JU",I behind Ihe alveolar ridge the roof of the mouth r's'es -h' I Th'" k ' " arp y. IS arca 110 nU,wn as Ihe palli/o-lIlveolar urca (or alveopaJa'''1 ' b I' h . , .... In some ooks) Th· lIg esl pat1 III lhe mill of Ihe moulh is called Ihe palale 'd I " C II h' ,an soun,s produced WI J I c longue 1111 or ncar Ihis area arc called palatal~ P' lat . I I COllson,lIIls arc heard III the followlI1g english words '} '. a 0 ,a veo .ar 'Ind ' I" Th' d .. ' . ' . , rllW, ItU' {/,'ure ("Illp • Jl/l'1f." CWOI' '1I11i1ll1 phone 111 yes is n palalai glide " The soli <lrea lowards Ihe ..' f II f ' Sounds maUl' wilh Ih I reat () le 1'00 01 lhe mOlllh IS called Ihe w lum Vl'la" arl! heard 1'1 I,e '"ug/'ue lout:hlllg 01 l1;ar lhl,' P"'1l1011 arc Gtlk'd ClaJ": I ,ng IS 1 al Ihl' hegllll ,. h Ihe end ot Ih., "ort! h,,", 'I he I'd' I ,1.lIlg n I e. word, I'lIII ,tnt! 1(0. i111t1 ,II , g I c le,lrd word Inliially III 11"1'1 is <'"Ik·" it Uvulars Pharyngeals Glottal 5 MANNERS OF ARTICULATION 5.1 Oral versus nasal phones 5.2 Stops lub io elar "IOI,:C lill" 'UI~U ..H the "'alnt.' Uml." "tIfH-4l lie I r.u "I The area of the throal between the uvula and the Iii nx t p harynx. SOllnd~ made thruugh the modifi(';'ltl(In f r Y t1 ~ .:.Ih~n ;l~ th , • 0 air ow m lh • rctmctmg the tongue or c,un"ltricting Ihe phary rc~"m hy , nJ< are called pha . Pharyngeals can be round on many dialec" of Arab'le b ' rynll,.a, • u nh tn Lngh h Sounds produced by ."ing the vocal. fold, as the pn'm'.ry an' I . ~ leU atoN are called glottals. The sound at the begmning of the English wonl heuI' and !Jug IS made at the glottis. - The lips. tongue. velum. and glottis can be positioned 0 different way' to produce different ,ound types. These various conftgurallon~ arc called the manners of articulation. A basic distinction in manner of articulation is between oral and nasal phones. When the velum IS raised. cutting off the airflow through the nasal passages. oral sounds are produced. The velum. however. can be IOl.ered to allow air to pass through the nasal passages. producing a sound that is na.sal, Both consonants and vowels can be nasal. in which ca.se they are generally voiced. (UnleS' otherwise noted. all nasals represented in this chapter are voiced.) The consonants at the end of the English words SUI.!. SU!!!. and SU~ are na. al. For speakers of orth American English, the vowe! of words "ueh as bqnk and lI"!rrk are also nasal, Stops are made l.llh a complete and momentary clo,ure of airtlllw through the vocallraet. thus pn:veming the escape of air via the mouth, In the world', language. stop' arc found at bilabial. denial. alveolar. palatal. velar. uvular. and glonal points of articulation. The glottal Slop is commonl) heard III many popular British diakcb (instead of the ltJ in the Queen', Engli'h) in wonls like burrer. ",uler and bouit· This glottal stop i often ,pel1cd with an aposlrophl! li>l,'a. a'er and 1>" I). In English. bilabial. alveolar, and elar oral and nasal stops occur III the
- 25. grid for ..top II";'T-~ ,..:xU- Ii-red ID 131>1' ~ ~ ~ lie Ih~1 101 .1,><" n,lI ,,,,cur "'r..r-inlllall~ lQ Eogli- [pI Ibl !!.1311 1011 ..~un III !l<" (dl El"l( (nl r (ll ',~ :.. ,~11 lli..~ PI' eg) ,"-...! l!!£ 101 V'.., belo" ) (7) Table 2A pre.ent> a phonetic grid on which the -.rap con, onanL~ of Engli,h are ranged horizontaJl~ accordtng (0 place of arnculatJOn, A, ) ou can 'ee each >£oP, wim one exception, has "oiced and 'oicele s counlerpan" Th~ gloo.11 ;!OP j' .11'3)' "oicebs, It is produced with the! vocal fold drawn f1ITl11y lOgemer. 3nd since no :ur can pa" through the glottis. the ocal fold, C3DDot be set mmotion, T8ble!.~ Engh;h ,to(" and !beir tnlIlscripuon Bilabial A/,rolar I,,-Iar G/olla/ d: [PJ [tJ [I.] [7j iced [b) Id) [g] '", I ;m) [nJ [Q1 rricathes are con.onant produced ," ith a continuow' airllo through the mouth. ~e belong [0 nlarge ~Ia, 01 ound! called continuants (a <:1,1, that aJ mclude ocl; and glide ). all of which 'hare thIS pmp.:n} The : 8me- fann a ~laI. la ofcontinuant: during their produclton. the) arc prodmpam d b) a nbnu u audtbk nohe ~auc the :ur u cd in 'ihctr UCbon p ~ through a eI) narm" opening lTallIe 2.~. t>clo). Engl; h frkati~es Agrid for fricatives tHO (1, Glolttll'ifort' "'«In" oj tirrit-"lurulfl TYllflScrlpnj'lI1 u,hiotlt'nfc,l oicet!~~ fal III ok~d tat ! Intr:'rUt'I1Ctd ·l"Ii~ele~~ mm lSI Voiced lhl'....e !3 AI'eolar 'ol~ele~~ .:-In£, lsI Voiced !lP 11.1 PalalO-llh·t'vlar Voicele,s ;;hlp U1 Voiced 3!ure 131 Glortal oiceless hal {hI pecial note must be t3ken of the al"eolar fricari,'es ls1 and (z1. There are twO wa) that English speake£'> commonly produce these sound" orne speaken; raise the tongue tip to the al"eolar ridge tor to Jll;t behind the upper front teeth) and allo the air to pa, through a grooved channel in the tongue Other :peaker> form thi. "arne channel uing the blade of the tongue: the lip b placed behind the lower front teeth. Tahle ~.6 pre ents a grid on which the fricative consonant of English are r.lnged according to place of articulation_ As in Table ~.s_ dental> are n<'t &,tingui 'hed from aeol=. ,mee mO.t language h3e sound Ith eIther one or the other place of articulation. but not both, .'ate that IP. mand [:, corre,p'-'nd re,pecli'el~ It' 'orth merican [~l and [il.
- 26. .5.4 {(r;cates Pala,.,.a/,-rola, ~ UJ [i;J---.- 1.31 'bena ,top.lflJcuJarion i, relea...ed. me lOngue moves mpidly a"a~ I - I t" Some non-continuant consonanrs show a slo" relea p ace at anteu a I<m, • E r h Of th" c/ qJre; th"''' sound, are called affricates ng" h"" _ only 1'40 affricar",. buth of" hi.:h are palara-alveolar. The} are heard ,,:ord-Jnllia/ly III h h J . anJ "'" transcribed as [tD and [d31., respeCll vel} (The r" Lurr: an J."mp, " J < " h - r, tran....TiplJon of an affricate US109 a .symbo ,or a srop. sUc as [rl Or [dj, foUo"d b} a s}mbol for a fricative Ilke en or (3) " meant ~o reflect the fact that an affricate Is n ,top that is released graduall} so thar In It>. final Phase it is a fricari,'e.) A grid for affricates Table 2.7 presents a gnd showing the .two English .affricates: Note thai IPA [rD and [d3J correspond 10 NOM Amencan [el and [J I rc:~peCtlve ly, Sfridents and sibilants Table 2.7 English affricares Voiceless ~oiced Palato·alreo/ar At the beginning of thjs chapter. it was noted that acoustic as well as articulata!)' criteria are sometimes used in de cribing speech sounds, An acoustic critenon comes into play to describe fricalives and affricates. These sounds are subdivided into two types, some of which are distinctly lOUder Iltm others, These noisier fricatives and affricates are called stridents (Table 2,8). Th.eir quieter counterparts. which have the same or nearly same place of artJculalJon, are conSidered non-strident. Slridents are also known as sibilants, Table 2,8 Strident fricatives and affricates in English Place ofArticu/atiml iliceieJs Voiced Alveolar Is] [7J Pa/alo-alveolar III [31 Itn [d3J 5.5 :-____ Voice lag and a piration NU1Nl11 111 (ll After.th~ rclc.tU" 01 l"l~n.HI1 "h.;.cl" h.lps tn , ngh h l percCIC a lag Jr nnel del.,) hcture the fl~lIg <I I '11) lU , h I h ' 11 Q ""',"P I < t c: ag t .n t c nn'CI 01 (l.:,Ih-.: "Oh.:m~. I a":"()n .1 L.. C I,,,,, '-~nc . eo ... 'p.mICu u) the fet r the trathuonat tcnn hlf thh phcnoln~nt)n I ~pi~,t' 1 !!ale 0 .Ur II " . 'Q 'on 'I I'.n fit"", h a ~ma nlt....e . tl h uher the- U'Ptf.lll!tl ..:un,on"tnt 1 Ll_ 1 t ,," 1 . - . ~ , • . iJ,1l C , J pr '''"k; nne ~. ,amp es nl a~plr~lkt' lmd Ulli.hplralcd I,;'ununant tn l' .I h bol . ... .nl! ,... I ~Um ~o'W S) m s arc mtnx!ul:cd here "... well). Nnlu.:c.' that the f,( u d L h . • 'd ' d ' '.. " > n I.... ave n.1lh ~S~lfah.:: 'll~ urM~~lr.uct.l llncth! an.! all "Diede....... :-.lnp . In Hhcr Ian u olcelcs::, fncul1;t!s ant.! atlnl..."<lte, may al.....) he a'pu;!lcd I)r unw {Hrclll!d.g g , Table 2.9 · ..pmu~d und un."pmttc:d f.:1.)n,nnanl... in En~h'h p;rtllt:'d U,w.P"dll"d Ip"",,] I,",bl [k",ul pm lub kJu --- - --- bp.cl] [ I.'h] Isk.u] Figure 2.5 shows how a"piralion of a voiceless con'onant lakes place, using the aspirated consonant [phI as an e)lample. Though the se4ucnce of articulalions takes places continuously. the tjgure illustrate, only certain moments. a Lips cJ""ed for Ipl b Lip' open for ,o",el ill Vocal fold, 'prend Vocal folds , till spread: for voicelcs!;ness voicelc!'>!<.nes:-' continues during inItial phose of vowel articulation (a."pirntion) Lip:, remain open for 'owel Voicing of ,,'owel now begins d up n:nwn open for III Voicing contmuc:-. during: artll.:ulatll.1n of til ----------------------------- TIme '--------------------______-. figure 2.5 Aspirated consonant production (EnglishpJfI. a) As articulation of the voiceIe . consonant is begun, the gll'lIi, "open. b) The closure for the consonant is released and the vowel articulation begjns; however. the glottis i, nm yet closed enough to pennil oicing to
- 27. 2 STirS begin Becauof lht>. the m,eI is bnetly oicele '. glVlO imp Ion ofan xlra release ofJllf thaI we call asprmllon. g Iht cl Afla a shot! dela). mea urable '" miUI..econd . voicing of lhe '0 be!!"~ . dJ 1bc IJps r"malO open and "Oleing continue; during the arllculal"'n of final ..onsonanl of the ..ord. Iht Fi ---c- '6 an·' , 7 sho" lhe relalion belween aniculalion and VOl· .. ;;~ > _. U _ . Clng r allll' pJrarcd and vOl cd consonants. The unasplrated consonant. 'uth ~ Or [PJ 01 Engli h ~pilJ hows "oieing of the vowel slarting very ()( lht release of the con onanl articulation. The voiced initial [bJ of Engl'af~r hov.s oicmg starting ju I before the release of the bilabial artiCUlillo~~ bia • b c d Upo opeD foc 1.1 up' clmcd for Ipl lip' opro fo.-IIJ L'P'rrnwnopen arucula""" 0( lJl ffl ~ ~ ~<? r V- I../> bcal fold .preod VocaJ fold, n:maJO '-'>Cal fold, In P'"Ilion Voklng COflltnUC1 (or vmccleunc 'IKad (oICcleunc ((lr (J'I(,:lRg Tunc Figurt 2.6 lJnasporJIL..tconsonant pro<Ldion rEngish spill. D h i..p> OflCn (or [I) VOIcing conUliun C LIps rrmam OJlCn dunnl Anl<ul.lIon o( III ~ - -- "".'''''' 'J. ~ ( T" It! .... - - - - - - - - - - - lime - - - - - - - - - -_ flgur~ 27 trJc(1f wnSOOJnt d 5.6 Liquids laterals English rsounds PH Nl It( H Among lhe sound. c,'mmonl; found In lhe: ,. -: the" numeroo, varianl . The) lorm <KId Lmgua -I and r and liquid!. II pcual tl of <.onsonant:;. noo..11 .. VanCI;C' of I are called latcral~ A I' I' I· . 01 I.:nl. S. <lfe artlculat.td. Ihrough Ihe mouth along Ihe loll.ered .d., of Ih . . au e ape. .. . d e longue When the: Up "ral'" 0 Iile dental or a"'eolar l""II"n I..·· d 1. longue . '''' enla or alveol I are produced. BOlh may be U'dn,cnbed a.. Ill, at aleta!!. Becau.", lateral" are generally "llIced the lenn lar l· -> I t . • • • era u~ .... one u'5Ual ?,ean, , olced laleral . Sull. Ihere are in'lance of voiceless laterah m ~ rhe vOlcele" denIal or alveolar laleral i wnllen with an add aI t>=:b. bol II d d · .. I · . 1110n Phoncuc ,y.m : ca e .a lacntlc. n thIS case. lbe dIacritic IS a circle benealh be ,>mbol.lll- VOIceIe" laterals can be heard In Ihe pronunciation of the E Ii.t ",ord, please and clear and also in the Wehh pronunciauon of '1/" ;~gOCR name. a~ Uandaff umerous varieties of r are abo heard in the world·, languages. Thi. !.<:Cuon describes some of the types found in Engli. h. In received pronunciation (RP for shon). Iile generall, accepted VarlelY of spoken standard southern British English. r is a post-aheolar appro ·- iman!. The tenn approximant lor frictionJess continuant describes a consonant with a manner of articulation that involVe> bnnging Iile articulator; quite close togeliler while at theame time leaving a sufficientl) large gap between them for air to e cape ",ithout causing audible turbulence. T~plcal1). in the RP articulation of rCa!> in reed and raw). the tip of the toogue IS brought close 10 the area just past the alveolar ridge Ihence the label po I-alveolar) without making finn contact with the roof of the mouth. The tPA ~mbol f r this ,ound is [J]. but for conenience the ~mbol [r] is oormall~ u.... '1. A voiceless appro)llmam can be heard in the pronunciation of ord like pra,. free. - The r of Englih as it i, 'poken in Canada and the Coited State· a.' well a' In southwe. t England is alo an approximant. But its place of articulatton is slightly farther back.This r (ymbolized b~ [-Ll in IPA) is made by curling the lip of the tongue back sO that a narrow apcnmc is left bel",een the undc"lde of the tongue and the back of the aheolar riuge. (The same effect can be obtained b) bun:hing the tongue upwards and ba~k In the mouth.) It is kno" n a., a relrone, r and i' heard in rid.. and car. It i aho often tran,cribed as trl l1'0110 ing a common com e~tion of uSIng non-Roman alphabet Ymhol like I.ll sparingly I. Another ound commonl} identified "'1th r I. the flap The !lap IS produced "'hen the tongue tip. trike the aleolar ridge as il pa"c' aCfO" IL III beard 111 the. ·orth American English pronunciation of bi!.!er and burter•and 111 orne Brili h pronunciations of n'!y (a' in . couse. the dialect of Lherpool). It i commonly transcribed as [r] and i. generally VOICed Table ~.IO presen the latcrab. r. and flap In diftcrcnt ,andlc of Englbh.
- 28. LI C. •TIC. Tab~c.10 r-ndo Approx=1 [J j Po l.ah , o/Qr~ " Okc/e ~ ~ ~ ~____~t~ ~__________________ ____ - ------~~~~~~~;:~~~~~~~~~~~ , . ,;ai, are more sonorous dian odler conSOnants and in S lJabicJiquids and LIquId, snd na, . I. dian are the other COlbonanls. In f~l. thev .~ more like Ole, . I . H"- th . art nasals f"'peeI ~. e' rna,. function as ) Dab,c Due el. n lien ey do '0, ~ conorous thaI ~" 'ds snd ~Dabic nasals. SyllabIc liquid, and are ctlltXI S)llablc :;:w rnam' of the world's language. including Eng lTable 2 1IJ. are ~ ar~nlI>uali,marked widl a hon "eruealline Underne 5.8 GliOt- ~~i:=~Ie. ~ ,~ll:ilijc'lal the:nd of l:.mle ~fAel!)) i tran"qj~ - I - beginning hn!!IJI, D" ruden~.. orthAmenC'.t1I I!]. Vn1o~e Ylor j·.tenlhere. The )Uabic rsound heard in "ord likeb, D0fI1Snot ..... 3) . cons . [ ] Th I • . ...-~ as a olel-r sequence. ~r . ( e Owe )rnbol and MT I' transcn,,,,,-, hoI' tIu . :~: . 6 'oftlu chapter.)TbeIP.-S)m lor ,oundl [~] pre;,enlcu III secDon ._ Table 2.11 Syllab!c liquids and 1l.1>.lI. III English S"llolllc Xon·Sllolnc bonIe [boo I lift 111ft) funnel [fADI) pill IpII) sudden r dn) ~I r~IJ DIlIIOO (b.In} lem {lenl] RecaJ] that a glide 15 a 'er; rapldl. arucuJaled DOn- yllabic segment. The 111;0 RP English !!iides are the )-glide b) or u]of~es and I.el/. and the IIo-glide [wI of ~~l, and-~mg. The [j) of IPA transcnption corre ponds to b) in • 'O!1h Amencan transcriptioD. (In British InlnSCripUon 100, [yj i sometime used 1DSlead ofuJto represem thi sound.) Tne {jj I a palatal glide (often iled '" palato-alveolar a "ell) lhost aru,;ulauon i.' VU1uall~ ldenucal to thaI of the vowel/i] of ~ee, You can enfy tlu OJ pronouncing a Ulin an extended manner; il "ill ound vel) lose 0 an [Il The glJde [w] IS made I ith the longue raised and pulled back near !he velum and ",;th the li Protruding. or rounded For tbi reaWll. It sometunes called a lahio t lar The ('" Jcorre pond closely In am la1l0n 10 the el (uJ of .../w 11us can be enfied by eluending the pronunci uon a / e III co Ider [ ) a rounded 'elar glide for purposes of descripo Some er; of Enghsh' h;le a OIceles Iabioelar glide, lr11 bed 6 VOW El S )"I, ,n the word "'~n, "I, rr lid whICh (00 nr~ In '''!chI pronunClaltOJ1 ISo common to oc.land and msl) rare el",,, here (excep In conte where W}I preceded by a OOCe lop"" in Tahle 2 17 on p' ..ge 43 below). In on! Inlt,al POO' , from a hi'lOti""l)hw l co", manl (u'>Ier whICh ~ ba:n IfnphfJed 10 dropping [hI in m("1 dialect! ITable 2.12) Table 2.12 Engli h <on"'nan'" pbc.. and IlIanneTs ofhruculat1oa PluceJ %nu:wlauon taltners of P I It voiced b '..aJ , <>iced m d & n Q Fm",--aue ....oiceles II J olced v 0 z 3 Affricate oicele II Oleed d3 Uquld .. oiced laIeraJ Oleed 1""'1- alveolar approximant! retroflex Glide voiced oiceles, b ,. I", d made , th the ocal 1r3i.'t more open '0e1 are ..onocou.. ) llabl SO':uculatioru.. Different ~Oe1 sounds (also than it i, for con oo.ant and glide ed b varvin!! the placement of th ~ of called 0 el qua/Illes are produc h' 'f th-e ~,itv - an be further altered th I lbe, ape 0 .~. ' . !um the 10D!!ue and .haplOg e lh. vowels or by 10lloenn" the e bv pro~ding th.e lip to pr~ualcle rounded el . rnay be'len<e orIa" dependlO= on . al 1 Fm ~ VO . . • 10 produ-e a n Olio C • •: d nm:!hell ani_ulan n th de= of vocal LraCt con metlon b U "are introdu ed to most 0 the In the followmg tlon n o.e }ou . ned that will be 10 ed 10 I f En Ii h me phoneuc detaill' 0l0l ~O . 0 _ tb foUoiog cbapler.
- 29. ---- ----. . -- - - - - - .. -.-1.ue diide<i 1010 1(' major type'. Imple 'o"el~ faJ pie vowel, and Engh,h 0 ,." r mODopb!boDI:~ I and diphthongs (Taole , 13 so calltQ d h h Pure o"e~ .., h uaI' Th -.) S· . t ong< ...~ noti.: able.: ange In q II)'. e oel of' 11IlPie o"el d, fI()I "IV . II PII. ~I and !he fil"[ onc/ 01 sl!Ppose are a 'Imple 0"d D- _. c!!l, dl!g. b!!.I,P 1 ~;,., cdubll 3 c'hange in quali!) "ithin a ingle 'I~hlel"'::~ are one < u~ ..... th d • L.lJ • D. she" ('haDge' 10 q~Jly al are ue 10 longue movement diphtho, u.ll ond aru,ulauon 10wards another vo"el ~ LJ a"ay frOID the 101 .j qualil I' clearl) perceptible in "ord, ~uch a~ sa.' ho n . lb;l h31lf'e IR -oVtc, . . ,. U' . c ". and bit. In ,ome language, (1Ocluding English) Ihe fu..1 ~. '''''. Ia. ~7:" /!. mu -h-'oneer and perceptually more salient than Ihe <_. pan ofa diphuoon£ I' C ,_ • -~Ond In RP.'there are mne di~hlhhong, andlthey f.1al l d l 1O,tO ~wo c~as e: Cen;rin. . bth gs and closin,g dipht ongs ca, so ca e c osmg dIphthong .... dip . ond'phthOn~ dunng lhe final phase of the vowel articulation lh~I'hln a centnn~ I " . kl ds th . e 19b- . '1 of the IOneue move. qUlc' ) towar e centre of the mouth elpotn. . ' f ' -!he lpicaJ po,ition il 3 ume for the artlculauon ° sch"a I(OIJ). Ihe O"el at the ~innjng of the ord gddrefS. Thlerie ~ four centnng dIphthong _namel~ (Ia). as in dear. cheer. and clear. ea as to r;re- wea;. and aIr. [0;» as boo; SIlrt!. and dour. and [:-a) as in QflL. shQLe. an ~oar. ~O"ad~)o,. [;)a) and [U~· are dbappeanng from ~ and man) other ,llI~~lJe~ O.f Bnu,h Engli h. The; are being replaced b~ [J.J. A< a re ult. "ord like pal<. pore. and poor rhv ~Ith each oIher. The) all come OUt a. [pJ:J. .llIe In closing diphlhong·. lhe tongue ,!arb in a relatively low po ition and ends up in a hIgh po JUon euher In the palatal area at the front of the mouth' lhe regIon where the glide [j] is aniculated. or at the back of the mouth in ~ 'elararea where lhe glide [wJ is produced. There are three clo. ing diphthono lhat end in /I}. They are [elJ which is found in ...ay. l<'t!igJrI. and lail; [all Whi~h I, found tn lie. buy. and m)~ and [::II} which is found in oil. boy. and COin There are only tO diphthong.. in ~hich the LOngue move up to [oj. nameh lauJ as in no. go. and rIo,," and {<lUJ which occur<; in proud. lo;n, and round. Table 2.13 Some Smrpie ,'"",d Diphllumg I'll [I) bile [all pel leI sa} lei. pon )~;J aIr I~j po! [oj beer [I~) pal 1a:1 lOY I I) polt 'A) oar 1'J~) pan (n) poor [')~J now ,ooJ grow [;)OJ O~ The colon UJdicate ee seclion 6.3 below.) In all ClI lov.e' I • !he diphthongs are SOmCv.hal longer than the hon Imple 6.2 Basic parameters for describing "o",els PHU lK 0 eI anu..:u1auons are not ~y to feel con IIlce Ihe "ocal (r3<,t .. lOI nanov.cd """"'" , much T" bcc~ 0/0 e anIL-U alJOn. ahernaJcy pronounce lhe ds --- 1Icd feel the: longue mme from a hi!h fmnl "I,,,. '-k" /uo and poe YOlt liu longue mmement. ahem:lIe be'ttn the: v Is POS·.on you ree feel the longue mm Ing fr m the: I"" hac" (._.~~ "'~ p<:'1 and pal Y U II . ' r ~"' uoc ........ II be --·'d arne lime) 10 10" ronl posItiOn ("lib the: L. unrounded ._OU< "'be be!ween Ibe '0 cis of h.... ~nu .. h". You w.1I notICe that' ~'nall~. Iana1c mOement between the high lront and high hack ~ I In • on to longue your lips for the [u:. Y"'."OQ. yoo are" In& Figure 2.8 h"" s " mid agma vie... oj the lonoue """ition' .... ["J [J d [ . b' d X . .c ,..-- .0< UK' vov.el I •• a •an u. ,iL<e on. ·ray, ludle of C:.nadlan Engli h.lbese (' vowe" are V~f) "mllarto Ihe Bmi,h RP f:nglilh 'o.... els~ribed alx! ~ onl~. o"elln lhefigure Ibat needs~pec1a1 comment is [01 Thl • Itt..: the: ~ntl h vowel [0) tnPOI: The ?nly Ignificanl difference 1 that Canadian {ul " fo~ed "'lib the hp' "'. a falfly neutral po itton ....hile RP {ol" made ""ib the hp' pur<ed. The po tUon of the tongue IS 'irtually!he same I Figure 2.8 Tongue po5l!Xln and tra!lSCJllIion for tIYee ~ vowel<.. 'owel for v.hlch the t n!!ue I' neither r:nsed nor lowered are called mid oweL. In some ea--e. the ~latt,e height of the tongue ID the general mid zone reo ul~ in ov.eL th t are perceptiblY different. SQ It ma~ be nec saIJ to dl. tin!!lli.h betwL-en mid. mid·high and mid·low oweb. Thu ID RP.(el the ITOm'I·ov.cl (If Sfl I. aid to be mid-high. front. and umounded v.hile lJ:} lhe 1 ov. el of 'IOnIl,i mid-low, ba.:k. and rounded. Sctl.....a ([:Ill. th f1f'ot and the' IloeL-of ladonna i a mid. central lowel imilar to hwa i the I O!: unmunded cen.rnl ,o;el [3:) found tn v.ord like b!!d. d II ~ ( ee ti n 0.3 b.:lo ~ r funher discus ion l!nfoltunat ly. there are no lear -ulon pomt' l>et n van t ngue hClght po IlIon Hence It i not alw ). ob ;tOll> v.hetha a uod ould be
- 30. "I "ha p~1 .~Iadonn~ hlrd pOI High Mid-high Mid Mid-low Low 11·1 leI lu'l 1",1 lal 1,,1 1 ':( In/ Fronl h.gh fronl unroundevo....e mld.h.~ fronl unrounded vo....el high back rounded vo...d low fronl unrounded ccnrral mid unrounded long cemrdl mid unrounded m.d-Iow back rounded I()w back rounded Central Back A :J; &.3 Tense and lax vowels Roundcu All Ihe v(lweb li,led 10 F.g.ur02.'J. excepl leI lao and Int. are 10.h.; Ihe;.,. produced with a placement ut thl.: tllngw! that rt!~uh.~ in gr!al~r 'JllC. lfad cnn~triction than that of nOn~l(!the vowt!b~ in addiuon. ten~ vowd$ lire longer Ihan non-len,. vnweb. Some voweb of English arc made ",.Ih roughly the same longue po!-.itlon ~L' the lcn~e vowels. but with a c ... Clln tr.,;ls!O amculalion; lhc~ arc called lax vowe"- Tahle 2.15 pro,ide example hom RP comparing lense and lax simple vowels. Qle lhat nOI alilhe ,,,we" cmne ill lenseflax pai". Tuble 2.15 Ten" and I" vowel<In RP T ell.fIt.' Lax a) Pure "owels [!! 1.1 rn~ leI f~l li: mel l:e P!!II lu bilrd 10:1 pQQI [u:l Cll 101 c~hl 1':1 wlrd [3:1 cobr;! lal b) Diphthongs milke [e.l bike [a.l hIlil [al] nlle raul shaul lau] r!!re [eo] dill [tal bllQI [ual roar [Ja] (marginal) The difference betwccn two of the vowels illustrated in Table 2.15 .i ~ft~~ _ hear at first The vowel [Al in cwo dgd. p/gck. and 'gil" ac not easy to .1 . 1 ',1 I . nd lax while the vowel [;:)1 of bgTlw11l. IlbOlll. central. unrounueu. mlu- 0 a
- 31. 40 Air" lIN{...lJI!'IIllS .. ral. u"n1unJcd. an<l la,:, Th.., <1",j 1'1 I ""d ."fll " "".1. "nt 'hJll"e "r [ul (0 1,,1 alkelcd 'orne I I ,m I "".~. • I I I h,' , " I I lrd ( .'- .1 h I II"' '~llh _11'111 U Ihl'rs like {Jull. pus t. "1IlIche,.. ''In,1 b ' J 'nl..·U I' l I,. ~ "ul Ihll (l . . u Ifl/ L lu1 1'"11 .(. .mJ nJII. FUI1hermorc. the change the nUl all h~,-" .t~'~;;li;t~d chI..' Ivl pnlll~nl:l~~l:~~:England tiinlech do nUl have the 'o~~l ~I ~CI'l/" ;1.,,1 ,,,,,ak"r' ~'lr~~;ll /U/IO [.1 J'~ nOI take place. So. nonhc~ I .- Ihl' an'3 Ihe "hJn)!', I pnlOunciallon of C/Il. d/lli. and plUck .1 / 1< ha'''' reIJln"J til<' (lnJ!,n,1 11',bdled schwa ("hieh, is unclcrhn'd a, w (."1,; ....' 1/ rhe O.c! ~ ... III I I IJlIII. J,,<l Iplll, ' . ) i, called a reduced vo"cI. I,lIl . ,I; ',nJ ,,>j" th . I C'fll UI <lIf"',,,,I.ltIIII<j l<'II ' I 1,-n'J 1 0 be longer than elf ax COUnterp,~., C'L " -;, ,",owe ~ ,.. • d h - .. I n Ench'h the, 1<"'< ',' s refer to them as ong an Sort vow I' _ , phonelltIlln. th . I e , For this re;l,,1I1. som< " diphthongs are longer an slInp e vowels I '. saw aoo'~, . I I . n ~sno>cli'e1)'. As ,. , • t>ehaviour as tense s.mp e vowe s. So th ,•. r- d' luy Ihe sumo . th . cy man) case. th"e} "P , I d..d in some d.alects, e same vOwel may c, Ii d . lense n Co . . d' "" UI! .~. also cI",•••e as . I or as a diphthong m 111erent contexts F ~.. " kW~ . ·W realiLed as a lense Sllnp , [..] and [u:1 occur at the end of a word they . RP. "hen tense I. . hth [..] ate inswnce. Ifl· . vowels. but as the dIp ongs IJ and [uw]. . unced not as pure I d' I . 'd often prono . ' rd, bird. I/!!D·e. c"~rr: I. an jQ!!.rna. ,s m. . central The vowel [3./ of "_ 1 0 the-r words, it is just like schwa tn all things bu' d d and tense. 0 0 . .. 1 t unrollll e . Th' 'pclling gives a clue to .IS ongms. n most ca,~ lenseness (or length). "'cl I'ollowed by [rl. In most varieties of Brill' 'h' 'd'cdfrom avow . ' S [3:] ~S ~~~rl following a vowel was lost.leavmg behind a lengthened, ten~ Engb>h North America, the southweSI of England, and parts of Lancashire voel. In f Eogl:Ifld Ihe [r] was not eOllIely losI. There is still a Ifl the northwest 0 . I Th ' I . . , ] h"h "olours' Ihe precedlOg vowe . e I-CO ounng of a VOwel reSidual [r w.e c , . d h . . r d as rhotacization. A rhOlaClze sc wa IS repre ented by the .s re,crre to . . . ' d'h h . symbol [a'J in TPA. (Sec also the diSCUSSion of centnng Ip tongs In section 6.1 above.) . h th I There is a simple tesl Ihnt helps detemll~e w ~ er vowe s ar.e tense or lax. In English. monosyllabic words spoken 10 Isolallon do not end In lax VOwels. We find see [si:]. sar [se./. Sue [su:J, so [S;lOJ. and saw [s:>:J. but not *[SIJ. [seJ. '[sre], *[su]. or *[SA]. Schwa. however, frequently appears In unstressed position in polysyllabic words like sofT;!J and Canad[;!J. It should be pointed out _ especl3l1y for those who thi~ their ears are deceiving them _ Ihat many speakers produce the final vowel 10 the last two examples not as [:ll but as [AJ. The representation tlfl'ocb and their articulatory positions <Figure 2.9) is expanded in Figure 2.10 to include more tense and lax vowels. This rather formidable crowd of vowels should not intimidate you. If you arc a nalive speaker of RP. you have been using these vowels (and others, somc of which you will be introduced to in Ihe next chapter) most of your life. Learning to heM them consciously and transcribe them is nol a difticulllllsk. Thc next section provides more examples of the lranscription of English consonants and vowels. PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION Of RP VOWelS AND CONSO NANTS 8 SUPRASEGMENTAlS 8.1 ------ Pitch: tone and intonation !'IIIJNI 1C 'l Itt! SCIIINI) en 'AH(.UI It 4, High Mid-H,gh Mid Mid-low Low i : e figure 2.10 Basic po,itions for RP. H.u.:k ' .ll A U ' ---- o 0: Tables 2.16 and 2.17 (shown overleaf on pages 42 and 43) 'how the phoneuc symbols for vowels and consonanLS commonly used to transcribe RP. To show how each symbol is used, one word is transcribed completely. and then other words in which the same sound is found are given.Notice thaL in the example words, the spelling of the sound may vary. Be careful of this when you transcribe words phonetically - the souod of a word. Dot its spelling. is what is transcribed! All phones have certain irtherent suprasegmental or prosodic properties that fonn part of their makeup no matter what their place or manner of aniculation. These properties are pitch, loudness. and length. Pitch is the auditory propeny of a sound that enables us to place it on a scale that ranges from low 10 high. All sounds give us a ubjective impresionofbeing relatively higher or lower in pitch. Pitch is e pecially noticeable in sonorous ounds like vowels. glide'. liquids. and nasals, Even top and fricatie con onanlS com'e) different pitches. Thi. is particularly noticeable among the fricatives. as you can hear by extending the pronunciation oflsJ and then of Ul: the [s1 is learl) higher pitched. All sounds have ome degree of intrinsic loudness as well or they could not be heard. Moreover. all ounds QCcupy a certain streIch oftime - they give the subjective impressionoflength. pcaken; of any language ha'e the ability to control ~e level of pitch ~ey speak on. Thi' is accomplished by controlling the tern IOn of the vocallold,. ami the amount of air that pa:sc, through the glottis, The cOI~t-lna~ltln ot tensed vocal folds and greater air pre sure result in higher VOice pilch on
- 32. fir f o~ [,,/ (0 / ,. ."IPlfTHo, 'GS (IE ~£ DiJIC 11 <lf/ " 1>1/ /'1 ..../ ".1 r"./ 10~J (~1 <""'" cb;ur poor oar (r:Jr>J fb>r n>Ofl /l.r3od. Ilfl.1 (ff e.) (po') (,.) LAX VOWELS (II fif IfIll reI leI Ilel) lorl bal (b"'I, :01 cod lkoo, 101 pol lpol /_) >hul IfAlj I.j le~ Ilela) -- ~. ~ tte~'e. m:£!,e. rene ~'4 - . 10. j;"o, 1QQ>e, m-..., 4!!.!L '>e Luc, th p;,!! - - .' rl!!!&b. C!¢. guard. 1l1!!>= . l;!!!gh. ]!!!nl. ~ ~e""l ~ pref~. H!!!d err. h~d. w!Lon. connOIS~. ffi}rrb. cQ!onel C!1!!!'. c~1. PQ!:f. w!!k. decQ!:. dlllO... u, ~ckland ~ rh~. d!!l. gr,lln. g;!!!ge. ~"'i!Jle, "a engJ!ge. gr~ sleiclt ~. !.~. ml· Ill· lide. th!)1h. b,tte. b!!y. d~ die Qiee. bQ!1. I~. ~a1 - nQ. IQ!;. sumQ. thrlaL thQ!!.gh. sl~. oaf ToronlQ. Q'Connor - Q!!t. hQ!!se. plQ!!.gh. I~n. n~. gl!!jcOtna, Fau~t c1;-ar. ide.J!. criteri~ '" einf. he:e. mere fli!!!'. flair. Pi!Il'nt. where. herr. ~ s.!:!!!. m.QQ!. [Our. ,"elour. paramour dQ2!. Q!!:. roar. shore. mQ!!:. PQur h!1. income, definition. pili:. (for 50me speakers) I~d. h~d. S;!yS. '~d. ~ver. g!!£ I. fri!:nd. "'~I p~ic. '!!'!. JII!!ITY. ~ckel. g!!S. pl!!nel. pl!!stK dgg. rQCk. bQlly. y~hl. "!!Im. "'h!!l. c~b b!! h. hook. fool, book. hood. "'Qman. "olf ,!!t. p.!!ll. Qlher. .!!dder, l.!!cky•• QO. 1Q!!.gh,- llQ!!<!. '!!pper i!boUI. abbQt. ",om!!,!. plendQ,[, C~nberra. c!!,!al). !!pport. colour - - Yo"els and ~onorant consonants. while less tense vocal fold~ and lower aIr pre ure fesUl1in lower mice pilch. Two kind.. of controlled pit.:h lOOVcmcOl fiJund lfl human language dre called tone and intonation. Tone ta ble- 2.17 11"'1 Ipl 1'1 Itl Ik"1 kl I'II Id31 Ibl lui I'll Uti (11 [v) [Il] [()] hI [LI [II [hI lil [wI [M] [II [r] [m] [Ill [0] [nl [D] pl' pll lid,. tu..::~ keep .I.IP chIp judge bib d.p atlas get lit vat thick though sip zap ship azure hat yet witch twit huddle reef moat bouom note huno D sing PUU l" IP"n1 I pill 11'11. I t,1.l Il..h"pl Il.lpl (t.l"lp] (d3,d3 (bIb] Idlpl (."ltI~'1 [get! fit! vret! [91kl [Il",,] ISlp] lz.a:p] Vlpl [bretl liet] [" nIl [w.n] [h.,dl] [ri:f] [m;Klt] [bo~ [n:>ot] [b .to] ["Dl 1ttl 0 b paln. "('<.... &pIIn [c , ul! '!fl' burn n IiUtre. ~ tutu ~ icln.. hunt ~. ~)' £(IW. kernel, baOt. an«. Hl£.ll! hlai:kli ~ likely lln~. 'tl.;.~r. d,~_ tkkh- gcrm·loumal ,bU~le. ~~e ~~t. h~rnte. r~. bla~t lIu". bell. lral. - "'i~nes .lO2. n£h (gloua.l fetnfUfXtnall ol a fol1ootng top or aHncat.t:) gape. mUa!er. ''Irig. Iteam n", h. couE.!!mg. PTOOt. E!!legmouc. gO~l.!r. offiCI! YOle. oyen. pro~e !hough. e!heT. tee!!!-l!!rec. batlu-oom then. bomer. teethe. b~ - E;yehol~gy. f~;n. fan;'.~.~. ~leO£e ~ro". sc~rs. ~. !o'pper. flJ!!Y ~ock. nation. m~10n. vigous, w!;h. ~ivalry - m~ure. rouge. vi~uaL garag,e (for ~ome speakers). Tai Mahal wbo. ahoy. forehead. behind ~. f~. ~e!t ~aI. ~etrd. ....ben t~elve. sqJ!eak. 'l!!'1 bottle. needle. med& prod. arrive !!!indohll!!lOUf. shimmer. ,u!!!. thumb, lamb atom. rnndom. Adam. rbyth!!!- anthem !lOw, ",inner. angel. si~. i!!d cotton. mutton. happe..Q. sudtl~ "!!lrer. o!!!ler. b"!!k- f f!!IJe language is 'aid to have tone or be a tone language""hen difference, in word meaning are Ignalled by difference, in pitch. Pitch on form Itt tone languages function, vet) differentl) from the mO'ement of pitch In a non- tllOe language. When apeaker of Englih say a car~ with a n, ing plh:b, the I lrd eelr doe: not mean an) thing different from the arne form pronoun ed
- 33. H I Im14] 'moth' .'>, I [mil) ',nare' L I [mii)'sleep' f~- 2. f I 5.lrcee JeK>j rones. Tlu. pe of notation is knon as 3utosegmentaJ nOlation. Le'~?tone" that ,ignal meaning differences are called register lone.. I ,"_ teenster IOnes are the norm 10 most of [he world', re" ", or u..ee .... , ~I ler [n.... I eua"e,. though four have been reported lor Mazatec. a language pok ~..< w_ a ~~ ~fe.~co. . . t h A single lOne may be assocIated WI more than one syllahlc clern Mende. a language spoken in West Africa (Table 2.18), [here arc ~~n polysyllabic forms th~[ show the same t~ne .on each syllabIc (here, t~ diacritic' indicates a hIgh rone and the d,acnUc LDdlcates a low tone). Table 2.18 High-lone and low·lone words in Mende pili h;iwama .:pilifi 'house 'waistline 'tnpod chair' - Autosegmental notation allows ~s to repres~n.t the tone as characteri~tic of an enure form. The smgle underlymg tone umt 15 assocIated with all VOwel (Figure 2.12). H H L ~ ;1 ~ pele hawama kpakali Figur~ 2.12 Tone as a Iool fCJture. II I It-un .. 1 tma) ·n'lotht."r~ tush "me Mil ~ [mal 'hemp' mid ri'e lLH Imal 'horse' HI. ~ Imal 'scold' high fall Figure 2.13 Regist'" and contour 1011<'5 "' Mandarin. In Figure 2.13. there is one (high) register tone. The other tones arc all contour tones. In other languages, tone can have an evcn rnore extended function. In Bini. a language spoken in Nigeria. tone can "ignal differences in the len«e 0 a verb (such as past versus present). as Figure 2.1 ~ shows. LL Timeless Ima ' show' HL ~ Continuous ima . am ,howing' L H Pa t ima '1 showed' Figure 2.14 T ..nse and tone in Bini.
- 34. 46 ~ UT£ MPORAR) LINGLISr If S Intonation ic to native speakers of Western EuroPe' Although wnes rna) scc':" e. '01 . d Tone languages arc.found through on langu3ccs. the, arc ,cry wldespre" . f . and East ASIa. flUt North ;nd Sou;h Amcri~a. sub- aharan A nca. that is nOI related to differences In w ken uuentnces . Ord Pitch mowment in,'ptl . rakes no difference to the meaning of th meaning IScalled tnLOnallon. Ih m 't is pronounced with a rising Pilch () ~ . • " m"le whet er I . r r ,I word ,t'rcn. lor cxa " .' . does serve to convey InlonnmiOIl of ' falling pilch, However, tntoFnaoonmple the falling pitch we hear III the e d" , t' I nature or exa , . n broadly meant,ng u ' u'ch as Fred parked lite car Signals Lhat the utterance of a stalemenllnEngl!>h se ll' g l 'nLOnation at the end of an utterance' F h' rea~on la til . . " is complcte. or t I.' , ' , ' ) contour. Conversely, a fl SIng Or lev I 'nol (mtona!On . e called a termI t ml'nal (intonation) contour, olLen Signal , ' lied a non- er . mtonallon, en ' . I ontours are often heard In the non-final form incompleleness. Non·tem1lna c bers (Figure 2, 15), S found in lists and [elephone num - . h 'our tWO j'ivC one three Iwoelg I I' Figure 2,15 RI'slng n<>n·lermtrlJI intonat~JllS in J 6st and a telephone number. In question" final rising intonation, also signal ,a k.ind_of incompleteness 10 that they mdi,'ale Ihat ucomer ational exchange IS not ftnlshed. ha'c " nlcc Did you w , e tim Fj~ure 2.16 Rising nor IrmllllJllntvnattOn 11 J tJK",11Ofl. fjllWCVt'r, I.nghsh senlcm,cs thilt contain yuestion worth like Whll, what, lrilt'n, and hilI' (for eJl<Implc Whut ,bd 'OU bltY? ) ordiniu rJy <10 not have rising Inlunalittrl. It i as if the quc~lion word itself IS enough to il1dil'ate thaI all un'wer IS expelled 1III0l1<1111n can be Icpre nled Ilruphicaily as in l'illllrcS 2, 1S illld ;!,Ift 1 I/1l1re lormal way 01 repre clllmg IllllJllallulIlS hO~nln 1'1 'IIr' ;!. 17, llere, as fIItonai n'pre IIlallon. I and II arc relallve Icrlll lor <lIt Ie I':II( "S 11 Pltell Ihe I 11m flI arc placeu ;IOuve Ihe yllahtc elcrn til I)n y, hKh th,' pll h h n c occ ,111 d )lIed hne mdll Ite Ihat th toweling ptll h pi d I Itl S th rcmalllJU •pitch bearing clem nls Figure 2,17 H l. Sam bought a new vaCUum dt!ancr bag A terminal contour. Rising intonation .on namc~ nr requcI..,ls is commonly heard . people, ILS use indlcaLes that the speaker is openi . n ,t(tdr"""ng h f h " . . ng a c(}nvcr~,,um or t at some urt er actIOn" expected Irom Ihe listener (Figure 2.1 ~l. LH H LH ~ f ,:- .- , V Bill? Can you come here'? Figure 2,18 Two non-termnalCOIlIOU'!i. Intonation and tone Thecomplex uses ofinLOnation havejustbeen touched onhere,Cnnsluer for example, that rising inLonation is often used LO express politene,,_as in Pleu.5e sil down. Some linguisLs think LhaL this use is an extension )1' the 'open,enucu mode' of intonation, and that since a rising intonation mdicates Lhat further response I. expected (but not demanded) )f the hearer,asentence ullereu ,Ith a risingintonationsounds les, hl.e an orderand sois more pohle, Tooe and intonation are not mutuall, exclUSive, Tone language ' htl' intonation of all t~ pes, Thl Is po .ible· since the tone are nnt ah olute but 0 na lJ i1 In) J 19e H L H L H L H L I I I I I 0 ,ID I I tn I na I 3 Ig )3 e 'Ik i If. 109 to nd abl) k ' r ure2. 19 and Jlton,lt1On: down(~ III
- 35. , . ''''~'l'dii' high If It " high rdal,w to the p,tt"- rdatlc pih:hl.~'" IUIll.: 1:"0 fl: . .rtJ··.......~ncc IS mallllUIIlC'u th, 'oq h rdalle u, ," , C PitCh around it. ", lung ,b I I' . ,.• Fi"ure 2.19 shows th" graphIcal! II I ~ muonIJIII<U. e o . y. It Jislin..:-tllln... 1 d "l f' lk~laruti'e selHcncc 10 Igbo. u We! "'fn represent' tho" 'Herall p'l~h '.' ;' 'h'"'' an IgOO speakcrdcarly Olalnt,un,~ h . 'f' t JO~, ute v . . . . . ' . ~~ lan'!Ilace II reg" a l . "ven as the Oernll pItch ,,' the Uttcflan eo - h' 'I'h reg"I~" - ' . c. di,linctl"n anlllng t 1'" .. ' I ocr than Ihe precedong hIgh tone. but high. fal"- Ea,'h high h'n~ "aIWJ);.~' Iy precedes it. This phenomenon,s knu:r than the 10 tunc thai Jlnm~ Jil e n ,b downdrift. ~8~.2~----------------~----~~~::,~~'~.~a:rr~etb~0~th~V~o~w~e~l~s~a~ndd~c~o~n~s~o~n~"~n~ts~·~W~h~o~s~c~a~n~,k·C~u~n length In many languages there hat of other vowels and consonants. Thl 8.:1 Stress . d I • relative to I . I . I ' IS hel onger .,. I th is widespread on the wor d s anguagcs. 1, pheno.m~non. know n aSh ~ng dicalcd in phonetic transcriplion by the usc of d ahove lengt IS III mentlone . I d after the long segment. a colon [:J (lPA [;J) P acoe, an Cree. and Finntsh arc a few of the manv I r Hunganan crm • . ta Ian. w I~n and shon segments. Yap, a language spoken on the languages Iha'. sho W g'm Pacific, shows shon and long vowels 10 pairs of island of Yap 10 the CSlc. ? "ords, such as those shown 10 Table _.19. Table 2.19 Short and long vowels in Yap [9i5) ''.0 '.opple' [9i:s) '(a) post' I II 'moon' [pul) ''.0 ga'.her' pu: [7erl 'nenr you' pc:rl 'part of a lagoon' Italian shows shon and long consonants in pairs of words, ..uch as those shown in Table 2.20. Table 2.20 Short and long consonants in ItalIan fato [fatJI .fate' fatto IfatJI 'fact' fano IfanJ1 'grove fanno [ran:~1 'they do' casa [kasaJ 'house ca~sa [kas:aJ 'box' Long and short consonants are also found In many other languages, including Finnish, Turkish, and Hungarian. In any uilerance, some vowels arc perceived as more prominent than others. In a word such as telegraphic Ithelogrref'.k], the two vowel nuclei that are more prominent than the others arc [eJ and [.eJ. Syllabic segments perceived a.s relatively more prominent arc stressed. Stress is a cover tenn for the combined effects of pilch, loudness, and length - the rcw/t of "hieh i.. syllabic segment prominence. In each 1 ,lOgungc, the clYect of these proslJdic features varies. In general, English lres..ed 9 PROCESSES "I, JM lit VUt'l, iUl" hlgh"'1 In pHd, hm' I md In" t I ~f I l' ian un tr t I nu ~t way~ the l:.l<te. I he e ~UHP'c hi 1 ,,.It" tru I'"~ ~ Of prnnUlInc.:eu wtth th" ltCS cd I1al.' It)! r ,;".1 hC lt')U . h· J ,"on I Un 1 d nl1!')un,ilnt I m 1 "that they h prlln1l11 nl WU" I 1 t tohe h them. ,lI1d lh" I'" U It.,Uy L(·umph u:d hy h Tctalw ' ) ruund h t y I,nle ,flln _ I tlr dl ul the 1 rCl' pamlHl'tcr nlfllh.h.llIlu11 ,nil length Ii In ....Omc lanf!ltilgc" the IIlPll' "Hill 1,1 !lYlel p'".nl' . . lell fe.H t from tnll:fCU.:taon 01 lhl~ pn~,ouIl' pitlame-h'. In;I' I (lItter!:lll hlllll th.11 ftttnd n Lngl"h, In Mudem (>reck, 111 examrl.- "ltahk Icn'III "-I t I ' - - . - . ' I I'C. 1 t!~I" chgth ~trcss. therefore. I'" ~nallh:"'Il'd hy it l'hanp.t: only til pll:h .ml (H.lln fll nm In syllublc length. lone langllu)lC's. dn lUll dmngu Ihl' ph:h ,,",Vt' 01 lh1l1t),u 0 tones 10 mark. ...tress. In many ot lhc'c IlIlgui.gcs. rtli,tlve prlllnimn murked by exaggerating Ihe v"wcllcnglh '" rlleh CIInlll"!. There arc varinu wnys to mark ...tlC.S!oi In phonetll.! Han cnptitm. A. commonly u",cu convcnltnn i.... 10 l'mploy an ;tCUlc ac(';cnl rlactft liver the vowel nuclcu in qucMinn h.l mark 1he l11u..., prominent nr primary Mrcs. and a grav! accent I" I to murk the '"elm" mll prllminent IIr 'OCcnnd<lf) 'Ueu Or stre"",. (This ..huuld nm he cnnlus"d with the u"! of thc same d,3I;rtU" In mark lune In LUne languages, I Stre.., can aI,,, ~ marked hy placlOg num above Ihe ,lreSed vowels, usually' Inr a primary "re 'and l'"r aliCCondary ..Iress. The word ,t'le!{rtlJlio;(' is tnlOscribed as either of Ihe toll""'10 '. 2) Ilhelagneflk I or ~ I Ithel~gr;eflk The examples In Table 2.21 ..how some differences in English slrc,. placement. Tublc2.21 (an) export (a) present telegraph telegraphy tclegr.iphic Differing Slress placemenl in English lekspJ:tl (to) cxp6rt [prel~nt (10) prescnt Ilhel,gr.c1l Ith,legrJIt I [thclogr;d'kl Id,'pJ:t) Ipmont] f ur exam les in the lahle, you can ahoce thaI the ljUahlY nf In the last 0 , ; , ' . n whether they are slressed or unslres<;ed. cenam vowels van.e.. dependm.g °E I'h Russian, Palauan, and many other This phenomenon IS common ItI ng IS , languages, but is not universal. . . . . es of isolated events The procc of Speech productton IS not a sen, , I, organs are operating inckpcnd articulation is a c(lmplex (lne, T~e arUcu alOl) . canied OUI vel) rapIdly as enlly of each other. and man) hne adju,tnlent' are
- 36. t.u ll"'rt,~ RIINl,l)IS llc .1 o'arti( ulcJtion Flgur~ 2.20 we Spc·,~ . . I 4 • • a l'un t,.'('llIl'ncc. ...pc:ct:h pnxlucliun Uhl'lI r"'UII anlcu almll Or.'r1 • .• . ' , < '''unu alkdlng Ihal or anolher. In !he The ,1':Cllll1ll1odallon I>elwc~n ",crJapprng <U1i.:ufalory ge,turc prodll lIIJn ot .ldjacCnl ,clintents " referred to a. co-articulation ~.~ed In lilt In 2 7 sh""cd h"" "sprralinn r"sufb fro~ co-articulalion. Figure 2.1~~tc 205 'I'm... more l'I1mplc. a'f'<'ct'. 01 cO-<U1rcul~tJ(ln..11 pre.~cnt.. 'Orne 'h,," .tnllOula!o,) ,lfgan, ",v"lved III the produclIon 01 Ihe word po . Ilf tilt , . " . R d· f· n In N "menc'an "ngh.,h IJr In Cockn.:y. ca mg rom lOp 10 bOllom the h~h " . aClt the lips. tongue. wlulll. and larynx are shown. The bold bl'lck line i nih Of represcrlls the .,Jate of articulalion lisled to the righl of the box. n each n..1~ , ~ LIps L-_______________ c / .~ Tongue :; ; - - - - - - <J .~ '" " 0pcn BcxJy lowcrcu al [ § t-r----~"" 1 Raised (oral) j Velum 1 "" I '--------_1Lowered (nasal) /GIOllis / [ ph it: n -------Timc----___ ~ (oarticulilticm tHll011g l,C'V(ll,Jl,lrlindatory parameterc;, VOIced Voiceless (open) fhe raisl·d line in the up cr b)x . d'· . anic-ulatinn or Ihe Il1Itial IPI rI 10 leates !.hal (he lips arc dlll~d for Ihe arc npened _ rcprcsenll'U ~y ~h:~~~~ncorder (0 anlculatc the vuwel. Ihe lip, stav opcn uurin" th.. un·. I ' f g In the posJlJlIJI 01 Ihe 1111<" - and they • <> ' lUI aBun II Ihe [nl. . longue Velum Glottis Consonant co_articulation with vowels 9.2 Processes and efficiency 1nc- h..mgul.!' hudy I I I . uwtr:d In I 1 artlCli atum ut the wur I I t " l llIlI.tl C n ungue tlP,~ r;lICd hl,tnli;Ul.llc th 1"'1 OUNh Yuu have ~t!cn h()1 mbU C~1OS"tn1 allow air to pass hroll~h th." .'. die 11l tKuced wuh the 'J I . '1 co c nit .1' l..t~lll T"'- c Un, o~c ed c um 1'.. nul i.lW<1)':-' prc:id' C , IU;:: "''''ing hn( '...... r 0 aCl1vuy. Speaker... nltc.n 'tnh' Y. CO·lhHhn:tcd wllh tither NO..... } enng {the d I I..:lp.tlc nWCfll1' lh. I j'''''- 1 pt'(MUCIOtl all.• consequent}!, pnllhu.:c '1 n. I co l:: VI.! 1m lnr na CI IN' . J • ,"" vnw~ hchm..:" 'In )hat o OIlh Amcncun l'.llvl'..h 'I' w'll' anUa COICll.tn, ~ l- e k . e- ~ ... C I'~ !pcakcl' 1 ,"IPC~...c: _ oc m:y UO th1" con)tstcnl1y in fluel'l ".1 'Ii () M.nnt: 41th 'r tlal!4;l hL.- I kc I h- spccc, when Ih "" I pall p;enI or /"",k Ih,el]kI (lh' lId _ e)' p'"n"unce "'," na~lllily). This is renccled In hgllre ~.2(". ~n~ I. ,,~er. Ihe '''wei In,h closure changes 10 Ihe open Iinwercdi .. . Ime representing Ih velllm I b I · h pO"",,n <lunnu Ih . aru I "owe. core 1 C longue lip i! ni"cd l(.. rt· . I 0 l: (:1 atum of he , )a leu ale Ihe word-finalln. You bave llln:ad~ ,cen 111 seclinn 5.S how a'pnallo I .. f hi · . n resu " lrom a llel VOIClI1g a Icr t c re case 01 a vOIced 'top A ... . ay In b . . . . . splrauon" shu",n In I· ., , y Ihc black 1ll1c rcmulI1l11g in Ihe voiceless pOS·III·on c I h Igure ••11 d .. . 'cn a ler I e lip h openc and Ihe vowel articulation is in place. ' ave All speech is characlerilcd by Ihe kind of complex co arti·cul . . . . . - a Ion amung Ihe artlculalory organs Illustraled 111 Figure 2.20. Anolher Iypical co-articulalion phcnomc.non occurs when we pronounce Ihe sound lkl beforc the v . 1.. . E 1 h . owe I. III ng 15 In words such as key.~ and keel. The [kl wc articulate bcfnre li: IS pronounced .wlth the bac.. 01 Ihe tongue so far forward il ncarly touches Ihe palale (and IS transcnbed a, I~I). It is scarcely a velar articulallon al all tor many speakers. The [kl we pronounce before the vowel!> In] and l~:] In words .uch as COl and couglrt is articulaled further back. and is a lrue velar. The~ adjusnnenlS arc made in anticipation of the tongue posillon thai WIll be needed for the vowel in qucsllon: fron! for the [i:1 and back for Ihe [0] and I:>:], The IkJ pronounced before the vowel [u:1 in a word such as cool abo shows lip rounding in anticipation or the following (back) [<mnded Hlwd and "transcribed as [k"]. Articulatory aujuslmcnts that occur during the production of speech arc called processes. Their cumulative effect often result. in making words casicr 10 articulate. and in thb sense they are saiuto make ~peech more em~lenl. When speaker> of NOrTh American English nasalize the vowel of h(/Ilk they do nnl uclay lowering the yeluJl1 until the exaci moment Ihe na,al CIlnSllOanl articulation is rcacrll:u, Mosl Nonh American English 'peak.crs be.to lowering the ,·dum for a nasal con"lOant almost as soun a he~ articulate the vowel that preccucs il
- 37. 9.J Prot I.'SSI.'S ,lnd clMit~ InI P.u·tll-I nmnncr. hl'a 'Jl.·.Ik.l'" PUlfhHllh.'c.· I~I .1' 11111' p"'.II.ll nt 'onl lIC'h l. , th Ire s~ .lklJl' HH'I "111"'11."111) '111111 th,,· 1'01111 01 1"", ofunl<.'U!alh,lll ""illl ·Ihc.~ In: 111.1"-111 ~.l h,"-' ,h.I,LI,," .,td,U:llHl'nt II1IlH)' lUg fflft} Ih rtl ul I"n ,.f II nhlrc p:!l.'taIIH hI Ihal "f., IlIgh 1""11 ''''','1 th,", tn "oul" IIlJlc 111 m""n1! Inlll1 " ,d,tr Iklln " h'gh ""nl "",,'1 hen 'll)'> d ll~]II. tl .th'r nt I n~h,h Ill1 ,a '. Ipn.'ldl tor .')(/rf/dt· h 1111~lng a 111J.,,,'r l.1ju"n1I."lIllh.t( rt',uh~ 111.1 Ulllrl..' dtU':I~II( .u1l1:ul.IlHHI Ih"'I1 "'Yllahle: of . .. n....,ul pnulullcl.lllun uJ porlld,' .tn.' n:lh't:t..'d h) on~ h) drOPPing InC' un'tn",.'d "'H'I tf Illl' JII ,r " ~ lIahl~: thl' t~lfl~lIC pll'I1HlII IUJ Irl 1.....111 he 'nll"p,lIl'J "uring 1''''IIIII"'/.II,,,n oflh~ 11'1; lonall), IhL' '",cdc"nc" "' the 1I111,al ,t"l' ",,,nTl"" nn Ihwu!!h Ihc [rl 's"IHl' rnl(,'c~~~, dPIX'.lf (n 11l;lkt' urlll,.'ulalioll k''', ''it lHlt IIlUh.' l..'nkiL'lll, r'ur e ,1I11pk. Fn~I,'h 'pc'ale.., ulkn lenglhen enn"",an" and ""we.', "hen the) Ire ,,,h'" 10 R'IX'al a "n,,1 Ihal ,(lmeone ha, nol he,ltd dead), 1hc 101/1", IlIg kind "I" c (h,IIl!!e" I) P'("/. .I, 'Ie-Fred.' 'Did) uu sa}. "(I" ","".,' 'No. l'aiJ. "Fltlw,'d"" L,'n/:lhening "'/:II1,'n" resllits in a greater "n'l'ulalnl,) clhlrt, bUI the proc,'" ,,'sulls 'n a /(>rrll hl'ing 1110r(' distmci and Iherefore c:"il'llo pe..cl'i~c. "nnlher PI'O('",,, lilul rl'sults in more l'astly percclvithk Sp,','(h udds a segll1cnt under (ertuin wndilions. When sp"aking sluwly and l,rdul/ in u noISY l'!1'Jrnnl11cnl. rur c'ample, English '~akl'rs orten It1wrl it ~o c/ belween £nlUpS of consonants, Tim breaks up the scqu,'nl'" "l" consonullls 11110 sep:,rall' syllabb. 'Th judge from Ihe usc pc"plc uftcn muke of Ihis pmccss when Ihcy II ish 10 bc clearl) undc"lnod, il ma) well make wnrds easier 10 pcrcl'iw -I) 'SlOp ""c:uning! 'Wh,t!'i' '( .,uid, "Slnp sc I~I rcamlllg.'" These cxaJllples show thai Iherc arc IWO basic rCasons for Ihc cxis(encc of :trtlculall1ry I'nlces,,-s SI'ltl' 11r) . " -, I ' " . . , . , ",. , l' (tcsses rcsu t In a mOl'c elllclcllt urlll'ulntlllll 01 a Sl'fles 01 sounds In Ihal precisc liming and l'o -urdinallOn of speech is r'l'/;IXed to val/OUs dc"rl'l's ()III' " I . h· . .. . , cr processes rcsu I 111 a lI10re UISIIIl"1 nulput. I ICIt " l'aster In 11l'P'''" - lit 11, . ' " C lin ucnl or rapId cVl'rytlay 'pel'l'lt Allhough Iltl"C IWll r~llCs 01 pm 'l',S - 'h Ii. ' '. l ,c, lIug I al IrSI appC<lr In hc cOlllradlllllry c'"h 'crves a partll'tllar,'nu in s/X'cdt productIOn. .' • "A rtll ul'ltory prot't'''''' 1 H 1111 _j( It ,~ '" I, lnly ~I t1I11ll! IHItIlI I 01 l'hK:c 1I1~1.1'l: 1111ill"1 I " til pH"hll-~ It gn'.11 II "al ul IIII.I , ~., l1I1U" Ih If . ",UI" h V.n IlIhll,,), t h '01111,.' 01 'h~' Ilhl....t lllIHIH1l11 H' Itll'~l' pltK:' C 11 1 1 ICl" ". 1I11mhl''. 01 tlllkrl,'ni pint',,' ,",c ,.'utll'LIIVdy "no...... n.1 . ' . Irrtm Lh,.' 1I11111l'lIl"' ul CHW "'"·~III.·1I un n tl. . ""mU,uum r ul f· ,. I 1 - ,I ) In. J MllHatltHl IIw.ty r lilt 1011 II ~uum ll·l..'nlnlll~ I1H1I'l' like IIn()llu.:r Ilcarhy OUlld Inon.! )1,1 ... phlIll'lu.: ,:hllr..u:tl'n"'ll.:~ II h l11H~ Cli nll<: 111 NusalilutlOIl ul iJ vUl' llwhul' 'In'l"nt 1.;011011'11 I C' ' I . II - - " . " ,1, H '1~ltC12'tl lOt "caW"Cl ,y pl.·a~cr... UUIU':lputlllg the:. lowering (II Ih ~ v _I '. , Ile) , 1 ~, • 1'1 I 1 . &.: C um III .(lv~l1r,;e ul , lI~l~U '(.;gmll1t )t.' Il''ll I I" I lut the plcl't:dIlW c:.lmclH t, I· -. 1 I I I II ... '" ,I"e "" t" ",. ,lot" n 11C n OlIIg l.·nn~OI1Itn1 'I h.... Iype 01 u,Mmihlit It I. ' . ~ • . . . . . .) IS ...nnwn·1 n')l,r ,i",' uSMuulution. 1I1(.;t.' I hI..' Ihl' atll~llIon ..... In enC!.:1, tnno"Hl /J"ck"rmls 1 pl'~~l!dll1g ~cgll1cnt h a rhe nasall/~ltHln of V(,"t.'ch fOllowmg n;hal con""ollant~ In Sl.lIt (jachc 1 an exampic III pru.:re..,,,'c a"imitation. "nee Ihe n"',IIoty moves fom"rd Irom the nilsal l'UnSOnalll nntn the vowcl (Tablc 2.22. "rcM,1t Imllt not 'I11m~d'[Hcly ralSlIl!, Ihc velum aller the pmJuelion of a ,;,,,,1 top l!'<n nasuitJ:allnn I~ tnullo where a vuwel 1 preceded by an ural t.:un nnant Ie n glt' ,!r"i/wIJl"lklc h~Ii,lcl 'vcry pll!J,cd'.) , I 'Illblc 2.22 Imi:rl Inil ImljI Ine:11 Progr..!!-;ivc nUl-,all/utinn ul voweh in S";OIS Gachl: 'b,g' 'clittle' '~lboUl' 'doud' Voicin!! as~imilatiul1 is also iuesprcad. For many speaker, III !englJsh, voiceless hquid, and glrucs (l~cur aflcr V{lII;cl.:" stup' ,n "nrJ, su,h as 1'1."" [plt..:J. proll<l [p aud[. allll I'ur.. [pju:>1.These ,oUI1<b are ,,"d tll be de'lllCCJ in Ihis en inlOment. Dcoicinl( IS a kind of a"imil.ltilln. lIere, the "..:al fllld, arc nOI sel in mntion IIl1mcuiatdy afler Ihe release Ullhc v{)kclcs~ con"lIlam closure. Thl' opposile {ll' ucvuicll1g is voicing, In DUlch. fricallvcs a'''llnlate 10 Ihe v<.il'lllg of Ihe SlOps that folluw them. 111 anll~lpat'Ull or Ihe votced con" mant. For e~'lIl1pk.lhc wort/artun 'orr. {lVCr' is pronoullccd wllh a Ivl in the words a/1><,I..,1 'w nng (.Il', and a/dl'km '10 cOYer over' ,",imilau{ln for place of aruculalilln is also widespread Itl tlte ",)('/d language, '1a,al ~l1ns(lnan" Me' cl)' likely tn undcrgo lhl' I)pe 01 a'''lndaU''Il. as shown in Tabk 2,2.1 011 Ihe nexI page The I1l'I:!;U,C limn of cach ullhesc wurds I.' tl13d~ IIh euher IIIlur /tI In h{llh <:a,cs, the f<lfllI ,h{I' a nas I «,",ooanl Ih.11 ha' Ihe SlImc place 01 articulation a... the' slOp con <manlthal fo/lnw it: htOI.II]1I Ihe ca e uf I>() "bI..
- 38.
- 39. 1'1 r ~util n . . "Ul111ol I· ""I"lIul h' mOl ( ''''1,,11 Ih (I' III Ikllktll r.JlI II on·I Irrllll·1 ('mh (trnOJ 1,'nlllJ --------~~--------~-------------- ---- 'll1 '~lu,'r.l1tt. h.tt' Ih' ',II HI.." pL,,,-.-,· llf,.trth'uL,Hl(I ,i' thl" Sllhlrlll l'onllll'lJlt h' th ',r I'"'n.•lIhf ,III h.t .. Ih' ~..mh..· tlll..'in!! .b th" 11lfl Mll1lllU l" 'nlll.lnt to Ih,'lf n -hi '" ," m,lI , hI' "', 'J '1IIh,'.ill'd hI TlJf~"h, ,1 ,'nllll,l Ilnl ""):IlIJlh 1 ~ 'n' I.'naUh hl"n ",11 f:-. .U" '" m l 'd inh.l rui"k,t,h, .m l'Jl(."tlIhl..,til' h1el" tn," I tx'I 'Il. l.·rtrulh""yl1l."n.·l.'~ ,)fl 11uill,II .'tlllSlO'lIl.h, ",or', lIn~.l n ' I 'mil "t-I', 11"'11 ',' (1;11'1 _,::7), (Ill<' n', ,,'n f,'r Ill' Jlf~'~II"C' ,lIn"n~ ~ , "d, 11 'l"d n If ."'(11., ..'nl u' h(', ': IHl k'.lh'Uf!h. (h.lt lhl" ll'~ c:1 t~ .11, .1), high; " '"'111 It~ 1 f, r /unh r 11" 'nl,lIl"1I "e lUI] .lUd ,)(h 'r lIlII,lImh,1I ') IIlt'llh tr.un 11n."'11 dllt> I.ubl' ~l 111 'UlJ 'I pre,( rll'tioll ,I' 1','£, rib, ,md Fngli h, h<f" , i, plwHlun,'cd 10 l11tllK OWll" I) to ..ONNl" (ll' (Ell) 10,1 _ _ Vocls t,,, ~O t IJf This 1..'!10ptcf h~'~ ~nn~idc.:-r~ll onl) lhe 0 c,,", nnu t..:ln~Onanh ot Engh~h. m n' nl hu,:h are t(mnd 11) other ang.uagl.:, Thl!rc arc aho many "'pcl! h !it)und roulld in the" nrlo', languages lhal are no heard 10 Englbh. Smee I'h"nelle lk~cnpllon~ ~lrc.:- unlcr. at') all1. .'nc~ the ba!->lC anKU1ll")1) p~'nUClC~ ha:'lie ht:'c-ll m.l:-.h:red. It IS not lOU uiHk:ult to lh!~(ribc and e..en to prunounc lamiliar ,ounJ,. Thi, se"Il'1l presenb a number 01 sllCcch nund found II l)ther langtlag~" fronl 'oweb. whkh in English arc alwa) , unrounded, can al,,' be rounded_ A hIgh from lell,e rounJed ''''wi is heard in French p,!r 'pure', Gennan Biid"'r 'bool..,·, anJ Turl..i. h di'i!IlI<' 'bullon', It is lran"nbed a, ly in IP,-, hut as lil!11l ,)fth Amerkan transcription- a difference that ',)melime, lead, 10 confusion A roundeJ high front la, vowel. Ironscribed'h IOlPA l'-I(am! as Iii] in Nonh America) is heard in Canadian French l!!ne 'm,,,m' nd d,!c 'dul..e' . A rounded mid-high fn'm lense owd, ollen Lr.mscnbed 101 1"1 In lPA), is found ill French pell 'lew' and Gennan .<"hi!-" 'bealllifu', A rounded mid-It'" front la' ,m el. !r,lIl..:ribed IreI. is heard in French Q!:!if 'egg' :md p.'ur 'fear', Gemlan Qnlil'il 'local'. and Turkish ~Ql 'lake' Finall). bac n) eb nlJ.~ be unround.:d. For m'tan.:e, a hIgh hack u~rounded w,e!. !rJ.n~crilved;)., lUI, l ' heard m RlI' ian "oro,. lil..e b~1 "and Rumaman ",fn,j 'hand' Th's> O~!., a:, ~11 a. oilier 'C'otlc' on', are found m man~ oth'r lano:ual!c, Ci' wlL Tahle :'..:'., iUuqrale'the et- rre,entcd ill ilih ,hapter l'R-;" unfl,unJed: R = fl)und.:d , f ''''II lOll"'; LR R UR R l'R R High ill ut~n ltd ' n.-JWl.'.i) f l
- 40. 8 HI,./. CU/lsn/l.ml, "11/" IP R ~liN 0I"~ II, , t ~L'i~1 nd,. 111-..,,'" "II 'PIl lll~'n"..11"(' pHW.tlH.·....d llha hln.~n..~d .'lUlll i p.l'" t" ~1Il1U1t.ItWlll"h IhrHII th ,hI.' tH.lI and 11.",11 "'.•.1 !lll". N.I,....I Ud,: c Ir he hc.' Iro lit ~t1f1h , nh.""II"tHl I'u '11'.h. l·rl.',u.:h. fH1,uglll.·'l', llandl, and ~I 1 4 (1 ,u;el, III .'ther l.tIl U.I''S (1.1t'lll' 2.21.))- nlt:Y an'llJh.'l1lr..m'l.'llhl'd ,jlh II ttl~~ I IIl CI Ih,' , .'1 "IItl1<,1 JI:lstll ","loh 1,,",1 '111 -- 111 1'.1111 11"1 'hrc.ttl 1'lr1u£u.·,,,' ,,,,'nhl I'flllll I "one hUfIllrc.'u' Pnh'h 1,lh It:;pl 'toolh' - Con,oll.lIlh an,' th,.,....t:ntx'd illl r~k'ft:IH:l' to '1 paralllt:tcr.... ,1 Ihl' "'1lin' of 11ll' alrslrl'allJ Ihal I' ll1<1dlficd wilhin Ihe I'rodU':llIln of Ihc ,()und h) Ihl' tlln','lioll III hldllh,' ,lIrslrCiIIll 110w, ,,:) the slalc (If thl,.' ()i..'al cords {n..'.'1ulling in ,'o;n'd. 'oin'it'.. ,lr IIIUTI"Urt'cI ",umh) d) Ihe ptlSilll'nllIg of Ihe ,oil palatl' ~~hclher il IS rai'ell s" Ihal air "ill} C'C,lpt" Ihnlllgh Ihl' lIIuulh 10 I'wduce an oral sound or I"wer,'d 10 alln" air In ,'scape Ihrnugh Ihl' 11..,,' r.;,'l1lll1lg in n lIc/ml sound c) Ih,' plaCt' of arlicllialion (c,g,.labial, all'eolar, 1,t'I(/r, elc,) n IIII.' lI1al1l1t'l of arllL'lIlalion (l',g" SIIII/,frim/i,'1'. l!tJrinl/('. ele ) .11 hUllhc Iir,1 1" ,rill'l'ill hal'l' heen dcscrihed aln.'ady In SUllie delailll Ihl' rrecedtllg pagl's, Whnl r,'lIIaills In hl' L'lahorall'tI arc Ihe notions airstream mcchUllism, and Ihe directioll of uirf1uw, We willl'plorc Ihese in the l1e1 'l','IiOIl, hiL:h t'rlnrl" slnp t'llilsollanh fw1hel: The ,allll.' slor nlllsonants f(llmd in l:ngllSh arc wldespre,ld In nthl'r l,tIIguagt's,A k .Iddillonal 'I,P,' ar,' II1trodul'l'd in this set'linn In lI1an} Fuml' 'all languages, ~C lind mit the ,IIH.'nlur SlOpS III, Iti l. and /n/, hUI d"~lIal slul" 11/, [dl alld Inl. ""hough Ihis ,e.'I1I' lik.' a vcry slight dlfkrl'ncc 111 .Irtlt'ulalll'n, " t'an rl'addy he ohs.'!".cd in Ihl' sj1<:ech of heneh .spanish, or Italian slwah'l', ' "Olll' languages abo hall' relrolk SlllpS (as well as Ineallvt" and liljlluJs) I IlIl'h arl' llIadl' h l'llIhng Ihe lip 01 till' tongue right h"d, so thai Ihe IIndLT'I(kol till' longlll' lIIakl'S conlact Wllh Ihe rool of Ihl: ll10lllh lu,t pasllhc ',II~ ,'ol;u IIIlgl·. SlIdl pO'I,all'.',,/i1l sounds (symooli,.'d as 111, I, Ill. 111.1. Itl. lll ,) ,Ill' ((l1ll1l10n III till' langua 't'., 01 Aust,alia and In Ihow 01 the Indian '~hconllll"nt (d /ltu~lIll ·y.Il11' ()}nh.II -usli .llia) and l~lIl.l.il 'dllid' ( 1.11,1.,11.1111, Indl,l) I. In O,dl'l 10 dlStlngliISh ht.'twl.'l'll Il'lmlk'x "111m" allli ",1111" .111,,)101' 011" lik,' [JI ;lIId 1:;1. hiL'h art' 011,0 P" I Ill'"I"1 ph"nl' 11,'1,11 u'l'lh, Il'llII' al)i(-ul,lIId IUlllinal to indi(all' prc(I,'1 Iht' /,,:11 01 Ih,' tougll,' "",.1 In Ihe /,1"dll<'lIon III Ih," M)Unlh. ('ons"nanh IlIatll' Ilh tllL' tip Airstream mechanisms !'IIIIN' lIc· lilt " H)NI) . {JI A.~HA)A,{.1 ul thl' WI)..!UC Un! dC~l,."rt . l ' , SIt , .•.. II -u 1 )n ~l .IpH,;.I lUll 0 i.. H;: C.l to: amlllal. RCll"utll'X IluIHh , • t, I1ltUl! lo'nh the hi while pailt()-..tllcul~u Mlund... j ht~' 11,'I1lh·~l,."nhC'd a ItnIC' n&UC hadc: A .le ( C:llt1nlc" I I' " ftC"' "h'ea'- nllm~r of Hth.." MOl' ' . 1 i,nuna' pt». ul I ..., I . PH Ihun "fl" V ().u anguagc..... Scrbn IUatl~U1 h"" hl tt • "!"u t.:Hlll1ntlll 11 t" , I I"k .... • , ., lUH:t.·l' an e v,(J'I'( (lH'" .' C (u.(1 1.1'...h ,-md cia/':' ' pupll' '1 ••.• , '* In'~C~ flaal,l tn re'pt'cllvdy tllukllllll thalccl' 'pu'en 11 ( '~,,<:" lran't;nhtou a. le nn! In uvular SLOP pair 1n wnrd.... like . . ;.tu.t ...hllw a "",(ee.'! lIlt I h. ' . ,muq ',,!;t' and I . • 1) C!4..t lranscnhcdas[4lundlGI respeeltv'l A ' u!t'" ell'" tholle' I , , I . ' C y, Ila'al "01' ", Is I ,lIt 1''' , 1111 0 ameli alllln, as III Spanish WI" 'y", ,a" mal 0 aline l'ahl.1 I I ' IP C.II' lll'an,cnbeu' I I ' , 'IS 1 III nOli A nnlalion), Hlltt til Ihe lIvula '" as j' 10 tl', ,'nu as IN I, • well, where II " Ircmscnbed We nnw I'Clum In Ihe glullut ' laic known as 'I', ' was introduced tn ~cclion ") ' In Itln'I,' Ih . - If.'fl,e,?' ,'(Jfce or lUumw',lhat . -.. . .. ere 1~ a sen f Illcorre.:tly referred In lis v()lccd aSpil'lIl1!d sl " h' CS," 'llIp' '''melt"'.' , ( , . oP' I ;il m,lke usc ul wh' vOice murmur),These slllpS ',Ire I'cprcscllIed wilh d hi I "pel')' I 'f bl ~ 30 . ou e unt cnl"I' n a c -, , ,cxample." 01 slnp artlcuhlion.. ;iod I I ' S I f d . . ~ g otla tatc~ aT! laid out , ount s oun III some, II nm 1111, vancil" of English'" tf ' ., . ..ue ....et 0 10 lKlXCS. Tubte 2.30 SlOPS Bilubial [)nlla/ Ah'('olar R",m}le, Palmal VdeJr I,'h'uldr Glunal VOIceless Ipl It I It! It! lei Ikl 141 PI Voiced Ihl 1111 lui ILlI III Igi IGI (OI'al) Voiced [ml [n} In [ttl [pi lui INI (nasul) Murmured [bl 11I1 lui 11I lJ.1 [gl The production of 'llCel.'h sounds always involve modifying in some wa) a body of moving air, II the spec.:h sounds described until now are produced b) modifying aIr pushed out of thc lungs, up the windpipe and 11110 Ihe vo.:al tntCI as the speaker breathc out 111 a subcon, ciousl)' controlled W3.) , This method of setting in motion a body of air is called the pulmonic (i.e.. lung) airstream mechanism and, ,b e have mentioned before, the dlre.:lIon of the ,11'110 is egrc. he (i,c" OUlward). rht.' slOP' "I' Engli'o and other languages that we hae seen up to this point arc all produced using thc pulmonic egressivc ai"rream, uch stop' arc calleu pillSiVl's, Th,' pulmollll' egresslc airstream mechanism is by far the 1"'11l1ll0nl'~t mc 'halllsl11 cmplo) cd In the production of spcech, But II Is lIulthc Ilnl III 'thod that IS availablc, Therc arc consonallls lhat arc 1ll1t produced 1m th,' pulmonic aiNream hut rather ith lhe gottalic or ~earic l1l1C rll producl' 3 glLlltalic ,lIund ('Il'called because Ih.: 11lIWI11,'nlllf the a.lr I IIHtiated ill lh~ gllllll' ), th~ llL'al curd...In: hrought linnl~ togelher anu lhen tht' ~tr,' 111,1 cd ;Ipart pulhng Up anh l,r dl" n~ard w1m them the ellur~ lal') l hrch, as a roult••Icts as a piston in pushing alf ul nd outwanh or
- 41. Y 11"I(,lIl, IIC~ cl"wlI ,,,,.I Illward ,,1,,1!lICI<"U al ""'~ place O1nl C.IVII> like Ih c. hclI Ih I.lryn, I, pu h In lhe Ihe If traPI 'U In Ih moUlh IS ""mpre ~d It I Ihen rcleu'ed /llId <~: up C,utard on C Ihe forn. nl 10 ure I r~lIIl1,'cd. ('nn,,,n.lnl pnxJulcd Will "'" ....r . . ' N IIhlS .... ~ ,Ir mntr III me,hulIl 111 .Irc "ailed eJectI,,!,. orllwlly. Ihey H)le I s. II cumpl IIf /Ill cJcdl'l! IS Ihe alveolar WP 11'1 III Ihe lire I · 'I ' ' K' k h wOrd 11>411" 'tll 11m)'.' (I 111>4o~1 '10 break) to eel, II langUage 1 (,1I.11 mal:! (rhe ,h,l rlill ' .11t.:r a con.,onun! symbol Inc.ll<:alc Ihal II I )( an CJ"I,;II'C.) 1her' is illl .11t mallve Yoay of prodllcing glullaitc consonant,. If Ihe "OCal cnt,,, .Ire hlUughl Ingeiller IIghlly and the IHrynx " pullec.l dnwn whllt maint.linillg atl nnstrm:IIOI1 made al S()~C pJace .h~Jward In the mu.uth. the ;,ur Icapp d belweell Ihe pl,t<'1! where Ihe a~L1culator' lurm Ihe oh,trucilon and Ihe I;Iryll~ I rardkd When Ihe oh,trucllon IS relcH,ed. the air nnw, InWards makmg Ihe vl><:al ClIf(I vlhrale. Con,clllanis produced with Ih" in~res'iv' alNream me,h'lll! 01 arC eall~d impJo,sives, Examples include 101 and lUi a: in HJII."I (Nigeria) l"a:fie:1 '111 eslrange' ("05. fba:bel 'type of IllCust') t1l1d [liIlfal'lJuarrcl' (1'..lfa:da:1'chief's residence' J. Stop, can als" he produced using the velaric airstream mechanism, To do Ihl'. Ihe hack of Ihe lOngue is brought firmly ag.un,1 the velum, effectIng a eotnrlele dosure. ,Sirnullaneously, another closure I~ made at a point In the fronl "I Ihal dosure, say al Ihe lip' or the alvcolar ndge. The air trapped in Ihe muulh IS Ihen rarefied when Ihe longue moves backward' and down Ii al Ihe sullle lime, Ilw forward closure is rdca.scd, air IS sucked in with ~ popping nolS". 'slOP' produced using the vclark ingrcs,sivc ulNrcam mechanislll urc culled dkks. An example of a dick is Ihe denial click III (not 10 he coni used wllh III) found inlhe Lulu word Iiaia I 'dil11h' I'ric:alives olhel Ihan Ih",!! of EnglJsh arc found in lhe world languages. A hilahial fril,.lIiw, produced hy drawing the lip, all11o,l together and lorclng Ihe airstream Ihrough Ihe lIarrow opening, is found in many 1.lOguages. The vellede" bilahial iticalive 1<11/ i, heard word·inltially in the Japanese word Fuji (lhe moulllUlII). The voiced htlabial fricative r~1 is found in Spanish words Itke d"iIl'I' 'In owe' 1 VOIceless palatal fricative 1<;1 is found in 'sland,lrd (;erm.ul. the word il'/t •I' wntain, thi' sound. Velar fricatives arc not lotlnd ill 1',lIglish hUI i1l't Widespread in the world's languages. The voiccles, wlur Inl'allvc Ix I is COll11110n III German and Russian The cump",er Bach'; lIanll'. prollount·t'd in Gt'nnlln, has a lim" VOiceless velar fril;utlvc. A voiced vdal Iric(llive 11(1 is cUllllllonly heard in Spallish wurds like IIRt/a ·walcr'. 'nlhle') II pn'st'lIls (I grltl 011 which some COl11mOIl fricati vc l'onSOlluns ar~ r.lIJg,'d 'K'COldll1!' to poilll and manner ul articulation A, 111 Tahle ').~O, dcntil" :",' 11111 u"linglli,lwd lrolll alvcolars, as 1110st languages have sOIiIHI, with <llhl'I olle 01 lite IIllter pOlnl 01 articulation, but nol hOlh. Sound, lound In Fnglish arc ','1 of! ill h()co" Affricates liquids I'lte 11'041 fll!t 'III ,. ) (II v, C 1C ." Itllt·, A/ro- ,/uaul llilahwl tlt'III'" Vlllcck.., 14>1 VUlced IIlI rill LtVI Ahrular I'Walul "dtal"' V~lar f,lon,,, 1111 II If! Inl III I~I 1'1 IhI hlJ ttl hI Affncates arc found at 010'1 puinl I' ' I b ' ..• . . s () anlculatll>n I G a lC",ental alfncate, transcribed us I 'I ' h . n «man.• ""Ctl . . . p . I' eard at the be' , pfud horse. Many dlalect, of CanadIan r h h gmnlllll III Ihe "nl d I ( I I · cene ave voo·el· . cnta or a vco ar) affncHte, It I and 11I' ' . c c, and .IIICcd say'. . • • In word, hke fu 'y("lU' and t,Jfrt! "I) Table 2.32 prescnts a grid including the tw E I' h ' tl • ' I f d . 0 ng" af(ncales and o lers common y oun tn nther languages Th E r h !I'me off in a box. ' . e ng" ,"und, arc agam!iet Table 2.32 Affricales Palaro· L.aIJlodental AII'eolar alveolar Velar Voicele;,s Ip'l II I ~ Ik'l Voiced Ib' WI Id31 Ig' As with the stopS, laterals may be dental as well as alveolar. Laterah can also be made with the tongue body raised to the palate. Such a sound is called a palatal lateral. and is transcribed with the symbol ["I· It is heard in some pronunciations of the Spanish words caba!jp 'horse' and ca!J.e 'strcet'. and in the Serbo-Croatian word, da1J.e 'farther' and !judi ·people·. The palatal lateral may also be voiceless. in which case it is transcribed as LA]. Lateral fricatives are produced when a lateral is made with a narrow enough clo.ure to be classified as a fricative. This sound is transcribed U'i [5 when voiced and [~l when voiceless. Lateral fricatives can be heard in many American Indian languages. in Zulu. in Welsh. and in the languages spoken in the Cauc~u,. Table 2.33 shows some examples of voiceIe,s alveolar lateral fncatives from Welsh. Table 2,33 Voiceless lateml fricatives in Wclsh Jlun ambell lbnl lambril 'clan' 'some' Other r-Iike sounds an! wideI) heard in the world' , languages. A cummun one IS the trill which is made b) plL"ing air over the r.ll,eu tongue tip and alluwing it to vibratc, Trills arc commonly transcribed as [i'l (IP [rl), They
- 42. Glides Summing up can beheJrJ in th~ Spanish "ord, pep' ·d~)g·. and [Ii, 'riv,,~', unu the hali. ~)fds ""!:!:I' 'y,agon' and I>,rra 'beer', slllllia. tnlhngelk~t can he Ill: tth the u ula. and, called., U ular urill. Its IPA ,} mbullS IRI, A U 1I1.,r r made llhout trilling is Olure commonly heard, however ih is the ,),~cd r 01 Siandard French. and IS abo ~klcspread ~n Gemla". IP" tr.lIlscripunn d.,,,,fi,,, Ihis ,ound along w,th the Ineall' es. It IS Iran eribed ~ [xl "h~n lHc'd"" .lIld U' IK] hen n)lced. ' . Tabk' ~.J~ pres~nl. the liquids. As before. sounds found In English are e, off in !xlcs. Table 2.3-1 L.yuids DenTal/ail'eo/ar Palmal u ;;;;;;- ill] IAI - ullI,'ral... Voi~cd [!I [hI Voict'le!'o.'i Lfllt!ralfricalil't'. VoicetJ [BI Voicl'les~ Ii I ,'s Rcrmtlel leI Approxlman[ [JI Flap [f] Trill Ii] IRI Flaps and urills can be voiceles,. as well. Voicelessness for thes: s(Jund, " usually indicaled by a small open CIrcle beneath the symbol. as In (rl or (RI. Other glides lIrc found in the worid's languages. A commonly h~ard one is made with the tongue position or(j I but with the lips rounded. It is tmnscribcd as [4J and can be heard in Frencb words such as [qilj Ill/it 'eight', [4ilJ IlUile 'oil', and (4itx]llUilre ·oyster'. A complete lisl of all JPA symbols and diacritics can be seen in Table 2.35. The study of Ihe sound, of human language is called phonetics, These ~ounds are widely tmnscribed by means of the International Phonetic Alphabet. The sounds of language arc commonly dc~cribed III articulatory and acoustic terms. and rail into two major types: syllabic sounds (vowels, syllabic liquids, and nasals) and non-syllabic sounds (consonants and glides). Sounds llIay be YOiced or voiceless, and oral or nasal. Consonants are produced at various places of articulation: labial, dental, alveolar, palata-alveolar. palatal. velar, uvular, glottal. and pharyngeul. At the places of articulation, the airstream is modified by different manners or urticulation and Ihe resulting sounds arc stops, fricatives, or affriclllcs Vowels arc produced with less drastic closure ami arc dcscnbed with rderence 10 tongue position (high, low, back. and front), tension (tense or la,), and lip roundin)! (rounded or unrounded), I.anguage also ,hl~' supraw/:llIcntal phenomena such as tone, intonation. and ~trcs,. The international Phonetic CONSONANTS (NOS·PULMONIC) VOWElS Chcb Votoed tmplOlim ~'=79 ...... < ...", 0 fti!.tul 81bbia1 c-... i I -' - p ....... ''''''- ~ t' DrtwIoI~ c-........ == ........- k' v,. II AI...,.. .... s' ...........~ """..... OTHmt SYMBOI..5 M f11klt1$ .....¥tiafnal:I~ C Z ....'-*"'pdal traJ_ """ W fOlWl1t.btlll~l8r~ 1 An.a. IMcnI n. 4 Vol..wJ.blliI'pa1aW~ fj SJ".~J .. x H Vultekll cpiJlolaal frian'Y'e ~ AfYriaIet_doIobk~_ Volcedqrlilonillfrieanw: cu lit ~DtaI '" twa l,mboII ~ jaI:_bJlltilblrlf~ EpI,1acW ploUYI! OlACR111CS OillCitics m:ay beplM:cd above alymbol ...un. ckla:OOa, C.I.I) I. v_ I} Q I,. -- p. ~ " ...... y-- i ' li - W · U e t d lY U q;- :,.6- Y o O e: ;) O! 3 . 13 A . :l re 'B a <E....l 0.. 0 I'n"""""" I Secondary IIR11 ,foott:)'III~n Lon, e: ""f..... e' " ...,.._ e S~Uabk bruk Ji.zkt Unkm&(.ma.cc01_ brW.1 TONES .......owato "l~ LEVa. """""'.. e l::; e. A - e1 .... e~ ...... e e e ~ t - M~ -I"'" Jl;': ""'- -- e -1 ~ e A ~ e 1 =- I' ....... .... --.. 'ruble 2.35 Th~ Imemauonal Phln~tic Alphalet I re'"ed tl> 1993, corrected 1996)
- 43. -------------------------------~ OCKC~ Ii c~ntkdre WO<!ll3tl 00!be In=Ioo:tI Pboodi.: Alr/J.3bet """ be OOwned from tb< In!= l'boo<:oc~l'nleNI) CoI1~.Gov.er treet..Loodon. WCIE 6BT Enzland -=d.:![3 are 13k"" fn:ro E-O. Coot. ·ov.el,;md ton.!> In ,<e'. f.mtguu: ~ ~- 16-1-- Gaelic d3!3 "'" L·c.......esy of J~ Galbraith. BIDJ dau are ad3pfed from !.add< ~ elled "")0... ). More detailed ~3ding on the phoneu , 0( E'l-lish and other 13n~ ~ IS ~port.,a. beJov. 1be -"rundi dal:l are irom A.E. 1~'1. )959 Eu", tk Gramrn.nrr RunJi, Ann,*" du ~I"-<&' Ru)aJ du Con. lkll!e. Ten-urm. - fie DIllIltro 1eDCe$ de I'Homme: Lingw tiqoe. 'olume 2J ;- Some ~Ij m thl cb3pIer ...-ere prepared b) Joyce Htldebrand. Calion! J C )9 - fJlTl<fam~1f1I.1I Probkms In Pi>oNncJ Edinburgh Edinburgh l m-.rim Pr= fUlJlCJI>=. Aim. ) • A cd I G~HJ I~ En G Ot=nO:"lJ 'PIIWlC1ar.,," ofEn Iilh London Arnold 151b edn, ~viscl b) l.ade~ eel. P 199~ A (fl/J r u Phcn~' rd edn ew York Hucoun Brace po (i 1<1." PHO ( S tHE 2. Hov. man~ ""gmenb are Ihere In th.! folo"'lnl:! "'O(lh' al :11 e ) P'.cholog) - b) malh I) knov.ledge c) cure g) mailbo,- d) hopping h) a"e ome 3. l. the fu5I >OUndlneach of th.!~ UOv.mgv.oflh cedo< though zoom hu~e "hen thought fonn i e pan choo", judge buns gheno pneuma!1- 'ioced ~. t:. In!! the ",-onh pre..ented in <fUe'U n 3, 'Ute ... ~ the I _I each;'ord i 01 ed O<'''Olcele . 5. For each of the f Ilo...in<o r= of~. :tate same or different pI ce o t :uuculauon. Then articul:IIioDfor each .ound. 3) [5] : [11 b ) L 1;.] : [I)} c) [PI : {g] d) (I) r1 e [ml L nl f {d:; m If] :[hI h I 1v.l' '] (I) : {t] fl [} [ ] [tfl'm m]: [I)] " h he!her identiry empu - of
- 44. (, T£ IPO 'ARlINl,lJI5T1CS g) high Ilad.. rll1nJ~J la vu"d h) 1,, !"mnt ullfuun,kd ",we! " . 'nJS sho Ihe same vowel 4Ualit 1 8 Whkh of thc h)II(lIn~ pal'" of 0 -n'bc each word Y . - liffc t Then trans" . . larl. ,,:tch p.lir s ,/llIe or (I ('rfll, hide height al bad.. s.ll h) heed b) cot caughl iI least cook 0) biJ kc) j) drug fil dl luck llio:k k) ,ink own eI ,"'Ze deuce 01 1 » oak pOri t,;UUf[ pour t) cot nJ mouse cow g) fell fad , ' . . , , . ' h -lic lerms like Sibilant. fncat,ve, and so on, 9. Using dcscnptlvC P o~~c characteristic (hat all the segments in each provide a Single phone'd bvious answers such as 'consonant' Or group share, Try to avo, over-o 'vowel', , £ I '[b d g re my] are all VOIced, 'Camp e, [h?] a) [p I k 0 ?] f) b) [iee;] g) [uoe] c) [tf3fd3J h) [ztfd3J:J d) I bmfv] I) nrmnOJ J [p ] J') ItdlrnszJ e) A ~ U a 10. Transcribe Ihe following sets of words, You may use these words to prnctise transcribing aspiration, a) lUg i) peel q) spell b) kid j) SLUn r) cord c) attain k) Oscar s) accord d) despise I) cooler t) astound e) elbow 01) sigh u) pure f) haul n) hulk v) wheeze g) jUice 0) explode w) remove h) thimble p) tube x) clinical 11, Using H. L, and asscx:iation lines, transcribe the intonation o f the following English phrases, Compare your results With the ~nscnptlons of several classmates, Arc they the same? If they are not, dISCUSS what aspects of intonation (such as emotion or speech context) might account for the differ~nccs in transcription, al 'Hi, Alice.' b) 'Allen got a trumpet and a tlute for Christmas.' cJ 'Soccer aJld swimming are Judy's favourite sports,' 12, Mark pnmary and secondary (where present) stresses on the following words. It is not ncccss:tf) to transcribe them. a) sunny f) arrive k) secret bl hanana g) uefy I) exceed ,) b)ackhoarJ h) summary m) summery t3. 14. d) C mada d (10) reJecl I) II '·IIU .....111( ) 111 • tn.lI.h.m ('l)rl'i" /" 1 I Canalhanlle 01 ""h~uh I·intl a, fluent ~pc~t.;,cr uf a a"UU~,"c hlhcr Ih'n ' I' h e e • _ng, and lrall' he: ph(lOClIcally len W('I'l" "I thaI tanpu,,~c, tn Iho unhle'l n ,. ' . d ' . C Y ~tnt I)f YOUr t;ncoun~enng ,,~y ~Oun tOf :h".:h '»' l1b4.1o;, Me not lHund in thl tha ter (including secwlO 10 anothe tp, chan un page M). allom!,1 III <I ~~ them III phoneltc lcnns and then lOVcnt UIUl..:nllcs 0 help you tran nne Ihem, Using Figure 2.:!O us your model, provide co-,lniculahon .hag.ram... ror Ihe following words. Be sure Ihal your diagrams capture the mllvomen) 11 tho lips, tongue, velum, and glOltis as in Ihe model a) had b) snap ~l please d) dome 15. Compare the folowing careful speech and rapid speech pronunc;allltn, or tbe following English words antI phrases. Then, name the pmCess or processes that make the rapid speech pronunciation different frllm the careful speech. (Stress is omitted here.) a) in my room b) I see him cl shall we d) balloons once c) f) my ad vice g) best book h) i) j) protection hand me that Pam will miss you Care!ul speed, Rupid ' peech llO rna, ru:m] [,m ma, ru:m] lal si' hlln] a, si: jlml [J~l w'l U""1 [balu:nzl [blu:nz1 IWAns] [wAnls] Ima, advals] [rna, :1va',1 [bcst bukj [bes buk1 Ipr;)tckJ:1n] [p;>rtekJ:1nj [hrend mi: oret] [hremi: oretl [prem wII mts ju:] lpa:mjmIJj:11
- 45. Phonol( pcltt : th ~fun('ti( n ~lnd rning of ound ' II' tltil ,IH'Vf'.I(ll,W'1U," Ht!f,1 """r,.11 "In, 4..., ""hIUtt. ...,lt1tI,(". Ji"l"lIIlrfl I' 'h .1 III ( h.lph'l ' Ih.II"h" • 1 tll.1I '('1 IHIIHI~'I "I 'I" I., h ,Ullhh th,ll htllll,Ut 'III" .UI, ",..111, " lItd Jlt'h "~I'"~ Hili Ih' hl1111.111 10111 "tI.1 'll ph'lIli .11' Ihr "",Mlhtl,·, IllItlwll1h 1 lit .. M1Ulhl, I"~ all 1.111 '1.' '·S .11 • P,lIh'IIIl'd 1 ",1 ~, '.1111 'd 111 lid, 1 ., ... Ih.1I 1111 'III'" ..1lI til" "~I fl ""'111,' him Ih.1t IIl1d~IIa(' Ih'lf .11'1'1.'. rom-+. I 1It~1I1'" ;"'ll'I.1I1 ,'''Ilttle Ih.1I 'I ·.I~n' h.I (.11 1'.1 I) ,1111' ,,,1,'(111', IPII' ,II 1I111'1hO'1 klhl' kd', 01 Ih".. fl'lIl hll l' IlIu"ll'. , ~ ',11 III I h,ll''''' I Ih,ll "II 'h,h 'I""I~"I' ~II"" 111,11 I", "" h~,' ,"," ,111.1 III 114 ,II • ,h'pl.lhlr, ,,'uh- h'll11' "~t n," lIud '('1."'''' lilt' "",. III t,ld, '1~·.l ll·1 ",III d,l Ithlfl.' 11I;1I111h'III.11 "lllh hHIII' ,11' lIlIn.HlIl,tilllllH'11 '" 'h'llt 111,' ,,'11 11 .11' 0 ~'nIT'd 'llch 11111' It 111,lk,' lh~'11I ,In:,'pt,th'''' Itl" I'll 'II,h !'p",lll'" 1111111 l""IIIlumed h'IIIIII~I·,III''','' /"I11//l.lIh'IIII,III/lIII,/III/ "I ,'1',llIltl1ll1 kllim lit' ,'.1",,1 "h II ' 1hz, 1.11 I",,, ,lIb"',,,,,,,,,,,, ~IH iL-d'" "I 'lUml 1';111,,'111 Ih.1f phptltlhl 'I'" ,11' 1III'I',h'd 111 IIIU:O' t'j II) , 11",dl.ll'ln ".th,lt!! Ithuuulu ', Ihl' nlillporh'ut Clf it " tlHIIt.tI III,hlt' lip 01 Ih,' ,'kill 'III' ,lIId 1'"11, '1,1', Ih,1I "I'I,'IIIIIII<'lu) '"1111 1',1111'111 III I 1.111'11,1'I' I'h"I1<>'<> '11' 1111'1111'1 "'III,I~I' l'phnl '1,11'111'111, ,lh""1 lit,' "'IIlui P,llh'llI "I lIIdl ,till,1I 1.1I1 1 l1.I I (', 111 ",d,,', In ,1I,,,'pI.'1 SOllll'lhln" .tholll th"" 1 ,,1' UI , IIc. kllll kd ,,,' th,11 1"'1"1' lIIU,' h.l c,' til PIlh.'1 hi I'" Ihl' ,,' P,lIll't ", 1'" 11 ItlPl' hl",I,III, Ih,' ,"uh ,'I l'/u,,,,,I<, ') ,111,'1111'",0 "",'0"'1 '1'11'1,11 1"11I'lpl,', 111,11 IIml~'lltl' rill' p.llh.'11II11 , ,,1 'HIIIHI, III hlllll,1I1 1,," '11.1 ',,' 'h,' "1,'"",, III 1""1,'111' III 1,lIlf'II,IJ.!" ""I1<'lIt" "II Ill' 11111,1111 ,lIi"lI III ,"'11,1111 h"",' I'Il'III,'II" "I 111111., Ilial I'tllllhm,' 1<1 l1I:1k,' "I' Iltl'''' P,III,'''''' nll'" 111,,,<>1 11111", III :111,11) 'I' 11111 hI' 1"1''''111''1 III 1111' dl,IPI" 1 W,' "1' ,11",,,11) ,"''11''"111''1 I Il h tll' "II'alh,,1 lit, /"1 "I' 'f1'I'<,h ',Ill h,' "" " I,'d 1111" "'1'"1"11" III Ih" <,hapl"I, I<' 1I11''''''!!,II,' Ih,' P,III"III'd 1,"I,lIltlll II/ "'V 1111'''1 , W" 1,,11 ul", ml""1 ',II,' Iht 1""1''111," til Iht' ' l llllhl,' Iht' h,,,,, 111111 III 11111'11 "'j:llh'II" ,u,' 'IIIIII"',J, A 'I "'Ihl,' ",1111111 " I I111)'11'"i<' '11111'11111' 1It,II "1111"' " t'l ,I 'III'lhl" 1'1,'111, III ""llIlal" ,I 1'11<'1 alld 1111 '<' '1111'11" lit,1I ,III 1"",',,", d lllh" 1,1 1111"11,11", lit,' ""1.1 I"glll, III ,',Ill h,' "" " it'd IIlhl 11111 "1I,lhit',, "~ till" "/1'11/ , Ihlld 111111 o/l'h,,"olll!'I"III,III,II)'I' 1 Iltl' h'u.lltl' " I I' I I "II"h" 1', 11"/",, 'lUIIII,,,,1 I ",HUll 11111 "'1","1,,1 Itl'it /IIIUI<' I,' 'Ill 1 1". 1111 , Nil , I 1 I! tI t I It i til II ~ '0"'111 , '"" 1'''' hUI , h.llH,'1. uull ".I " , I//"It/, 1,,rI r II 111 ,1 II 1 " '~"'f 1/1/, I I I s,II,lhl" ""II,lhl" I' 11,111" ,II"", ,II,,,,, ' I fl lllt' 1('(" 'llHOI.tIlt t ",,1011"" IMIIHH,mt ''''m.ll! 'ul1n l ,I11 I itll'lI ,I,lh"ll t 1'.111 Ttl t U.l lIlI h H un,lt . . . . 1'.IIII.lllll1tlll'-ltll~n ,IIII'lI,IO,I 'III,II III,' lit ""~;II I"' lt Itl IIIl' Ill' 1"'1'11111", " ,' I""k ,I 111",,11111,,111 '''',II kllllll,'df'I' Ihal "II,d,,', '"'',Ik,''' 1,1 """11 '11I, h IIIIIIII ~ "'"l" ,11111 1<1 ,"'.11 1llh 1/... 11111 1.1"11111 "lhlll"11' 1,111,111,11111111111111111... I'IIlIlIlIll'I.II""1I1 '" " II I' 'ul,'1I1
- 46. II IIMI 'J~AY IIN'oIl,1I1 1 le.MINIS IN ( liN III I I Mlnl"",1 p.lir, .Ikclh lllll llIdl t' 'Ill III, 01 thllf I,UI)!U ,llo!l' (·unfn.,t. Sc.'glllC'rtb, I "'. ,1111 h t1f1tr,1 I (til III he flllirlt'lh,o,u h. If' O'.fw,ltlcm) V h,:l1lh"'11 pl')I('lIl'l' 11111 III I III 1111 III II IHIfIlIt 1111 (hlh'-ll·I1II1I·;tnlll~'·· lIum "·'I(..'h nthc.·l lh . l 'III nl'li I~I lIullll COIlIt. lilllllhl· wunh ,11 ' ulld -'I', ,I ... du IIIl" u.'l·l~ 01 h'~ /lIIf•• u1I1 h" ' ~ hoi It h''''' 1111 II MUIIUJ .. d,,,IIIU: II'l'IU',"" 1.0,,; .'illh:<I a IIIllIhllUI , pulr I~"I A IIIlnllll'" 1',,10'....,",,1<"II"," I""". w,l" ""Ii'1<'1 '""'"'"'!!' 111,11 ",II," hy llllly nIH' t' '1IIl'II1 111111111 III Ilu' "',Hllt' 1111.,11011 IIIl',ldl 1111111 I Ill' l·'.lII1IPIt.~, i,pl,'I" ,111.1 11,pl.I/' gll'1I PI,'IPII,lv IClIm illllllllll;11 pall lind ,how Ihallhc.' 'it1unll, I 1,,,"11/1,",,",,,1 ,,'IIIV I"" 1IIIlIIh," 01 1111111111,11 f1.1I1~ IlliIt d~'nHH1'fI,ltl' l'o"sonallt .:onlra'l, lor I 111,11 II IIIl' '1l'1I III J.!hlt" .1 h'lIll'!IIhl:l II " on Ih,l" hOlM' 01 sOUl1d "nu flOt pdllll' 11,.11 1111111111.11 p.1I! flrl' l"t;.hll,hl~d In lh'pl.IIIl' .'ontw'I" the r '","11111 llId ,II('1II'Ic'l1p',ln'd .lInn· lIll' hOll/e'l1I;11 al.., 1111 1.·'Pl'~,:tlo thl'lr ,,1.ll'l III .lIlilUl.llltlll ,,'wlin t 11"111 h,,'1 .II} lI~hl (1,lill.tI, ••IH'olal, and '0 unl, II"llfll".,1I 11111 ""P"lIIO 111:1IIIll" ,.1 .UI,"II.IIIIlIl, 1111ll'dn III shllll h"h 1'1.1 '~'S ,II111111,IIl11l'IS (,1 tllltnll.I'lun ,11' ' p)oit'" h Ih.' 1'lflgUil~.' in 4Ul.,'SIIun,I ."fH"~ IIIH' lI'II'It'lIh'" (1IfuH:(Jnflnllilnt~1 1.'1' /1'1 1',11111 ...." ' 11/1 ",1'1"1 I',II11dl I" 1".11 CUllfhwlIflh. 'III 'Ii, "'111 I,ll III ,III Ii 11'1 "I I I 1.1111 I III 1,'1 'I' 11 ;'M""I.. """/111/ UIIII1 I i",,"1 1111" ~Ihh, III ." r U'I IIlt.1 III I I "r1/," ~Ii Ii I 'III ,,'.11 1,1 'U 111 I' urn Ih "" " '1I1~1lI, I Illr lsI II dar I"'~ I~ I ,"'1'1 ""'1111 h'l'lhl 110 1l1l111111.,lp~' nlllllll1Jlpiur " Vowel contrasts in English 1.2 language-specific contrasts 1')U)N(Jlf)[,y Till II.Nt • . IIf IN A~IJ "Alii RN1N(, rJl ')() 'Nt,) minimal p".lr hus ncen c 1.11 71 . .... a) '....hct!. It 1111 thSlanctlvc ,ound.., in i.lll cnvlTC., '~ In tact fare te) find m, evulutlOn of every hngu" I nm~lls. 11 a lanl:r,uage ,,: nUnil} p'lI' lot frl'{IUcntly than ()thc~, ,,'rg:- .'"'' lcd 10 nlnt: Hund, 'L._"I'n'cc the. h'''lllflCal • IlClng chmo . uc; g Ul1 d exumple. you will hnd no 11linimal ,.'n;~'cd tnnn ~tlme en'£'ml~·e more Ilr wor"-hnal POSition in English ~'" '~Vl'IVIng lhland (1)1 in ""~r~ . PIli I'J I or end In Ih I. It " ul,,, Ihfl'icUh·IU,clilhere are no word, that he. IOlI'al 'n .volye the sound 1:11, Which OCCU,., I· t"h Ind mln'mal p:"" 'n F.nggl,·',nh"'h"h h or I c mu..,t part· . at "'rene stich as azure and mirage. 10 word!o. burrowed fnHn ('Ol1lra'ls among Engli'h Vowel, c h . • b . un c establIShed '" th . examples (1 a Ie 3.2). ror now we w,·11 a h .' a lew Cl, 0 . • sSume t at Eng' h II Iand /u .:1. allll d'phthongs like c'l /'01 I I ." tens.evllwehhke [ . h" ' a . ~U, and so on arc I 'rom I IS perspective, we can say that the vowels Ii' 'lng e voweh. Sl) nn. contra,1, ·1 and Ill. lell and leI. and Tohle 3.2 Vowel contra....'" in Engh'oh beet [bnl li:1 hil Iblll 1'1 ball /1>0:111 ClI hel [hell [el h:lI Iba,q 1"'1 cooed Ik"u:d] lu·1 could [khuJl luI cod.' [~";>Udl 1001 "o0 [k"""1 Inf cu" Ilb,dl 1,1 lewd Ilu:til [u:1 loud II lid) [au] lied [laId] [all Lloyd (bId] l~' C,'ntr.,," .11~ langu3!.!...·,~cific: c'und, rnal are di. tincu'e m lln.: langUa2C ill m't n','",' ,ml) t-.: di,un,tie III ;lfllllher. For e~ample Ihe diff;ren-e 1><'1~"'1l Ih.: 1,' , '1- [el and [a~l" CnKtallll Engli.h. a, c '-an'~ from 1llli1l1,ll p,tir. Ii .... /{<11 It-.:nl and /><111 [;:nl. But in Turl.i.h. this difference in l'r"IIlIll,'IJII,>n I. n"1 dt,III":II" A Turl.l.h '~aker ma~ pronounce Ihe 1 I f"f T ,I' (t-.:u1 "f lh~(nl ITable 3.3. 1wflea . and 1 "ill make n ,Iit1 't '1 'c'" Ih(' l1" m!; C 'n 'f ,'j,. ,'und tho I d 'n I ntra 1m Engli.h. -uch • d.-Ill U ... 1U th f lanrua!!c There are n I} r (Il lllu: 1m E;".h'h. But in Japan ~ pk in Tabl H on the n I
- 47. 2 PHO'IETICALlY CONDITIONED VAIIIATIO~: PHO,,",EMfS A D AllOPHONES 1.1 Complementary distribution Gt.T C Table3.J Eng/uk [ben) [bm) Ibm) (born, --- --- - Table 3.4 Shon!Ion= ,,,,"cl cootr"-'l> ID lapane<e and Finm h ~----------~------------~----------------------- Ja [ton) 'bml' (tori:! '"hrine gate (boo) '''-"'lIe' (kibo:j 'hope' Fuuush I~-"hj 'fIre [,u:!i '"ind' [bortr) ·di. treSS' Ih",:tr:j "roencC Establishing the conua: ung segments in d language i a fj"" . tep In pbonologll:aJ anaJ~,j.'. But in any language. there are man) ound. that ne'er conlJaSL The foHm'ing secuon deals wi!h !hi. major ,uhje~1 01 phonological anaJ~ IS. E'e~'da)' speech comains a greal deal of phoneuc ,ariallon. Some of it i due [0 variation in articulation thai arises from extralinguistic fa~ton. uch ~ orthodontic work. fatigue. excitement. gum chewing. and the like Such "anation is nOl part of the domain of phonology. ~luch phonetIC 'mation however. i. systematic. It occun. mo,t often among phoneticall) Similar segments and is conditioned hy the phonetic conte~t (environment) in v. hich the -.egmenrs are found, This ,'ariation OCCllI> because segments are affected and altered by the phonelie chamcteristics of neighbouring elements or the larger phonological comext in which they occur. Every ,peaker ha~ the abllit to factor out this varialJon lD order to focus attention on only the relev~t contrast, of the language. When first learning phonelic lmnscriplion. English speakers are often surpnsed that all lhe Is they pronounce are not identical. In Table 3.5. !he Is 10 column A are voiced. whIle those in column B are voiceless (indicated here by a '~bscnPlol.. ,fany. spea~ers of English are unav.are thai the) routinely produce lhl dltlercncc 10 articulation. which can be heard clearlv hcn Lhe v.ords in column B arc pronounced slowly, • The '()Icdc sne, 01 lhe I d' lB' , . soun s 10 co umn IS an aUlomallc cun cquen.:c of their phonclJc.environment. Voiced and VOiceless Is 'aT) sy'tcmatically In that all of the '(11 clc sis flCcur pn:diclably after the cia. 01, oiedc" slUps. 2.2 Phonemes and allophones p~m"()tOGV tt1[ H ( IIU Tobie 35 7'l ~ I>lu< Il>lu:1 I'tough gleam 19liml 11'1....1 dafl • 1a.1'1 :-.lip I,hpl t.:h.-.u Hog Illogl pta) I 11>1 kat lliof] 11'1011 in~c no voiced [11 eyer ''Ccur-, in the "'me ho _ VOiceless one (and "i(:c 'Cf'U). we ...a) mat;c nl!llc enlnnnlCnt J complementar~ distribution. t"" vanam of I are In Tnble 3.6 Complementa') ~"tnbullnn ,,( III and III m EngJi" AIt!r oiC'ele~:-. '!top... El",,, here (II III no The Lerm elsewhere i. u~o in Table, 6 to indicate the .. .•. 'b . .. . . . , _. luer ubtn UUon (OCcurrence m a greater.number ofdlflerent phonetic emlronmcnt )ohm,cd (I). y occurs after VOIced ,tOps. 'oicele" fricatiws. and in v.ord-imtial posmon. In 'piLe of these phonelJc differences. native speaken. conSIder the tO En8,lish Is to be, i""tances of the sarne sound. since they arc phon~tlcall~ Similar and the dIfferences between them are s)'stemati~ and preoiclable This perception of sameness is ,upponed by the fact thaL the tO h ncer contra! t in Engli~h. ~ere are no minimal paif', like [pieI] and [pletl We can ,urn up the relauonship that the tv.o Is bear LO each other b} stating that. for speaker-, of English. the two I are piwllerical/' different but in the ,ound ',stem of Engli h, gien their phonetic .·inularit~, predictable diqributlon, ~d nl'n- contrastiwnes_. the} are phollologically the same. The ability to group phoncticall} different sound: together Into one c1~, is :hared by all speakef', of all language . This phonological knll edge i repre.ented fomully on a leYe! of phonological repreentatil1n thai is di tin.:t from phonetic n:presentation. Prediclable ounds that are phonetically, imilar. and that do not conlrast with each ()ther. are grouped together into a phunological unit called a phoneme. These v:manb. hich are referred 10 a, :Il1ophones_ arc in complementary distribution A represcntatinn or thiS relationship I, shown in Figure 3.2 overleaf.The phonemic sy mbol fl1rthe c , general" thcamc,mool as the el.ewhere ananL- i pi ~ed hetv.een I;.hes. and the ,y mtx)b-for alloph()nes are cndo,ed in phoneu bracket. Allophonic arialton is found throughout language In fact. eWr) peech ()und ,e' uller L an all('phonc of orne ph()neme and 'an he grou~-d tl "ether ith other ph()nellcall) smular oun<.i uno a c1~ , which I represented b a
- 48. Z.3 _ -- Tlte reality of pltonemes
- 49. luI 4) C'Ic.u!). e ..:...... m<:mtxr...hip 'W [-rJ. ) roor no) '" ln~ ) parr [p:r. ,ur (-13:.) ne:if Lm !are -~
- 50. 8 (II I MI'l)~",~~IINI, 'I> II< " IIH' .1I1d I. M'I, ~) ICIIl,'1 a'ik .11/1 l'puT ,tn"bl II:>nll", ,'I' h""il'",', IU,kll'llIl 111111:> I""1;l'JII:>' ,,,. nil I II. lIIIHI g""",:>n "<'1.1 I"kru r:>n da'ku :I 'Fl11nUlAlki ll ~' 'sJll! annex 'vanllla and hunan:! i cc··l· r~nlll' 'Mr Yamashita and me' 'She vi"lcd (inu lind Delhi' 'Accra :U1d Dakar' /I 'H' """111'" '" w,' haH' dOIlC ill Ihi, hook, Ihlll Ihe I,,~"()n full' incrt, a 1i"~I11~ I 10 Ihl' apl'wl'rI"ll' ,'nvironnll'nl, (slaled hcl(l~I. In 6)). all cases Ilf h'"''';1 .lIvolvlIIg 1.1 <,'"I Ol' Irealed ,imply and III a Ul1llurn~ W,IY, rcgilrdlc , 01 wlll'lh"f I/,,'rl' was alllllllk'd}lIlg wonJ,flllal Irl al "line pUlnt IlIlhe pa,.. /I h, Whl'lI IWIl I'IIw<'l. ' afl' "dl<ll'cnl, il Ihe 1i,,1 is high II is predielllhl)' linked 10 Ihe VIlW'" Ihal follow. II h} an epenlhclic glide Ihat IHI' Ihe '<lIIIC hal'kne,,, iII.d HlUlIlll'dlll'S, So, IIftcr Ii; I anti rII We lind II I and ultcr III:I or IIlI IV<' r.nd I"I, III slIlIlia. l'onleXls, nun Iligh vowei.- '"l' lin"ed hy Irll<> the followlIlg vow'" (Thi, II'I lIlay eltlll'f hI' a vcslige of the Imlorll'al Irl which h", ,urvi"l'd .n Ihe ,pl'lhng lung <l/kr bcing dropped In I:ngl"h ael:ent, Iikc RP wh,'n thl')' Inlrodut"l'd a rule thai deletes f"I.II-I'owlll" r as in Tahle 3 10 Dr an lII/nI.'"'I" a, 1115),) Th,' d"la III 'i) "nd in 'r,.hk 1.10 whlt'h we have hc.'en examining ,how pillalld, wilh Ihl' allllphu/lic dilrihution Ihat we han; nmsldcrcd so I'<lr: l'I'lt"ill ekmellts all'pfl'dll'lahk under cena/n sysil:l11illl<:ally 'tatahlc phonellC <'olldilioll,', lien:, hOWl'WI, in,tl'ad of II llul11hl'r of variants of a phollellle, v.c hd"c -'Oullds II h"'l' di,lnhuI/IIII '-, 'tillahle In a 'pcd"l: cnvironll1cnt ollce we kllOIl they Iwlnn!' to a I'ntuill tla" of s"ulld, We l'an th"s draw frnl1llhc dala IIInlhlc .1 10 the' gl'1l1'!ilir/alinll' Slated ill fJ) ahovc whidl apply equally 10 ~ 1II11l1l1l'hlholll' " Ild tn Ihl'dns"I!' part of a dlphthollg Wl' I, ill "'lldude 11lL' di'l'u"io" nf "hllllolollll',,1 l'lassc' Wllh ,I bill'I ,'''''IIIII,lI/nll "I It'llse alld In 1'1111'1" A, II'C ,all' 111 Wl'llolllt..l 01 Chaptn 2, I"!!h'h IlIwl'l, I'an h" da,,,ltl'd as lell'C III lax, Vllwl'ls Iwlonginglll thc,,' "'0 sets shll' dl/k"'''t I) 1"' of pholloillgi<:al di,tnhuliun. nlllugh th"} I"UI h" shl"'" III hI' "'1""ai,' phlll1elllC' ,illl',' Ihey 1'01111 ast 111 '111111' l'll' ""I1I1ll'Il", Figure 3,3 2,6 language-specific patterns Language-specific variation in allophonic nasalization "IU'NOlfJ(,'V 111t fINf lf)N'&'N . n II 11111kNINL rJf (U Nil IHlIwthclc"",, their d,..,lrlhutlhll I pIC'I-t.lhC' In Ct'n~,," COnIC'll umo.. up the c..h...,nhul1t1I;,l ""nl'ln III lh{" "~IWC tI' L" . '¥:ur 'ylluhll" and lhc....c puttern me IU" tralt,'" 11 hgmc".4 tll~l'~~~ m r tound 111 cn,co rcsiioCd y;.,hlc.5 Ten,",!.! vowels / InUlldl1l """II 'Irc,,,,d .yUahle Lax vowels excluded Irmn ~yU.hles cl"'>Cu hy 10 loun,lln clOsed ,'ressed syllahlcs L exclulled frum open "rcs,,,d syllahl., lound in syllables closed by II)I rhe ,hslnbulion of I('IN' and I,," IIOWI,I" 7'1 ' d Firsl, whereas any killd of vowel except scbwa hee section 63 "f Chaplcr 2) can occur in a slressed closed syllable, i,e.. one Ihal end, III a con,unant. only lense vowels arc alluwed in ,tres,ed open syllables, I.C" ones thaI end in a vowe. Thus, whereas minimal pairs showing tbe COnlra't between ten", , d lax vowels can he found III the tbird column of Figure 3.4 (,werleaf) ::'hich has closed syllable" no minimal pairs can be li,ted 11 the fourth column which contains open syllables, There only tense lIowe" nccur. . Second. as seen in the fifth column, any lax vowel c~eept [~ canoecur III a syllabic closed by 11)], But tense v(l~els are excluded trom thiS enlilronment and, as a result. there is no POSSllllhty of contrast between tense dnd I,IX vowels in this Cl)nleXl. AI h h the phenomenon of allophonic variation is uoivc",aL the patterning. oftp~~;emes and allophonc~ is language-speciftc, What ....e d"cll'~r tor on~ language ma) not hold true lor another, Im,;:rl 11111 111~11 111111] In'"l 'hlg' 'e.lltlc' '.:!llUlI' '.I'<'U' ',c:n:t'
- 51. (, I Lax , Is e <r D ~ ;) mg T~ru Is a: 3: ,. ~ el 1 ::>1 ;)iJ .w 1.1.: bel I guard ';00 !:UI ~arl rd could rool l.ill u 101 tont" 10n baroo ~lTd gourd 0, " srrr. SM Sl/abl~.' """ 'p3 fur Ta 00 bs) bu} oo~ 00 (and arroW) 00", (bend) d deer dour door 5 l'flaM" doud b) [{II nng length lanl.: TOOg bunk lung (in the nonh oiEngland) 0'" 1:1 allophone: . Here e can talC Ibc: Gadl "'~n preceded or full ",ro b) n language:specific >'<Iriation tn allophonic distribution PHONOlOCoY un fU (110 Tabl. 3,12 (roc~iihl In'''janl 1m3nh1 [o!k;7) (m~IaraJ)1 Im.lkanl Irum3h) ""'tal ';cold' • 'end' 'fortlld' 'eat" 'OOu>e' 'car' 1 0 PAt lUC III Here, all vowe" and, ghde, ["l1m'tng a na.,al are predi tabl na.<al1Zed until an ob,truem, hqulIL or glollal ([hI, PH i' reached. For' I he: generalization is as follow, d In ~Iala~, all ,ovo.ei: and glide, folJo...mg a nasal consonam and not ~p;Ir.lIed from II b) a non·n:h31 con'onanl are na.salized. A" was ,oo...n to '<ction 1 ~,a pnonemic ct>ntra>l in one language rna prove to be a phonemic contrast in another. TIlls Ille3Ib th:u the re • of phonemes to allophones ma~ ''3I1, < COmparisOll of the COIltraSl. g ,lOps in EngJi;h and Khmer (CamboWan) illllilr.l.tes this point lIab e ',1"1) In both language>, :hpirated and una.:,pirated phone-; can be beard Table 3.13 Stop phone<; m Engltsh and Khmer English Lp] (P] [P"l [t, [~l 1
- 52. 3 PHONETIC A 0 PHONEMIC TRANCRIPTIO Fngh'Q "hiller (Ph"lll'm ") p p ph! (Alloph,'ncs) I I Ipl [phi [pi Iphl H . . . . . -.::::::.. 3Vlng seen h4..1 nnn-lh.,rinc(rvc properties of segmellls arc factured phonol"!ilcal analpis. e can l1nw compare Ihe I) po: of Imnseription OUt by 'egmenlal phonnlogleal representation I. ith phoneli.: transcript; ~'Cd fur eumples gil en in Tn!>'" .1.15 'hO Ihis elitTcren.:" for the c/'L"es 0;'n. ~ in English thai We h,l'c camint'u . ,0 far. sOUnd TabJe 3.J5 Phlln~ljr and phonenUL' (mn~cripriOD Prrdic"t"hlt· pn'pt'rty(,j nor - Phonctil" PJulflt:mic reprr.'st'llfed in p/Jt)fIt'mic: rraILSl"n'pllCJJI IrIJltscri",iOIl noni rrtlllScripfion {pl·ul Ipl,wl pl(lugh '01 elessne" of IiqulJ Ikri:pJ Ikn:pl c~ep VOice/elisness or liquiu {kwikJ IkwlkI quit'k voiceie"ness of glt<lc {/eIJ lIell lei {Ihaldl I"'IUI tieu mopirutJlln The contrJst betwecn phonetic and phonemic repre,cntatl'on ' 1' e" Ifikj ·t·· ' . ..~~ , . ng 01 lhe ,Ialay fom!' gn'cn carher. as shown in Table J.16h nasalllatlon on all oweI and glide segmcnts is prediclabl" d '. h' W ere • .1 r . C an IS t ercfore OllUlleu .rom thc phollllloglcal reprc. cntalion. Table 3.16 Plulflt'lic frall.enpril,,, -- -- IlIle,ldhl IIIHijJnJ InaUI Pllllnelil' "nd plulnenllc lranscnplion 01 Malay nus,,1 vowcls Phonf..'mic Ir"I1."( r'l'lioll -- - Iml' "hi IlIlajanl Inul''t/ 11("" 'Iuuriou,. '.,Ialk' 'a"lcnu' PYr!dinllbl.. p"'p,'rrv!.l) /I/JI r,,'pn'Jelllt'd ill /,/r"II('ItIIC' Irtlll."("riplioll na,alllUlion na..'ialillll ion nasalIlatiun 4. 1 hi f · 'ng the sylla e oe 1111 t't H .N( " t l(.,'Y 1 t 11 1 NI 1 It)N . hI'''' t 1RNINL ()1 III 1 {, The syllllhk " compo,e,1 III " nucleus IU""llIy a Vlwel) ~ il . non-syllabic :-ocgrnents. N'li'1! :p~nkcr 01 a I. , n Us '!I~lUel . h' . ' . . ' .mgu.gc d~mnn""lnt h .warcnt::ss ot IS untlll phUI.llllgll.:a structure wh 'ne ' h . C 'tr " ven") C""1l1 5' hi ill a II ord. No I~ngh'h speaker would hestl"l. lu 'a' lh'l lh' ',.1 e, II bl ' a C "TI <h'n 1 I hth three sy a l!~. and mo~l ,pcakcr~ Nould teet cnnhd 'Il lh. _ ' (fa . I· I b " .Il Il cI"ld be b.roken up 1010 lIe ') III c, hek , " • d~nll (lhe' • mark, II hi .• • " A'· '11· I ' . Y , e UWI'IlI" IIltorma y). ~ ~e t Sl.'"C ac~ )n 10 thiS ,-=hapt~r....pc:akl:r~ a H ~mum.rate knowlc<lge lhat syll!lbl~s h,ne Imernal struclure as wd. The nrganiLlu)n uf "s> liable" show n m hgure 3.0 wllh the Ilonos}ablc Engl"h woru prlllf. n ---------- OnsellO) Rhyme (R) !I "'''I''N~ Coua(C) 1 p n 1 Figure 3.6 Internal structure 01 J ,~Uable. A complele description of the internal structure of a ) liable requIres four subsyllabic units. The nucleus (abbre,iated :-.I) is the 'yllable', onl) obligatory mem1.ver: it 1. a ,>lIabic element that fonn. the ~ore of u sylabk The coda le) con,ist. of those elements that follow the nudeu in the 'ame syllable. Th rh)me (R) i, madt: up of the nucleus and the coda. The onet 0) i~ made up of those ekments thal precede the rhyme in the 'arne 'yllabk. We a$SUnle the e iste",;e of sub'yllabic unit> for a num1.ver 0 rea ons One of them is the faclth;1t 'p<:akcI' do not syllabify words in random or mabk ways. The W()rd e'l.tn:ll1c Icbtri:m1 would never 1.ve ') lIabified a' Ie. I..-trhnl. In"·tead. syllabks t:ompl) "ilh certain con,trainl, thaI pr,lhlbit lhem (tn Eng.li h) from beginning. ith a ,cquence like her and so re lilt 111 thc syllabitkalion lei" , sl£i:m/. I:>·rb :& IJ1.klaml 'd"plt.·In/ IIm.pr,n,uz/ applaud dcdmt: c'Plum Impn 1'~
- 53. 4 0111 [f1~Ii,h 011,<'1,l'J ' .., ampl', ,.f III '" ,,11:>1' . 11,11:>1 ' hllll, I ,'on., n; nl ' ''111'0" , ,.f fngh,h Ih,ll , 01.10 H,i' 'I'. 1,'1' '·"ll· ,'nalll In ,,', I " , ,I ••111 Ilh"Ir.lI',j III "n!-lIuII:tl1 .ili"ll I,' 11 'Ih 'Ill CJ,j"r I" r" 'III I In'" m,lf IIi!. hi ph,'"{·I".' d 'l,lIb ' lI,h ,I, 'hlllid ghJ' 1, 'I,'IU II Iu 'h .IT' 111'1 fl:ln ,mt tl' Ill<' r " III .II' 'U" I"lI ,1' "tntU t h '.) (I'll r (III rrl d (ttl II''' II" I I'll lJ 'pi I HI nl,! ('Irl !-til " HII III T.lhl' l I IT "In Inp 'f,,~ r 1] I Il :~TI , ;un 'Ill '0 , UI , n ' I' , r. I' ' 'lul'Jk l (Or hr. I , gill 'nt "I .1 II ,'rll tnllia! n' th 'll ~ • 1 ku , . NU r 1" TUl , • _, II
- 54. language- pe iii phonolacti' , imporra1ll 1.1 cmph.c IU thar catui~1 a,pect. of [he par:,r ular lO. 'U C"d in !be prelllU , ,-uon rc Unl"~r; aI (fonn pMl o! human Itn UI c hI) l.. "here others 'Ianl;!u,agc- p.:clfic..•D onset hke pi I fOund III m.m bn!!113 ,Ix',ide, Enl;!11 h (lor.: ample:. In Ru. 'Ian, Th I, uno Frtnch "luI:' an ~;t t-quence likt: Ip i, rarely If c,.:r found. " .t!' m ,)i lher Cllre th I n,' fe,lndIOn, dgaJn,1 an (>O.,CI IIkt: pi appear 10 e 11 as part f hu Iingui [I,' apJC1I), hik Ihe ;nual non-.: hren or un l'l' It~e ·Ip u [ thai ,)Dl1:thing in Ihclr .lniculah)1) makeup ",>rmally 01'4uahlle' Ih m fro ( "currine In Jan~U~H!l~. Lang~Jg.:-,~.:if1c .:on,[ralOl,. on [he olh.:r hand, h,>ld Inll' fI'r InU' I,Ju~1 language..,u,'h a, Engli.h. ,IOu Ihey may ,'r may nt'l t>.: fpunu in Olhcr language,. EJ h langu(lge ha, Ih (1n ,cr of restricti,,", un tht: phonologl 1 hapt', ofIt: ,~Ilable ,'un'UIUt'nls. , pt'akcrs ofRuslan. for t!' ample, equlle accurorned to pronoun,lOg ,)n,el ,equen.:.:, .uch a" 01" -, aI ' )-, and ell- Ill h are nor found in Englih. Tab/rJ.19 Ip-a) If1""1 [pl'Jr""l . orne on~l ~u~n("('~ In Rus, ian 'dog',' 'aloud' '!>ml' • Pho~oractic con'trJ.1nts represent one kind of phonological I..no ledge. 'Iou nughr wonder whar prev.:nt, Engli h word;; like I!Xlrl!me, applalld. dec/lIIl!. "_Iplain. and improl';se from being s) llablfied as /eks.lri:01/. /;)p.lodJ. Idlk.larn/. lek:;.plem/, and /Imp.r;l:alzJ. since the e clivision' do nOI iolate an) ~hODotacrk con traiDl" either. The ne~t eclion anwers thi question by proldmg a procedure for I!.tabli hing the as ociation of consonant. and 0 eI. m ~ Hable.. figurt' :l.S Figure 3.9 "Ii J It I( ~ 1H I 1 11, NO P t 11k Cl cr I R R c 1.., I ri: m • a R Step b (Figure 1.9) On~ets before codas: Ihe longesl se4uence of consonants 10 the left of each nucleus that does not violate the phonolactlC constraints or the language to question IS called the on. ~t of the yllable Link these consonants to an 0 and join it to the same syllahle a, the ov.el 10 the right. Notc that there is no onset in the fITst syllahl.: of e./T<IIII.' a ti o Ii e k s t r i :01 • Step c (Figure 3.10) Any remaining coo,onants [0 the right of ea ~ nucleus fonn the coda and are linked to a C above them. Thl C I as ociated with the ) liable nucleus 10 it left in the rh) me. .) liable with a coda i called a clo ed ) Ilable.
- 55. , ur 110 o Ip o R R () ( I r I n o
- 56. PH " n 11 r I" " r I P
- 57. Fi UN'1.14 Phonetk lengthin En Ii h 1, I. l II (t R 0 • L) h " r cr R 0 h b , ('I' ('I' ('I' cr R 0 ,~ r nriJl " tJbiflClllOf' b :m-" ( 1"('. , l:IblIIC.1IJOll 1th Illable.•lnd tres in Engli'h ".ld '''''''11 ba. 'b~ll .~d (" dl ,,~. "", 1><- '''"'I .11'<' 1<"1'1 rh.,,~~ II<'il t.,·...- 11<1 I I xl 11'0<1, x,. 1'011 I.l,g ,,'.cgl t...,l.. ,.".£1. ttn,)guC' [0';>01'1 hwlt: Ib';>o1.1 lam...' II"cl11l1 .~.Il I."tenl .~II 1·e11 ConcI'ody. the "mc' "rc <'Ialivdy I"nge, than they "ollid n(}rmall~ be. hcn they (Cellr >elM" ,',ced non·,,'norant Cl>n.on.ml.. Table 3.::" ,h,,,, s. the phonctic durall,'n of 0 cl. is delerrmncd b. ) llabl .tru ture The fjl'ol") liable ,,' el. all pre(:cdc oiced. non·.onorant "'0. nant•. but Ihc) arc nOl lengthen -d 'mcc the ,oked on,onanl b m the I 10,,"10 'y liable Table J.l3 adept negale n:' ,se s3dl~1 In ':l,ll . '''lhtl The following generalization can no be made 10) Engli. h YOvel, :J.re length 'ncd h '0 fllUo,,"ed by a olced oh,trucnt in the ..m~e:y Ibbl', ., th' anal,,,'. "f the di,tribution of a'l'lrallon and Oe1 kngth 10 En"h,b hale ~h,'w~. the u, ,i ·)1:11-1' repre.entation, tn phon Itg~ permit II 10 ,,)Ill' ('~e' ,'rna' m, re gcncr.ll ,13lemenl>' hl>ut I,>phlm< I'ltem 10 I,mgudg' thJJl if > u,' nl) ,t:llentent. that do not m ·c referen I ,) 11 ble stn1('lUf'. Fngli. h PfI.) d's unit. t ~ h, n,>l,'gl'J.I :In. I) i d' ~ .l>- th' f 'l1'd 'd P •• rd. 10 111 I
- 58. f II( Ire, B C m. met Iup<lago .mcrica hiitu, ...In~ma horizon 'pir3gu... thnlmp..,hl' m~!rop<)h' ,-"Un: na 1,ielin =0:1 Jm...on hnne' ta a.'I~risl ""A!IOJ lal» rinth r.ll.~t(Unl anal~"'ls Tb oni, In c""lumn, A nJ B are all stressed 011 th.: penultimate IDet. to-I ,I) ,) liable. '" luk th ..e in ""Iumn .are all ,Ire,. ed on the thllu '~l1able from th end fth· ni (the anlepenuJtunale,~ Ilabk). 'th.: foml ('ab~1 m c, dear Although tlk: tre"ing IIf the onh rna} seem arbllr.lf) al tilL n:-r. rene 10 ) Ibbl tru lure mak" dear that Ih.:re i, ','me s~ 'tem underl),n!! Ih' 'Igum III of Ire here. • l;abltJ ,mon of amp/t.- from Tahl' 3.:';) fe' eal hat Ire, i",i,;nnlenl I boise<! on. Figure _.15 prm Id the ~ Ibbit•.:ation of one repre,cmalie 'rd ( hoWll tn ph netk tron .-nptllln) from e ch column. Column Column B Column C Penulllm.lIc 'Ires J> nultimate 'tres, Amepenultlm;lte lre,,, a a a a a a a a a R R A/j I I 0 ' 0, o. c I I n o p b 1 o I I 5 - FEATURES 5.1 Why we use features Features as independent and coordinated elements PHONOlOCY (Hi fl N( HON 1 n "A.l'lER INC. OF SOUNO 95 hea,) "hile s)lIllble, "Ith Ju,t a hon 'owe1 nre sa.d 10 he . dtflerently. syllables with une rhHhmic beal or mo . li~l. 1.. I'Ultl h s · th h ' ra nre Iil!ht and those th lV.O dre env).l"'Olc! at t e tln"'ct cl,.)mnbut n thm Uab . "-1. :--;0" compare the e '" ords '" tth the represenlalt;e ~~ . k weipl f i · I~m In column C 'ee that the . nal yllaole 0 column C I not heavy· It " nctlhet closed e docs tt contrun a bran~hOg nucleus "',th the", tact5 before u nQr our generahzallon. We will be careful to Iimittt to English no..,;.~e can tate II) English nouns are stre ,cd on the penulumale s)llable ",hen II I hcay n!hem lse. !hey are tre"ed on the antepenultimate syllable. We have limited our generalilation to English nouns because the tre pallems of English are rather elaborate . 'evenbe1.". there b no doubt that ,yllaoilicalion play a central role m determining tre:>.s placement in English. Ithough !he phonetic and phonemic transcription up to thi> pomt ha, cmplo}ed segment. "!gmental n tation i i~1f a kind oi 'h nband, "nee segments are ultimatel) compo-.cd of features. The next section e up aspect of phonology.
- 59. OlllTrMf>( , JRARY II"lGUIST/CS ]o.J +syllabic -consonantal +Sonoranl -high +10'" +back -round Hense J J Thesefeatures define the egment as COn vowel. or glide (here, a Vowel) sonanl, Thee features define the placement of the tongue (here. a low back Vowel) ThIS feature defines lip rounding (here, Unro ThIS feature defines lensenessllaxness (he unded) Figure 3.16 Fealure malri, for Ihe English vowel la'/. re,lenSC) Feature~ and natural cau~es A second reason fnr viewing segmenls as composed of features is lh feature. may rcpresent a phonolog .ically relevant characteristic of seg· at each d d h · b h' f i ' . ments t un erslan w at IS meant y I IS, we Irst exarrune how fealures e . bl . 0 distinguish among classes of sounds ",ilh many members. For cxr:::n ~ Us 10 sel of sounds Ipl, It!, IlJl. and Is! can be readily distinguished from th p e, the Id!, Id31 and Id by the feature] voice] alone, In phonological terms ~sCIIbI, capture natural classes. which are classes of sound thaI share a i eature, tCaturcs, such as voice":ss Sl.opS, glides, high ·owels. nasal conson~~~~re Or so on. Any natural class reqUires fewer features to define il than to d Ii ,and f . e Inc any one 0 :ts members. In Tab.lc 3,25, for example, more features are needed I define a.ny of the segments III the class of Enahsh front vowels than t 0 o • 0 captu the enllre clas..: il takes ..even features to characterize the vOwellrel b rc ,. ,. /".. .fy , ut only our ealUres su ICC to speci the nalural class of front vowels. li1bJe 3.25 Two nalural cla'~e' : fronl and back vowels in English ! ",omOlWnl"'j +'yllabic +sollorant back h:1 ill [ o-{;on,unanlalj +S) lIahic +sciflorant +hack lu:1 1,,1 --<:onsona11lal +syllabic Honora", - back h.gh +Iow round leI /oJ lei 111 1a;1 lal 1,,:/ lIl'l,llI<'c 'l,.lIl1IC~ dl'iIJ1' llalllr<Ji da',es, we can Ill)W CC Illc illl'icvlliln' II) phll.Hllogllal .lIwly" . II IS IH,I Ind/Vldual pitollClllCS lIl:h ii' Ipl Ih/,/k/. and IglllI.1 C(1I1III11 III I'n 'il II: ,alher, Ille enllre class 01 vIII~l'd ~Iop mlllrN! "'1111 lit .1,15 III VIII ell's IlIp', II " Iltt' kalUlc IHII~cllllal IS '·'J11I1,ISlfc, 11<>1 III 10U/ldu,11 C 'III 'III , SlIIlt' Ie CUll "('/tile Ihe CIIIlII.,,1 hl'l""1l c.l,h I' "01 ('11'111 11111 <llhel1 (' HllIliral IItIUJi.III<111 I' I.' ,,1111' III Ihl f, lurl /('1 cl III 1111 IlIgh I .11111' 1 ('1111'10) d III II 11" ,," ,,,,,·d.' ay IIWI [Ill· J IS U di,lInflht f"alul' III In 'il II features, pro~esses, and allophOniC variation PHONOLOGY THE rUN( liON ANI) PAllfR NINe {Jf Cj,( )..lNlJ~ ()7 Other features provide for other contra!o,l!' F be I . s. Or exampte contmsl tween li and Is! in English w·lh th ' . we Can caplure lh. d I I ' I - I e leature lco li an s are vOIce ess and have an alve()lar po. f ' n nuantl· BOlh IV " , wn_~~ ~ lhe longue up IS used In the production uf one d n. , •..c faCltnal d ' th th ' SQUn and the tong bl use In eo er lS not relevant to lhi~ phonologic d" .. _ . ue. ade i~ h ~ be' d a !Stmcoon In Engl n can t. ere ore Ignore.J By viewing the relevanl distinctive f ,1. ,and lconllnuanl], we can use lne same fealure to distin ·h be ealure a, Ibl and lvi, and Id! and Id, . gUlS tween Ipl and IfI, Table 3.26 Slop-fricative ContraMs as a feature l-continuanl] p l+conlmuanlj f b v I d z By systematically examining the phonemic contrasts of a language. we can extract the phonologically distinctive features and Slate the phonemiC inventory in lerms of these irreducible linguistic elements. Reference to features also enables us lO understand the nature of allophonic variation more exactly_ Viewed from the perspective of feature<;_allophonic variation is not simply the substitution of one sound for another. but rather the environmentall) conditioned change or specification of a fe~ture or features. Processes like those presented in Chapter 2 are the primary factors in the changing of feature . Liquid-glide devoicing in Engli h, for example, is the change of the value of the feature [voice] from [+voice] to [-voice1 after voiceless consonant>. Vowel na"alization in Malay is the change of the value of the nasal feature from [-na: al]to l+na;al] under just the conditions taled in 8) on page I. Ceruin features capture.:l .', of .l)Und! that are 001 all a~ _ ret1ected In traditional dc"cnptie tenmnQlog) hut lhieh are al'o rele:ll1t I phuna- logkal paltemmg. The feature [c ronal], for e:..ample, refel'" to the cIa" of ",untb made lth the I ngue tip (lr blade mi ed. It tum, out that Ju,t thl t,';!ture i, requm.'! tl' -tat.: the c n_tramt on the ,elecuon of con'Qnant '~<.lll.:n,e~ III ~....-.Ja {'V-jul'n (I.e.. fl,lIO'Ing a vowel in the arnc) lshlel 10 rllgli~h pre. entl'! IOlhapt.:r I: ",hen a oel i, len'e and f('llNet! tlO ,'O''',)I.lOt" (pmt), l'l '" hen H,,el j, la'( ant! follo cd h) three con, nalll lll' Itl. Ih' final ,.'11 ,'n nl IllU" al"'ay' be +coronalllt. d. ,z. 9, '. J, ~ tJ , I d, I. F 'atun: .Ift'111U nl< rc th.lO ph netic' de"riptwn . ma differenl gUI e • -ll<.' f'llture, con ,d-rct! to be the ulumatc building I ph,'n, I, , lin 'W t h c tkmptcd to t all po Ihl ph nolo I aI f c ,h,]tll I ngua 11th th fc I Dumber f fe ture po hie II 11 hunted num r l'f fe tun: - WTCntl around t nt -four - h 1 'n lllut n tmportant p.u1 thear) In th ph n 10 bell :lOur f WI
- 60. INC.ul'irl( S " II .c ~ + i< + I + ... + .. .. .. C" + + I j.l:1- :/:; :I:I' :I: I ~:I: ' -'" + J -'" + .." + , -" - .. J + + , + + I + I + I + + I + I + I + :/' , + .. + .. , ,I' .. .. J .. .. , , .. , .. .. , + I I + I .. , + , 1' + I + t + + , + , + .. + + ! + + + I + + + + +, + I + I I I .. + 1 ++ + , .r; .. , .e'c.., + t Co. + I + I + .. + I .. e ~ " ij ~ ~ .g e .. .. f? ~ C I ." ::! + .. + ~ ~ ] Il. + I .. I ;;; ~ + + + + + , .. + :!I .. .. .. t: ~ , + , + , + , I .. , , + , + , + , + , + , + , + , + , , + , + + I + , + I + I + ~-- Thefeatures of English MUJordau IClin (,"""wll jrtllllh"l tltlflfJr"nll .. + .. byll"hlcl + + + + .. + + ... + .. + ---- + + + + ... .. + .. 1 . .,llnlljlfal {ealtlrl'S I:IIlcel + ... + + .. .. + .. Plan' [nltrlfe, lroulldl + + + I )onal!t'U/ure. Ihlghl ... Iuw l + + ib"ckl + + + + + + ilcnsei + + + + + Ireduced I + + ,.,ftJI1lleffeature.'; [continuanl} + + + + + + + + + ... + + The next section pre en! the feature, of Engli,h. Tahle 3.27 and '1 28 prescnt the con,>"nant and vowel cgmenL of English along with the feaw needed to represcntlhem in matrix form. It b a g(>Od idea to I"..k th c tah: over before gOIOg on to rcad ahout individual features. Most features have label ~ that renect traditional aniculatory terms uch a., [voicel, [con,onantall. and [nasal/. These features require Httle funhcr description. A few features have less familiar labels. such as [coronal and [antcrior]. From this point on, features Will be used to de cribc cia cs of sounds. At the same time. We will continue throughout the book to usc IIme- honoured terms such as ((JlHOnam. glide, and obHruenl (a lricatilc, attnc:tte, or non-naal LOp) in phonetic de cription.The tradltionaltcnnlnology ,.,11 be maintained because it is till,. iddy u cd In phonetic d~cription. Feature. are not mngcd haph;vardly In a maim.. Rather, they arc organilcd into group. that retlcct natural classes. The follo1iing he'..dlngs Indicate whal the'l! c1a.,scs are and ho,. the features represent them. Jajor c~ featUre!> (Tat>le :1.:!9) Fell/lire, Ihal Tt-p,t'Sl'nI Ihe dtUlef ,'ol/ otrllnl, Ob l/rt/elIl, (Uld OllorQIII (nasal. liquid. RIIlIt· and WI,e/I. [cononuntal] Produccu ,. ith a major obstruction in the vocal tracI All nOll ,onorant wnWllanh ure [+consonantal]. £OlI/rll'l , [p h I I 3 tI d31 [s)lIullicl VOllel and syllat>lc hquld, and DOle als. E:mmple . It: c u. I r '11 1)1 0 el • ghde • UQU1 and
- 61. Ihhl,' ,~,2'1 U corl11al,}l liJ" h.-atun:... ( )f,lru,-nl Uu't'I. t...ilitlt'.'j Liquid, --v--- 1('llt"un.ull~IJI ____ " a'(li s + + -:--- I ) 113hl~1 + + I~llfhlfdnrl + + + + /. eWI/,lt" ph z H 1:0.' JW I I' n, n --- l.ar)lIIlCIII fenlurcs F"lIlIm'" Ilwl repr<!Selll larYl/g",,1 SllI/.W. I,"iet') ·11 nll~~d sounds arc I+voice]; all voiceless sounth nrc l-voiceJ. l'pn'lId Illoltisl (ISG]) ThIs feature distinguishes unaspiraled frOm '''pinned wnsonanh. splraled consonams arc [+SGI. [Clln,lriclcd Illllltisl (leG]) Milde with Ihe glotlis dosed. In English ollly Ihe gloll;!1 lOp I?I is I+CGI· . • Plncl' ft'lIlUres (rail!.: 1. ~O) Ft'1I11lrt'S IlulI r""r".I'I'1II plan' of UnfW/u. l;(m [Illbinl) on) s"und articulal<!d with onc or both lips is [+laoiaIJ. In Englosh: Ipllhlll'J 1llwl, S<!c [round]. [round I ROllIHkd 'oll'l'Is and Ihe rounded labiovt:lul' glode I" I ound, Ihal aJ't'l+rollndl arc made by protruding the lips; Iherefore. all [+roundl sOUlH.Is ;In' also 1+lahiaJi Sounds thm nrc 1+lnl'1ial]. however. arc nOI nl'l"'""nly I+rountll. 'liKe sounds Iokc [p) or If] can l'1e prndueed ilhoUi nccl',,:uily rounding Iht' lips Icorona" n) M)und arti<:ulatcd with Ihe tongue tip or blade raised" r won"ll. f.'tII1/j1/n·ltJ Id]IOI [d] lsI [zl [tn [d:;J [n] [I] [rl. Illotcriorl ,n) sound artll:ulalcd III fronl of the palato-alveolar regIon" <'(1ll1d",cd Il' Ix'l+anlerillrl. £wfllj1les : [pI fbI [t) [dllsJ [i] [e] I()]. [strident] rhl' '1Illis) . fn,ali,,~, and affricates only. In Engli'h.lsI ll] In 13111J1 il1d Id:;1 an: 1+'lIid':I1I]. IIbl,·.UO ll,,' "I pl.Il·,' I,f uni,'ulUlion fealures Dc'lI/a/." Pdlato ~ I'ah",,/."; /'lIhi</I., dhto!arJ a('l'fJ/t'''l 't,'lan /lIll<'fll" J + ( ,'ron.JI + + f. ""'1,1 , 1'''01 Itl,lhl J31J.l3 kg I) III I' ;.3 Representation and the feature hierarchy Reading the feature hierarch : node and tier I'tI()NOUH.Y t HI I J N( 11('N A.Nt, 1'''I1fkNIN<' 0 , DUNU 0 Dorsal features I t .t'll IIre. tlUII rt>prt',t'tU pi . /(IIIRtU'. tUt"nlt'm oJ IIw hudV pi Ih... [high] Sounds pmduced Wilh Ihe IImgut! 1x1( , 1+highJ. This applies III Ix'lh Vowels and Y ra"ed arc (I>II hlO!Ti!<I 1jlkj [gj. ' CIIOs"nan,s. barnpl.. " '1 [low] Vow,cls made with Ihe longuo hody d" I central position on Ihe ornl cavity are I+Iowl ~slmci/ Inwered lrom " lind [71 are 1101 [+Iowl smce Ihey are not mad'e i~~~'P fY I · ["'llu'; hm [h COra cavlly. [back] Any sound arliculaled hehind the palatal region in the llI" I .. £mmp/I!s: [u:] [mIl [0:1 Ikllgj. a CaVlly. [tense] Caplures Ihe tense-lax distinctions among vowels. [reduced] Only the schwa (lal) is l+reduced1. Manner features Feurures IIwl represell/ mDllller ofQrliclliario". [nasal] Any sound made with the velum lowered is l+na:;al]. [continuant] Free or nearly free airflow though the oral cavity: vowels, fricatives. glides. and liquids. £~"mp/es: Ie] [s] [j1 [r]. [lateral] All and only varieties of / are [+lateral). (See page 33.) [delayed release] All and only affncate consonants such a, ltIl and ld3 are [+delayed release]. Feature notation does not provide a convenient way to distinguish diphthongs like [al]. [au). and [:)1] from the other vowels. These diphthongs may be treated as vowel-'owel 'equence when using features. For example. [al] can be regarded as [al] ([a] + [I]). [au] a:; [au) ([a] + [uj). and so on. We have seen thai e!!:menl!> are composed of maller e1emenl!> called feature.,. We have also 'een -that features are organized into groupmgs that reflect natural cla:; e . Figure 3.17 (oerleaf) presents the grouping of features into a feature hierarch). which i a representation of how features are related to each other. E~lch feature grouping in the feature hierarch~ i' represented by a lal1el called ,I cia node or simpl~ node (the nooe symbol is a mall circle: 0). Benl.'llth t'a.:h node arc grouped the feature or feature that make up thai subela '. ,'ode and feature are mnked on lewL- or tiers that reflecI their rclauon to ca -h other. For e'ample. all major cia:, feature are grouped together at the hl!!lJcsl node, called the root node. The root node thu define whether a ,-gmen! is a VOcl. con. onant. or glide.
- 62. 6 ' U ", IlMPORARYllNGUI TIf ~ r l'on onumal I onorunl ~)lIabic ) o 4 'V1ajur da",~ feature ~______ Root node u 1laryngeal] "[place) - - - - 0 [mannerl '''''~:/, () Ilabiall () Icoronall Iround1 'anlwo,' I ",denlJ Ih.ghJ IJowllhackJ Ilen«1 Ina.~11 fcununuanlJ (litteral) DkJ Figure 3.17 The feature hierarchy On the first lier under lhe rOOI node are placed the nodes and features th;' specify all the rem;tining amculatory properties of a segment frUIn tilt. laryngeal node branch out the features that capture VOicing ,lates. The placf node branches out into lhe major place features. The manner node branchc out into fcalUres that relatc 10 general manner of articulaJlon Nodes scrve a dual purpose in the hierarchy. First. lhey function as luhel> for natural classcs of fealUre, - hence label~ like laryngeal J/ode. place /lode and manlier /lode, Atthc same lime, nodes. like features themselves. may be referred to direclly when making sialements about procc,ses. While feature representation may at first look more complex and clumsy than sLrictly segmental reprc,cntation. it is in !he long run vt!f)' "dvantageous. Instead of Ii,ting individual ,cIS of contrastive phoneme". we can caplure contrasts aL the level of the feature as in English. where we can say thai the feature [voice] IS contrastive. Much allophonic variation can now be represented as the addIlion. loss. or change of a fel. fealUres. The innuence of the conditioning environment is also made more obvious with this type of representation. as shown in scction 7 of this chapter.4 IH JlI VA TJ()N~ A ND At this pomt. wc have established the existence of thn:c hierarchically related RUII OIOH RINC levels of phollological structure. In this modeL phonological clements from a lower level arc organi/ed and grouped inlo higher· level clement,. Thus. }i·alll/'('.1 an~ grouped inlO (segmental) phollemes, which In tllrn arc org<lllllcd lOW .1'11/"",1'., We have abo seen how general stalement, Ihal refer to natufJI c1ass!:s null ,yllanlc struetun: aCCOUnl for the presence of non Cllnlm,slic .'tHH-.I{J(){.V 1Ht tUN( llC. ~ "Nt' P'hTlt1l:N1NC. Of 0 Il 11 dement.... Current hn~U1 lJ.,; "!!ol I pru"t u.1 phonC:1H: rcpn!!-.emalmn.-. tn h h'lmulltann r wuy 0 1m. rhunt:,' g 'and Tht! relallon...hlp hctwcen phtmuuglc.ll arlll l'hnnt!ulo;. turmah7ed b} as...ummg that the unnred'tluhlp t· . Ttprc:senbtlCm 1 . t · . . . . eatUf::~ lit the hi ...cgmcnt are bu'm; ur undt r'yinj!.. l'hr our "re..... p .m.emu,; . .' .- n purl'''''' the'- pJum~nllc and untlerlvtn1.' mC~tn lh(" ~unc thin' Ph'.n • _.m . ' t:lc representauo lhen denved hy the u," ot phonolul!,ical rul"" Ifor n I Ill> are IW We , fl:{er '"'- general '.lal~men' ,uch 'l' Xi nn page 1 1 and 9) Ull pao.e 91... I. . I II h ~ ~ ru n. III tum 7 we WI ,ee ow lhe,e 'lalemen" arc furmahLed I In r"- ~__ . . , . . n ut=r to ~p the. presenlallon Simple. underlYIIlg and den,cd repre,entaU""s are ~iv~n In segmenlal cran,cnpllon. nevcnhcle" keep In mmd that al ~gment are understood 10 he compo,ed 01 lealures Figure 3.18 Phonelic forms arc derived by selling up the underlying rep~()n~ called an underlyill[{ form) and then allowing the rule or rule~ in 4U.,II"n ~l operate in those contexh where Ihey are relevanl. The derivation of lhree phonelic representations (PRs) from underlYing representations (URs) is presented in Figure 3.18. Here. the underlymg representation is on the top line (the cross hatch l#l symboli/es a wurd boundary); reading downward. each rule appbes if the appropriate input i pre,enl, and the underlying representation is adjusted ~ required. V>1tere a rule faib to apply. the form remains unchanged: this information IS conveyed by dashes. The resulting output then serves as the input to the following rule. Finally. when all rules relevant to the derivalion in question have applied. a phonetic representation is provided. The two rules pres~nted ~n the following example are aspirallon and vowellengthemng (see section 4.~). UR #sleep# 'slap' #teep# 'tap #peed# 'pad' Aspiration #theep# #phred# V-length #phred# PR [sleep} [theep] [p"redl The phonological derivalion 01 three Engli"" wrds. In !his e>,ample. 10 rules are applied (since the word~ being derived ~e all monosvl1ahic. the ') liable boundaries are equivalent to word boundaric and so ~ not indicalcd herel. The first accoun~ for. asplral10n. S~nce ~e inilial con.onanl of !he URs #1a!P# and #pa:d# are vOicele., ,tOp> found 1 onsel position, !he) fllllil the conditions lID?er.which Enghs~ stops. bec1~e aspir.led. We therefore indicate that asplratlOn occu" b) prm tdtng an inlemlediate fonn on a new Itne. . We ha c aho secn Ihat. in Eng.lish. vowel. are predJClahl~ long y, h.:n ~he~. . 11 bl 1 F' I th' lrefs ot ()<xur hefore a oiccd stop tn the same sy a e. n tgure • • c 1,,1' and 1<11' occur hcfon~ Oicele" ,top, and 0 are DOl kng!hcned. The
- 63. no....~ddnd f dinR fill.. ppll(..lion In l-i 'nl<' I,IS, I,' ,,1' 1111' ,11'1'1"',II;"n "f 111<' rull" (1ll'lIgl"h ;"l'nall(111 anl! ,l ,'I knc:lih.'llltl " dlh:h .Ipph !ll ,lil.'·h.",' ,hlP' .Ind 4.)"1. h.'IX'l'tit,'h. 'nIl' Ih,lI Ih,' ,'Ill """"11'11" III I Illdl ,'adl "I Illl'" , nlk, .11'1'1) ,,,n"'1 ald rr~ ,,,1.1 ['<""11'", n"f'<', 111<"11 I ,II' "lln<'l "111,'1','111, 1h"I'I<l1 " Ih,"" lule, Ull Ihl. lUll') 11..1 01 .Iflt·l~t ".ldl ,,(IWI tn .m, .. thl' ,'ldt'l' 11 hi,:h th.o an: Ipph·tt m.'''-,'' IH' tl!I h:n.'I1".' hlllh,'lUh:,'l11l' (.' a t:h.'rh .llhlll. l·it-:uh. ' , IQ 'hUh Jll<' ',1111"1111.-, .11'1'1",,, III h'l 'I,,','l "'I : Ihl'1 'i, no dilkll'!ln' III 11", 'Uk"llle I R kll~lh I 'IHI,I(ltlll Pi{ ,' Ihrf'f,l!,' uno,..'.I (/ I IIh f Ihl,l'JI# ,I,ll' 1,la'pI #1;1'1'# 1,'1' liP;I'dll ",Id #p.l'dll 111h,"1'# I/ph,~dll Ilh;l'fll II'h;l'd I &.3 The form .lnd notation of rules Rules IIN ANll ""'11l<NIN(, 1.) 11K SIn.'" Sl'hwil·I.h.·lcllun 111111111 ~1iuc "CVIIClIlf • 1 Vnw(,.'l h,'ng,thcnmg PR "1''''''IlI" nlllCI"" nlllcIII" #PI""I# ()UN')~ 105 Ilunnulty nnt written in dcnvutmn,. hl.!rc inlltl.:i-lh.: fl.!cdillO r'l' t' II • , . ' , , c> c a Om, ip~. NlllI~e IInw thm nil Illcorreci Illrllls wlluld result If S"y th' 'h ' " • • ' Ll. C c Wit-udellnn ruk lIlIl'mplcd III apply hclore Ihe ,Iress ntle Becnuse i'" env'lr" . ' . '-' nmen' i... not plcscnt, Ihe schwn~dcle"on rule would Simply fail to apply, However, lnce Ihe ,Ir,'" rule w", apphell, Ihe ,chwa,llcletllln rule coulll then fOllow III It~ tunt, ultimately Icadlllg til a Cllrrect phonetic rcprc,emation, What thesc facls suggc,t, is that rule, in a leedlllg rcl:ltilln may apply in Jree <>rdt'T, ~ach IIllcmp"ng til apply .... here'cr the rcqulred conditions arc met, .... lth no neell 1<1 '''l'ul:lc .... hkh rule applies liN The result will he the liesired phonetic nUlplll Gent:ral slalem nb aholll allllphontc lii,trihulion are fom1alileli a., rules, which rt:flt:cllhc dynamic nalurc ,,1' processes Chapter:O, scct;on 9,~1. Rules take the folln" ing form, 12) A --+ R 'X_ r
- 64. I '" Dt'lt·tion .1'.1 rill., EI)~lIltw'i, .ltlll.ltph.l fut , "11.111,, +''11'I ant ,lll. n sal 13) I "",,'1 ' " "II,I!I,,· .',II"IIl.U11.11 ,.'lHlIIIlU,11H ,'Ih:l' d 'I." 1.',1 h.:k',h", 1 h..1Uld, .md 'lId,.'... tx"':llml~ "'h,'l'h.'" •• th." "II.thk' 111111.11 ,lh:.~k·" 'hllh Ruk' .11,1 I '.IIU1· 11<'1.111<>11 1;', tl1,III~ "'1" ',,'tI" till' ,'n'lIl "I .11I"l'h,,",., l'hl'll1 ·th.... 1'1' ' ,,'..,', lh.1I .1I1't' In the.' I".·tll~r,c..· )1 'I ',,':h. F"f .,,·.lI.nph,.'. t~ ,1'1 ,'Kill: ,'f 1,,1'".1, .111.1 ~ltd," Itl "l1gl"h .' ,I I) "1,·.•1"1"1""'" II .1""IIIIJtl<)n IIt, nlk '1'1.111<111 III "'fll...• 1~ I ,h'I' ~,plll·lth h,, tl~" ,:h.lIg~ ,'I 1+1<"< I ttl l "Ii. -I l.·.~tlr' III . "'1 •....Iltl· .1.,' of ''')lUll)...' h.llll'l In' tlh,' '1.1" l'lt t~lPS th.•II' I '.,''1. ,' h.1I ••11...•.•.1) ,,·,'II.h,1I I'l1d"h 'IX'.I""f "plI'Il.III~ "wI' ,. '~hll~ I~I III .111 "('t'11 ') II,.",~ " h,'11 it " ,-.,It., ,'d h) .•,Ir '" '.I , 1I.lhl<'. ,.' 1111",11, "Ipk'i .1II.J/,.lI• .{, II' '1.11. III<' rllk ",Ill h,' I,'nn.llil,'d ,h ,h,, 11111 hgllf" J2~.II"1I: l' I;'; .tIl .tbhh' I.lth'n f(l! .111) l1umb or '11' ,Ul',,'l'S,l l' ""'U'('Itl.l1lh fn)1l1 ll'm u~ .111.1 11 n'I'''''''III' .1 ') 1I,lh'" 1,>llInd.ll".. I"h I'u'h,h "IIII,I,k-ku,," ntk IUII'r.l<'l lh Ihl ",",lrUI1I ,In ro".t-I~ ,"U"'II,IIII ,,"llI,'II'," II ,1I1"I1I,III('"II~ fall, hI '1'I'h h~11 un imIX'fI1u"it-k 'l'lU 'II," ,Iuld I "1I1t Sill,',' 1111'1" and 01.11 .no: IInlx'nlll"it-k 'll'~" in F Igli'h. Ih 'n' .11< n,l 1<11111' h~l' 11'1 1;>('1/' 1/<1/0 "f 1.111:11 d<'l, It' ("""1'1 111<'11" '111<'1) ",1 '1',',',hI. Flgurt'l.l .1 Rules Ih.ll refer to ,yll,lble structure "'H1NIHIH'1 1111 'liN 'I'IN I Nil IAI', ~t<lN ) ) ( <.'lIlI"I;IIIII' I 'S) lIah." ..~nnmanl (l h",'~ ')s~mOI~ "S) lI..hlC t'lmlll'ant l) Hense (t hu~~ 1117 RCllIemheL in fcadllg ,10 "Ipha. you arc rcading a rule Iwice. lnce ....1111 Ih,' plll lalue lor Ihe alpha 1c"1Ut'e. and once "ith Ihe minus alul!, The nlk 10 Figure ,'-2.1 ,Ialcs Ih"l ,I +ha...k) glide b tnscncd aller a 1+>ao,1 lHll1-lm' "",eI and Ih"l " - ha~kl ghd~ I, Ilscned ailer a I-hack 11"",10" II.'. Sinl'c Ihere afe onl} I" 11 glides in Ihe phl1nl1logl~al inenllIV or Fnglish. +ba.:"l 11 ~nd hac"IIi!. Ihe correci glide will "" inscncd II) Ihl.' ntle. Recall lh~ nih: lIf '(1w.:I Icnglhenin~ in Fngli~h. This ntl<' makes rderence to syllanh: truO:IUt'e. J.I) English ytl ...b ,ire long hen f,IIO" cd h) a oked ot"lnt~nt consonanl in Ih' ':un~ s~ lIabk PI',,'nl J a,:1 ntlt', an unJerl)ing shllfl od i~ Ienglh'ned in the appfpOlIC ','lI~ I The 1"U1IJar~ of lhe ') lIank ma~ be repre,el1l~J h) a br~d.el an.! J ,ub"'ripl cr, ,I' t1 hgur' _.2..k s~ Ililhil' 1 'OI1"I1;l1lal ... 'lwr:1I11 - h.'ng ,-- -wlhthk a -h:.""_I1lll1al1l;l1 -'l)nl)ram +- )l....t' -na'.I1
- 65. Itt' II ,,11;1'1' ,','II'I.U1..1 ,Ith. I' , . I,I t I UI,,~!.n1t'nt.,I pM 'iplt'~ 1 'P" s n'd ", 'h,~ ,Uh'lh{,1 Cl1'I.'lhml.tl ~, 11.,>.,' .....,'tt 1.ll1 I I I' I I l' ... _ I > .1: ••1: ( I lH NO CI'I n h' h:ln','1.Ull. + ','n''lnJ.IJ. " Il••h.c ')1I.,h" +"1)'.1,, ""'1 rJ.nl n ,l II R, 000 I I " I' .mo~r 0 --- - j I 1+'1.1',11 I I) "
- 66. Ir+-scnor.ml- o :.3 Tonal a" imilationas a repre-entation p LO (' 'e :lIream "",n 1Ft ,I ted in rule format le",h 1 -If ~U 1 --.:on. 3D1 I' '. I:lt>i - . ) ~'f3Jlt T. o o l___ "Onunu:mt) o l- ;::el Ip L H tun' 1 , o R node ~ l.... ntmuant l- o
- 67. -" Pro('t' 'to ,rule~ and r pre't'nt.llion.: a fa 1 ord 1I , TI H l II .~nh h,' y' Ill.'n ·!>ea.nf' H Ii I u dau 'mu~h' lunk." ',h"ep Wh n .1 I" if )Ih all I Ii II>n;)1 pJllem i, fi,II,l ,·ll h) ;) l'rJ ith I,o~. ,u 'h .1' Ih,' roolll ii '1') 1"'(. the H l"ll~ "I' Ih~ li~1 ,'ro I>eClllll.tn ~ • • U · · ' h . ~L .' lJ:!li .uth,,'g' he.' "('Inll,~~ .1l'l.t'" £1(11 .It ... nt"t .l .1ft og : Itl.:)f'J 'beam' ~': 'm~' m: .,Ali ''11 I1t'( a Ot.'.lnJ'. and ...,) (,)ll, Th" 1,'nJI chan!!,· " .1 ~ind of :I."illlilllli,'n. .md pllralkl, ':"In pn ~e',(... If a..,imil.l(H)n ('If ...e:!~lcnlal fc~ture... Thi.•1s~lmll.Ul()n I' 'I~:~ 1» r,h,'n,'I,'!!"I,:I.' J 'pre;ldmg 01 Ih.: L I,'n' I>ll.:~":ml~. tnlm Ihe ""rd z"h h' Ilk IJn~' ,'t'l "flh' pn·':l'l.hng ord. a.nd I' sh,m II til hgun· 3J~ h) ora"ln" a d,'lIed .""...·1.11;'0 I;n~ ("hil"h represent, Ihl.' .:hange ill 1,'11,·) .mJ hreak' ~ .• .. I .. I' . h I h' Inc me ,'nglftJ. .1. ',,'I.lll(,ln me." from ( ~ 0(' l) t e hlnncr h,ln.' ,jlu(' ((h~ h - dou!>l... lines indil-"I·lhl.' 1o" of",,,,,;alion. I'D H L LH L t I~ A k,,,u, !>ai 'II', 1101 II ".U1h"g' m;.ri hai 'if" nOI .11>e.trd' L H L L H L A , I I /1 , f U;tIU hal 'jl nt)t mu...h' IUn!..o hlli 'it', n(ll ,hl.'cp· 11m,. ""Ih (1.'.lIur,·, .lI1d 10llal malenal are handlt:d h lhl' ,ame Iyp.: Ilf repr,""JJ{alioll .lIld Ihl' '.II1l· pnnciple" The a'mbU<ll u. e of It'IIUn:' Illd . I 1 ' '11 • ., pmce"l' III I' Innll ogl,"11 dl''''npIH," n:11< th III nallle 1131un,' of hnglll'I;~ heha IOUI. 1,,,,,. Ih... U,,' lit k.IlI1fC I re 1'13 b.I'lL re,d nl ph""lllngl<"11 a...u II~ - ","nlr. ,,- 1.lk, pl.lll' nn Ih, C3!Ure ,' ct. not In lh . 1· I h.' f e, l " <ft ,,'glll nh ar,' n:pr<·'l·lIll.'d. :i"~'IId Ih,' II.'~ o pnxe. lIo1aUOll nod ml • , , r . • l ,on1a Ilallnn re/l':1 Ih.. 1,·.lhll<· "I 1t1l~1"'I'" 8 S,I unbounded feet Pl It )NOI t H •.,. lilt I UN It ''''I "Ill 11 1 t:~N'N CH In t 1 Nt) ~ !tln language, "'hillil ,lr6" hid, " .!dined a, lh,' n"1 '.,'" I • • " , ' , < .......... '- ... ~c .. prulnnC'n e nt nne: ()f llnfC ~ 111"1: dl"mcm~ u'~r )h~r, m a ,.lrd ,Chapler 2. ,:lun X ~). Rt....:~IU that ~ln..',~ 1~ l"a~'l~ lX'f12l"l'cd to Eng.H...h in p~Hr n ~malll.'al Iclated words ...u('h ,Is the: contr,hlmg nnun and verb patf!'r. pfc:-.cnt/prescl1t. nd ,'/,orllnl'<>" (,ee Chal''''r ~. '~"lJnn 1l.3). This !~ctilHl i... ..:~'nl:c:~cd ~llh 'lrc...... hose plat.:c11l!nl can he prel..h~to.l b gencral ImgUJ'lIc pnnClple" fhc ,tu.!) "f str~" placement l. ",[cO'"llo ) metrics Properly 'pea!..lng. it I' Ihe rhyme "f a ,~Ilahk lhal hc:lt'- tre h"" ever, currl'nt 11I'lal",n rekt'i directly III syllabic, In r'prl"Clllmg str'" The fonnalizalion or ,lre" in lIlu"h curr~nt anal) ,is re,,, "n lhe Usc o[ ml" called metrical feel (nflen rekrrcd 10 'impl) a, j"el. whICh arc dement, "f melD.:al ,tructure consisting <,f a slre"cd ') Ilahk ami .m a", 'ialcd UI1~lressed syllable (,'r syllahlc,), To sec hO lh" "or!..., Tahlc 3.31 ,h,,, an e mnple from French. Tabld.3L P'" ;l1111 emponcr .unkalem ~n( h.bPltali. ;.lli('In ·...l~p· 'friend' 'c~"ff' ':unI,ahly' ·b'~rltJ.hl.th.)n· In French. th' la.1 1 1.'1 of:l ord recell cs prim.ll) sIre". !l.ktri a feCI capture this final stTe" by pla.:ing :11 " ilir<'.:lly ocr the rightJ1l,'sl (final' S lIahk lIudeus l,f .1 ,lrd ;)1 .1 kId <,I' represent;)ll 'n c lkd th< fooll~HI Cthlressl'd sl.lblcs Wilhin the ti.)t'[ ;U't! represenl'd hy <lllls: Ih, f'llll i <'ndo.ed III parenthc,', !Xlails 1'1' 'yllabk 'tnlclUre .lr, nlll gicn unl " II
- 68. l . .)( . x) (x) FOOL level a a lJ a a lJ a a ami~3lemenl ami pas Figure 3.33 Pench slress: right-he.lded t.roboooded foot. Some languages predictably stress the initial syllable of each loon!. Fi lire 33-1 shows a left-headed unbounded foot (a foot in which the head is I~ c:d over the leftmosl ,yllablel. htch is needed 10 represent the Intllal 'tre at partern of the Hungarian words for ·mixed·. '~eep stining·. and 'un,urr ,.I. Lng <u • (x .) a a k e ' e r t (x .) a a a ke'ergcI (x a a a kevere ,) a len Figure 3.34 Hungarian stress: left·headed unbounded foot. B.2 Bounded feet Frequently. more than one mess is heard in a word. In man) language,. Iooni> with multiple stresses fall on alternating syllables. Alternating stre"es can be heard in English words like imecd6ral and prol'idilllial In Chemehuc,i Ian Amerindian language spoken in California), the word Ita :>rSlllliil'i 'slhe like,' is a typical example of ahernating stress, In alternating stress languages, the stres es fall exactly two syllables apan (degenerate feet excepted), and ani) one stress is primary in each word. Alternating stre" is captured by employmg a con,lltuen! called a bounded foot, which is a unit of metrical representation thaI consists of a stressed syllable and no more than one unstressed svllable. . Bounded-feet can be left-headed or right-headed. You may already be lamlItar With such traditional terms in poetic metre as trochaic and iambic which capture thi, inSIght (Figure 3,35), A trochaic foot is equivalent to a bounded. left-headed foot. An iambic foot is equivalent to a bounded. right- headed fool. Figure 3,35 Building in either directiOn 1111 IlJNI I 1"'1 ANU l'All B!:NINI 01 t,(J [,{('",:hall: runt lhuumJC'd.ldl-ht!i.ltlCUl Ix , J n n prOlUhC l.ulIbt: tU()l (hound J lI~ll hea'~d, I "I }'out level u n u Since alternating ~ress anguagt!~ "how more than un ~ f .. , f c om on t!01(.;h lJurl ~e have to asstgn eel In the wOfC.h, in !o,omc "'y~temati" " ' bl l: manner h cell,) rcusonn c to assume that fect are ~I.......iuned to a wor I b .. .. .' b l Y ....taTtlng at the b~glntlng of the word. and workmg lhnmgh it from lett 10 r' hi e , . Ig ,rlgure .,.36 ,hows both left-headed and rlg.ht·headed bounded feCI bu'lit fro I I . .. m l! t'U-f!hl over words III IWO different language" Nmc lhe presence of dcgen<ralc feCI In twO 01 the examples; remember thallhese result because a head IS required ,)n each foot. and wheneve~ hlllaryleet are constructed over an odd numher of syllables, one syllable Ioill be lelt ovcr at the end of the procedure, In lhe e"ample. wordsare given with pnmary sUe"es ani}: how Sl.'Condary "resse, arc represented IS shown later on III thL' section, The arrows are placed before the feet simply as a reminder of directionality of application; the) are nlll ordtnarily written. The syllable numbers arc aha provided for the sake of clarity and are also not usually written. Left-headed bounded foot. left-to-right application Language: Maranungku (Australia) --t (x ,) (x .)(x) I a 0 k a rat e t i 'prawn' --t (x .) (x ,) (x ,) wclepelemanta 'k.indofduck' Right-headed bounded fOOL left-to-right application Language: Chemehuevi (California) --t (. x) (. x)(xl FOOL level u n i n u p 4 r u 'make' --t t. x) (. x) (, xl Footleel h a + 4 ~ u t u i v 4 'slhe liked' Figure 3,36 Two types of alternating stress. left·to·right apptlcation, As the~e e"amples show, left-headed bounded feet ordinarii) result in stresses on odd-numbered syllables, white right-headed bounded feel resulllll stresse on even-numbered syllables,
- 69. --._- ~-- HI ~ IRII ',LI II, • ~h;."'(t t"lllnd,,'d h~ll . n 'hi ", ldl Pl'iI,'al"'" 1<In 'U,h!C 01,'" l ,'11" 111,'1,,) ) ( I· R,!;hl h,',llkJ h",""J.od ""'I, d""! '," T1~ht h' h;1t .Ipplh."lhnn l .m "ll'~.· .'11 (N,," (itlllll'.1) II I II ,I "' ,I '''11'1 ' Ii!;UH' 1_.1; 1 fir" 1! 1~Uh:"·. hu ,,' ,,·r.lhI.'H' 1.'".11... hllx'lll' n,',I'..OI1 h' ,t"Uf1W 111 'I I ... r" Mil' a' ,11'1'11,,<111"111 n 'hi h. it'll, "",,'1h,' ,11", r,',ul" ...," I> •"hl;II11<'" h, L II . "111 'lOg Ih",lrr1llpll.l1"/1'll111I,'d le.:ll""" k II (., 11 'hI. 'iI""",,, Ih,' "",<1,, "'''''1111' " ,',11"1'1<" ,,111 ;11'0 lall ,'/I Ih,' I,r I .1OtI Ilmd , lIahks IIh 1"11 I ," • "n 'hi "l'rh,-al""I.11011 ,'all" ,'Idl Ih,lI 'Ill'"'' ,'ppl1l,tI n 'hi 11,1<'111/1 Ih,"" 1,,1 'I . I I.l)!l',' Th,' ,11''''''1 III Ih" 'I""'"'''' lit" '" Ih,' ""'I Ih,lI Ih,' "1<1, '" hJll1rc I 7 ahole ,111",,",,'101 0111 ",,'n nl11111ll'1 1,1 s,l1a1>ic, I'h,' ,II,'" I'alt,'," "I . . ~~ In Ihes<' """,' lallgl1ag'" II IIh "dd nUll.hcr, ,,1 ,,11,,1>11', ,,111 111'1 ""'k "UI link'" sll,'" " "1'1'1,,'<1 nghl I" it'll 1',,'Iln .1 .It( Shl'"' 111l' ,'O"WI 'I....·"i". I,'r 1 0 hum, lilt a" "dd 111111>", "f ,yl1ahk,. 1.t'1I·h,'atll'd [>01,,11"<1 10,,(, """1('(,/II);hl 10·1<'1 "l'l'iI,'all"" LoIII!;I1ag,' W,,,a,' (. II 1( Jill a, a /I a,' 'Iw 1,,",,<1 II' R'chl h,'a,it'<I h"lll"ktll"ol. , .,1/1>', ./ 1ighl 10 1,'11 .lpI'I1";1I1"" LiIll);I1ag,· WClI "IlUrt" .111 J.:'f:hl ·lo 1"'1 "1'1'11, .,111 """ W, "cI,,Ih .11weld 1111",111" "I ' yll,.hh. II" .....lill' Ih",","" I I,Ut'" I',IIIt'1 I1lt"IIlIIt·,1 III tht·" ,1.111~II.lgt ·,. IIOIWIt'I, 11 'l'1I til appl' 'irl'" r"'rIl kit III IIghl IlIlh,',,' i111II1',llInllTl'lI pall,'III' fl"IIII, a, h 'III,' ,.'I,h11w, . 1'1",,1'101<. III 111.1"1 111 ~"') II h,'lh" .11I"llIating I"",,·, ;11,' IWlltg .IPl'ltl'd Irh III rl 'ht 0, rlgll1 tn kit ill a lal1guage. ",' 11111,1 I", ~u,,' In ..,lI11Il.1I<' W'".1, "'Ilt hlllil odd .111<1 eh'lI IIU1l1h"l'Il ') 1I"l1k, tll,II" , ", ".1 l'rl1n"ry .1nll t ' (Ul1d.,r ,trt'" !'II11Nllllll., 111 1 INI 11 It<.t I "'I tH.."tnlhlthhd tllll' 1111 ,I",., t h" tp ,,·tu uP,'" Ihl1 I .1lrt.'~'· ,1 .ttl , l II (1, (l. 0 n,o, I , " .1 I . n .1 " til' I 'It "'H U ItI '" Illh ) II )Iltl ., k tI t l' PI' It. 1111kl(,11<1 11ll' h."" "I "~",,,I.II ' ,I"'",s,,'111,,"'11 "" I ... I ' nt: tUn lIIH" Vq lh' 'H."'"1' nt til" unl /"""'''(,111',1 c"JI"I tin 11 'UI' , v.-h;1 :.. t' kll tth Ihl' "PIU""IIII1H,-'~' lh.I ...1H'SS 1.1 IWt:1l .'" '1 ,,111 "ll lHh In' I tills .1' ,,," ,hl' l' ;,,, Sill'" hl" lnlv IW'1 .1"I~I1n' tn "','to' 1h, pl.ll'I1"1 Ilt ...tll.-" on l!: 'Iud " Il'PI'",'nl'd h ,'''''g11 1 ,1 nn.1 1""" h.'V nl1 111.Sll1 1" ''IllFI) (alk" 11" wunll,·,,·l. """1 111'" """' '"'''' ll11lh. 1""11," I Iv" word 1<',,11''1'1 .11,'lIlusl",I,'" ill1'i 'Ill,' III ( ,I (l (l C1 0
- 70. INC.UISTI( S pattern. "enegm ,I~ ahow hy hulldlng nght-hcaded bounded fcci I to nghl over lhe word lornr allhe fnol level (Figure 3.-11 ). rlJln leiI (. xI(. X) t. ~) Fool level a cr aao 0 ha?i Ulu I v i figure 3.41 Ino,,,lloo' buikling in C"',",.f1u('vi: righl·headed bounded (eetlefl·lo.righl i1f~>lK ill'lIl. On the word Icvel (Figure 3.42). we build (for Chemehuevi) a Icfl·h ,. unbounded fOOl ovcr the leftmoM fOOl-level stress. This captures lhe f. ~"dCd . th . aq Ihal the Ii"t stress in a Chemehuevi word IS epnmary one. II~ this Way. '" represent bolh pnmary and secondary stresses. the syllable wnh lhe g ,. , . reate'l number of x over il " taken to be the ,:,~st proml~enl. or pnmary 'lrc'sed syllahle; the syllablcs wllh only one x have secondary slless; lhe remainin syllables arc unslressed. g Word level: lefl-headed unboundeu foOl (. xl (. Ie xl FOOl levcl: right-headeu bounded feCI. L-.R OOoooa ha?j su Iu I VI rlgu,,' 3.42 word·lev(·1 (()()IIJuilding in C/wmeiwuvi. Both prmary and secondary stresses are now "'p"''''(1tl'(l 11,4 (IImp/l'"ily (rom simp/idly: Irl'~ Pdr..ml.'lt'r~ The fonnal generali/alJon for Chemehuevi Siress I.. as follows - fOOl level: righi-headed hounded feCi. applying from left to right; word level: left-headed unhoundcd fooL Stress pallems IJJ language: COli he highly intricale, hut Iingui.,ls helieve ;;; their complexity, like ~(I much other lingui tic complexity, arises frum illlCrauioJ1 amollg a cl "I universally available opllons, The~c options arc callcu paramctc"hlhlc 1121,,1 the slress paramctcl~ we have explored 10 lit" chapter luhle 3..'2 SOllie tress pOI ollieIt:" h<!llIId"d/llnlJ<JlIIUbllect ;: left IClght heaued Ie I ""(elton 'y I I 10 r 'htlllghl 10 leI! 1~II{)N(Jl (J( ,v I HI flJNC II(IN ANI J '", IIIo(N1Nr C • IF () N{) Interaction among tnt: ~el I 11'1 . Ihg () these lhr parameter. cxtramclricailly (!lice M!(;U, cc paramt:1cn,. :tt{H tI, the ~lrc"s pattern", found in hu . )_ n K.5) acChlllll frlr a ';0delhafClUtth palleming that have been prl!.,c~~cn. an~huagc. All hi the exa~Pl Vancty of f h L_ uIOt"Occli """f,"", 0_ JU,l t e~e luree pammetcf1i. as lah) on res.ulled from th ahty parameter is nOl relevant f, I. e ,~3 h"wo.. "JIe that the de lUll! . I (r anguauc!I. with L... ITtctlf)n strcss " exc uded from the table. e unuuunded feet. Pnrnary Tahle 3.33 Language French lIungarian Maranungku Chernehuevi Warao Wen Stre~"i parameter ~tling for lang. . uagcs presented in lhl.! !.t.:l.:l1nn BmlndelilunbflUmJ('iI feel unhounded unbounded hounded hounded bounded hounded Headedl1es_ right left lefl right lelt right left to nght lefuo right ngltloleh nghllo left ~-~~---=~~~~~~~~--------------------- E _trametriCality There are exceptions to the requirement thai a1l svlabl~' ar . , • f ' , ' ~,e a"OCrated "uh some ,oot or the purpo. es 01 tress a Ignment 1n ,ome Ian . . gI llabl . . . guages. '"e ftnd that a stn e sy' e at the beglnnlno or end of a '''ord . . . .' _ c w lS ne~er "lrc 'Cd Because I falls oUL>lde the effec,ts of stress rules such a 'yll' bl' 'd . • . , '3 a e 1 ~al to be extrarnetncaL To represent thiS fact fonnally. an extrametrical ,vllahle " form.ally excluded fro.m the fOOI-huilding procedure. To ..ee h~w extra- metncality mteracls "'Ith foot structure, Table 3.34 shows 'orne data from Kusatean. a language poken in the Caroline Islands. Table 3.3-J Penultimate. tre<-, In Kusatean k,'ta. kSk:>: p.lakb;n m~nini : m.Ia:Ia: IlHt.d,cJ!ik In Ku. ;)Jean, , -' 'to I~ad' • IUptd' ·thin' 'light 'bcx me hght'
- 71. Bounded feet and exIrametricality U";GlclS TiC, a a <a> a a a<a> Thb prIXe, is called stray syllable adjunction. Stres> unin:rsally falb to ards the margins (beginning Or eno) of inc"" 'tress fa.II" lowaro~ the left or right margin of a word. it 'IS ~_ ~otd , ,~e lor a prima!} stre" landing more than one syllable from the margin of. Ind Extl'3melrical 'yllahles capture this fact in that they are limited to ,3 form. occurrence a: the initial or final syllable of words; they arc not foun~ Ingle f f . ali aU ' ~"rd internally. The care ul u,~ 0 extrametnc ,t} ows us 10 adhere to the ba . principles thaI account tor all stres 109 10 terms of either unbound'd Ie bounded feel. The next ,,:cLion provides additional justificallOn for the C or , I" , . d h h ' . u," o[ exrrametnca n)' 10 .slress aSSignment. an sows ow n mteracIs wllh lhe building of bounded feel. [n Swahili. stress falls on alternating syllables: the penultimate (ne'Ho-la.I syUable receives the strongest stress. I Table 335 Suess in Swahili IfUm tfaktila KaraLisi ufikamano 'toad' ' fOod' 'paper' 'adheSIOn' To assign primary and secondary stresses in Swahili, we fiN tentatively assume thaI final syllables arc extrametrical, since they are never stressed, Since stresses are alternating, we know that they must be as,igned using bounded feet. Applyrng the principles presented in section 8.2, we can arrive at a deCIsion about the headedness of the bounded feet. Left-headed feet, whether formed from !t·ft to right or nght to left, are excluded, since they w~uld result in the tiN syllable of a word like IIjikumllfUl heing slre,sed, Given that the bounded feel m:edcd lo assign slrc>s In Swahili ale right· head~d, we must then decide on the direction of application. The ords l/clkllia and Iljikulluino provide no dctinrtive answer, since their 'tr~"c' wnuld he correct (sull assuming extrametricality) whether the right·headed Icet were a"igncd from left to right or from righl to lelt, The word k,iralt/I/ Summing up f'll<lNOlCH.Y Illt I, ...~( I 'ON ANt} '.1 't KNIN( ( • If !'Ol.ND I' crlcial. I" tinal '1I'lhl', III J • C 1, unala' 11 c!'lrametricu'" Su, rnnninv ht .1 •. 1 1d l,C til the lre ru '-_ ~.. , h C;. lUnUI.: U ngllt head .1 . '>q;..ilU , plVUuce t e rong rKtlh:nl II t ' ('u ltd frhln 'eft '" Ihe ccond ,yllablc r" which I Irh""l c " I he I" I II~ WIll !:til, 1(, nghl 1(11 , I ' • lCa<l.,1 Ih' Ii I n """",I ~'traml!lnca . mUM he ~trc~,ccJ lh. h I.: 1r (M.n Smce"I r on degenerate foot. reCr.!lVC... 'lrc" :rhe l trld. )'l.thl..: (I,,). "",hh.:h .1 :e~~lIll LI c rcsu l h th . - 1 ·"tu' a ( owc'cr. by cmph.l),ing CXlram t' I' l: Inl:urrec hJnn ·hJ, Ud. • C rica lly ilntl hUlld I ' " C'an come up Vllh Ihe righl ,tr.ss P'lIl' (F' Ing rom nghllo lell b d d 'h h ' .• em !<tee 'gUTt!1""-4-IW ,We oun c . ng 1- cadcd ICeI ""iun 'ct j' , .. • ether-.t",. "lnnl , 1- . . f:o l: rnm nght tu h:h ' _ 1,0) extrrunetnca lly~mcClhcsC~clung~:l11 rUl-c.l~. In conJunt:ttnn ~nh p I c"landonlycllrre~I"re ., (xl (. xl t. xl FOOL level 000<0> a <I <0> ka ra ta <si> tIa k u <I a> Figure 3.4, Sw"h~i stress assignmenl using right·headc'<l bounded fee nd' h I a ng Ho-lell apPkal>On. On a second line of the metrical rcpresentatio 'b Id b d d • s" n we UI a nght-headed un ouo e lOOt. mce pnmary slress assignment 0 th' ' , . I h" n e "ord le'el " senSitive on y to t ex s on the tOOl level (Figure 3 45) th I 'II . . ' , e resu t " b.! main stress on the penultimate syllable and secondary stresse stressed syllables. " on any precellmg xl x) Word level (x) (. xl (. x) Foot level a a a <a> a a <a> ka fa ta < i> tSa k u <I a> Figure 3.45 Svah~i word-level slre,s assignment. Phonology deals with the sequential and phonetically conditioned pattemmg of sounds in language, To account for this patterning, three umts of phonological representatIon have been establi hed: the feature, the phoneme. and the syllable. Phonemes are contrastive segmental units composed of distinctive tcatures, Phonetically condiuoned variants of phonemes are called allophones. Phonolog) m;tkc use of underJ)ing forms. derhations. phonological rules, and representations in its formal notation Rule appl_ til free or feeding order to guamntee Ihat COITl!Ct ph,lnellc representanon . re denved frolllundcrlying reprcscntatinn,
- 72. 1~'fO 'H ) I>"I UN Ill.
- 73. 3) hh n b)han:> ) 1umago-. 'lx, ' 'I.:ing' V hJ tl., . d) ?an e) ka'hm f) humaglh 'prupert ' 'to !etch', 'to P"'nt' ..uloph <, of.) gllen ph,meme are lbua!l~ phonetically similar. ~ , und, th t are phoncucall~ s,m,lar, and ched, to ee" hether the ~ , rupleffi<'nt:lr) distrihution. The he,t "ay to do this is to ii are <'nlronmenb. In th<' f,,!loing data, also from Tagalog, [d] and [r] t lhe "{,- d 3h"",lars. ,hould he con,idered as po",ble allophones L: bt:.tb . .. lSI", em in: nment. 10 hkh Ihe.. sounds are lound. Are they in ..., rleffi<'nt3f) distribution? eun. a) dati!) 'Ill 31The h duni 'amount ,) dumi 'din' J) d.Jrnti[1 ' ill a1T"''- d manduruJ..ol 'pickpocket' t) g) marumi hI marami i) da?iI) j) mandukol '''ill COmplain' 'di~' 'many' '10 eompl:l.ln' 'to go pickPOCketin e _', If ( 0 potential allophone. of one phoneme are in complemetna. ... distribution, you can he rea. nably mre they are a1loph?ne: 01 the ~ ph, neme. Tr: to m3l..e a gener:!l statement about the,r dbtribUtion 10 t<'Illb of 'orne n [ural pbonologJ.:a1 cl3". For e"ampJe- Ta::II,; [d] and [r) are in complement.>r: di,lribu!ion and are :Il1"Phoo.. at one ~me, 1"1Ie rulophone [r) (XC11/" be(V.""n O".b: [dJ ocellI'> eI .. - here, ,.md-mitiall~, .b in Hems 3 ), /», c), fl, and 0 on, and after :"l..m.."-Ofl!lDt,. ... in items e) MId J). -+. Select one allophone a; ha,ie, This ;,. u.'ually the al1,'ph ne WIth the ide,[ di>lITbulion (the el.,., here mant ' I[ may be helpful to set up a tradiuon I phoneme-allophone dIagram, See Figure 3.3.) (I; Ir] Id) Between El where ""el Wnre poonol ~i.:aJ rule Of" pronde repre,.entallon thai accounts for the predietJ Je feature of the other allophone, , Your rule (Of representation I. probably corr t If II de cnbe. a ('()IIlIllOIl hngul lie proce in tenns of n ;ur:!l d e of ound, interauing ith neighbouring egment and! or ,) II hIe -tructure, FOf"e 'ampl • ~ rthe J.ooe: d -r l ' _ Here, the pron", th t lead 10 aJlopoon) I a form of ~ imdauon, In th:u an under!, iD~ top con nan[ become a contlDuaul "hen found bet I 0 UnU<Ulb (the oe! J, • menL are pooneffil if th ), nOi be shoWII .ffi ,Th data HnpJ) dtd not prm Jd ffilntmal PHCJNOLO 'I THl f UNC lIC.JN "Nil '>A1 lUt 1N(" c f 4!.(" Nl) 1" .1" pairs, (For m"ance 'hough IfI nd I" " , , . .,. fl- I ~ ;y .ro par..te pho II I~ ul l~U t to Ilnd rmnunal I)alr nro ncrna m En '"' vmg 11(:" phonenllc A ...."ume phoneuc rran,(.;ripllon of the d.iJ.ta In all cxerCl'5.e'!i. l. Inukrirur (Ea,lem) (:-;.IIC Canad,an) a) iglumUl 'to a hou",' hI pmna 'h bl ukiaq 'Iale fall' I) am f atoneuptberc' c) aiviq 'walru,' emale"lJrother' d) amgu"It 'if you leave' J~I i~~na (nc,"')boo5e e) aglu 'seal' b h' hI' '!hal p1ac< up there .- 'real 109 () e I) UIVtJq • he go<:> OOllle n i!!.lumit 'from a hou,e' . , -. "be' ,m) 10, 'place, spot g) anlgaH cau,e you leave nJ uluuq .....inter' i) List all the minimal pair,; in the... data, Based on the minimal patr~ you hal e found, Itst all the contra'lIve pairs of ","'el., ii) U<ing the ....owel chans in Figures :!.9 and :!,IO as your model; make a chan of Inuktitut vo"el phonemes. ' iii) ,'ow c.on~ide~ the data again: here they are transcnbed 10 roo", phoneuc det31i. In the data there are phonetically similar ~l!.1llents that are in complemenLar) distribution, Look for them and ans~ er the que,lion thai follow the data, aa) iglumut 'to a hou",,' bb) ukiaq 'late falr cc) ainq ''''a1111:; dd) aniguYit 'if you leave' hh, pinna 'that one up the",' ii) ani 'female'. imxber' iJ) iglu '(,now)house' klq panna 'that place up there' ee aglu 'sears breathi.ng hole' il) ai"llCl 'she goe, home' m iglumit 'from a hau;,e' mm) int 'place, !.pOl' ggl anigavil 'becau"e )OU leae' nol ukiuq 'winter' i") List the phoneucally . unllar segments that are in complementar) disuibution, Swt.e their ditribution in words, 2, Gascon tGascon i poken in .,outhwe,t France) The phones [b], Ull, {dl. [3], [g], and [v} are all found in Gascon. as the follov.'ing examples sbo... a) bren 'endanger' n) gat 'c ' b) bako 'ro ' 0) liiJ]g 'long' e) iimbro ',hado' p) 53liBo ',ali, ' d) IJ:imbo 'room' q) ~i 'hlMand e ) dil)s 'Monda)' n * '10 ha e" f) diilJo 'until' s) Ji~ 'horse' g) du,o ',weet' t) b)oct '!!1l1' -'de - 'leftoer read' 11 eJa30 'hoe' ~») ~:n~an 'to 13) eg" ' ) lI.f 'mosquIlo' j) dudze 'tvoehe' ) nlIt 'he laughed' k) ;ute:- 'f! xl a ro I) elJ~ in 'th!, , ear' ~ I ~ rt 'be pla:~' m ) pOOe 'to be be' I. "1Uc-h paID • phone [y are
- 74. 1 l -~STlC: Ii) II ) 1) H) II) ,umlor" -upport ~ our daim '" lib de =pt1 , of!he i (nJ.M pail'- Pboo.t;., ;' t!he conronment., In whi~h!he phone:> [~J. [Ill. [dl. [()). [. I fouod. '100 rna) Ignore wonl-lmal po Ilion ;;1. COIl,idennoo. f there an) e,;de1l..-e for grouping these pail'- of '0UQd phoneme.' lale!he e,idence for each p.11r. • I . e" ,;eneral ;13lemenl arout th" p3n~ng of the phoneme- h:n e e-t3bh. hal. . on FolIO1ng ) our :mal~ ;is. write the following forms in phone . rr:llbCTIplion. tnI.: al [puy01 b) [de(lall c) [fiJ3aw] d I [kriimbo) L ,ing Figure 3.19.IS )oor model. pro"ide compleledematlon, of ;orm, for J) [dudzeJ m) [puOeI p) [salijloJ and ,) [bl;u-I. IJl.:, 3. Hindi I Hindi i. a language of the Indo-European famil) 'polien in India Coruider the segments (bl and [1) m ~e data belo and an. "or IJl.:, que>lloll> that follow. The segme~1 tran.",,-nbed,f!?] " a murmured 'Olced SlOp: It was presented mChapler _. secuon 10._. al [barn] 'Iarge' f) f!?cdJ 'disagreement' b) [bariJ 'hea,)' gl [bais] 'lent~-[o' c) [bina) 'without' h) f!?as] 'buffalo' d) [birJ 'crowd' I) [bap] .father' e) [bori] .sackcloth· j) [!?ag] 'pan Are the segments [b] and [IJJallophones ofthe same phoneme or do the, belong to separate phoneme,' If you belle,e the) belong [0 separ;ll~ phonemes. g[,'e endence from the data 10 suppon your anal)'is, It You believe they are allophone, of the same phoneme. Ii. [ the condlli(l~in. en,ironment. , < -'. :ame the ,ingle fealUre that distingui..hes the follo ing pair. of ound>. a) [9]: [iI] e) IbJ ' [mJ i) [,,]: la] b) [pJ: If] f) [.]: UI j) [s]: [Il] cl [u] lu] g) [IJ: [il k) [I]: [r] d) [iJ. le] h) [1.:1: [xJ I) [uJ: [oj 5. There are a number of natural cla.. es in the vowel and consonant data below. Circle three natural classe, in each set of data. Indicate which feature or features define the class. as in the example. Example: [+voice} b d tS I.: h {-continuant] a) u b) P tf e o a f f m lJ Of 0,,- D d) [Sll-Sl~oran1 +stndent +corona 7. Ellglish Ian) speakers of EnglIsh haw ~wo t)~, of til. One. c lied d ..ar I. I' transc~bed a..s [I) 10 the tolO 109 data. The other. called dark I. I rranscnbed WIth [11· E amme the data.. and 3OSer the ,uc,ti,>n' that 1'010 . a) ll:lltl life g) [phtl] ptll b) [Ii:p] eap h) [ii:l] feel c) [Iu: z] lose i) [help] help d) [I1aup] elope Jl [b.lk] bulk e) [dllan} delight k) [s<>old} sold n [sli:p] leep ) [ful} ful Do [I] and [I} belong to separate phonemes or are they allophones of the same phoneme'~ If you belieye they belong to separate phonemes. JJSer question il. If you believe they are allophone_ of the 'JJue phoneme. an wer question ii). i) List the e,idence that make' your C31'e for considering [Il and [II" _eparate phonemes. iil State the distribution of [11 and [tl in oros. • llich ari:mt makes the best underlying repre>entation" hy'~ • Can you make reference to SYllable structure 10 your distribuuon stat<~~lent'~ If) OU can. do sO in ~le foml. . 8. TlIrkish As you saw in section ,t4. Turki..h syllables have the f"lo 109 structure' • • • ma...imum number of consonant,; in an onset: I ma..imum number ~)fowes in a nudeu,. I ma.imulll number of l'onsonants in a coda: ~. of hll'h the fiN i, a meati e or sc)nor.m!. With these stipUlations in mind. S) Habif) the iollLm ing h mb: .1) l.:ul1u:n b) keh:ptJr c), emenJ d) kenu:nJr In the,... funher data fmm Tur i,h. the phl)ne i) an {t' 'U
- 75. compl':Il1<'nt:l,) d"tnl:>uth'n ,mJlorm on~ phoneme, and the ph anJ [e[ :Ire aI,,, m complemental") ul,tnvuUo" anu lorm an(lth~"I.J ralt') phonellk' Treat th~ kl" It'l a' su!,ge,reu for Sculllh E cr("ql;,. page 101 ) E,amlne the UJta anu an",,,r the questions that inTI" hOn a) gclJlk '''<' urn'eu' I) IIitIcic '!lower' 1..) hman 'h:~'" 1:» II '"orl..' !p tJ11t 'plough' I) emln ',u' Ur ~) chm '}ollr h,mu' h) cI 'hand' m) !lidlk "hr~dded' uJ Ip 'thread' iI memer 'passage' n) bll 'Iou"" e) scs ',okc' J} seksen 'eighty' 0) silah 'weaPon' i) Provide a stalem"nt of the d"uibution of [i] and [IJ and Ie] and m "oru, lake) our statement as generaJ as pOSSible, but be pr Ie .. f eCI~1 ii) Write a rule thaI derives the allophones 0 both phonemes fro . , . U f' -, R be - III the unuerlymg form. se eatures. emem r to give your rul mnemonic name; use this name in the answer to question iiiJ. e a iii) Provide derivations for the following underlying form.,. UR # # 'cord' # # 'lasso' --~------------= PR I [sid31mJ [kemcndJ 9. Stale each of the fOllowingdrules in Pllain ordinary English, making reference to natural classes an common IIlgUlstlC processes. Ewmple: [-SYllabiC ~ ~ 0/ __ # (an nbsfmefll i.~ deleted +con onantal -sonorant lI'ordfillllUv) a)0~ +syllabic -consonantal +sonorant -high -low -round -back +tense [ -syllabic ~ 1# __ +consonantal - sonorant [ -syllabiC ] +consonantal - sonorant b) [+SYllabiC j -consonantal +sonorant -round ~ [+roundjl +consonantal _ +consonantal [ -syllabic ] [-SYllabiC 1 +antenor +antenor -coronal -coronal 10, Change the following statements into rule notation. Give a name to the process in question in each case. a) Voiceless stops become corresponding fricatives between vowels. b) A schwa is inserted after a voiced stop word-finally. c) Low unrounded vowels become rounded before m. II. Tumil (Tamil is a Dravidian language spoken in South India and Sri Lanka) a'tiL 11'1 In lhl! r~)lO lUg TanHt lh".I. unle ou,d. hegtl l.Hh do nol. fhc s)Tnbu11lti rqucsc01S It 111 . @u h.lC! (Jhef I 1indicate:-. dcnt~h nt n:lut I!J. Hlp lithe d, nu,,;. ITlititll j·glide Jllili(ll gild.' No Iflllud !dlflt al jeli 't<lI' fl '''...li '1'"".•1.' I. n . ) anvu 'w'no""edur b) Jt: . > gl wu:h'l ',,,,tm teat' t) 3Ir4u .It,c' ~ c) jilaj 'lear' hl wlI:si 'neeule' ml a. aj '11 ",,' dl jel)ge: 'where' il "ujlr Iile' nl ant 'ri'<,' e) ji<,uppu 'waist' j) wo:ram 'eJgc' III a:1I1 'ungm' i) T~e occurrence or these gltdes is rrculclahlc, mg yllur I,n""'led 'C 01 natural classes, mal.e n general slalement abOUllhe III t 'h g the glides. ,n Uhun .,t ii) ~ssllming the glides arc not present in the underlying rcrrescnta. !!ons. name Ihe process that accounLs ror their pre><:nce in Ihe phone!!c rorms. iii) Using fealures, write a rule usmg alpha notation that rOnnahlOS th" process. Show the derivation of the fonns for fly and break. 12, Mellde (Mende is spoken in Liberia and Sierra Leone) In Mende. the fonns thai mean 'on' (nul) and 'in' (hu) are sunixe, (Ihey arc attached to a preceding word; sec Chapter 4. section 1.31. :-.lotlce in the dnta below that suffix.es all bear tone, but that the tone varies on different words. In the ex.amples,' indicates a high lone.• a low tone. and " a falling (high-to-low) tone. a) k5 'war' k5ma 'on war kOhu 'in war b) pele 'house' pelcma 'on (the) house' pclchu 'in (the) house' c) bi:l!: 'trousers' bi:li:ma 'on trousers' bcli:hu 'in trouser,' d) ngila 'dog' ngilama 'on (the) dog' ngilahu 'in (the) dog' i) Can you account for the differences in tone on the suffixes for 'on' and 'in' in Mende? State your solution with autosegmental notation such as that illustrated in Figures 3.30-3.32. (Hilll: Assume that the suffix.es have no tone to begin with, but that the words to which they are attached do have tone.) ii) Assuming that you have answered question i) successfully, account for the tones of the sufflXes meaning 'on' and 'in' in the additional examples below. e) mba 'owl' mbuma 'on (the) owl' mbuhu 'in (the) owl' f) J1ilia 'woman' J1iliama 'on (the) woman' Jlhltahu 'in (the) woman' 13, MoTU (Miza dialect; Moru is a Sudanic language) . ' In Moru, contour tones are not found on short vowels tn underlytng representations. However, phonetic forms of combtned lex.tcal Items do show contour tones. Can you represent this uStng autosegmental nota- tion? (Hilll: A segmental process is involved as well as a tYPiCal suprasegmental process and the two processes must be .ordered.) In the data provided, ' indicates a high tone, • a low tone, and . a falltng (hlgh- to-low) tone, and Y a rising (Iow-to-high) tone. Vowels "Ith no tone mark need not be considered.
- 76. ItO IIMI'! IN I/y111';101 1 1l1 'i 14, ,I) In.l. • 1"1['1 " l, t 'we h) k,li,mu -, Ik(lmu1 jhl' nlll': 'he nlllS ,') ~, ,'I) 'a -, Ik,;Og31 'Ill' Jumps 'he jumps' d) ni, :Id, U/II" IIlJ"dlJl1 jaI ') Ill! call whn?' 'wht) an~ you calling'?' I Ill' English d,II,1 heh,w provide c ampks of stre" placement 0 11 ccn' .hll 'I...·, b~. " "pre"r ,OlllCk ,'f,l"l' /I adapt (ll laps.' dt.'l..~t (' COI1Sldl.!f unagm(' d('t~nninl' c.tn:llI"'l" (,(lll,xit' h.l1111l'nl pflmis(' I) r l·...12nhr In llnb lh(.' ...tn:...... pL.lL'l.'rllL'nt ()n thest:' t.'rhs. ~1ake sure 'lHI rd r It) ..., 11.lhk' ,tnh:ture in ) (lUI "t~H('ml'nt. II) Ptl" id, "lIa'bifkd rcp~'t'JHatiOIl' nr Ihe, 'rds ..ol/Iite, eleer, and cnnrldrr 11 order Itl IUu,trate ) ,lUf ,,'lldUSJllIl ahout stress placement In Ih",,(": h)nn I~. ConSider th tfl' pattern, ID the language data hdo Referring to Table l,1;! IOct U'IIl~ fahk " ,1 as ),'Ur n1,ldd, "tate hkh parameters are ne ," aT) 10 count ~ ,r ,tre plac(,!1lenl and what the setllngs for the IIll Ir par. m arc for l",Kh ,~( of data, Itll I ~ (l tl~ d) N ) d) '} 'to h' 'w h on If' not 10 ;1 h one elf reorganization' th nJ II III hlln' PHONOLOGY THi- FUNC1( IN "Nt) PAl HRNING Of SCn.U"''''o''::. '" f) atJaxil6:m Hiligayllon (Philippines): not all Hiligaynon word, at 1 e a'iM~ned ~trC!! t the same way~ on y one c ass ~f words is repre...ented here (Hln?' • that in this language foot buildmg " limIted to a maximu! ote You need not formahze this fact in your answer.) m 0 two fee. a) pamlil)kutan 'problem' b) kilwauin 'thief' c) buhig 'blind' d) palal)'lta?un 'highly sought after' e) nagapal)ita?aj 'to look for each otber' Huallaga Quechua (Peru) (Hint: This answer wi! require reference to section 8.5,) a) uma:ta bJ uma:pita C) uma:pitami d) tJajl1araq e) ajwajkJinmi f) aj ashaJkikama g) ajwaj 'to my bead' 'from my head" 'from my head la-"enivel' 'jU,t a moment ago' 'they are going' 'hit if I gO'
- 77. 1 o o T TlE I f: the anal 'sis of ture .l F. de all m 1.1 - IorpheOles t ..u rh~ r'1r~ n~ .~r '. nnot ~ .u,.:h t' th nd . f a noun ~ I .. 1. ... nt~n h -..~ '" llh h'l hen) ~ I • lh,' t>N 'it , n ..~ Ole'-t. CIrri, b ;1 ,,,,)IJ 'O" 1 can f('lll 'I"109 to: ~hJ.ng~ .' _-r'c:ll t'T : Yh,n.lreth ,~thing... mthcttte. _"P-t" t"T 8 : Bird, ·n ,:. birds ~~uning in front .,f 3 ero: Bird... oid ..:.ab. D. binf- uc.:umng aftef ect>· Cat' .:ha,e biflb. lauoo.. In "onle L fib. 'u.:h . Wi' in ~entence I . do not norm:lll~ cxcur in ti . Ho e <'f. th<'~ are ,~ll free tornb 'l~ce their po>-Ill:>mng ~th re ~ to nelghb..'unng c31eg ne _ , n 1enurel~ h ed. Thu>. ,,.hownb~ the foUo...m_ : 'nten~. Ih dCle,. n 'I :ll3~' hae to occur lmmedillel~ in front of noon.- The ~ c ' ung bmb remained in the est.
- 78. Free and bound Allomorph T re-act-n--ate genrJe-mao-h_oc ---- Amcrpheme Ih3t <an be a" d bJ iL~~f IS called fTft! ... hile a morphellle m I be .macbed 10 anodIer elemenl " SaJd to be bound. 1be m Ih.a:: II<. • for ~xamp e. is free tnre It can be U5ed a:, a word On it o..~ . J. 00 !he other band. IS bound. CoocepLS Ih!It are elpn!s.sed by free morphemes in Engli~ do Il<lt oo::essarih hae!he s.une tatns In o!her LlIlguage,. For earnple, in Han: .AthJ.p.lsbn language poI.:en in Canada's , 'onhest Tenilorie ). ~ Ih3t indicate bod). pam /Table .!.2) muS! a1aJ' bc alt~hed 10 a ~ deslgnalmg a possessor (A high lOoe b marted by the dIacritic '., Table ~.1 Some body part names m Hare ~~~~~==~----~------------------------- ";lhpou~uor *fi -be *dzt 'read 'I;>e!l~ • 'be.Irt 'm~ bead' 'Jour bell~' ·sorneone·.s bcartla !lean' In Engli.sh. of course, these body pan name are free morpheme and do Il<lI have to be auached to another elemenL Cooersely, there are also some bound forms in Engli h hose COUnter. pam In other language are free. For example. the notion 'past' or 'completed IS expressed b} a bound morpheme (usually >pelled ·ed) In Eogli h. but by the free morpbeme Iccw in ThaI. A the fOllowmg sentence hows,!hi morpheme can een be separated from the verb by an inteITenir.~ word. /Tone i not marked here.) - 6) Boon hUIJ khaa... leI:" Boon coo rice !".lS1 Boon cooked nee.' Morpbemes do nOI alay hale an invariant form. The morpheme used 10 expr mdefmllenc in Engli h. for in lance, has 1...0 form - a and Cill. 1.2 Representing word structure Roots and affixes OR TR • 3" ;') an orange dI1 a....ct.~nt aned ,.bl; time ~car a girl The form a b U ed ~fore word hegmnmg ~ 1m before .onl:-. bcgmmng "'tth a od.' The "ari:n~=nt and the form. an called Ih allomorphs. of .. marpheme "'" Another e'dmple of aJlomorphlc variation I found In the the plural morpheme ·s In Ihe folo" ing "'ord . pronullClau<>a cat~ dog. judg"" Wherea. the plural i, pronounced as 1,/ In lhe fi!'.t ca.>e, II i, reallLcd IzJ in the >eCond. and a» liZ} (or perhaps hZ}) In the third. Here again. ",lecuOll of the proper allomorph " dependent on phonological facb We will e,. thi: phenomenon in more detail in Chapter 6. . amme Other example, of patterns in '"hieh a morpheme'5 form change '"hen It combines with another element are ea») t~ flOd in English. The final -.egrncm in illl'em and assen. for mstance. " realized as ItJ when these m0'l'he~ stand alone as separate words but a» III when the, combine ",ith the morpheme -ion in the words i"'·t'nr;on and assenion. Comparable alternauons are found in words such as penn;!/pemli~-h·e ([t]-[s]). eieclri£,leIUlri[.il) ([kj-[sj). di"ide/di'i~-ion ([dj-[:;]). impre~/impreg·ion (bHn). and so on. In all !bese cru,es. we are dealing with variant forms o[ a ·ingle morpheme. Beginning students can also be confused by changes in .peUing found in some morphological patterns even when there are nO corresponding change, in pronunciation. Thus. the final e in the words creOle and wrile is hit ",hen they combine with a morpheme beginning with a vowel (creal-I·e. wril''')' These spelling modifications do not change a morpheme's identil!. of Coun.e. and should simply be ignored when doing morphological anal)t" In order to repreent the internal nucture of words. it is nece·saT) not only to identify each of the component morphemes but alo to classif) thee element in terms of their contribution to the meaning and function of the larger word. Complex ord, t)l>lcally con,i,t of a root and one o~ more affixes. The root morpheme carries the major component of the word s mearung and t:elongs to a lexical categol') - noun (,0. verb t')· adJecue (Al. 0:preposll1on (p) Thc. c catecone ....111 t>e discussed in more detailm Chapter). cctIon I I. Fm no 11 ufllce, 10 nole that nouns I) picall) refer to concrete and ab Iract
- 79. l) TI IP,l~ ~ IINl.lil' lie fi":UI,'4,l 'tllInK" (Ill I' , t, 'teUm Ill) h I' '.. ..dlCetles I' II 'c ,',,,, (m'm, "',K") I,'nu 10 U' . ISll~l n till ,_ . . t.:1l0le . l'nl'l"I' ' I" ,l plnpt,'rltl:s (klllc/. n'd). and prcnn~"tl' altiuo ~c 'patn fI.'l t' I "- O,lS (' , h . ' . H'ns. n gl'nl'ral. nOlin' can occur ilh tl ' III, Il( . " •..,/1 (11"/1 ' ) " II""" Or) l - I ';(),' ,_I,Ill! ,1djl,..·til'S wtth '{'n' ("(")" /"'inti). ur), 'er~- In""c r "'I I-I "'i t t . s.•t ll" dn lH)t bl'lung to a lckul category 'U u ;(~md lllorphClllc, A slro,ighlf,'mafl.l illuslr,ltillll of [his conl~"~1 are all,,1s 1h: ~)nl It'clt'lIl·r. Whll'h cnllsjs{s of tht! root reclt'''. a verb. and th l ') tlllJIld III a i>lllInd IIhlrph"lIle lhal ,',"no,nes with the roOi 'Uld gives 'I c allh '., . . . , nOun w' , 111",lIl1ng 'onc h'l I,'m,hes', The inlernal struclure of this w Ith Ih. ~l'l'l'l':.elled III diagram flmn, as sh,m n 111 Figure 0.1, I. (The S)ill1bt)II~~"can be tl>rallt") I Ilao<1. N Ar I I teach Til' Intt'rIl.11 ..trlldlllt~ 01 tIll' old tt'.l<.-Ilt'f. ,The inlernal 'tn'CIIU',' of some other romp"''' words is depicled in hgu~ 0.1,_. a , h N ~ ", ,1' A ~ f I I I I 1II1 kind book l' ' V ~ , AI' V At' I I I I 1II,"kll1 ill' dc,troy cd '(lent ttl'k'f )nf" 1Ih ,,11 intl~ll'I..ll ...t'lK IlIn.l.l()fl'I,t1ng 01 .1 root .Uld ~111 .1ft" rh, ,,' .11,1 'ralll', htdl ,Ire llft,'n c:alkd tree ,trudurt", t,'prCst'nl lh,' ,it-t,lIt- "f .1 "1,1', in"'t n,ll "lganilalinn, Wherc (hcs,' Jct.llls ;11,' inl'l,'"ml h' Ih,' P"1Il1 l'c'lll!! lI'n,id,'I,'d. It " lIaJill"II,III,' II'C a lIIu,'h '1lIIpkl' '~'!l'nll't MO{I'IIO ()l.Y 1111 A.N", YM .... 01 WOIo:) " 1Rue 1lJkl: 17 rcprC,SCOIUlion lh~t indicates unly the (lC.<lhnn of th 1It1-k"ul. nrmJerll-I'lt'. and ,",0 (In. t:: ml)rphl.!mc htmndan ~ A base is the form 0 which .m affix i, added. In man cas' ~ the root. In huoks, for ex.ample. the element 1 h Y h . CS, the ba...e" aho d ow It: the affIX . correspon ~ to the word's root. tn Other C'l~CS ho -,"i S aduc.u , . . ~. '. wever, an aftix Ca ....~. to a Ulllt larger than a root. ThiS happens in words !-ill 'h bl n I'C add,cd ffi I ,. c as u~kened in h h the past lense a IX -e< is added 10 the verbal base bl k ,'w Ie of the root morpheme black and the suffix -ell. ac e'l -a unn com,i,ling In Figure 4,3, black is not only the root [or the entire wo db I 'bl k r ut a '0 the ba e for -ell, The untl (Ie 'ell, on the other hand, is simply the ba,e for -ed, ' V .~fm,d -A~ Root and base - A for -en black Af en Af ed Figure 4.3 A word illustrating the difference between a root and a base, problematic cases (advanced) The vast majority of complex words in English are built from roots that are free morphemes in that they can be used in other contextS as independent words, In the word re-do and rrear-mellt, for example, the root (do and rrear. respecti,ely) is a V that can appear elsewhere in the language without an affix, Because most complex words are fonned from a root that can itself be a word, English morphology is aid to be word-based. This notwithstanding, English contains a significant number of word, in hich the root i-not free, For example, tlllkempr seems to consist of the preftx II/t- (;th the meaning 'no!') and the root kempr (meaning 'groomed'), e'en though kt'lrIl'r cannot be m,ed as an independent word, Other common words of this type include !wrr-if." 'enge-ance, i/l-epr, and sa!,-<1Iion, to name but a few, We will a sign morphemes such as kempr, Itorr, 'e/lge, epr, and sah' to the spe,ial catcgo~ 'bound root' (B in Figure 4A overleaf), which we will l'?,er't' for I'lX)t morpheme' that cannot be u;;ed as words and therefore do not >eh)ng to a concntil)nalle"ical catego~' such a, noun or verb, Th', origin of most bound I'l)()ts in wordsuch as the'e h the re,ult 01 s{'l"tfic c'~nt, in the hi,to~ of Engbh, For example, there a, once a liQrd A, ""1 in Englt"h (with th> mcaning 'combed'), and it w ,to Uu' b~ e that the am" 1/11_ a, onginalh attached, At a later point, ho ever, kempl dl!>appeared fwm lh> langu;ge, I~a'ing behind the ord un empl 0 hich an affIX appeJI> th a bound rOllt, The fonn ill pI (from the Latin uleptu 'un,uited')
- 80. 138 Co H IPu 1'0 , f B R / I f B At f B B I I I I I Ar un kempI hmr if} vt!nge anl,..7l! in CpI s<lls atiOQ Figur.. 4.4 rht 11 11 ~tructure or worn.. bUIlt around J bound root. 1.3 Some common morphological phenomena Affixation nn th ' >!h~r hand. '"'' borrowed IOto Engllh as a "hole w rd.llion,hlp of its r..,1, -epr, 10 the word apr (from the same source) ord l', o.,~n c, id~nt alone lime. hUI the "ord is now seen b} mosl ,pe7 have In 'he a I'lound rl.l)t. t!cs to bcn harJ~r to hreak inlo recogOlLable morphcm~s are "ord, sUcb rt'l'elre, dc'cen'('. cOflceu'e. and perct?Il'e or r~mlt. pennll, 'iubmit. nd ('0 as Th~,c items "crc borro" cd as whole wOHh 1010 English (many of the ~ Latin Ihrough French). Even at Ihe lime of borrowlOg. the re- of re('e~ rom n,'1 has'c Ihe ,en,c of 'again' Ihat it does in redo ('do again') and Ihe ~ did deceil'e did not c'press the meaning 're,erse Ihe procc 5' a. OClaled WI~ de- in demystify or decertify· Because the componenls of ""rds i1ke rrr.~ and dreein' carT) no identifiahle meaning for Ihc average pealer of Fl' (who has no knowledge of Lalin). wc wili not trcat them a: ng morphemes in this oook.'Thus, wc take the wurtl receil''' to ellll I I Of a m 10: morpheme. g Human la:nguage makes lise of a variety of operations ,'r proces s lhat modify the .'tructure of a word. either hy adding OI11~ ~lcm nt to II or making an mternal change 10 order 10 cpr~" a n~w meaning or to marl. ! gmmmatical contrast (such as pasl versus non-past, ' "cr,us '. and 0 on). The addilion of an uffix. a pro:css known as affixation. " an extremel} common morphologIcal process In language '1onnally. linguisl., di~ungui'h :unong three types of affixes. An affix that is auached to the front of it> ba:;e IS called a prerLX while an affix that is anached to the end of its base is tconed a suffix. Both types of affix occur in English. as Table 4.3 shows. Table~..3 Some English prefixes and suffixes Prr:fixes Q!-ac£iv3te ~-pla) mter-marry !!!-accurate SlIjJiUS viid-!l goyem-ment hUnl~ kind-ness Cliticization Mol III ttO' If. , 1'1 8tl~t' ''''lhl11Ilrm t.,khuh ' nln' I -11m _ ,"-huh ,n' la...;lll ·wnl}..· I Ullhl",hl ·w.llke," pili? 'l:h()((" rio tlt',I "..:111 Beginning ~.HI~~cnh snn~C'limC's think thal 4t morph~mC' ~ul:h ;, ,," mil"., ish-lit's,' IS un. mh' ~mcl..! tt ~M:l:ur:, hClwl!'cn two olhcI murphl,'me5 (1m .In( - lIt'S,d. but tillS is nm so , To he an 1Il11x.. an aU ix mm.l O~(ur 1n')u.le t h" ie (as when - IOU in ragah)g o~<.:urs InsH.i~ tllkh"h 'run' ). Nuthlng ot lhl on hilPpc-n... in the case llf .i, /t. stn<.:c ih hase i.... bo~... nOlthe 1mP" ;; ihh: -"0 lieu , very special type of infixin/,systcm is found In Arahlc, In "hllh a t)pical rnOl (,lll1SlstSslll"piy of three. consunanh. Athxcs com" I'tmg ot two 'uwcb;. are then ins..:rtcu into this root in a man,ncr that intcr~pcr!-"c, the. ,-,owe,", _,mung the consonanls. (In Ihe examples that lolow, the segment' 01the rolt arc ""ttcn in hold fke.) 9) katab kutih aktub uktb 'write' 'have heen wrillen' 'be writing' 'being written' One way to represent the structure of such words is as follows, wllh the m()t and affix ""igned to diffcrclll tiers, or levels of structure, that arc intercalated in the actual pronunciation of the word. (See the discU',.,ion of templalic morphology in section 1.6 of Chapter 6.) 10) a Af (present) ! kat a b "W ., Root ('wnte ) b Af (passive perfective) ! k uti b ~'write') ' write' 'have been written' Some words are unable to stand alone as independent forms for phnnologl.:al reasons. Such elements, called ditics, must be attached to another word in the sentence. A good example of this can be found in English, where certalO vem
- 81. 11 M ()~... ~ V 1 1 "'1. 1 1J~ III 1/) (/ 1'111 h',I'1f)' 1141, I, f1.11 ' S ~'PIII' III ,"n'l'nl I ht' It' IH'''' 110 ('I,lhl/.IIIIHI '''' ,,1,," rllllllllllil III 1 +1t'1I~'h, whll'h lul'iud"'''I11 """ II I UII"', . I I I " I (1 IIIHI ,I " "",I dtl,,' I'fllllllllll' 11101111111" h,' illt,u' wi 111 1 II Vt. 1 t. I I~. I 11111 l' v Uh' l1I I I ' . ' ' I , I "'11", WIIIIl~11 1,111 '.lIil)..'I' Ihr rlllu' Hud lit' V('j ) I1h pllllltlU l lt t ,"0 I Illl'), 11l11I1l'(j II '11I~·ll· PICI } / ') .""11/.11111' ",.. 'U11 SlIt.UUIt' Ih"11I 'n', 1I/,llIm" ,,'t'" Ihl'lIl ('11/1" Ih.,1 "",,,h 111111' ...111 1>/ '1""",'dIllV "",,11""" Ih" I 1I~ I "h " ""'pk'i ,11 l.lIkd l,..diU",. Il1p..,,' Ihllt IIILIl'h 10 1IIl',he 'Inltlll~' 1 1 1.11,1110 lit}' wOl d 1.1 ill 1111'1 Ilt'l1,,1I 1',lIl1ph'l ilH' ~fIIlt lI'IU'UI'ltfk, !lit' dkd.. oII"IiIH"I/.lliPIIl'11i1 ht'.lI .t 'til aln'l.1I1 o'l'l1lhhuH.'I,.' to "I II lltillll IIIlT III hplh '""',, j ill t'lI'llIflll Ilhll nlllllol ,land ,IIOIll' ., i.ltlw.:hnl to 'IOill' IIII' k, ' "" "'"'m'",,11,.,1 ,,"l1k,' .,11,,,,, 1I11Ih." dll'l" "'('I"",d '" Iill ill ,' IIU'lIlhr" pi d h-I'III t .lhTPIY ... m.1l ,1 q',h. I)PUI1 (or PUlIIIlUII). tl 1'1 'j I~ 1'1111 HI 1,,1."'!.lhl'l' I' ,lIll'lh"1 11/," ,.1 rllIlI' "h,dl "1111 II .',,"I,.Il'('d 11'"11 1l1.lny ,..II '1.1111111" 1I'",d ,'I~I'I>'I, 1>111 III", h m'n'III".""" " 1I),'upuhk 1>1 o~Tllllfllr III 1001.111011, I Ill' 't'IIII1H' 1Il111gll'h ,'" fl' 'i.tukd Itt 11H1 I1 Y I..'Urrl'II1 1""11111,11' ,,1111 'I"h I ur"""" ,11111'1 1>1 ""h II "hili .llllI.u~h II" iI """lit! "''''1'1,,'111'' II,,' 'II,II(' ." ""I,' ,,,II,, I hl' uUlI,1I dllkle'I"'" j, II"" ,,1"'''',1 II ,,1111 '('I, 111111 lillI' 'I 11,'d I'hUIII1I"!,"',I"Y, WII"lI1l1l'illly, .Int! 111,11'/1 ,1111 /111111 [>",1",,111 hll".'illlh·<I, 11<1''''''"1111'''"111111''1 (11111 It .llId III n h..·d hi "lIIt'lhl." lllll,lIIu nllIl Ihl~ ~l'IIIt'lill" ,Il 1111,' hit,:t II lll'h hll' ," ""'" ",1'1>" Ilh II II.. I I hus, Ih I'hl>,,"I.. ',<:,11 111,,1 1I1,IY he ,hll.-','nl 1111111 till' 'lIll1lIH.•uul l'lthIllIH. htl,1 pi ,I l'lIlll I III ,: III Ill" l'l'll i ll till' 1..111Itl.1 11111 pl,ln, 'lIlt'lll ul tht' 'l fllint '111111l' 101111111" /1 ) II !'lll I'll Shit-III dpqtH'l1U " III 1',' ,,1.'111111 Itllh,,' cI"'1U"II,'" ""1'1' IId<:<I I.. Ih, III HIli /'/1'/1/,11/111 111111.."", Ih pi h. "" l'I'''I'"111 "' /1/'1 1 1 11 Idllh 1'" ,"1,'111 .1111111,,1 11"11,, II) (I St,'v" 11I11'l l',lch,'III , 01 Imllu hilve h4.'l"llllll'lnh · I I ' , , ' l r, ) ""- ( hn).!.n:'i~ Pan I) SC;Vl'I UI PIl,"l.,ull'll 0 1 In{liI... h ilVl" h l'l'n nwmht, 'h ' ( ' Y n IJ ongn.:,,, Pany, 'I Ill' pluml su n IX l'IUl~tll hl' ~llI ad ll'(1 to lIuy nOl1 Clthl'T ,h.,n th' nt pilii'll!. llt.' I1(.'l' the lI UP.I IlI1HlItllH.;uhl y III 141 J) )lin tho '! i tnlt.'fllnt ChUl1l!(' ,11.., a pro<.'l"...... th a I !-uh'-oIltc ... Ol~l' n Oli m Off'hc I1H': ....c~ rncn tOf (ll1uthel , H; 1I1ul..,ltatc<I 11 till,.' 111111''' 01 words In " ahc 4~ ...11l}' (pn'" 'Ill) sHIh. (prl"l..'nl) til IVl' (pIC"l'ntl loUI (;lnguIM) VIlO,l' (;lIlgUIi.II) "';lIl).! (pil'on ~"lk (pu'1) drove Cpa...l) loci Iplur,.I) 'cc c fplll",1 VClhs ,uch ;" ';11):, "illk, itllli tim'" fnrm Ihelr past tense hy ch;mging the vowel (e,g. from. tn" in the fir I two cX'"11pksl. The term ahlaut is "he" lIsed for vowellllern,'11011' that 1lar~ grammatical cnntr,,,,, m thIS way, Ihllllli Citll he <ii,lln 'ui hell trum umlaut, willeh invnlvcs the I",ntmg, of 11 vowel under Ihe influence 01 " front V(lwel in the f(lluwin!; sylahk. lIi~tllrically, Ih" " "hat" re'I">1,,,hk illr the u,e or J"t'I and ,~rfse as the pillral I'orlll' of f",,1 ami '(10"" respecllwl) ~ the back 'o"c 0 the rOllt (ol1!!I1);,lIy 10:1) as Imnh:J in m,,'pat1!ln "f the front vod in the u<l plural sul'nx /i/l, "hieh "as, uh c'lu 'ntl) "rnppel!, rhc IIllcrllal ,h.IllS " JU t c,'n I" 'I' '.I ,m: nut e amp.: "l' inli'<tng '0' two I'l';"OI1, ,irsl, Ihelc i, n 1'1.',1" II to thllll.. Ihat -J1I!i,h h", ",ot mnrphemcs "",h ,t, .ft (me.t1IlIl' 'I('l" r c In:llllt) " the Ie') or II (meaning'pm"ule "",," III ,I lllU le.llll'Il,·') , h''''11 h) the T.lgalog <:umplc, III T,lbk ~,~, Ih,' I',t"· illl,' Ill"h .111 mfi I lIl, cn d 111u,1 c "I ;1' a "'parat, tmm S cono, 11ll'1'l' " H" lIldq 'l,knt r,',I,nll III thlilk Ihallh,'le " ,I m,'rphe111c 00 III ~'n 'h h Iltal nll'.IIl' ',"' 'III • ,'r I tll)l'l'h 'III • ( th,11 llIean, 'plural' 111 the fi :ltlfeer " ,lIlll'k .111) 1lI"~' Ihull Ihel I I m,',ph"lllc i Ille nll); 'PI:'CIIl m a m"tl'lll'llll' ,/ m,',lIltll' '1'1'1' l Ih, I'" 'WI l.I',' SIIl,e 11111'<,<:' ,IrC b) .I'!'tmlh'l 1I(lll'h III ". ,'11 l" ndu,k 1h1llh,"e c ,tIllP,,", 1""; Intctll.1l ,h,11 ',' (th' ,u ,ttltltlllll,,1 III II t1lnll'h"mic C IllClIls) r 111I<r than ,nl1 'II he I{rom ,uppl~lilln morph' 0 I al I'h mol" 'Ie I um I I u 1''' '
- 82. .,. tress .lnd tone pl.lemen! II I , ,', 'Ulidi~I;'''m ~ 'h.ld-'- - -.,-,-, _______ 'lhd'~llr I· .. :t l'lr 'tl' h.1(.'" <u sp.. "I,h rr ""'loll' tth..' t, ' .,n ,,1 'I' ..IUd '.u':· RU"t.Ul ln'ft' ,~(,,"f' 'uIJI~ 'hc:I1<.'r' I 'nh'~ ~h""'-I'l ---- In " III ~ (,.St". It I"; 11.1rd ttl di~(lng:lII,t~ 1'l,'((,'l"l1 "uppklinn .lnd Illte- ~h~Ul~(' hlr t,'..UHp'~••tn' rh.,' p.I'( Il.'n:--(':-. ()' IlImA V1hlll.t.:IU). a.'h.l ,,' I. { tn'l ~ • C lOll h tht' n'...ult (If ...nrrk·(i<'Il nf IIllC'nl;iI l"h;lIlge? Bcc..llI'c the InJl1~11 phon. g I Ih ',t.' (.ft,... n,,·IIt.lin~ un.:hall1!t.'d. • ill ,.'llhldcr thi" ahl.'nJ.lIl('n to .t.:fOt: or , - . ~~ .tIl i'.tll.'m" flnn llt mtcm.lll"h.mgt' rJ.thcrthan lnlt..' Sl1pplelhln. lllo~~r ~ {('nn p.-.rtial suppll'finn i..... lI·..cd b) ~llOh,' hngl1l"'(~ h)r thc:...e cast..~.... ,1 .. the Ibbk -I." St~" ,,1.ll·cUll'm in Fngli..h implant Hupl,lnt Irnpon HHfIm P"''''nI prt.."l'O( 'U~ll,,,·t ~ti~jl'l.·[ COO(t',t :t'ntt',t In the language lon,,·Blli 'll(l..en in the African cnuntry of Ziure), 'one is used '0 lll, ke the distin.:""n ~leen past and luture ten,c (Tahle -1.81. (A high 'one" marked h~ and ,I low It'lle is marked h} ',j Table 4,8 Past "'rus fUlllie in Iono-Bili Pa"r futlllt' dj 'p,n!.,"l' d:t '" ill spank' II ".Itt: " ~i '"ill eat' "" '!.IIk-d' 0 '''ill kill' Compounding Ml11o!I'lhHtH,' '4 Yl't ~IOI~l~r l:nmmnll l1ol'phnlng,II.'"I P"X:C'''' ""l :CI;I tm 'u~}' 'S thll Ih){ Fnglish) I' n·dnplkntlon. ~"hl....h I.l.uph:tl's an Ir pan of the h.,...c n V.hh,;h it l'phl.·~ h"l m:l:... a t-lr•1mm.tIl..·"l HI ....I.·m"n1~ nlOh.h I"ult r~dlpk~lhm thL' n..·pettlinn t)t thL' ...·ntlll.· word. ih III lhl' l;tta rutn lrki...h 011 n'-'lln~!i.h':' rcspl.!'ctivd). sh) 1'1 In T;hlc 4,t). . I,bl<-I,l/ IIfrJ.i.·;}t IJ,Ihuk "quid..,) IJahuk IJahul. '::I)' qu1l.:;.)" I;),,J '~lowy ia, ar. lilaI .... ~f) s"""y IJI 'cU' III IJI 'lcry ""d' ~) lei 'heautifut) . )1)' Ic g) let ''cry heJ.Iitu) illf/OIlOiitUl orau 'man oral] oraU 'J.l ,ons of men' ;l1ak 'chll,r ana... ana... ';1 "'ort:- ('If children' nUl.1Jga 'mango 1llJ.l)ga mauga 'a ~ort, of 1113.ngl."ICs· In contras. partial reduplication copies onl) pan of the word. In the 1'0110 ing data from Tagalog, for instance (Table ,tt 0), reduphcat1ln afkcts onl) (he first consonant~vocI sequence of the basco 'nIbl. -',10 BaSt' tal-buh Ial-ad pili? Reduplication in Tagalog R,·duplicalt'd.fonn 'run talal-buh 'wlll run ' aU,: lalakaJ ' ill :111.' ~ho'):,e piplli7 ~ .ill ch('K.)..e till another conUlll'n m<'rphological proces in human language involves compounding, the cl)mbination of k.ical categl)nCS nouns, adiCCIlCs, erbs, ( r prepositil'IlS) to create a larger word, There em: countle" compound, 111 English, some of which arc ,hon in Table 4.11. Tubl" -'. I S,'me e,amples of Enghsh Cl)mpounJs ('tI" + OWI Adin rr,('" + (lUII --~---------------- ~tre('t lig.ht ,'ampsit ' h~,:,:"kca~t-" bluebird h'II'P) h"Uf hIgh ,'hair ~~M l..'In.1 ushd0th ,,'ruh 13d ,) erk"d ,mthl)u,c In gl'up
- 83. O( ' - _ de-rhalional ~ .iihe-S S:4JiV:5 ~r -in. -: -"to ....Jn~- r di..... ~' T-<'t" on the Ide oi in Er.~ I h --"A " ~. y--,,: y--" --"~ y--,,~ " ~ .. y~ - • T ~- -"A -"A '--" ~ -"~
- 84.
- 86. -1 -(I -'T -ful I) ·cr -,>II ab! pnxl -1-1'- I'm .aI nt~l(ln ,df-l h ,'mllk'nJ-able final ..''0' 10 l of th,. t-J....e' ,:h3.(]~ "'''n n p i,-) final , :>nan! ofthe b.!" .oh.m; -, fn'm !:-;n') fin , "1..'lI1' 'nant of tht' ,~ .....h .. l" fnJIl narn ntlne rwnc (h,)ne- 1l('Ine none none BOlle 1,[ 3 1"1 of (OlirO L ! "I d LJI G h)nl.." h' 1 , ''1 l 1 (II hk - ,11'II ,il~ 1)) 2 1 hk '-il) ,Ihl' n) I '11 'p..' ~" h.' .., ' t .t! f.,~,t-,Ibll ,il' 1'><.'1 I 't l ',t h."'" 1"',, h"-'t ~ ~ ,1<, 'pI ~bll II, n'lt "I ,. hHhU ,., t,~) ! * £:,1,1 II ' ,Ihl' n'l.'l 1 *,I,' , '1'1'11~ •,II''-) 1, 'It ~ IWlh 'r ,''llml'!l ",I) Il' 1>11ld ""l'1h III E!l~h'h Ill " l'IllIIndin' Ih,' (',J1l1hin;.tti.'lt .)1' k,i '~l ~..t ~~1n" 1l('1lI'. adjl'~t ...~. , 'lb,. ,-'It '"C'',-"h,lh). ilh , 'I) f'" '' TU,lll', Ih' n"lllt1l~ ,'l'I><.'lIld ,,(1 I' ,I I,'un, ,I , 'rb, ,, an ,Idj '('In' Ifi~uf.' 4,10, ,,, 'rI'"n, II' '''lllk ',,1,1..', I,f ''IX'ul,1 1'1' ',lIilll', m'lu,' Ih..- ",'r" /1'(' ,md elllte') In Ih '" ,1,,1,"1 l'lh,'f "'mlx'und,, Ih ' ri~hlll')'1 1II"ll'h,'II' ,cl,'lllln', Ih,' ",I'~)~ "f Ih' 'nli~ ",'rd, rhU"~Il-<,,,'h'I" IS ,Ill I '(,IU'" II' righunl,):-ot t..')tH{"u.:nl i, ..1 to 'Pt'l'tt· rf,'c,d" .. ~",U:-..~ '(' ,1,, tx'hn£,., ill Ihi' ,al"~'ll ~. and II We'1I :,/. I' ,III .11IsI ;1' III", " I'h' m"lvh,'l,' Ih,ll ,1<-1<'1'1<" II ','.l,:!:,,)r~ "rIh~ 'ntil<'" "1, I' ,,11 'd Ih~ h~:Id
- 87. , l , , ~,Il , I ~Ulh'n '''' I !-oilt" !-oml '"mp :-:UI( >I ,b~ . ....411 hOI l' U r ' tn .' 1 .... ' L In.lt " nl' !!T II ro nh It rI II I' I .fl'r III ' ',I, I 1"''1I~hl I.l' " !.til'" N t, , tn '1U in _h,tJlh,ln. lht." ,"'IN f(,ln)." pn ~('"",~ n:';"p'-'n.;"i~~ f('If den an n nd '1;11 ')IIlJt'~ ~;.lt int~r:~t llh e~h:h th~r. In 'hgl~ -t ~.. f."f m"t...:~. .' I,.t11("'.'10" i" ''1nut.-.J I)~ c)mhml~ ,, 'lurk ')N dl'D.. u nh t.bl! '"' "n N " llt i .lf" Ie
- 88. 3.2 I A second distinguishingfeature of compounds in " anuuag's '. h - english . fi e t. IS t at tense lind plurnlmarkcrs can tYPically not be . anu OUt Irst element. although they can be added to the compound a .. altacheulO the, - sa whOI e In e Tense on the tirst element in a compound: *The player [droppe~ kick] the ball through the goalposts. Tense on the entire compound: The player [drop kick]ed the ball through the goalposts. 18) Plural marking on the first element in a compound is usually disall *The [foxes hunter] didn 't have a licence. OWed: *The [roa~ map] are expensive. (There a few exceptions such as passers-by, parks Supervisor and m ~~ ~~ Plural on the entire compound is the norm: The [fox hunterJ~ didn'r have a licence. The [road map]~ are expensive. The preceding criteria are especially helpful for identifying co whose initial component is a verb or a noun. An A-N compound (grem~Unds wei s/lii) can be identified with the help of a different tes!. As illus~~~t~~!" the following example, the A in a compound cannot be preceded by a w In ~u~ ~ 19) Compound with very: · We live next to a very [greenhouse]. Of course: when it is not part of a compound. an adjective can typicall be accompamed by thiStype of word. y 20) very with an adjective that is not part of a compound: We live next to a very green fence. Types of compounds Compounds are used to express a wide range of semantic relationships in Eng!Jsh. Table 4. I9 contains examples of just some of the semantic patterns found III N-N compounds. In most cases the rightmost component of the compound identifies Ihe general cIass 10 whtch the meaning of the entire word belongs. Thus dog food I~ a ~ype 01 food, a cave mati is a type of man. and so on. Such compounds, which lIlclude all the examples in Table 4.19, arc called endoccntric. I~ a smaller number of cases, however, the meaning of the compound docs not IOllO~ from the mcaning~ of its parts in this way. Thus, a greellilollie is not a Iype 01 bottle; ralher, illS a fly of the genus lucilia. Similarly, a redneck ''it; is not ;.~ lype of neck hut un ultra l:onwrvatlvc anu a .UKll,.~dlldllv ,... nOl a tyn.. 01·. . While wor"-,n ' t.:h . . I·.... ...Ug,lf·CUut.:d t'ath'r . pcron - who IS deemed to he huth uVClgcncfou... anu ,'! hut a WtlHl"'t) 1 lover compounds arc said to he Cx()ccntric much to() hd t~lr her Such Table 4.19 Some N- N compound... Example M('a,,;n,': steambont airplane air hose air lield lire truck lire drill bath tub balh towel .~, boat powered by steam' 'a convcyence thallravels thmugh the illr' 'a hose that carries air' 'a field where airplanes land' 'n vehicle used to put oul fires' 'a practice in the event of a fire' 'a place in which lo balhe' 'a towel used aflcr bathing' --.-- A very striking difference between endocentric and exoc t' . '.' en nc compounds shows up III Engltsh III those rare cases where the head of the co d h . I I I C 'd' . mpoun as an Irregu ar p ura. onst cr In thts regard the examples in Table 4.20. Table 4.20 Pluralization in English compounds In endocentric compounds oak leaves wisdom t~lh club f~t policem!;n hI exocentric compmwds Maple Leaf~ (Toronto's NHL hockey learn) sabre toolh~ <extinct species of tiger) bigfQQ~ (members of an extincl tiger species) WaJkm~~ (a lype of portable audio ca"etle player) Notice that the exocentric compounds permit the plural sufftx. -s for words such as leaf, loolh,Joot. and mall. even though these forms require an irregular plural when used elsewhere in the language. 3.~3_ - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Compounds in other Although the rules for forming compounds differ from language to language, the practice of combining lexical categories to build a wonl is ver) wide. pread. As Table 4.21 (overleaf), which shows examples from various languages. helps to illustrate. compound nouns are especially common. languages With the exception of Tagalog. in which compounds are left-headed. these languages all have compounds in which the rightmost element is the head. A special type of compounding process involves incorporation. the combination of a word (usually. but not always. a noun) with a verb to form a l'Ompound verb. Although English does not make use of incorporation, the process is common in other languages.
- 89. I ~ comp<Jundo m.-atJ<_ langwgn Korron kat el rm ralgh Ice lUCie faga/OK IalIod bayan I',:trd IOWn '1'01 ,=' (#'rlTUln (Ja1t h(Jf guest Inn h"lel' fmllifh lamm..-nahlu-tutkkl cheep .kln coal fJ~klO(:(}aI 'l"lJIzii pll xiiI w,.p-head 'hal' IW-I" dC"wroun ·dri//Je· anak araW .hJld ,un 'albino" ~ mwun-mYw'tJ1 eye ....ater Jean' --- ------ lubig ulan w;atcr r'un '(<tinwater ------------- -- Wort-bcdeurunp-Iehre word meaning theory '5emanlic~ . ehn-kem<>-ta1<>-ven>-l.ki life'. means Income tax law "income lax 13...,,' mt!"k'inobal mother-nu.st rambow' rem-oehcr far SCer ".e1C'f!lijOf) ---- ?6m-tJ6n rightaway-snake 'deadly viper' -- ------------------------------- '/ he example In 21) arc from Chukchee, ~poken in northeastern Siberia. .",d rhe M,.rone Ian language Ponapean, As these examples help to ilIu;lrate ,"<:orpofaIHm otten fllvolvc phonological adjustments to the noun and/or ~ verb. 21) (J (hukchcc ",'tlhout JlI("fJrp"rtl/um " ;1 pelark;m q()'''!l,) I leu ve remdeef I'm leavrng he f~,ndeer' b. """apcall WlIluJ/I/ ill('(lIf"'I'lIIUJII , P.,lmllt ,ckl 1,,1, I will ullroll Dial "",II Ufl,,,lIthe lIlat With II/cfJrporatifJn T:>-q(Jfa-peJark;m Irctndcer-Icave ' I am In the pnK:CSS ()f[cindccr-Ic~ving.' With /f/('orporal/l1/1 I flahn perck- J" f will ullroll mal I WIll eng.1 'C in Ill;!t ullrolllng.' 4.1 Clipping to ()RPHO 04Y , Derivation and compounding ""0 the two most - formauon .In Englim. but they are nO( the ""IvCOmmon l)-pes of pre-.enled III th" ~Cl1On will sbov.. !hero are, n - ""'""- e ....or<ls. ather ... eYe"'" oe.. Con>ersion i, a pmce that assl6Jl5 an alrea(v ell!' ord s),ntaCllc category, Even though it doe not add an;.,.r,,, con= . 10 a new derivallon becau~ of the change in category and meaning th~~:"~1es (For thlS reasoll_ III '>Omeume, called zero derivation_) = Many examples of conver;ion involvmg the CTeation of a lie... etb fr a noun were gIven In the fir I chapter of this book (beach a boar. W'/lUr ... MeXICO. and so on) Table 422 contaJns eumples of the three most CO<nmon types o.f comer,IOIl to have taken place m the hi,tory of English. . lXlIed in section 1.3 above. nouns denved trom verb;, 5Ometune-; 1lIIderzo shift. "hleh places the .Ire on the irutial syllable_ The efferu of tins phenomenon can be seen In the fif';l three examples of the middle column_ Table 4.22 Some examp"'I ofCOQVet'<lOn 'demedfrr-n- finger (a s"-'pect) boner Ithe bread ship (the pacbge) nail (the door .hut) bunon (the shirt) f::t nev.) Stire~ (a brief) repon ta Ion= v.:ill; dirry (a ,bin) eIllp{) (!he box open t a door) right (a wrong ~ the clothe,) Le.S common type of cumer;ion can yield an .' from an A (Ihe poor. a f!0Y ) and e,en a ' from a P (to da..-n 0 beer. 10 up ;M pnce. 10 ow bishops )- Con,er;i n L u,ualJ~ re tncted to ....oro" .:ontairung ,mgle morpheme a1thoU!:h there are re.... e cepn n' uch a" propos-inon noun and -ern rtier-~:' (noun d em) d din-}' (adjecue and ern)_ In orne, e_ .:omcl"ion .:an e,en pl~ to a . mpounJ. .... hen the compound r:Mrubr,md l' u. ed 'd'em (he 'I e~ 10 ~rondsrand) in the , n e of'sh .... ,'fC
- 90. I ~ (, 4.4 Backformation B/{"lCharc '",'rJ, Ih.,c ,Ire l'rc,tlCcllrom non·morphcmlc parts (,I " I~tlng Itellls Vdf.l.,nowll e.ample, 01 blend,. Inelud.c brwwl ,I"'" .'r.,..o&<]" I J rOl1l h J }tHI und IlIfIf'h. ,mo/? frnrn ,l1Iolt~ and f(~, .~pam rom ~l(·t~d und h "t'll~ . . ' . m'l If'/ from It'/t'phOlw ,IUd IJIlIT(If~lfm. Iwr(Jl}/l'I.H~ Irom ~e..r(}IJI.(', and t't('r(" -' . "/h/l/! B ·· I h 1" r h (Jurthl' nl! unl.1crw;lh:r link hctwccn rltalO aile l c continent) fr • Ifllt/,., . hill (0;' .Ind 1lIII",'!. and it~r()mt'''ci('' from !!!l!!.rl1l0llnll and ('onmlPrtifll "'Uff'1 e,amples ,ho', a "lend" u,ually formcd from Ihe fir! Pilrt oj· "n~ i loc'e Ih, Iin,Ii part of a ,ewnd one. llihrd al1<l Some "lend, hilve "ccome so inlegrated Into Ihe "(lndanl V(lC' h . F ,I ular" Fnoll,h llliIl '''''(Ike" ifrc unaware of their ,tatus, or example rei, I· '. hf • t"' ' . J'- _ • d IV~I I people know Ihal "'endlllg hils produced chort/" (e()incd "y author t, '" Carroll) lrom ('hlteA/" "ndlllor!, mOle! from mo/Or and Ilflll'!. hil (10 e() "'''', Jargon) from hit/ar... and digil. and modem from modll/alllr and t/""" I m/PUler . . It II Ufo Sometimes. u word " formed by a process thaI 'eelm to be r borderline Octween compounding and hlcnding III that ilcomblne, ,IIf(:,~ ,:he word ","h part of another. Examples of IhlS III Enghsh Inelude flern ne , Iil'prt'JJ (forpcrlllfll/I'IlI·p"'H). workaho/tc, met/,care. and Xlte.l.llim(J/t! A mClr . . ' c rL"CCnt creation of this sort i, Ihe word Ihreepeal III North Amenc.," tnghsh, u, 'U refer (() the wInning of a championship in three ,ucce"ive yea" (a, In~. to ofIIIl' Sail I, mlll"isc(J 4gen wue hopmgfor a Ihreepeallll Ihe SlIper BOwl ;m. Rackformation i, a process Ih,1l create.. a new word by removing-:;;1 .supposed affix from another word in the language. Relltrrecl wa, Origi~ill~" formed '" Ih" way from I'l'surreuirJll. Other backformalion, III Engr ~ IIlelude 1101Ift'kl'ep from hO/tll'kl't'per. elllhu.fe from elllhu.lu/.m. t/Ollllle fr:,m dOl/allOt/. and onenl or onenltlle from oriellla/wt/. Sometimes. baCk/ormatIon Involves an Incorrecl as..umpJion ahoul a word's form: for example. the Word pea was derived from the earlier ..ingular noun pecHe (..ometimes wrinen pI'C/I). whose final Iii was incorrectly inlerpreled as the plural suffix. A major source of baekfonnalinns in English has been word, that end wilh -or or ·/,r and have mCilllings involving Ihe notion of an agent. such a, edilor peddler•.Iwilldler. and .lloker. Beeau..e hundreds of words ending In these affixes are the fe..ult ofaffixation. II was assumed Ihatthe,e words too hUll been (ormed nyadd,n!' "lr-or ('f 10 a verh. By Ihe process of hackfoflJlalion.lhe vern.. ",ltl, pI'dtlh'. .r....llidle. and ."Iokl' were formed , In the same manner wllh the alivelll of the personal computer, from the compound noun WOl'dproCl'llOr the Vern Il'Oldpm('('I. wilsoht.llncd. Yel anolher recent addllion. hUI with a drlfcrenl Mlun:c, is the verh la.lt!. procluced ny ba~kformatjon from lafl'/'. whICh IIell ofl!;malcd a~ an acronym ('ce sCclion 4.5), ilacH'HlIlillion conlinuc 10 prndul'e new words In moclern f·.ngli,h, 'Iwo ,datlvcly rl'n'lIt procllll'lS ollhi, process ilre the velhs /iaill' ffOll1litli.(1/I and Acrunym... arc formed hy laking the tnill.llltHCrs. ht )m" IJf "It'll' I I u ) ne Wf)fU 10 iL phnlC or lt11c an{ rCallng them a~ i.t whrd '( hi l;tvo ht w( "I f • ' , jI"" , C,fn 1110,", is c~pccH,Hy c()mmhn 10 n~"nc~ of ()r~anll.'Ilhn lind lICu::llIhc tenlltn(,, Some examples {)I "emnym' Include IJNI( U f(,r IJnitC/I N'"II( I t'iY , _ • . ' , ., J 1 nter nalional (hlldren .. Emergency t·und. NAIO f,,, '"nh AII.nlle T,eat Organi/.atH,n. ACAS for AdvisC>rY. CnnelliallllO and Amllratll," Se,,,cc (,Y n the UK). AIDS for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syn<l'{)mc, But there are also example,. such as NIMBY. f{)r Nhl In My Back Ya,d. Ihat are ('"md III everyday language. In some eases. speakers may not know that a w(ord III Ihelr v'><:ahubry "'a. originally lormed as an aemnym. Three commonly used word, "flhl type are ",riar (from radio detecting and ranging). .~ruba (o;elf-cMlaincl und"Nlater breathing apparatus). and laser (light amplification hy Imulated emlS Ion f,l radiation). The name of Ihe computer language BASIC IS an aewnym for Beginner's AlI · pur~ Symbolic Instruction Code, ~ --- , ----A -:-: II~I-a-n- g-u-ag~e~s~ · :-h:OOa,:OO,,,:OO·-::w-::o::r::;d:OO.,~w~h~(=,,:-::e sound represenLs an aspect oj the Ihing that onomatopOeia they name. Examples of ,uch onomatopoeic words in English include bu:a., hiSJ. sizde. and cllckoo. Since onomatopoeic words are not exacl phonetic COplCS of nm", • their form ean differ from language to language. as can be '>Cen in 'lab!.: 4.23, Table 4.23 OnomalOpoeia across languages ElIglish c,x:k-a-doodlc-doo men- (hirp hC! . OW Japullt'se kokekokko nya plI·pii wan·".n Tagalog kuk kubuk niya... unnt a",·aw I.ngli h docs not always havc an equivalent for the onomat0poclc word llund in Olha language.. Thc Athapaskan language, lavey. tor til lanc • has th' onomatopoei.: word all ah sah for 'the ,oun~ ~f a bear ~alKtIlg unseen nc'l f,1f from camp' . ()ik for 'the und of a crufc hitting a tree. and tie, ,'ffor 'th !lund of an egg splattering'.
- 91. 5 I HECTIO Beca-.~_ Ionppb after !he '"nrc! formatJon proce di section .:, !he plural affix can be added 10 the output of den compounding (Table .. ..5 ell as to a irnplc noun .....on change (.1'",,- Figure.U3 '''' FirsL tnllection doe- 00{ ,han"c ellh~r ofme:min; found in the ,",ord t cn It a b '~Af no or
- 92. fI( Q , b -f' IZ ~l'{"m L .1 f aI In:- H. ~f ducti it" prO U1Cnt Af I <10m OItheb.l, r I /) MORPHOlOGY THE A.. "'LV o 1 The po...itioning ()f infleclJonal affiXes OUtnde de:rwalJonal, ""ample, reflect, the f...." th:n ,nne on ta.c place aft", deri l " •. thud cnterion for di tmguishing between tnfl"'-"UOna affiX" ~ to do "Ith produclh i~ . the re3ti e freedom "''Uh combme with bases of the "ppr pnate category 1nfIeClOnal 1 t)1>lcaly have retau el} fev. exceptions. The uffix for example can om ne vtrtuall. all) noun that a11o... a plural form tex,cpt for a fev. ex cpt> as QJ:t"n and fur) In cootrast. derivauonal affi ",,~ r meted c of ba! . Thu co form D.-ert> 1~'
- 93. 'IIIl,IIIN H'I I •" INIlI~ IIIIN hi Nlllllh", 111'11.1", III "It, I,d 1'1011 11111 1'.1 I I I"~'II " 'Hi I'll 111"11'.( r d I', I Jllllih Iph f n" r,1 (1" I 111" (111'1'.11.1111 " ~IIPI'lI.III' "1 .. IlIhllll'llIl t'li III- I 'III~ Illp lit- pd-,l·t! JIi" h.l" ('IIIi'II/"llIdwd ~11i~ '111111111-, 11th' 1111' '1 IIIIIk~IIIIIi ' 1111 It 1 11111',111'1111" I IlInelllllll'lIl." dlllnrllu' III lilt' '1'" r III whh. II Ilid lilt' '111.11 1111 In lhHI tllIt'I!lh "'I III p.Ulln",1I II "'l't'lIl'" III I I It'Vlillit 01 ,- Il'I' " IIlk'lnl 1{l11II ,II,', 1111,11 lid"" .1' Ilt'l'lh'd lit .Inlu,llll· I I It'VIII'1! • 1 111 1 IIl1ul'hnlpJ.!h.II 111/,' ( IH II ,I' .dd I'd 111111;111-.. Iht' 1','''Illrll',,' I I ""111'1,11 IIlqHlI,1 I 1111'" It(' "'Plrd PrJ I1I.t'II'1I11 III tlh' 1.111 '11,1 '," II'''''' 111-'1111)1 ' S I IlInl I I ~ . """' "V I (lllll~ c 111""'1111' 'tlllll'S 1111111 ""lIdll'~ 1'1 110' IUI1~1 II Illk", .. I hnl~'l . 'P~,IM'I I Hit 1',11 1t''''1 1111111 III ,I 'rlh ,,11,'11 111"1'111'11 ,1111 III I,· . I 1IIIIh' t 11'( 'UI III' jP111I IIIt'Il I" ItPlrt'i.llullI 111'1(1 11 I POlIl"llIlh'lIl1dh"'II' ~.ILII " "I'Y III Ih,' JlIII"i II 1.lk, ~ It ~'I 'IJIII' II' !'1l' Ih~' ".", halll of IU'lllIl'llI 'l'lh I ".jl lt ... "H,,' ;1"1 , • , /1I1,/lh,11I II dtl~'~ Jill 111111'11111111 Vl'r!h slIlh .t' ,llItI" 1111 I I II,Uhl I ' "/I ""',""'' II let ,I""" II I.lk(·i;, It IIII'I I III hll,ll' IldU"qll'lIlh Ii,,'d IOIlIIS 111' I Y nllt .... 1I1~'IIO I I IIH' 1~1""1 til It ',d,lI l'lh·. III ,'PIIIIIII 1l'~11PJl'l" 111111' I I y, 1 , , 1111 'P' IHIi'-I1! III"qtH'III," hl'I 11I'~I' II", pa ! ICII (' I IDllllnl hv ,I It'~'ld.1I l1t1t, " • , III I I ' 'I ' II I, ""11111" I It un... III' I It l1ltllll IIH~ 111l'111.11 dH IIPII.II ' IIId ;111 H'lh... (.111 Ill' I, n 111110 "'IIi'oI '1" d 1,1111111'" In illI' ",1'"11 II II II I I , I "'11" ",,'<I I IYI "I gl,II'"I1,II'lioi 1I"IIII'lillllll'lh,1I III 'tl1I1I1Itllll 0111 I' ~III11II1" , ~I" ,ul III hlllll,II' III, 'III" wllh 110 hi'll' "I 1IIII"rilllilili ." 110" !'~I''''''''N 1111i11,"I~ "'VIIlvll~ 1IIIIIIhl'I l 01111.1 I It II t' .Il1lpll', 1lI1111hll " IIpl III I IHIt: IIII"H'IIIIII hh ~ /0,1 NIIII"d'I~~ Mf ,o'I'IH,IIII,( 1111 ""'1''" ,I' , f " 'WI ,I'I , 2 I) ~.I~ fI)1 "til l 1/,11 pt'llI I'I~' lilt Wl ·W.' "Pt',IH'd 1)11" plpC III 11I1t~ 111111 {••puke·" III IUlIlht In ( ) ,tHII' ;1), 111 11 tllh", h;1I1( '"f'1 I w.IY 1ltllllltt'J (.111111,,",1 InVO!VIU' II'VI;II, d".11 (two .tlU tllly w !1. a thr t" (1I11tH t"itll twU) , 'I), w{luro' ,./) I~' III I~""> lViII' ', illllo..,t' t'Wh "'IIl'lIi' ' lhItT'" IIHJlt·lu'"....l·!'t· SnllW laIlVUa)!t·~ !llvldt' SHHIiI" 111111 IWh 01 1t1()f'C 1fIIlt,(.tu)lnll:l· I • .l s. )~l on f,lt:tll"lI pi1f'Il0111I{H,;allllltl/fll CIT;lIltll' "ltl{l"IIH:~, 1'w Bouttn all 'U.,,· ,, wau 1111 III,t.UKe, luakl4 II C (II pi t1Jl,l~!i " dl~tllv.UI!th itlnlln I 11Ilf 4 11,11 UU/'~ WHItI dot c:t. flllW lit 'hl h ,II ~ '11 It It' ilh ~ ,-l'J. Clime 1U1 t' pre n II ill lilt' .' x.ul1ph·~) 'h,IIk 4.2') " II/dn I .AII"",/t· UIII(U) lim 1,111,1 boy' 10 IIlivulu I." ,Ii I lip 'pial' III on 13 hll u hi ph,1 pha ndl
- 94. lE POR 6.3 Case RY ~IGlIlS TICS another set for nouns In the: mas..:uline. animate da.ss. Tabl gender endings for n<,uns mat function"" subject of a semen~e~30 hQ,. the Table- 4.]0 Ru""ian gcnJc:"f ..utlh.t"s Cia" Suffix £(,unp/' ------ Ia..culine ","' d"m "house' ------ Femimne ·3 ulic·a 'street" Nemer -0 t!U'SIV-o 'sensation' ----- Still another type of inflectional contrast associated with n;;;;::-:--- language inolves case - a category that encodes informatio~ ~n llIan) element's grammatical role (subject. dtrect object. and so on) I bout an English. !his information is expressed largely through word orde~ a::dMOdern ofprepositions. the Ue 25) Anna composed a song on me bus. In !his sentence. the subject Allna occurs to the left of the verb and th ' object a sOllg appears to the right. while the element expressing loe e dlre.1 bus) is preceded by the preposition 011. In many languages. howe,atlo n hit. di · . kd b . fl . a! affi er.the stmellons are mar e y In ecllon lXes. As an illustration f consider the set of related nominal forms (called a nominal parad~ !h" declension) for the Turkish word el' 'house given in Table 4.31. Igm or Table.OJ Turlcish case Case Fonn T)pe ofelemem lhal il marks !orrunali'e eV-0 me ubject Accusative e"·j the direct object Dati"e ev-e the recipient Genitive ev-in a possessor Locative ev·de a place or location Ablative ev·den direction away from somewhere The following sentences illustrate the uses of these case suffixes. 215) a, Adam-o ev-i Ahmed-e gOMer-di !-.Ian-Kom house-Ac Ahmed-Dat show-past. 'The man showed the house to Ahmed.' b E-in rengi-o m;iidir house-G~n colour- 'om blue 'The house colour is blul!.· alive case Erg marking c· Adam-.'1 ev-dc kah.h . man-Nom hou",c-Loc """yeo 'The man ...tayed 1n the hnu...e: d. Adam-<l ev-dcn lfikh. man- om house-Abl wenl 'The man went from lhe house '''7 Notice how in the final sentence, ror exam I Ad ' , d· f th " P c. am man be· h en tng 0 e nomlllatlvt: to indicate thal it i~. b' ' . a~ c. l.ern Ihe ablative suffix indicating Ihe place from 'hsuhlCCthl whIle e' 'hou",' bean; w tC e man W -0 The conlraslS represenled in the Turkish ca' c. ' . . se sy~lem are 10tcrm d- . complexity compared 10 Finnish which has fifte d" e late, In . . . . en ~tmcl ca.....e C't and Rumaman. which has only two contrasLs. a egone" Some languages make use of case marking to encode gram ' I . I'k ,,- f d' f . matlca COntra.sLs qUite un I e u.ose oun ID amiliar European languages I th A. . Yid ' , C • , • n e ustrahan language I III , .or lDstance. the case system groups togeme th b' . 'ti' b d th d' r e su Jeet of an mtrans. ve ver an e Irect object of a transitive verb (both f h' . d' h'l . 0 W Icn receive a zero en mg) w Ie uSlDg a special marker (-ngu) for th b' . . b (A b' '" . e su Ject of a transItive ver. ver IS transitive If It takes a direct object and intran ... otherwise.) Slt"e 27) a. Yidin' sentence with a transitive verb: Wagudya-ngu dyugi-I' gundal. man-Erg tree-Abs is-cutting. 'The man is cutting the tree: b. Yidin'sentence with an intransitive verb: Wagudya-o gunda! man-Abs is-cutting 'The man is cuning: In this type of sy tern. the case associated with the subject of the transitle verb. H'agll~'a 'man' 27a). is called the ergative. The case associated With the direct object (dYllgi .tree. in the ftrstentencel and with the subject of an intransitive 'erb (I'agtldya .man' in the second sentence) is called the absolutiH. Ergati'e case marking i found in a varied set of language. including Basque (in north-west pain and outh-west Francel. Tagalog (in the Philippines). Georgian lin the Caucasus). Inuktitut (in northern Canada and Greenland), and Halkomelem (on the west coast of Canada. It is also found in many Australian language such as Dyirbal. Warungu. and Yalarnnga. Ergati I' ca,e marking is far less common than the nominative-a~CU'3u,e pattern. which group, together the subjects of transitive and intransltie erhi, distingui.hin!! them from direct objects. Thi, is the pattern found 10 TurkISh (a, n,;ted pre~iou"ly I. German, Russian. Japanese. Korean. and many other language, .
- 95. and 1>.4 l'l'r1I1l .lIId nlll11lwr <l~1t'('JIlt'lll ..') It till' 111.tIl 111 .,uhWI.'! pn"-lllulI l'Iu,' mall '"l1ll'd 1'Ill' 1I1.I I1!tl(l" thl' hoo" /1 rhl' 1ll,lll III dill·,.·!llhW....1 posllinll .. IHlisl' fll~hh~IIl'd Iltl' 1I1i111 fhl "'H'I'. pnHltHliiS l',hthll it mOIC l.'lilliOI.lltl' sl' l of I.:olltm'-l(s. dttlllgUIhill' , I • (I 111'1' lit' ,III') "II ,,,','II,.II'<' (I/It', 111('1/1. 11/1/1 lin), R .1 IHHlIIIld Ic.: • (_. . , • , • ,tlll! a ~~"IIIIIT (/III', 1/11'11,/1/..//1'1 I). ,CU) Nlllllill,,11I ,': II,' "lIikd. lit 111111. Ihl' hool. ,t.'(,tI,allc: . noisc fri!-!hll'nl'd him, (;,,:nilll': Suc Il){lk hi, ( 'til SlIlfl' Ihl' ',1111,' IiI, nl 01 11ll' 1'101101111 i, 1I,,'d ",r Ihc sllhic~1 01 un illirunsitive ~l"h (.llIIild .lIId Ihl' ""~)l'~1 (If a lfilll,illve vcrn (tllk,') and sin,'c this IUrll) dlfkr, 1'1'11111 Ihl' olll' lI",tI for dircci ohlc,'ts, Ihl'sC clintrusts follow Ihc IllHllll1tlll"l' al'l'lI,,;&livl' patll'fli. A I<kh allc,ll'tI Iypc (If 'nn.11 mile,'lInl in human language illvolvcs I"'l'sOI1 .1 cal,'g'") Ihal ( pll.dl) tlisllllg"l'hc, among Ihe IiI'! person (Ihe sl"lk'·11. (h,' "','nlltl I' I'nn (lh,' "ddrl'ss,'c)" ,1110 the (h,ro persnn (lInYlln~ d l'), III """1 1,111 "iI "", Ih,' crh IS marked 101 holh Ihe pei'oll alld llul1lhcr (Sill ,,,I,ll or pl"r,dl 01 (h ub),','1. 'hclI on,' category is Inlkcled to mark 1'1"1"'11It" (. S"dl ,IS 1','''011 alld IIIlIlIh,'r ) 01 ""olher, Ille It", ealegory " said (II ltj;ft'(' wlill Ih,' "'(',,,"1 'l'I' lidl ')',"111 "I' "gll"'lIIl'1I1 IS found IIlllailan . whidl ex hibilS cenilln rlllIlI."" III Ih,' l"l''''111 ICII'" (see I.lhl~ ,1..11), (Thl' "'I o f ",lIl'l'll·tI form, a"",'I.I("" IlIlh .1 It'lh " l..tI"'lI ,I ndml lIaradij.:1tI "' a l'()nJlI~lIlj()n ) lilhlt, 4,.12 11.111.111 1''''S'IIII''II'e 1',11 ,lIlIgllI ",~ular I t JA'rst111 ' I I ,Ik' I'/IU 1I1 p.II111I1I10 p.lIl uh,' p,lIl.lIHl "H ~pt·ilJ.. "'HII "IW,II..;' till' P' .Ik' I I I I I Bl'UHI',,' the IlIth'~'''onut IHiIIq'l' prllvhh' II Ihueh pt:I'MlIl Hilt! 1111111bl" ot ttu- ""htITl phn'~ II I mtHfmahClh ahout the . . ' .... 11 l' clnell1 n d Pll"'1I1 111 Ililhill!. I hit..... 11(11 I" 11111/(1110 t •• l. I . ec m., he OV "'y ~-- lense I ' . 1M .1.." '''",n can L '01111 l'H' "''111'1(.'4.' I hl ,' pl·llIlI...,'l"lHy III ' I I Ina..e up a lOt er~""K 'mh) 'I' "C IlII.' lllT'" , .... a (.'OItl11101 Itatulc ul t"nV,l1ilUl'K. with 'h h" ~ ~ In uch 1 l ' I r, Itt.: Vn .11 Inflett,em Muclnll '.11)' 1'''', H" It 11H1l'h InOte Illlllt.ver,...hcd 'Y"'('1n f,t l1ul11hl'1 a)'ll'C,nlCII 111 till' v".. rh. ~lH' Ti.hle4. n how 11'1 ' ~rMm Imd I I I I I., .m Inne '''"nal ' lfi ,.. u...",tl Oil Y 01 111: tllnt p"'r...nn 1Il!.Ulil1 III the 10" pa!t cn'iC. it. IX "I"'ilk yo t! "-TX'a.- l Si Pl'l'llII 2nd person .'rd pcr,oll ~h c he, or It !-opt'a"-, we ~pcak you ...peak they srcak EXl:ept for command" fmmal I,ngh~n diners fmm italian and many olncr languages with rich vcrhal II1l1cclinn 11 re4lllnng a complete 'cntcnce III have un overtly cxprcSed suhJcct. 30) :Speab Engh'h, Tense is tnc category lhat enc()des the time "f an ~vcnl with referencc tn Ihe moment of speaking, Thu'>, the pa~1 tense is used with verns denollng an action lhat occurs prior to the moment nf speaking, There arc many dilkrent t~ pcs of ten'l! systems in the languages 01 the world, In tcrnl' of intlcctlon. for eample, English makes a tWQ-ay contrast between past Imarked h~ the intlct:uonal urth ,ed in regUlar ~erbs) and the non-past (unmar...-d). Figure 4 If> h,:-,s that the non'pa't Innll of the verb c:tn he Usco, in cl'nain circum tancc ,1m both pn:,ent and tuure events, r~lt 11.1 future non'pastlunmarked) (l It' '11 k"d 11,11 I) ('~ ~nl"" hlln, Ie W llnnrH )
- 96. umfllillg up a FUttll~,b. l'H·f1.HlIn': I-ani ,n h.lI1l-Jlt1 IlIl'll11l" .1I1h..;,I'l.'UlilIng In Spani,h .lIh.f I uhualllJ.ll. '-'It thl' llher hand, IIInCl'IU,,)n~II ' .. t " l nth llUs h-' l' pn·".1 rill '.' a~ pa.st p~s('nl ulu~ CUl1tnlSt. C' .. art lI'l"d "p.tlll.,Il: (I J1I.1I1 hahl·t.l hll'Il. 'John sf't1~e ell,' b. .luan habl·a nil'n, 'John SPC,IKS dl.' Juall hal-I·af·,i I-IL'II, 'JIlhn will speak ell.' LiIhll;'.IIlIan: Oirb-au, '1 wllr~"d' Oirb-u, ' I wor~' Oirh-siu, 'I will " or~'- A stilI n.'her sy,tefll llf contrasts is found in ChiBemba (a Bant I ' 7 ' 'h " 1 ' I UUngu llf .amol,l) lllC. usc!" Its mf ('('Iwna system to distinguj"h del ~ ...age paslllt'" ,lIId futunl). llIlhe 1",II11pk's ill Tal-k' 4,34, Ihe diucrili", Ill!rees of ,il'tics nprl'ssillg 1I'IIse conlfaslS an: underlined.) k lone; Pust Rl'lIllllC pa.', (llefflCt' ~6h:~·[IJy) "a·:lii·p.mll-·e'" 'Th~) Hr~t'd: Remo l~J P~lS' () t'''l'rda~ ) b,.·:.III·P'll11b,1 rhl') " l'rked. , 'l'ar past (earlier loJJ~ . "a'~"1 homha 'Th"1 worked,' 1IIII1Iediaie pasl (JUsl hapf''ned) """I,p.mll-" 'Thr~ lrketl,' FlIlun." Remote future (urter tomorrow) ba-bi-p."'lbo They'll work.' Remoed fUlun' (Iomormw) b,,-g-P.llllt-O They' II work.' ::-<ear fUlure (lal~r lodoy) ba-b'-bomha They'lI work: Immedlale fUlurc (very soon) ha·alda·bolllh" 'They II work.' - - rh" l'hap!c'r IS ,'olll'el11ed 1 Ilh lhe slrut:ture .11111 fOJm<lllollllf worcl, in hUlllan 1'lIIgllJgl.;lJIl~ "Ilrds ,'OIl,i1 of smaller 100malilc ell'lIK'lIlS, l'illled mnr. ph~lIl" 1hl'''' dl.'lIIl'lIl, C,IIl t>..' d"s,Il'icd 111 iI vanel)' of ways (fre~ V,'NI> bound, rnol Insus um" I)relh "'rsus ,um ) ,ll1t1 "llIl I", COI1OIlII.'" and Il""hl.nl umb I'.trious l'!lIId.I'()II~ 10 hurld ortls, ()pc'r,UIOII Ih.11 ran nmOIll ,llId l11dll) l1)(lll'hl'IIII.' indud am IIlillll, dltidn.tlnll jllll'rllni dlanj!e, ,uJlpldiun, ,111<.1 rt'duplilatiun, ,.ot," - Sources M(H<I'II('tH,y 111 -NI I'Y I.., (H W()kIJ !'lkIC hlli:t 1' 1 rhl.' two, h;l"'ll.' IYlx" ot won.t lon nal1oll ,n I. I compollnchnJ,t l .es... I..""ommon type, ( I _ ~ng'...h Me de-"vaUon 11 d ' Ii ' . ) word lornntnlO, ntl( 1 en tn~, c p~It~. and hnckformution Word,'. Ill,: U,- C conven""" mark gmmmatll..'ul cOlltrasts an numhe.. lend tnLly ill"n ~. inn~tt:d 1o . ~ e.... case , pe"son.. und ten~. 2 5 In nun"'lunllirt~ Fngti!-.h I.lIah..'(;t... hk.~ Co:kney und the l.an'. woro tnth,,1 h ,... lIrupp~d UCi.I'tllg bt:lud i vowel ilt the. M.~a...hir~ 111.Ie(t whl"rc un: ltkely to say and wruc ;)11 a::t tltl hUI '1n,11 h' •n nt a Wllrll), pcopl , ....... . . " ;:'Ill .u., tHl'lflUf' An l~~l.""resttng Inct ahollt thc~c lurlll... " thllt although ' .('/1" -.. IdcnullUhk meun11l~. they ulh..lcrgo cl.."n.in a.1t ... t .md mil halc. nil huye a special !-.titll~ in the gnllnmllr T;u!-. th ~rn~tulll!-. that sug~e't that the)' . .• C f (,1'(' III w()rJ... h.i.. .. c/r.-'(""('il't' hecomes ('('pt III rt'{"f'ln;vt' and dj'Ci'PII't' h'l h .. c. r('n'''''t' i.md ,lIlmlit and {J(' rmll hecome!'> Uli ~.'i in ..'iuhmini'{> : ~ etc ./Uil tn ':orJ.... like ,1- .. f h . , . nt pernllHI't' ["m funh' ulSClISSIllO 0 t IS POlllt, sec Vorel Pormmioll ill Gttlt'rcui'j" Gnu ' .cr Arono!! (Camhridge, Mass,: MIT Pre". 970) PI,"", by Marl. !hcre. are son~c Cxccpl10ns to l~is gt:nerJli/atlon. tndudtng dt'/oll(' and tllm '(' to whIch the nghtmust elcmentl~ u nQun but the pref,' det' h ~ • word IS u verb. .. cnnmcs t at the Vwhlc There! .arc th~e "ing ~nh.es in English. one intlectillna and two lkrivatt~lna inflectional ~m.~ combtncs otth a verh to givc a.nother verb as to H ' h I ' . .. I - ." .. t'1 r{'11t ling DenvallOna .m.1:.. co~hmes V.lth ~ vcr? to gi'c a noun (Tht> hr('utlllnK of tltt, runner..~) or an adJcc'~ve Uht' .'i.It·(.>pm.~ ~lQm) - "ee Table 4. I3 There are ab;llwU ty~s ~f -ell/~(.·d suth,. on~_ mtlecttonal ru; noted in Table 4.!8 and the other denvauonal The latter suthx converts 'erbs into adje~lt-e" "'0 that thc' I.:an appear In structures such as the following.. " Q.. The .'ito/ell money b.. The escupt'd cOlwict 1n trnditional descriptions of English. nomlally the possessive. '. las in J(l/m hook) is called a ,uffix, BUI for Ihe ",a,on, given on page, 1-10- I above we are treating it a~ a dille in lhi... b1)k, This is the standard practl~e today. The estimate thallbe a'er:lge hIgh 'rhool student knows 60.000 'bosic' .... or.1, cume from Tht' L.m~rul;:. /flJrincr b) ,Pml..er ILondon: Allen Lane: The Penguin Pre"), p, 150, The mtn.xlucuon 11.1 words and mQrphemes dral" on the da"l~ treotmenh found ill L. Bkx>mfield', L.m~""~t· . 'ew York: H.oh. Rinehart & Win'ton, IIl:l3 1, Gk:t>on' -.1I/nln~lu IIC'n III [), ,cripr;'e Unguislit's eited below). and C F H"d.,<ll' .A C()ur~( III 'll'lft'nl l..in ·u;lirio; l "C York :a..:millan. 145):). Thl.!" "hscuss~)n of .lrd fl mlath. ln :"01.."'1:"",,, to ( lnr.l~ tho...e ibptxts of re~ent and ~urrent or;. that f"rre~t:nl h.kl~ al..t..'.~pl("J ic, and are appn)priate for pre"Cmatil)ll n an intru- ,lu,' II'" (C,tl><.....'1.. ~ luch I,f this "I'[.. is ,ulllmariled in the I><. ....'ks h) len,ell, Kalomh., ,Uld Sj'<'IK'cr ':111'd lx'II"') andlhe 11.11) referenl'''' elll'd therem, rhl' mhk t',unplcs m 'C'"''''t1 1.3 ore from r 17 III the hI....,1.. h) Spellcel ':lIed 1'1"", lhe Itl'r Oa'ed allal)s" III Arabi.: I.,rd 'IruclUre IS ~d 11I1 .... rl.. h 1 'hll 'kC.lIlh~ , Ill' ludmg hIS a<tldc 'A P,,),xlIC Ibe,'~ l,f nl'IlCI'n,attllIJUe m"rphc,loK) , tm ui..It, Inqllln' l~' ,11.l-41 ~ (Il), I The tacts C'OlIcl'mUlg the requIrement that 11111 ""lllhmc "lib ,. N'C of latin orinin t" non 2 2) re n,'led (II P 71 f th book b K,ll,lIl1 ',I'J 1><.'1", fIl, l' mpk "t t uk,h,' I !p<.lunding 11 l'CtlOIi I from p
- 97. b S!,<,ncer ··I'uc'l i, . ,: 1 I,: 1'<."' O. . The Ponapc,m c;.llnplc: i" fmru p. ' I ') t ft "'t'1n',Grtlmma~h) t:cnneth Rehg (Honolulu; Unier'illi of ;1.... ,01. P"" . The I!'amp"-"" ,)1 I.:l1mt"r'llln gic-n in sectic.m 4. I COOIC I~gcl : .....au ~ I~"" I~ the txX}"'~ 0... Jell'en (PP. l)~ -) Jnd Bauer (pp. 229-."'0) ":ile~ ~~Ill the th~u ljh SI.'.Ie~ Onllmal(lp:":I~l i"_ fmm ·SL.lvey expres~l'e (erms' by M 0,"". Ihe ~Slon Uc)r,(mg Ptlp~n in Uflgm'~h:J 10(2): 85-100 (1985>. Pep~r. A:un Oft . Th~ Jeti.nnion of slem tntnxluct!u in section 5 is from the anicl!! b fat ~Ued beh,l (p. 16Jl. The discussion of Ute difference between reg I. YS. Anue Inflection draws on information from 'Rules of language' by S Pi ~a.r and il'Ttg~ 530-35 (August 199 I). The Nancowry example in the sec~ionn ·er. SC"/t'nct' 2s~ pro'id~d by R. Radhakrishnan. The data in the section on tense corneo n . n~rnber 10' . . d T· . pnnclPall" Tense. a!oipecl am.I moou by S. ~hung an A. Imberlake In UJfJgu£I. e .,. . }" rrurn Syntactic Description, Vol. 3. edited by T. Shopen (Cambridge: Camb~id )Po/o/?), and Press. 1985), pp. 202-58. ge Un"."II) The exercises for this chapter were prepared by Joyce Hildebrand problem 7 are from Writing Transformational Gramnw.rs by A Ko . The d<Jla In York: McGraw·Hill. 1966). . UI'oud.., (N.~ Recommendedreading Anderson. Slephen. 1982. 'Where is morphology". LingUistic I"quir.,. I~ Anderson. Slephen. 1988. 'Morphological theory.' In Linguistics' ·T.h . C 1-612 Appendix: How to identify morphemes in unfamiliar languages . e amb cl Survey. Vol. I. Ediled by F. Newmeyer. pp. 145-91. Cambridge: C n~, UniversilY Press. .mbndge Bauer. L 1983. English Word· Formation. Cambridge: Cambridge Ul1Iversil ·Pr Gleason. H. 1955. An Introduction 10 Descriptive Lingualie.f. New Y~rk: ess. Rinehart & Winston. II"I~ lensen. John. J99~. Al!0rpho/~g~: Word Structure in Generative Grammar. Am • dam: John BenJamlns Pubhshlng Co. lor· Kalamba. Francis. 1993. Morphology. London: Macmillan. Spencer. Andrew. 199 1. Morphological TheO/y. O,ford: Blackwell. One pan of morphological analysis involves identifying morphemes unfamiliar languages and determining the nature of the information Ihey car:; (A number of the problems In the set of exercIses at the end of this chapter will give you an opponunity to practise this type of analysis.) The key procedure to adopt in working on this son ofproblem can be stated simply as foHows: • Identify recurring forms and match them with recurring meanings. Consider in this regard the small sample ofdata from Turkish, consisting of four words along with their English translations (Table 4.35). (In actual practice, ofcourse, a dala sample would also include sentences and it might well be unclear at firsl where the word boundaries should be placed.) Table 4.35 Some Turkish words fmumlarf 'candles' ftoplarf 'guns' fadamlarf 'men Iktlaplarf 'books' Questions MtJkl'lltltl(.V 1111 "HA I'i ~1 Ilf W(IIo!:I) lkU( {UK' 171 YUtl 0'111 IUHe th;.u th.., tunn Ihll HCl"l1l tn 1 I;rom the lnmt...l,ttlon... nl tht'!!.!; 1tC:l1h ....... . ,lqul Ikln!. In (lill meaning namely, phll;'lhty th"; 1 c ~.m fi," th.lt th II..· IS ul l:t i 'ure f • pl~Sl·nt 111 .,1 tlill .. pn..x:c.dun: jU"l ..t~tt:d ~ we thl'll"IOl l' hYlW.Hlu.~'il/c th It Ihr~ I...t • J mg the ~lur"tng plurality 11" rur~t...h. Onl:.... Ihl10 ha lx:l'll dth:~n .' . th 1IIIIfPW:lle lOfer thm Imuml III Imumlitrl " al...o I 111' pi Hntl We. .In lh n . • • II Icnw (pros . hi memllng 'candle ). that Itopl 11) Itophrl I a I I I C 1ll1., Y ~nh the ' . . • 1orfllemc (v.·tth th-.. 'gun ). ilnd so nn 1 larg.:r samplIng ut '1urk d . l~ IHl!4Ultng COITcctnes.. of these infrrcnccs h' .11,1 wouhl (ItntlHn the In doing .morphologlcal an~t'Y'lS in unfamiliar langua t!~ th' number of pllfal1, lo avoid. For Ih.c lype oi cxcrl:I'c n . g. II~ I.:re i.tre a I I h f til Ill,t Y uwd 'tt lh introductory eve. t C oHowlng F-lildcline... ~ht)lId Ilrove c!oop' .... II ' " C4..:t.t Yu....ctu Do not assume.'" that the morpheme ordc.r in the anuuauc y . .. I ·~ , . E 1· 1 K to> 0 (Ill .lre i.UlalYMnu IS t 10 samc as 111 _ng" 1. In mean. lor c,ample morph' . I. . ~ . ( I h" • erne:, 1m lcalmg locallon 11e roug eqUlvalenlol 'at', ·in'. and '" forth) follow rather than precede the noun (hence, 'lCIkkyo·eYe " literally ',ch()(,1 at'). Do not ~ssume.that every semamlc contrast expre"ed 111 English will al", be mam fested 111 the language y~u arc analYSing. In TurkISh, for «amplc, there IS no equIvalent for English lite and a. In Mandarin Chine.,." the samc pronoun form can be used to refer to a male or a female (there i. no he-she dislinclion). Do not assume that every contra"t expressed in the language you arc analysing is manifested in English. For example, some languages distingUIsh more than two number categories (lnuktitut distll1guishes singular, dual. and plural; see section 6.1) and some language, make multiple tense contrasts (ChiBemba, discussed in >cction 6.5, has an eight-way distinction). Remember that a morpheme can have more than one form (alomorph). Just as the English plural suffix can be realized as lsi, IzI, or ltd (section 1.1), so morphemes in other languages can have more than one realization. For example, further study of Turkish would reveal that the plural suffix in this language can also be realized as l1er/. depending on the vowel in the base to which the suffix is altached. (This type of variation is discussed in more detail in Chapter 6.) 1. Can ider the following words and answer the questions below. a) fly f) reuse k) spiteful p) preplan b) desks g) triumphed I) suite q) optionality c) unlie h) delight m) fastest r) pretuer d) tree i) justly n) defonn s) mistreat e) dislike j) payment 0) disobey t} premalure i) For each word, determine whether it is simple or complex. ii) Circle all of the bound morphemes. Underline all of the roolS, 2. All but one of the following Persian words consisl of more than one
- 98. :lflfHp~ll·.n1l' (Not,.. 'elff1JC.lIl'. I hllY ill1d 1(/ d l'lg llilll' the . ) '.lIld,lfn I,hmwhl Jltl t tell, . I I . I " C, ) I ~, " " I 'you (sF) hought' "~I xan d '(he) hought' iI ) ",IX,,,,,!;,," I dllinol huy' C) Jlafll l,arid,-Illd 'they wen: 1I0t hUYlng' t) IIt l' dl I(JIITl 'we did not huy ' g) 111 "'" "J '(he) "u, huying' 'I ry II> matd'l'lIch 01 the i(,lIowIIIS notions w Ith u l11orphCI11 , Pn "'lOIn ddta, CIn the tI) 1 c) they h) you (s!,) i) not (.:) Wl' gJ WU'i/wcI'C + IIlg (cnnlinllos) d) you (1'1) Ii I Ilow would you suy the following in l'ersi;ln? iI) .,.II,'y w,',e huying. h) You (Sf ) d,,1not huy, e) You <sg) well' huy"'g, J, The 10JI<",,,,!, Turk,," datil tnvo/ves allomorph ,e varialton, .t, a) lok"nla 'il r",(aL" wit , lokantuda 'inIal a restaurant' h) KaplU ';, doOJ' kapwda ' ",/al a doo, , c) ralldnu 'an "I'po,,1I"ll'/1I' randevuda '",/at an appointment' d) ha r.it head' haJta .mlat a hcad' e) kllap'a hook ' kitapta 'tn/al a hook' I) k"lruk an u""c",,,r' koltukta ' inlat an armchair' /-') la"d 'a ,idc' lamfta 'in/at a sidc' o flocs Ihe 'Iud.. ish J11OJpheml' meumng ' in/at' havc more Ihall one ,1I"n1<"I'II" ii) If "', ,,11'11 all' Ihl' alloll101f,h,'' Descnbc Iheir distrihution, Make your slall'lIll'lIl H"I 'l'lll'ral U po'-!'lhlc. ('on l<1l'l tl1l' J"lIo ItIg "o"Js, 11) Ik,~ s l' ) tliumphed I) pleplan (V) m) optionality hi 1Il1l1t' I) agt.'It's' tl ra,lest 11) prettier l') III'alld (A) g ) 11"IICl' k) n:u"iC 0) IlIb trcHI tI) d"It~,' (V) It) 1"')111<'111 I) dl'l1llCY p) prevlcw (V) II U"I ,I Ill'" 'II lll'tIII I' 1111 ea,h '(>1d, 1/) FIll till' ""''' "I'/llIl/llh/I', "hili I ~ tht' ha,c fill Ihe alII" frill 'I What is IIII' b'IS,' 11I1 lit,' ~lIl1, t/I" Ie' l'llhl'l "I Ihese hll"" a l", lhe roOI rill Ih'·l'III11,· w(lld '! If '0, wltil'h "Ill." 1',ldl III tl,,' 1,,1111 IlIg r "luII"" dfu,halt's a ddkl,'nl Itllllflhl1ll1/!lcal I'IUll'SS ( " '/1111111 / t) ItIIlU l illi" hI IIlf, """ ( "/111111/ II f I '''/" elll , ) 1'11 ,I ( '.,/frllll/ III ~) Il ... 11,"11·...11.1 I) 11111'111 1/11111'1111 cJ takeltook h) glK><lihelter d) man/men I) helher ffi) c6nvicVconvCl C) cat/ate j) am/are n) ,o:pnnVimprint " ~) . 0) d"puteldi'plile What morphologIcal process is al work in I ' column Ii!'? co umn t} column " ii ) Describe in y our own words the difference between the . exemplified In column I vcrsus that in column I process iii ) Think of at least one more English example to add t h o eae column 6, The following words can be either nouns or verbs, a) record f) outline k) repon b) journey g) convict I) outrage c) exchange h) imprint m) answer d) remark i) record n) impon eJ surprise j) retreat 0) cripple i) Por each word, determine whether stress placement can be used to make lhe distinClion between noun and verb, ii) Think of two more English examples iustrating the process of stres, shift to mark a category distinction. 7, The following Samoan data illustrate one of the morphological processes discussed in lhis chapter, a) mate 'he dies' mamate ·they die' b) nofo 'he Slays' nonofo ·they stay' c) galue 'he works' galulue 'they work' d) tanu 'he buries' talanu ·they bury' e) alofa 'he love' alolofa 'they love' f) taoto 'he lies' laooto 'they lie' g) atruna?i 'he is intelligent' atamama?i ·they are intelligent' i) What morphological process is illustrated by these data'? ii) Describe how this proces works, iii) If 'he i strong' in Samoan is lIla/osi, how would you ,a) strong' in Samoan' 8, The following data from Agta ,'poken in the Philippines) illustrate a specific t)pe of aft!.:<., a) dabl 'big' dumakal 'grow big, grow up' b) dar.ig 'red' dumanig'redden' c ) fur:.l~ ' hite' fumur,iw 'become white' i) hat" the ,lith mAg.ta meaning 'become X") ii) What I~ p.: of .Im, is it'! iii) o',crit>c: I,. placem.:nl. q, Ihe f" I,) mg onh fn)111 Chamorro, ,poken in Guam and the ~Iarlana bl,mds, lIlu,tr,lte ,,)me of Ihe morpholog.ical processes de,cnbed m Ihlo; d l;lltl'r, I R,'ol .) ,Idda 'nlimit:' [) rh',dlloro • adda 'mllnl,ker'
- 99. • II II d ) o !!) h) III. J) ) /) m) I) ill III) n ') gua'~:1 'Ill .. ' tutu 3 ·e....·h~Ul!!t.·· eh, I -: 'laugh ng.mg. " •...·he . RL)()/ n3~.lI1g 'hungl') . d~lI1k III '~I~' l~lf....amh,l ·~.u 'r' tutu.t=' .. 'wntl'r' Dt n,°t"d ")nf J;rallln 'ni" .. to h:l."k. ..u· ,a.Il!!.m.ln "-celtlhie' !.!uai.;1 "'It ",,1 ~ple' lulaii..a; on 'e"han)!~al>le' .:hald,on 'l'lUghal>le' n£...mgJ~m 'dle ..lhk' [)t ri'c:J u".,nl n.l!Jlang ' .~ hungry' Jan~l1lolo "e~ I>ig' Illc.'tg)! '~l:r(,,"g metg(lgol o,er') stlln,g' I>unll,1 'rn:n) , bun;13l,1 "~~ "...,(1) , Whal m,'rph"I,'g;,:al rnx"'S i, 1ll,'hcJ ml} in II} in II!} 0.., ,m~ eh.mg" III I<, i"-'II ,:al 'gol} I~<' pla.:e in I} in 11'.' in lI/" FomlUlalt' ;1 gener.1l '~Jlem<'m .1., 10 hOl Iht' dail cd I lIUs in'l ionn.-J. 0.., th' same 1,,1' III, ~ 0.."" Ihe affi 111 II h'1e mon: than one .llIoIllOrph} If so, wh . . th ' ." 'k 1 al ~ lh... 1I"01,'rph,"" hM Is <,Ir ,mUll'utl,'I1' 10. In Ihi, charter, an ar:!!um~m I a: rresented in fJS,lUr of the foll o ' tru 'tu..., for the I ,)rd ullhappine.u, 109 A( A Af , un happ) ne ~ l smg Ihe slim I)pe of argumenl. ju lif) tree' S[ruclures lor the words IllcompTthl'1l'rb/~, ",dr,po 01 and dis,' lubl"hlllt!III, (Hilll: This will lOS "Is c delrnmrung the I pc of ) nlaclI,' (.I":g0l) IIh hich the '11lI,c, III th 'r I on! can combine: see Table 4. 1J , ) II. In hI 'I! h, Ihe ulth rr ('an he 1.1 d tn ,I pl,ICc II,Hlle hamm,' th,' (lrli.' lOth 1 () Ct>lumllS 0.:10 Colunur , ( o/rlllUl H Lc nd Iller orll.rr Berltn ~ I lin r " 'undl.lIld r 12. ";Inl~ );('r ', ',('..,..10(,( l ~nk"U4('r ·"n~'Ier ", ~1) 1 £CHt'f.ll..'nlls, .w~. dncs th Uffl ~r mean;'" the Old h) 111.'" tll1S l'1 lht:kn..-1 in mc.mng f"un the *,r "nund. In the wanb. "1..,,((,,, ,(..1 d/kc'" ....) S'...lll.' the.:- ~..:m'tr.int I.'" th,,' "'''tn'',,inn nf 'rr UMfUed abo In OOt 1,.1 n W""INS 1.1) O'l:'''' 1hi... ,,'I""r.111 .b,", .{'ply h) the t pc "f -r''' u'St'd In h~ word ,J,."tr','! (111111: hat (1...- )',111:1. )1(' wh,) 1.""(1 N' Or 'one 'tIIho plough...··!) The.:' rn1h.) tng lrd... ha I..' ,,1 hc-t.'n formed 0) ·')lp'lunding. Draw a tree ...tnK1Ul'C f,)f ca~h In..i. (Hille tf ~'11 an; 1 t.!olh as 0 h e l ~.t«.:£ot) nf the- ..:,'mpout~d. ~me:mhcr lh~ he I.:.eg"t) ,,{ ~ ~ad i..kl~nntt1C'... the: -.:..lh:g"l) nt lhe lfl.) .1) f....nhall >I tr~~ tnml" h) ',Ird,uel" .11 k~J tr~c c ~unhather I"I 'ul'''n1arl,,~ls d) glllfn~Oll in cn"",} I) d f) gl hI fastll",,1 ~l1n are freele-<iI) ,nert..:..,.: Ill) nl <'I p) ~I ~ ~ntr.: fai'bafe !"'tat" peel ~lh:r-.... .:ct ') 1"'('0<: rl ~,'fke tal>I ) {l""('( ",",VI. I!( II hlueprint I) Gn'Cllpea(e S) 'pa~e ,hip I h..-am .leaJ XI .:111·),,) 13. In thl' ~h~pler. ~ croll "a~ .... llf ,dcnllf~ mg comP':'und~ ('l"e dl",~ussed. L'"ng the te'" gnell in the kit-hall.l ..."lullll, s~nt~ the ....'"'I"'un.l ,tatus or the c< I1I",unJ. in the ng.ht,hanJ «,Ilmn. 1-'. Tt.·s: a ,,~ 'I ten": t» c<'mpant>le Ith , " -) plur:lI J 'Ul:~:-- a) b ,) l) l' lI.) 1/ ) (~(}U1f)OWh.l bl,l JI) h'ulim"lllh heaJamp 'P'·~.)rh,'u:-.c utthn at ) pll.'.:{l< -ht JI 'P 'lhp<'11. ) " t .t>~ I) h ;un,de.ld t I) l k'''-ill: n) aml,h. ir Htnl moul" WI
- 100. , . I.• Th~'''1 " III ...·,'Iuum.:. h.lh' t ·('I1I.'I"t'.:lh'd h,'m Ih...' 'lI1'~ ""l . I II ,I,. ' ,I .. h n'hn~ In ,,',"II01n l IlIdl';ul..' t 1~ t1h''1~ "t-:,.... 11""-"'" r·'I~'lbqhl(.. t ""lrtt ,',. Ih'l) "( '3,:h " f fill ,,,,ItIlIHl.. tlf tht ( "/limn I (4, )/umn .! .) .11111 m.Ult'" h h1l1111" ,) Il1f,mll,lIh'll, 'nr,'11.1inllk'U( ..f) I(lh'. ' ....n -. .Hlhl l1l.lh.' hUl11h.hlh," Inf{lt;linlllCllI 10 '-'';11 ,.) P"'P'-', t) "J"!!I";lphh..'.lll'Thll gl .lcnl.'h.',,Ill.lr.If'hll1 h) ,,<'I 1) hlh.'IT1;lIi(Htll.l1llh.'t' .il [,<·r.lIl111lll,'I<'r kl (.1) ,,'(llll" n Ix·"',hlln;,I., prn~rt'" I) I'" ;h.'Tlh,llht)ll dl..I~·(l .lft' hlfl''l'tll pram (,llmh (nur hair) ""cL,I" ml ,,'ti"ll ('n St1l(lk.in~ ;llId Hc.'..dth It) Il1l'C.IIl k' tll rt'l(:rril~ft.·r. l·.·h.lII~t." p) II1llu,'ll1,' SIt Il1l'~ td" Ilu oj) rI,,' h;1'" hni,lwd 1h') " I' finish 'd It). Ikf' .In' 11 t' IIh(.lnf..~f..·~ 1ll'1 ...1 UC t~nl I.' Ilt' ·~h."d_ Cn.·..uc: ; (lrd tnr l'.h·h "l thC"t' d~'flnI(H'Ilh thin!! (lIt' (ll i "lnll.llH'It1 pln~..'l'" ~t1!o!ge~kt. hI! rn (Itt' MI;wl.., lin ~ 'Iur IIt' ('Ini:-. .1) l ~c ,11,1 .h,'hlll~ III . ".~r) t)lIr Ulll..'Ic·......'l·CUld t'll~k.....t ht't.l(h~r. 'II,' "II ',j 111 .It l h"'tl1l,I,. h) l (' Illhlm~lIClJ'l('<.'I.l. ,h'r Ih" ~1'IlinJ of;1 ('('IHf.'t' rx'l'l'('II"Htlr UI 'or~, I C.III', (,'(llh:l'l){r.lh.' f'lt'''-''11I~1.' nt) Pt.'1 ',... II~.' ") I I". ""11 ,'N,'n , Ii'r I rarrlflg"'Il11·thmg hn-:tkahk 'n huhhk., "n,,'d ""11,'1 11l.lt ,'m,lIIll'nt Or c/,c It Illlghl t>rt';I~. ' til t .t' Ul'~lrnJlilurld . Itu Ihl' tnl1fl m,£ ~tr1llg c,lf ch 'l'l' stn·!t.·t'llllg hnlll hl, l' ~)t hll( pim! (0 l'l1l' IlhlUllt . • h ftW hun ' prl'l'4'r1('u~l) ri-um Ill) hI'S. nur ')'~ llll'r i ' ,.) l '" 1',1 'kloflll,llIoll 'in thl',ll't"'1l ,'I h,ld,hum.ul'''1 '1" h Ii h' I ,'nh '11 I II1gUl'''I', hl<I,1 17. ell'. Il' 11t' ord, IUlt' dl ,'I lht' InIJOUl~ '!lu,nlnth II) I ,,' ,I I'",,'url Il.II'''·, ,1m th, ,ct <11 "'l1lhhm' I IIh ' 1 01 , 'I l'" Ih" luh lI(,f ~I lIlg 1'1'1.", h,lIh.' hi I,,' "1''''1','' n,UlI', ''''1 Ih ,I't III 1",'akll1' .h,h." , Ihidl )III1,lIhall d,x" 1' '111,111 ' flt.' "'Ill' h, !II l ,,' ~'hl'ptn • fpr II.'lur, '11.1 l' tllllh~l1l' ) ')lIr I derll .UI<'II I" 1 '1118 'TIll' ,''1111 dillf h n,'1 '<I, III ." m 1"',1 ""h,',.' 111 <II 111111" (lh,· ,111" ,,' ,hl"'p). I",j 'llIllCIH ('1 " ,1>1.' 1,'lx'I"IlI.I<'(.'" • M(H':I' lhlI(,'y 111 A,N , .... I~ IH WOkl ~T'R. (H,w. t l~l' " hit-ltd Inr ,h,- nlnl(~ 01 a ...:Ot·'l'1'; th.u l"fi~s In " h,', l't;J.!.'·s. I,'a",'s_ II,'l',:f',uns ClI.: y ...hoeo..,,, ' ,·t·, ll·<.'1 lah.'I.n Ih,' for. "nnk.' IK. t)1,'ll'nlHlW 'w1ll',h,·, Ill<.' :"ns 11 1,·iI,'h. ot the loHo"".'ng ~rup .~ ~ated In ('Ill' anHth.,( h} Ph'<."l'SSl·' 01 I1ltll'l'llon or 'l'nv.tH1 .,) ~'l. glM.:". ~nin~. ~nll' h) di,.·wl,.'r.lhsl,·nl'I"). ,hSUl'I..'H'r, lh'l'Ovl·r.hll" lh,<.:noc-f.h1lit) ~) In d~ , In dier. hl l'hl'st tI) IIWcuinr. ml·llnr',. 11.'101":-'. 11'<.'1,,",,' (0) (kmn~:ral,·). ~h,·nh)l,ral. til.'mnnalt..:, dl'llww..:ralll! 1'), !'lit.' toHn Ill)! '':-I1I..:n':l'' ...'lnt;'11l hoth Ul'nViHh.ma and mt1CCltlno. ani,~~, lllHkrlin.: all ot llw dent1H'111a .nl'~s all circ..... lhl~ inHcl,'on.d a ll1.l.·s. .Il I'he Lulllcr'.... (O!>o l'SCalk'd n nl,' strnngt·!>ol1l.1l,'f nn Il) !I ",h'all1l11', g) rhel'llhullha,hlllcnthc l·~ dist. 1,.) '1110"'C S"""'~s arC' me l~n'Il'. h) She quick Chhl.!U the hon... d) Jill ne...·d... Ihl.! nt:h'l' (:" 11 ) Thl' dra1l~1Il,l'nn <.'11 locll , C) HUll ha'.1 ""'lcn k', I) The ,h'pute la, ccntU,lll rc~ovt!d aftl'r {,H'lr,cl.:d ll'gnt'Jhnn~ In, (. t/'dll(·(,(I.) 1· l:h 11 theo f"lln 11 I (('fl'lra ot J.Jl.lIU...li,,t.!' mnl'l'tinn or ...11llt! t)~ L G"R , ,,) Ocr " .1nn i,t krJnl 'The lIlan " " 'k: h) OIC rrau "t kr.m , 'fh" (lman ... 11:...: 11, GRE!" c) ,,·......llI, f,'lIUt t,lll anon 'Th'11 ,r .11 th'man' II) I' .mJr,b pllf'll t II 'r all '11' lU I 1'; , t~ "Ilf ,,~, <'l I'.ll r." In f,ltr , 'rh...•Ill. n I' 'lnd.' 111. l n 1 In I h ,.
- 101. h IP II,l ; l/( I ) gh oZ, ' l)nO ' tth.lH"i1 -Th ~ ltD, It." "rl~ 'nJdluu j) I ZI.l 'Iu", ,... -rb.· unt h '[ud. t1'i. I() Zh1 t.' .tm<"fI k.J.n~1 '''-0(.' unl.:1 'h ntl!n,..m . , F LhH I) I dOlluing In) hlnguc. m) ). t)lI.tr' fluing your fl)ngu.: n) ht.' Is oiling ht.'r hlngut!'. 'J .h.1( Iype ,'fnl'mln.tIlnne~lion d" Ihe German cmcnccs III "J : h.lt I) p<' of n"mlnal Inllecllon " ,,cmplificd in Ihe Grcl'~U~lr"le" . " nurked morphologIcally in Iwo ways. Idcmify hmh "ay,. .Ita! h III) Of the t" panerns of c;he-marklng "iscus_ed In the chapt . does the Greek "a13 sho" cr, W h";b i"J Ho is the pattern of case-marking different in B,l(lue from Ih Greek" .II of "J In the Ilalian dala. Ihere are four differenl forms of the 'Hlfd m ·th ' N • 11 . c';In1ng e. arne two In celional contras[!'t that arc present 10 c. .u.:h those four forms. nt "i) "'-'hat rype of verbal lnfleclion is Illustraled In Ihe Italian 'enlenee,> 'II) Examine Ihe EnglISh dala In V. Whal types of scrbal in tlecllon present on Ihe verb ' 10 be'? What lypeS of nominal inl lecln'n lire presenl on the six pronouns in these sentences'? M e 5 Syntax: the anay , of sentence structure Villi" m Q 'Gr.,dy ~'''ph ~"-I,) I fnt""tnUIIIJl n,ll" I H·III) Om.' llf the tn .lIl thl.~lnl!~ o f th.i~ honk" that lanv,u,,)!.~ " l' m"ov~!i an IItn~a,c '~'tl.~m ~ 1 arl!d ) .~1h1.:on,clll""_ 1!r:InmatK·al knowlcdg~. Nmwh:r~ I" ttH mOl ~ .nhvluu.... thun In t~e stlldy,tlt how W Wll.... arc t..:tHnhilwll h hml1 ....cncn'c~. tn thl~ l'haptcr we ~tl1 l:lmsl~lcl' the ~y~l~m u" rule.... and l:a~1!oncs that underlie.... sclllCncl' tUrlnalton an human language. Thi!ot component ut the vrmnmar is culled syntnx. I i~c Ihe olher lingul>lic systems considcreu in this h(){)~, the ' YIlI,lollo ,,:omponcnt of the grammar is hoth creative and "'y!temalic. A.... noted 11 Chapter I , speakcrs of a language arc able 10 comhine words in Mvel ways. fonnillg S<llltenccs Ihat Ihcy have neithcr heartl nor seen hefore. I lowevcr, nll jllsl any comhinalion of words will give a well ~ formed , enlence. longlish spcakers recognil.e that Ihe paltern in I) IS not permissihle even though Ihe same words Can be comhined in a different way to form the acceptahle structure in 2). I ) *House painted student a the. 2) A student painted the house. We say that a sentence is grammatical if speakers judge it to be a pO"lhlc sentence of their language. Thus, example 2) is a grammatical sentence of English, bUI I ) is not. This chapter will focus on the 'architecture' of grammalical sentences. with an emphasis on the manner in which words are combined to form variou., types of sentences. Section I introduces some of :he most common catcgones of words found in language as well as some Simple rules that govern the organization of these categories into larger structural uniK Subsequent sections describe other aspects of sentence structure, uSing examples and phenomena drawn from English and other languages.
- 102. 18l 1 ----------~--~~~~--~~----------~~~ C ..TEGORIES A0 STR CTURE A fundamental fact about ord, in all human languages IS that they can he grouped together into a relatively small nu.mber of clas,e~. called syntactic categories. This classification refects a vanet} of factors, meludlng the t}pe of meaning that ord, express, the type ofaffixes that they take. and the type of structures in which the} can occur. ~1~.1________________________________________________~__~_______ ____ ~'ord-Ie~el Table 5.1 provides e.,ample, of the word-level categories that are most central categories to the ,tud) ofS) ntax. Table 5.1 Syntactic categories u~rical categories Xoun (:) erb (Y) Adjecti,e (A) Prep<»ition Ip) Adverb (Adv) Scm-Ie.tical calegnries Defennmer IDet) Degree"ord (Deg) Qualifier QuaI) Auxiliat) (Au) ConJunctmn ,Con) £tamp/es Harry. boy. wheat. policy. moisture. bravery arrive. discuss. melL hear. remain. dislike good. tall. old. intelligent. beautiful. fond to. in. on. near, aL b) silently. 'lowly. quieti). quickly. no,," £rampJes the. a. this. the,e 100. ~. '-eC)', more. quite alv. ay,. perhaps, often. ne'·er. almost ill. can. may. must, should. could and. or. but The four most studied s)ntactic categories are noun (N). verh (V), adjecth-e (A). and preposition (P). The~ elements. which are often called lextcal categories. playa vel) important role in semence fonnation, as we Will oon .,ee, A fifth and Ie" studied lexical categol) consists of adverh$ (Ad,,). most of which are derived from adjectives. Language rna) al. 0 contatn non-lexical or functional categories. includ- 109 delenniners (Dell, auxilia,! verbs (Aux). conjunctions (Con) and III I dt-'gree -ord... (Deg), SUl.:h dement... gcm:raly have In to dchne ..'.nll pamphri..~,e than lhu....c 0 ICXh.:., GIll: 'I~;:~m& that nrc hahr:r mcanmg ot the noun lull i... ca....'cr to dC~l.:nhc th' h 1; S. h'f tXi.unplc the !-ouch U'" 'he or un nux iliary ...uch m. would an 1 t: n'Ci.tmng tit ad kllllll(':r A potential ...ouree of confu...inn to the arl!U 01 wurd . . from the fact that some HCm'i Can belong to mOr. th' C .,' Ihl:dll<lO cln~ 3) comb used as a noun: The woman found a comb. comb used as a verb: The boy should comb his hair. -I) near used as a preposition: The child stood near the fence. lIear used as a verb: The runners ncared lhe finishing line. Ilear used as an adjective: The end is nearer lhan you might think. : an une C'<11e~t)ry How then can we determine a word's category? One criterion involves meaning. Nouns, for instance, typically name emitie, such as individuals (Harry, Sue) and objects (book, desk). Verbs, On the other hand, characteristically designate actions (run,jump), sensations (feel. hurl). and states (be, remain). Consistent with these tendencies. comb in 3) refers to an object when used as a noun but to an action when used as a verb. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The typical function of an adjective. for instance, is to designate a property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns. Thus. wben we say ThaI loll buiLding. we are attributing the property "tall· to the building designated by the noun. In a parallel way. adverbs typically denote properties and attributes of the actions. sensations. and states designated by verbs. In the following sentences, for example, the adverb quickLy indicates the manner of Janet's leaving and the adverb earLy specifies its time. 5) Janet left quickly. Janet left earl). Unfortunately. a word's category membership does not always bear suc~ a straightforward relationship to its meaning. For example, there are 'ab,tract nouns such as d(fJiclIlty, Inllh, and likelihood, ..hich do not n.arne entlttes 10 the strict sense. Moreover, even though words that Darne aetlons tend to be verbs. some action-naming ..ord, can also be used as nouns (ptllh and sho~e
- 103. 1114 'n"'e<·tion O"lribulion .tTl" nnun... 10gh(~ -(""('on(' tl pu.·Jt,:,llOl'c.' l. lia((crs are fun:her cornpi (~l'" tih..'! (h~1t in "'OIllt.' l·~)Sl·"'. won:b with ,-cr) ~imilar meanings ~1·l.Ieu by lltt1t.'n..'n1 1.·.Ht.·g'me..... Fl)r imaan.:e. the wonh like ilndfo~'d arc very.si ~ng tl) m~"ullnf! l~h in /ic( Iikt'li.ln' !i.md of cheese). yet like IS a verb and ;llar In ••d.ll"!I l' . . ... l' III ...ee later (!<ICC-LIOn "".1). this problem becomes eveonq an d 'f" . n III .k' Ule hell , e cl,ln....iJer the fact (hat lan~uages .can I ler In lerrn~ of how {)re l' atcg)r11C ON:". ilh particular types of meanmgs. the)' : hht lingui...l.... llelie'c thai meanine is only one of se'eraJ criteria th"'t • . • d" . "eOle inll) Jt·(i"nllinlO.... a word's catt:'eoT). A seeon cntenOI1., compatlbilit). . r =- ' . . 5) ' . "'lth jrillU'" t) pc'... of inflection (see Chapter -'", seClion , IS summanzed in TabJ 5.2 e plu",I-, pa:-.r ren~ -cd pTl)gre:-;.si"e -ing compar::J(1 e -t'r books. chairs. dOClo;:;;-------' hunted. watched. jUdged huming. 'atching, jUdgine taller. fa.'ter. , maner - ~uperl,]ti e -t.'SI (.1.IJe~l. fastesl. smanest ----------~----------------------------- Th~ om,,';nn "f Iht' gentt; e - s from the ';~t of inflectional affixes i, delit-er.He. A, ~ou will recall. we pointed OUI tn eCllons 1.3 and 6.3 of Ch3ptcr -l lh31 .IJthough tr3dllionall~ the po" e.'sive - sof the king shorses and Iht' /tum:' dugs " .tlso regarded as an inflectional affix for noun . in this book ~ = treating it 3.' an enclitic rather than a suffix. This is because it is not 'tn,"gJ~ integr3tcd m the word to whicb it belongs syntactically and "'mantt.:alJ~. It i, common. es~ctaJly in infonnal speech. for the genithe _S t" t-e scpar31cd from the word to whIch it relates (e.g., the man sj/Owers ", tht' man n,xt 10 hun:,j/ollf!n: the noman nf!i~hb()ur vs the woman/used 10 IIvr~ for' n l~hbour). A true affix like the plural -s cannot OCCur at a di IJuee (rom It- ro'-i' m tht, 13), 'tlwugh helpful. mtlechon docs not aJ ay, pronde the mfOnnation nn-dt'll to dercrr.::".lC a ord', categoJ!. In Englhh, for e.~ample. not all .Jdj,Yllc, can t e th~ comparallc and superlalive affixes (.mtelli~enter. Martl/full'l) and me Doun, do not nonnall)! take the plural suffix (flW/SIIiIl'. "ral, n, know/edgt'). third and 0 ten more reI ole ('menon for dClemllnlng a word' category w10h the 1~1'C' of Iclllt'nrs (e pcoally !unctional c8legnncs) IIh "hllh tl Ur(1l1 distribution ) For elldOlpIc, noun can I) ptcalJ) UrreaT lIh I uner, rb 1.:11 an ~ Illl1J), and ,dj CIJC "llh a de 'n:c .ml, n In 1: 01 5 1 t.l Iruclure phrase s Heads Figure 5.1 Table 5.3 Category N oun Verb Adjective Oi"tribUlionul proptrtit.'1O ot N,. V,. 110U As Distributional proper,}' ocurrence Wlth a determiner occurrence with an aUXiliary OCcurrence With a degree word i1 Car. the whc-; ha, gone:, will May very och. tho big 18; Put another way. a distributional property of noun . h- with a determiner but not an aUXiliary, a di~tribulion' !:l. 1S t at they ca.n appear they can appear with an auxiliary but not a detenn'tnae Propedrty of ~etbs IS thaI r. an ""forth. 6) verb with a determiner: ' the destroy noun with an auxiliary: ' wiII destruction Together with information about a word's mearung and its i fI . . .. th di 'b ' aI f ' " n ectlOnal capabtbtles. ese Sin UUon acll. help tdentlfy ItS syntactic category. Sentences are not formed by simply stringing ords together like bead, on a necklace. Rather. sentences have a hierarchical de,ign in which "orct., are grouped together into successively larger structural units. Thi> section"ill focus on the narure of syntactic units built around ~s. Vs. As. and P,. Such units are called pbrases. phrase are built around a .ckeleton' COnsl,ling of tv.o lewis. "" depicted below. (The symbol P >lands for ' phrase-_) 1' AP pp phrase le"el ' A P
- 104. 1111> f 'N IfMI'O~AWY IIN( tJl, j( 'ii NP VI' I I N V I I f/l,' like) hou~ .. (;.Ill ~1JI"ml l"i) cm AI' pp I I A p I I hhe i" ccrtillll (he wenl) in r'nun" .';.1 Pltr.I..I'., '" Whll hfinly 1111' 11I'.ld IJI).,jfirm ,,,I.III>!1 AlihOlll'h phra.ses can con,i,,1 of juS! one word, they often Conlain Other ck'men" 01.''1 well ForcxuJIlpll': 7) II, IN,' the "ooksl h, Iv,, never eat I lA ,' (jll,te ,','fillIII I d I",.illmo,llnl I" addit,"" to iI heml (thc underlined elcment), each of these phrases includes " s,'colul wOld Ihal has a 'Iwclal semantic and syntactic role, Such words (del"IJllIO"r., ,"l'l, ii' ,I,,' 'llld II, qualilic" such as /lel'er and ojien, and degree WOId'i ,-uch ii' (/Ilill' Of almoJl) arc s~lId to function a pcciticrs. Sel11alllleally, Slll'dnl'rs hdp til make lTIore prcclSC the meaning of the head, lI,'nrc, the d"termi"," (Det) ,II" ill 711) indicates that the speaker has in mind specifk hook,s, Ih,' lIualil'l,'r (Qual) IIITa'in 71» indicates a non,oCcurring l'V,'lIt, UIIU Ih,' dl',l'll'C w(fn/ (UCll) '1"1/(' and IIlmo,ll III 7(', d) indicale the nll'lll to ",lllch ,'panirul,,, p'"p,'rty 01 rclalioll i, mallifcslcd, SyntlK"Kally, Spl'uncr, 'YJllcally Ilwrk a phrasc hnllnciary III Hnglilh, 'p""i'i,'" "ccII I al Ihe Jell hllllJlciary (llIc heginnmg) or 'ht'ir rcspc,tl ve pl"a,,'" Thl'Y .l'l' aI/ill'l'I'd III Ih" 'lip k'vl'l oj phl""c 'Inll'illlc, 10 thl' Il'll 01 Ih" head, 1i'/W,h"I, 'h,'''' Iwo d"lIlt'llls lorlll,hl' plll'''C ~tnll'llllCS cl"llltll'd ill Ih,' In'l' d,a '''''',< III hgul<' ~ l. /I., Wl' will SCI' In ""'/lOll I ,OlllC lall!'uag", r Ih,ll, /(11 "~,"lIpk) pIal'<' 'PL'U Iil'l S ,II Ih,' Ilghl hOlllld,,, Y (lh, ,'lid) (II pluat" Figure 5,3 complements <;VN1AX 1111 AN",v ', (H IINtl"'-('"i 1~"H,_t kr lit? " NP /, /' VP /' Det N QUill I V the book, never .at l' AP d pp /' /' Deg A Deg P quitc certain almo...t In Phrilses consisting of a head and a c;periflf~r. The ,ynlaclic calegory of lhe specifier differs depending On the catego of lhe head, As the examples in Figure 5,3 and Table 54 hel t h ry . _ . . p 0 ow, delcrmlllcrs serve as the speCifiers of Ns while qualifier, typically function a.s lhe sp~clhers of Ys and degree words a.s the specifiers of As and (some) Ps, Question 3 althe end of the chapter provides practice in identifying 'pecifiel"i and heads, Table 5,4 Some specifier; Category Determiner (Det) Qualifier (Qual) Degree word (Deg) Typical,""Clinn 'pecifier of N specifier of V specifier of A or P Example.. the, a, this, those. no never, perhap'S. often. always very. qUite. more. almo...t Consider now some e ample, ofhghtly more complex phr~es, 8) 0, [sp the bot,,,, at'<)ut the ar) />, [, I' neYer eat a hamburger) , ', [ I' quile ccl1ain aboUl Iaf) ) .!, [",. alll""t!!! the hous.:1 In ilddtttll!l te' ,I ~':t!i.:r ami the underlined head, the phrases in ,~) aho n!llnin ,t t'(llIJple1l~IlI, fhese clements, v.hl~h are themsehcs phrases, PrJ" Idl' lIIfOlll1all<m ,I:lt'ut .:nlltics and locations wh,,,c existenl'c Is Impl,ted h' Ihl' 11<, Illllg <,f the hC':td For cample, Ihe ~lcalUnb 1' ~allmph s an object Ih,ll l' ,',Il,'n, thl me. ning l,rillllnrh.:s a (x:alltll. nd 'I' on
- 105. 188 {ONTl MPORARY LINGUISTICS 9) Avcgerarian would n('"cr eal fa hamburgerJ. i i head complement naming the thing ealcn 10) in ,Ihe house' j i head complement naming a localion Complemems are allached 10 the right of the head in English (bul I left in many other languages - see section -I). Figure 5.4 il/llstrale~ l~. struclure ofa phrase consisting ofa specifi.~r, ~ hea,~. and a ~~I11PICll1enl.(~~ NP serving as eomplemenl ofa V IS oflen caJlcd a direct ob.,cct.) VP ~A Qual V Del N I " never eal a hamburger Figure '•.4 A VP COn"sll(1g ();" head. a ,!,•.'eilie<, and a complement. As nolcd ahove, complements are themselves phrases.. Thus, the cOmple. ment of Ihe V eat is an NP Ihal itself consists of a determmer (a) and a head (/IlI/11h/l~~er I. Th" phra,e then combines with the verb and its specifier to ti>rm a still larga ,trueturaluni!. "IP" APs, itnd PPs can have a parallel internal structure, as the examples iI Dct I Ihe f)'g I Imu t " 'ur~ 5., lItl pi.. NP l' "I I books "/' T I' I "' b AP Deg~pp PP / I I ~ bout the war quite certain about Mary NP the It JU Ii IIf" " SVN rA.X; lll[ ANALYSIS (n " l:,~t...IT(NCE 51RJ('""1JRE 189 in Figure 5.5 Illustrate. (I n order to SaVe s . structure,of the complement phrases in tn ,p~ce•. we do n()l depict the' • Qucslton 4 at the end of the cha. l~;t! exa~pes.) 1nlt:ll< complements. P prOVide!; pract1ce n .d 1 enti"Ying How does the gr~mar ~~sure that pecifier,;.. h occupy the appropriate POSlllOns in phrase <tru earls, and cornplem"nt < , ' " Clure')Th .... " elements that make up a phrase is regulated b . . e arrangement of the mechanbm called a phrase structure rule Y Th ' specIal type of grammatic.I I . I' th . . . e follOWing p"__ _ ru es ~tlpU ale e posltton of specifiers he d HI~ StruCture. various types of phrases that we have CO~"id~ ~an~ complemenLs in the read as 'consists of' or 'branches into' The th re SOd .r. (The arrow ean he . . fee 015 m each . . that other complement options are available: these o. . ru e indIcate in seclion 2.) ptlons WIll be dl'CU'ed II) NP ~ (Det) N (PP).,. VP ~ (Qual) V L 'PI. AP -> (Deg) A (PPj .. PP ~ (Deg) P L 'p). The first of these rules tate that an , 'P can consist of a determiner. an .. head. and a,PP complement Ias In FIgure 5.5a I: the second rule capture, the fact .that a_vP can be compo-.ed of a qualifier. a V. and an .;P complement (a, in Figure :>.4): and >0 on. As the parenthe.e, in our rules indicate, both 'pecifiel' and complements are opuonal. Thu" a pbra-.e ma~ conSht of a. specII!er. a head. and a complement: a head and a romplement; a 'peclfier and a head. or Ju-t a head (Figure 5.6 . a n , b Phrase CIm l,ung of a head and omp emenl pp p '- n then
- 106. 190 ( )i f "PO~ H!'I UNGUIS TICS Figure 5.6 c Phrase consisting of a specitier and a head NP / Del N I I the man continued d Phrase consisling ofjusI a head VP I V I (The boys) arrived Generalizing the rules By now, you will have noticed that there are very obvious Stru I'fi d' F' etural similarities among the various phrase types exemp I Ie tn Igures 5,4 t In all four phrases. the specifier is attached at the top level to the left 0/.6. head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities eO the I . an be summarized with the help of the template. or b uepnnt shown in Figure 5 in which X stands for N. V. A, or P. .7, Specifier XP X Head Figure 5.7 The phrase structure template. Complement Instead of having four separate phrase structure rules to capture the placement of specIfiers, heads, and complements, we now can formulate th single general rule in 12). e 12) 711f! XP Rule: XP ~ (Specifier) X (Complement) With the symbol X standing [or N. V, A. or P, this rule is an abbreviation for the four separate phrase structure rules given in 11) above. The rule in 12) is more abstract than the four more specific rules that were inJli;t1ly proposed since it makes usc of the special symbol X. However, it is also more ecollomical and is able to capture the structural properties shared by the four different phrase types. For these reasons, rules formulated in terms of the X notation are widely used in contemporary syntactic analysis. SYNIAX fH ANA.IY"~ (H ~lN'tN( l S~I{ Han '1 The largest unit of syntilctic anaYM~ i!oi II ' - - k be . l; hCtllt:ncc lS ,. scntcncc!-. are tn en to . the pr.()(.uct 0 the rulc I.n 1j '.)' r"dilon't'j1 NP toften called Ihe subject) With a VP II) iel I . I. which cl>mhlle'.n Figure 5.8. y (struCUl'C~ ....uch a... the llnc tn s ------------- A ~N' Det N V D~ N A scientist discovered the an~wer 8 The structure of 5 (traditional view). figure 5, J3) The S Rule: S~NPVP This analysis assumes that S is special in the sense that, unlike other phrases, it does not have an internal structure (with a head. a complement and a specifier). However, many linguists now believe that S is essentially similar to other phrases and has the structure depicted in Figure 5.9. lnflP (=S) NP -----r--vp ~ illt /Nf--- Det t Pst V Det N I t I A scientist discovered the answer 5 9 Tll° s,trllctllre 01 lPOnlliJr contemporary view). Figure.' t" ccording to this idea, sentences have as their head an abstract .categoryl duhbed 'lnt1'. short for 'intlection', which indicates the sentence, tense., B '.. ., lltl Ilke all head" is obligatory. thiS automallcally accounts for the ~c,Usc t , ' . th .. either past or O(ln- f~Kt that all sentences of English hae tense te,g.. e) are '.. V {nsl) The re,t of ,entence structure follow, from the fact that l.n~1 take~ a hP '::,;C;OI" as Its complement and an 'lP (the ,ubject as Its spectiter. A tu~ er ad ,~nt.;ge of this analysis i-. that it gl'l~" ,entences the same IOtemal structure
- 107. ,0'001.: h .d ... ... nd m e... wm I."'l"fl:'. i-.[enl It!' tlk..: XP rule OUlline-(j .. Dc.'o<.;:oJ fl.... w '~Jal ... rule In 1_, · ~ :'fU I 'h!fd -"" "Pre'" in me Infl !X' silion. '-' - m FJ~ __ 10 ,h..", '. u"ih;n: ,,,rt-, c3II arrear 10 the he3« ~ "" . 'n < ", IT thu, treat<'<l , an ,", tance " f me Inn categon. ~.~ , " la 'I , d" ren,ed"lIh. (Gl en me Il'n~-e'tahhshed or tltis f th<- = tI,." in lUl"1'hol,'g). me u: e of me label ,~ ~.. t:1:!u ... t I ~uJe tTt.'e fl.lIl11:. suc:-h ~ lnll and CO" ~:-; unt~fl b} H e, r. '"ill 1"lk'" mi, u-<3ge bere '" accon:lance "1th the c, . pre d 1'1:,,"(1...,.) , .J> De! - furtherju,nficallOn for treating auuliaries 3S 3 type of Infl i thaI m . d·... . I anI wonh of tlu, tv"" are inberentl~ a" SOClate Wlu. a partleu ar tense F' .~ . . ~ ex:unple, It/II. can. and mal' are nece.~l) non-pasL 3S shown by the una.::ceptal>iht. of pattern. such as ·He ,.·,Wean/may work yeslerda,. B placing them In the Inll ~'itjon. "e therefore indicate that the ente~ce i~ non-pa. t. (In urn ,'a: e.. If b . ome bal redundant to al 0 haye a ten e label and "e will therefore not include it in our tree strucrure, wben an auxiJiar,: I. pre,ent ) . For the pUrpo!'(' of tlu Introducuon to "ynt:lx. we will adopt the , ntemporaT) 'Ie that '>enten e. hay e Inlla>. their bead and that this element ID3) be realized a eIther 3 tense label (p.15t or DOD-Pa!t) or an auxiliary," Fo the • e of e~po ition. ho" ever, "e wIll aJ~o folio" the common practice o~ USIng the label S ratbel' than InllP 10 de Ignate sentence . The appendn I the end ofthe chapter ouuine, 3 procedur~ that should help • ou III I~'11 to enten,e an appropnate tree structure Que"llon 5 provides an opponuntl) 10 pracu thl procedure. Thu far I!I £hi Lhapter" ha'e been concentraltng on phr:t ·s Ihal COIlIl( of pecUi r . he.ad. d complement . In fact. ho",cvcr, human Ian 'U.I " , tams 0 r l~ pc of ) nta II p !tem well For e .Hupl • IlJlll' phra: called coordlllat lruclu re arc fonned b) jlllning 10 (or mor II pe "'Ith the help ofa conJuncllon u h allil " 1 (.,. IA IS for phrase TeS structure ,·n ('()(.:uuinale stnll.:::Utcs 0. "'l1" a pem::il1 nnll "'.. a t)l'teh('~,lkl ,.. l, hamhurgcrsl or l" hmJogsl Sli.l ~ml.)lhcr ly-pc of pattern ncud~, a modlfe" i1 . descn~!'o a propcrt) of the head. Thl.!' mo....' • n °Phona. element that E ' h d' -. I h' h . l.:ommot '..,.pes of mod'C': --o n£. l' area Jectnes, Ie modif) nl)1nhcad~)a.ndad ~. hlets in ~rh h~aJs). ~'!Tbs Iwh,eh madf~ 15) rI, ad.i~e(i' e modifYing an N head a g(l(ld book 1>. adverb modifying a V head He slept s",mdIv, 'We ean foml semenee, comaining coordinate 'truetur-s ',nd ~.'ti . ' .. . - l: ~ <U mvul ler-. b' makmg relauyel) m all and "mple adjustment> to Our s,stem of phra~ , tructure rules. The e adju~tmen" are dlScu"ed III sections 5. and S."_ which cun be read no or later at the discretion of the course IUIOr. This 1""lbook postpone, dIscus Ion of these matters III favour of ,ome lopics in "n1a -t , anal) ,is thal go beyond the simple modification of pu'a:,etrucLUre ruies.' 1c According to the cyntaclic an Iysb, bemg presented here. the words that make up a senten e form imermediale structural unilS called phrJ..'es. How do lingui ts using £hi approach 10 synta:~. determine which words should be ~uped together into phrase,,; The e"i lence of the ) ntacllc units. or constituents. that make up tree structures can be independently eritied with the help of special te b . Although we cannot consider all of the,e les" here. it is po- ible to give .ome e'l.arnpes_ The substitution test E,idence thal.;}l. are ...ynu'uc unit, come_ from the facI thaI the~ can oflcn be replaced t-~ an elem nI uch lhe,. if. or do so.Thi" i, illu,l'alcd in (0). here lh y replac . the . 'p ' , o:i:,". and do .0 replace. the P "~a, II , - (Thi" j, called:1 sub. titution t -I 1M (I. I I'The cl[!len' }Ie 'll d a.fter llrey di'coered the truth. ,1:1"> = 1 ,iHlen' ' , lb 'nt III [ p 'ar Ii ,1if the teacher> wIII do , . ) , ) -artle' rd III "nknce ( rn r I a umt 1"1
- 108. I 4 ( )nlPOR IR U-'CUISTICS 17) The) stopped {PI' at th~ com~rl anu we stOPpeu there 100. (there =3! the comer) The mO'ement test A :econd indication thiu af (he conler fo~ a ~on.stituent is that it moved a.s a SIngle unit to a different posJllon wlthm the sentence. (can he called a mOemenl test.) In 18). for Instance, 1Il the comer can be 1"his i, from a poSition after the verb to the beginning of the sentence. 1ll0Veq The coordination test 1.5 X' categories (advanced) 18) The) stopped [pp at the comer] ..... rpp At the comer], they stoPped. Finally. we can conclude that a group of words forms a constituent if' be joined to another group of words by a conjunction such as aI/d. Or It Can (This is labelled the coordination test since patterns built ar~Or bUt. . . . . SIb und conJunclton are called coordmate stucrures; see seclton. elow.) Th a know that the VP oftelt sweep the floor in 19) is a constituent because us . "'e be joined to another unit by and or bllt. It can 19) The children [ve often sweep the floor] but [vp never make the bed]. Thus far, we have been assuming that the architecture of phrase s;;-- complies with the blueprint in Figure 5.11, which is identical to Fi~ur~t~r; above. . XP ~ Specifier X Head Complement Figure 5.11 The phrase structure template. In fact. however. this is somewhat of a simplification since there is reas to believe that complemenL~ and heads may actually be attached to a level ~~ phrase structure midway between the word level and the phrase level, as depicted 10 Figure 5.12. The intermediate level of structure is represented b the symbol X' (pronounced 'X-bar'). Y . Acc?rding to this v!ewpoint. then, all phrases have the tri-level Structures .shown In Figure 5.13. In which the head and its complement form an X'-level constituent and the specifier is attached at the higher XP level. (The example Illustrates .the Internal structure of an S. a VP. and an NP.) Th: eXlstel~ce of X: categories can be verified with the help of the same "(lr1ll~,syntactlt' tests discussed in the previous section. Consider. for example. the edumr,· rite public in Figure 5.13. As the following sentence 11 AN"IV'MS. l)f INtl""'c I ')lkl (1 k XI' / X' . / Specifier x C'()mplt!me:nl Head Figure 5.12 The phrase structllre tC'mpbtc (r('vic,l'c!t 7 NP /"~ Det N PP I I ~ That documentary about sharks Inn' r ---..... - VP / yo / ' Inn Qual V r-;p I L- will perhaps educate the pubt'c Figure 5.13 Phrase structure with the intermediate X' level. shows,. this unit can be re~laced by do so and should therefore be a con,tltuent accordmg to the SUbSlltutlon test. 20) That documentary about sharks will perhaps [v' educate the publicI. but media reports never do so. (do so =educate the public) Now consider the N' documentary aboul sharks in Figure 5.13. A, the next sentence shows. this unit can be replaced by the element one. 21) That [,,' documentary about sharks) is more informative than the previous one. (olle =documellrary aboUl sharks) The fact that Ol1e can replace documelllary aboul sltarks in this mannerconfml1s that it is a syntactic unit. consistent with the structure in Figure 5.13. In order to accommodate these new three-level structures, it is ncees. ary to replace our original XP rule by the two phrase structure rule 0 22). :!2) a. XP ~ ( pecifier) X' I,. X' ~ X (Complement) The fiN of th.: e rules stipulate, that XP categones ,u~h as.·P and VP cQnsi L of an optional 'pecitier (a detenniner. a qualifier, and 0 forth) and an X' The
- 109. , tt'! IU "U ,j t ',4' ~ f,}" I pl,,flllh, ".11 h Ph" 1I1"fum ttl .HI3/ n1IIlHIIl" • ftll I,NII' I tllllpl, Oh III I ,. Ih. finn ,uh,.t'c',:cuft.l'hut I' 11,,<1 h II Itt It' mf,lliH.llhU' thoUI.1 "Oft} I IlIllI,r. fill 1H 11I'J'Im, ',II, .Ifl I II .lfll1l Inltu 1U.lfhUl 11111 Lid "till llh pIlLI" !'oollll~ 1111 II III lUI( :.. b I' Inl1 I' :.. I ~ 1'1 Nt' ,I' Inll VI' 1 I I Ild nd N 1),'1 N 1',1 I I I I I Ih, Ilt', tlt'tltilld Iii, "11.1" h h • Ill' h" tit" ,Ulled I' 11, 1I1~ 0 IIlh ot" h, h III I' 1'1 , N"~" ppPI., Nfl 1'1", Nt} 1'1.. ,lilt h Ulll,. I''': ,IIIHII 'lit fHII I Ih' h'lllllh ".I,ll. I.II~ h Ia I ~p.II'. h.IIl" N' I h,lIlIl, '1, 1 nht hll I ""~. "~l'l t pili , Ill.h l , ~1.II" 1.111., 'I" .•, 1" ll"'" d t'ft :tIu". fll " lt,u '1 I ",j Ilojr It fur An., , I h put I Ih, iI. He,., lIpl .tn 'h c ,j( t 1.1thd Illlli111dnl'o, Irpll' lid .fll l lIklWd I rh. ""drl hI (dr 4'1I.!'!I,·,,.lf/l.,I J'tllthm An.llllin}!, ' thh. uhi(>., tlw c.."lh" In till' 11 ...1 hnl.' l 1"",11, {", II (, .ml dh) ,;111"'" II II IIh.nl .lI~ ,-,'111'1.-111<'111. Ilh" 1 Ih< 'l'llm,1 IIII<' 'KLllr ""h ,11 NP <'III II P1<'111,'111 ,llltl ,,' ,II l"" ,';111 Iwl"ng I" m.II,' Ih,lI' ,IIII' ,uh".",)!,U' , Ih,' ,'Ih rill. lor "'<'lIlIpl,' ,,111 ,"CIII "lIh,'1 IIh ,l II IIh,'''1 ,Ill Nt' "lmpkmclII .111.1 Iherel()re ''''I'ln~, I" h,)lh ,)llh, III II<' 'lIhC,II"~'''I~' 11 'Hit lab(; ''/) ,11"1 )!,·III11.' Ih,nlt', Iht') .111 (111l' ",",hll<"l,,' ), I"Il'l'I, 11,11 .111 <"I b, l' hihll Ih, 11~ Ihiltl ,Ahl",u h .t, ' liT I imilar In 1Ill',lll1l1A I" ,'dr, II ,,<'11',', ,11 ,"pltclIl) '1'II~d "lnrcm~1lI NP ,m,llh~relore h, hHl).!' 'lIll) I" Iht" "'"llhl ,"h".I1~~'" III 'lilt I.Ihl" 2.') " .f"1 "II/ IIlh'lIl " c,Hnpl< 1ll,'I": It", ~cllill~ h"IIl, IIh') ",'ltlled I), ,I, ",1/1' ilh ,I ,""1pl, Ill' nl, 11,1 !!,llItl' h"1, 11ll' ,I, ,1IlIt,llhl", nd"I,h~s,
- 110. lil" TI( S A,(h~ t.~~lIllplc, in T~lhle 5.5 i.l"~) Shll. s'-lm~. hcad~ co.'lt .talc Illn one t.·t)lT1plern~nt. The t.~rh put I.' .:t C~I~C in fXlIIlt. SUlCC It ("etlUtrcs b...)th~ t~ complcmt'nl and iJ PP complemcnt. 'lfl~"p ~6) put with an ,"P t.·omplemcnl and a PP complement: Tht' /ibran.ln put lw the bookJ lpp on the shelt]. ~i) rill irh(lU( an P complement: *The /ibmri"n put [pp on the shelt} ~8) Pllt without a PP complement: 'The librarian put [NP the bookJ. The VP Pllt the book 011 the shelf has the structure depicted in Figure 5 I in which (he VP consists of the head pllt and ItS two complements _ the'N5 p tht" book and the PP all the shelf. v NP PP I ~~ put the book on the shel f Figure 5.15 A verb with two complements. 2.2 Complement options for other categories We can therefore revise our earlier XP rule as follows. using an asteris/( after the complement to indicate that one or more of these elements ts permitted. 29) The XP Rille (rel'ised) XP -t (Specifier) X (Complement*) This rule also captures the simple but important fact that complement; (however many there are) occur to the right of the head in English. Various compJement options are also available for Ns, As and Ps. Tables 5:6: 5.7 and 5.8 provide examples of various possibilities. Table 5.6 Some examples of noun complements Cmnplemem option o Sample heads car. boy. electricity memory. failure, death presentation. description. donation argument, discu,"lon. con."crsauon £wl1lple The car the memory 11'1' nf{//rielld I the presentation 11'1' o/a mellail 11'1' to IIr,' "'/IIf1('r I an argument [PI' 'uII SIt'II" I [PI' ahoul {lOlilin I 2.3 C;;lement clauses TUhll' '!l.7 Sum~ t"x,.unplt·s ul '1I1'n ,," ~"'·UIIllt·m~I ('omph-mo" 01"'0" SIIUI"lt' Ilf'lUh (1 PP.•t..."t PPI> PP~I tilli. g.rccn. "n'ln c.:unou,. ghld. <tnj!ry apparen. oh IOU" lund. lull. lIn.'d 1~ Tnblc S.H Some eXUn1plc,..., prcI)Olttun complcmclh Comph'mellt oplion Sample ht'tld o NP pp fleur, away. down in. on, hy, neur down, up, out (he g.Ul) down in NI' flit' hUII('l down 1'1' intu 1/1/' nllur Ilere again, subcalegori/alion ensures lhal . . I ' . panlCU ar heads .. tree structures only If there" an appropriat' I j' . can appear I.n . 6 " . e ypc 0 complem· t l'h Figure 5. ,the adjective cunnul (Table 5 7) ca . en . U. In but the adjective/olld cannot. . n OCCur With an 'uh"U1 PP·. a AP b AP PP PP I'A /A A P Oet N A P Oet N I I . I curious about the experiment . fond about the e~penment Figure 5.16 Subcategorization permits curiou!.. but not fond. to take an 'about.pp' a~ complm1t'!1t. In addition to the complement options considered to this point. all human language~ alk1 sentence-like constructions to function a, compkments. A simple e'l,umple of this from English is given in 30). 30) IThl' psychiC know, [that/Whether/if the contestant will winlJ. The smaller hracketed phrase III 30) ts called a complement clau.<oe whtle the larger phru. e ttl which it occun. i called the matrh clause.
- 111. T£ I ), ... It I.A bTJ( ... c I rn3! wherner if Del I the CP ~S ..p/~ ~N Intl contestan[ will --VP I v I win Figure 5.1;- The 51roctlre oi a CP Alrnough C, :u-e non·leical categories. rney fil into struc~ures P<lraUellO rnose found wirn lexical categones. Thus. rne head (C) and It~ complemen! (S) ro!!erner make up an XP category (namely. CPl. In sectton 3.4. we will see thai there i, even a type of e1emen! that can occur In the specifier POSition underCP. . h' Vhen a CP occurs in a sentence such as 30). 1fl w Ich it serves a,., complement of the verb kllow. the entire sentence has the structure shown in Figure 5.18. S N~r~ / 1"" I NP VP / ! I I A : Det N NonPs! V C De! N Inn v I the I p.ychic I I I knows tha! whether If the Figure 5.18 The struc!ure of a sen!ence with an embedded CP. I I contestant will win Of cour,e, not all verb, can take a CP complemen!. Tahle 5.9 provides eamples of some of the verbs !hat are commonly found with a complcment of (hi, Iype. CP PCP helit:',t.:'. knuw think. rt::member per!'louade. tell convince. proml~ concede. admit 111 There is no limit On Ihe number of embedded I - sentence. as Figure 5.19 helps 0 show. cause, thaI Can <>CCur In a ; VP r-----Cp s ~ NP lnfl VP A I~ C Det N Pst V I I (nf! I pst v I thought CP ~ that Sue reponed that . that a woman said 9 The structure of a sentence "ith more than one embedded CPo Figure 5.1 Other categories withep complements (advanced) This structure is made possible by the fact that each CP complement can contain a verb that itself permits a complement CPo Hence the topmost clause contains the verb Ihillk. whose complement clause contains the verb s(r... whose complement clause contain repon. and so on. . As the example in Figure 5.20 (overleaf) show. a CP may serve as a complement to an ~. an A. or a P in addition to a V. Table: .10 (overleaf) give example of orne other adjectives. noun,. and prepositions that can take CP complements. Although structures of thi son are common in English and other language.~ we will ret-trict our attention in the remainder of this chapter to cmbedded clauses that are complements of VS.
- 112. ~ rIl S p CP "'-~ Ih.u Eri~ will leave C,)mpiemenlllf P pp /~ p I , (Ialk) aboul CP ~ whether Eric will 'eave AP .- I certain figur., 5.20 "~and P "ilh a CP complement 3 lRA, SFOIIlATIONS Thble 5.10 Some As. Ns. and p, permilting CP complements Irons Adjeclil'PS afraid. certain. aware, confident X()WIJ claim. belief. facl. knowledge. proof Pn!posjlions over, 300m Example with CP complement - - - - The} are afraid lee tllm Eric leli1. They lack proof [cp tllut Eric leJiJ. They argued o'er [eP whether Eric had left]. E'en though the phrase structure rule we have been using interacts with the .ct ofcomplement options pennined by individual heads to form a very wide range of pallerns. there are syntactic phenomena that this system cannol de. tribe in an entlrel} satisfactory way. This section considers two such phenomena and discu ses the change that must be made in order to acwmmodale them. ,iNTI"'IIc I f l f l Ie, 31) (l n'ill the buy lcave" 11. Can the cat climh thh tret'" These sentence, ha'e an uuxlliary vcrh to the lett ui tht: to the more usual POsillOn illw..tnttclllll 32). tn] t: lO :lIn"~ t 32) tI. The boy lI'il/ leave. b. The cat call climb this trcc. Our XP rule place, the auxiliary in the appropriate p<ISll1nn In 32). hut n,,1 In 31). How does the word order found 0 31) C()mc about'! The question structures thaI we. arc considering are built 10 tW() tePli. In the first step. the usual XP rule Is uscd to form a structure 10 which th auxiliary occupies its normal posillon in Infl. between the ,ubject and Ihe v~ (Figure 5.21). S NP~VP A 1 Det N Jnn V I I I I the boy will leave Figure 5.21 Will occurring in the head position between the subject (its specifier) and the VP (its complement). The second step in the formation of question structures requires a transformation, a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another. In the case we are considering. a transformation known as inversion moves the aux.iliary from the lnfl position to a position to the left of the subject. For now, we can formulate this transformation as follows. 33) inversion: Move Infl to the left of the subject NP. Inversion applies to the structure depicted in Figure 5.2 L yiel~ing the sentence in 34) with the auxiliary verb to the left of the subject :-;P - the position appropriate for a question structure.(The arrow shows ~e movement brought about by inversion. For now. we WIll not try to dra.... a tree dIagram for ~enteHces that have undergone a transformatJon.)
- 113. 3.2 3-1) Will the boy_ kave" ,-----...1 The lr• .lllsfomlUlional all<ll},,,i.,, has at lea.st two advuntages. Firt have to ,ay that there are two t}pes of auxiliary ve~bs in English; ~~do o'l( OI...·~ur al the heglnmng ot the sentence and those th~1t OCCur 10 the Y._ ~ lh.q position bet" een the subject and the VP. Rather. we can say that ali sUa,1 10h , ' al .' d . ,au~lh ' "ccur under Inl1. consIStent "JIb the an YSls propose In seChOn 1.2 ar,. seotences that have an au,~iliary verb to the left of the subject Simply ~ l),(~ an 'Otro' process - the inversion transformatIon that moves InfJ f ndergo origjnaJ po~ilion in order 10 signaJ a qu~tion.. rOrn Il Second. the transformational analysIS automatIcally Captures th !.:nown to all speakers of English - that the sentence Will/he boy lea~.raq _ question structure corresponding to The boy WIll leave. ACCOrding /' the analysis presented here,both ~entences have exactly the Same baSic stl1J~tuthe The) differ only m that inverSIOn has apphed to move the InfJ categO ' re, . rym~ quesllon structure, Deep structure and surface structure The preceding examples show that at least some sentences must ~I " f h ' th aYed with the help of two dlStIDct types 0 mec arusms - e XP ruleh', . , w loh determines the internal structure of phrasal categones, and transform_t' b ' I m_ which can modify these tree structures y moving an e ement frOm ' 'nk bo th' , one position to another. If we thl a ut lS to terms of a Scnte ' 'architecture', the transformational analysis is claiming that there are nce I levels of syntactic structure. The ftrst, called deep structure t~o D-structure), is formed by the XP rule in accordance with the he t subcategorization properties, As we shalJ see in the chapter on seman~ s deep structure plays a special role in the interpretation of sentences. IC The second level of syntactic structure corresponds to the final syntaCtic form of the sentence. Called surface structure (or S-structure), it res I from applying whatever transformations are appropriate for the sentenc u.l!, . em question. The deep structure for the question Will/he boy lea"e? is given in Fig 5.2::!. ure S NP~ VP A I I Det N lnll V i I I I the boy wtll leave Figure 5. 22 The deepstructlJ'e for the question WI the boyleave! Figure 5.23 lAX I HI ANAl'" I I., .. . INtU~(t'HUI(h.' I hl' ,urlm.:t· !t.,l1II,.:HlIl" tor th. __ t; que tliln I' II the ,IlVCrMUn Ildlhlunfli.11HIII YII.tl" it lorn 'II. 'h n r- , llng,f1} t'.f1ef. hy apt) DJ ~~ Will the hoy .J rigurc 5.23 depict" the nrg;IOlliitum HI thtO " • grammar a' It h., JW..l hccn outlined. yntal;hl.,;. Chlnpcmem (If the The XPRulc ~ DEEP STRUCrURE Transformations ~ SURFACE STRUCTURE fhe syntactic compont·nt nf II", wommdr, As this diagram shows, the grammar makes use f d It . S f ' ' '" erent t<ynl:s;li mechamsms. orne 0 these mechanisms arc re'flOn ',hi' f h ' , e or t c archlt 'C1ure of phrascs (thc XP rulc), othcI for the determination 01 ' h" ' I ( be " a C,l(, Xl' hle comp emenLs su ategonlatlOn), and ,till others !'I r th. . . h" ) C JlcJvemcnt of categones WIt In syntaclIc ,tructure (tran'f{)rmation~) . Consider now the set of que;stion cOn~trucllons exemplit~ ~. 'lhese sentences ar~ called wh qUe!>tlons because of the prcence of a que tilm word beginning WIth who 36) a, Which car should the man repair'! b. What can the child sit on? Do the deep structurC a"oclated with 3fia) and 3fih) resemhle the urface fonn of these entences ur are they quite different'! ....ithm the yMem of syntactic analysis ....e arc u ing, the sentence, in 3fi} have the.: deep tructures illustrated in Figure 5,:!4 oerkaf. (We treat the wh words II;ho and what it' simple nouns and I"hieh as a detenniner.) According to the: c deep structures, which car occur J complement of the crh r<'''llir in Figure 5,24<1 'Ahile whm appear as complement of the prcp< N tio n 0 11 in Figure 5,24h. This capture an important fact about the meani ng, of the: e sentence ince: II;hlCh cur as 's about th thing that Wil' repaired in the fiN ca e .... hiIe whut ask about the locauon where the chIld l' ,tO it in the eco nd Cal e. A e o nd argum fit In faour of lhi nal~ ts Involve ulx:ate onzauon
- 114. 1I s ~----'P o.,t -" I I theman h Inll I should I----------- NP / ~ . Det N I I I repmr which car A----VP NP A I I the N I child It,p Infl V P N I I I sit on what I can Figure 5.24 The deep structures for t'" wh questions. Consider In this regard the following sentences. 37) a. *The man should repair. b *The child can sit on. Notice that these sentences are somehow incomplete without an Np aft repair and 011. However, there is no such problem with the wh questions er 36). which suggests that the ",h phrases must be fulfilling the complemelO function in these sentences. The deep structures in Figure 5.24 capture thOt fact by treating the "h phrase as complement of the verb in the first patte IS and complement of the preposition in the second. m In order to convert these deep structures into the corresponding surface structures, we need a transformation that will move the ",I! phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. The transformation in question. called WI! Movement. can be formulated as follows. 38) Wli Movement: MO'e the wli phrase to the beginning of the sentence. Sy applying Wh Movement and inversion lO the deep structure in Figure 5.24a, we can limn the deSired question structure. ther look at AnO inversion 39) VhlCh car ...hould the man rcp.Hr t jl1't'rlflll I '-____ /11 ft}'emf'nt Application of the ....amc two. tran,tonnatl()fl" tu the uec M 5.24b yields the wh ques110n 10 .:to). {'I ructure 11 hgure 40) What can the child _ sit on _ ? t t Up until now, our discussion of lransformalions has left un'>ellied an important tssue. ReconSider 10 thIS regard lhe 'imple yes 1/" que'lllm exemplified in 41). 41) Will the boy _ leave? t I [n what position does the auxiliary verb 'Iand' when il i~ moved by inveNon to the left of the subject? If we assume that sentences such a!, 41) are simple Ss, no position is available to the left of the subject, which is the ,pecifter (and hence the first element in the S) according to our analysis. This problem can be solved if we assume that all Ss occur within larger CPs, as depicted in Figure 5.25. CP ~s C A~'( Det , Infl V the will leave Figure 5.25 An 5 InSide a CP ·sheI·. What lies behllld the structure shown in Figure 5.25 i~ the aswmption that II ··th·ln a CP whether the)' are embedded or nol. It may help to tI "occur I ' f ' Ihlllk of the CP categof) as a ' hell' that forms an outer layer 0 tructure around an When embedded within a larger entence. the CP can contam an
- 115. .J .• liz/I or u."herher. Elsewhere th C ~l t'n I,.'tllllpkllll'nliler su,,- 1 jS l . . • CPOs" rhl' CP ,hl'll i. , pn..'s(.'111 hut is simpl) fell empty. T ' lI.iOf] if! It I~ illln Ihis empl} po~;jrion ,thaI ~e auxi lary IS Illoved in 4ut.'slllHl" Tim. ', the II1n~f!.iiOlllnlnstonnauon can be reformulated as f~~s.....tro -Ill o~,'. Inl'r.;iun (n'l'i.retl) : 110 <' lnll III C. Accord,",: In this proposal. then. the sentence Willlhe boy leave? is ~ oy "ppJ)i~g Ihe inversion transformallon to the deep structure in Figur~tnJ"<I nome 10 give the surface structure In FIgure 5.26. 5'~5 CP c ~ s I A~Y Inll Del N Inll V I I I I I will the boy e leave t j Figure 5.26 Movemenlof an auxiliary from Infllo C. A lransformation can do no more than change an element's POSition. It d nol change the caregories of any words and it cannot eliminate any part of~s structural configuration created by the phrase structure rules. Thus t e h h ·· d ' rh C 'VIii retains its lnll label even t oug It IS move mto e position, and th position that it fonnerly occupied remains in the tree structure. Marked by the symbol e (for 'empty') and called a trace. it records the fact that the mo ~ element comes from the head position within S. Ye Why do we atrach a moved auxiliary to the C position rather rhan so other part of sentence structure? The answer lies in rhe embedded CP Ille .semcnce~ such as the following. S In 43) {/. The coach wonders in' if the girl should stay]. b. A fan aSKed Ie.. whether the team will winJ. The underltrlcd c/enlci1!S In these CPs are complementizcr.' and til' 'I' ' h ' .. • =m occur tn .t e ( pOSllllllI. AsslilTIl/Ig [hat there can be only one clement in each POst,tlon III ~ [rl'C structurc. therc should be no room Ii>r the moved au"'!;I"y undel the ( lallL'1 III Ihc cmllL'ddcd CPs In 4J), We [here/tHc predll'[ that I/IlcrSIPII 'h()~ld uOlhe ohle [0 apply in the,,! case.'. The ungra nlln ,lllCahty 01 the 'l'lI!cnl'C III .J.J) shows [ha[lhl' 1 corrcct. Do insertion 44) Inversion in embedded CP that includ Q. "The coach wonders rep if_ShOUldchomp',cmentl'l'..ers: e grr _ Stay]. • A fan asked [ep whether-will the tea . t m IWIn. b. Interestingly, the acceptability of inversion in emhedd . qUIte dramatically when there is no complement' ( cd CPs mproves t t · l1.er and the Cpo' . therelore open 0 receive the moved aUXiliary). ~'tl()n i~ 45) Inversion in emhedded CPs that do not have complementizers' a. The coach wondered lCp should the girl stay1 . t T ' b. A fan asked [CP will the team win1 t - , ' Alrhough some speakers prefer not to apply inversion in embedd d I . . ec~_u all (especIally In formal speech), most Speakers of English filnd th . . e sentences rn 45 ) to be much more natural than those In 44). This is just what we would expect if mverslon must move the auxiliary to an empty C po"ition, as requlfed by our analysIS. To summarize ~fore continuing, ;;e have introduced two changes into the system of syntactic analYSIs used until now. First, we assume that all Ss occur inside CPs. Second, we assume rhat rhe inversion transformation moves the auxiliary from its position within S to an empty C position to the left of the subject NP. This not only gives rhe correct word order for question structures. it helps explain why inversion sounds so unnatural when the C position is already filled by another element. as in 44). As we have j u teen. formation of yes-ito questions in English involves moving rhe Inft cate gory. and the auxiliary verb that it contains, to the C position. H ow. rhen. do we form the questions corresponding to sentence such as those in 46 I. which contain no auxiliary? 46) Q. The ~tuden~ liked the film. b. Those birds _ing. Since Inn in Ih6l' o;l'ntence. contain~ only an abstract (i.e.. imbible) t~nse marker. thal' i, nothing for the inversion transformation to move. English cin:ul11elll, thiS pro:llem b) adding the special auuliat) verb do. .1. l1id the studenb like the film~ 0.., th'he bml- 109"
- 116. :1" ~Q ~ h •.:h~ hould the man repau etnent e therefore reformulate the 1.. '" erne f _-0 men! "' ..-II phrase to the _pectoo c
- 117. CP r c S 1;1' I NP I VI' /"-..~ /),,'1 ;-.; 1/111 I)c, N 11111 V Np I I I I I I I I llId' ,:.Ir ,htlulJ Ihe man " rcp"IJr --.J " r.. --J ')(" t,k I' "ItrtK hKI' II". ~.JIi< 11 (,U.JlfH. .J!d1m', nl.11l n l p.llrtln" rtleM', 1<) thc' C fl I ( 'p. OlIkJfl the' h,Jllr.lo,l' Il1rJ.I" hI tlll l ,,)('fif,c'( P(),),tIOr1 .In( t" . , .if....j ,,,,<'upi,,d oy Ihe "'" "Im"e in decp 'Inlelurc b Ihereli"e nOI "N. L> . d' ' h "alh< n:nHlm, '" .1 (mCl' (WI empty ca~e8ory), 111 lea,lIng t m the moved (.'/ r. 't L:nrre"iponci'i Ie) the complement 01 tht! verb repflll: C!lllCru In Ihe c,ilmplc",eo",idercd so far, Ihe IV" word origlnales ,1 COl I . np Cit! of a ern or prCposll/OIl. III ,elliences such ,tS Ihe lol/owlng. howev. h <n,I cr, t c word i, Ihe ,unjeel ~h 51) Who erilici/cd Maxwel/'! In Ihis ,entellCe,lhe " ,It word ash ahout Ihe person whouncs Ihe crill""'n, ,uh)c('I). nullIhoul the per.mn enl/clIcu (the c/lfect object). Figure 5 10 ,~(flht Ihat III . 'L1ch paHerns Ihe ",It word ongllJates In the subject PO'''tIU !"' "uh'equenlly move. , to the specifier posilion wilhin CP even Ihough th. ~. an~ ordcraflhe words in the scnlencedocs 1101 change as a resuit of this move~n:~,~al CP /: NP NP f I Who t _ s J ............... VP /1P V N ,.I I t:rI!ll'lzcd Maxwell Inll I Pst "gUrt· 5,:10 1101 ItU I f I I " ,:" , l) .1 'II lIP' I w )word. ~i"c c' Ih"r('" nOlhing f'lr till' wh word 10 ")(',( O;( f Irl ~Il( II ( . I!"f lC;, tlu'rl-'" flO virb/p I h.lrll;{' in wc"d orcJ, 'r, VNIAX lilt ANAIY~l 1) II an-.lnrmallullt.,. Ii",.· WI! MtIVl"IIU'ut '" ( Inent rult:, they move tlclIU..'Ull I ,I ''''o'CI Hm. Ule cMlInpl anutlu:r. Such rule, lire l:Un, I HIII,1 'lilt' )t) Ull1l1 "",Uun the I)f 11INc. 1 . I h • ' IlIUn Y flO t'1It'd tH .. "lc:nc n W lere a p a "a l:UVcr ler HI. >1 Hhlfll1ttJl It !vi hX:UlIun to another 1 or .my eh~It1t,:1H lhil. can he hilt', 1 ,_ '-'We r, . ~ nU1l 'inc:: Movement IS not lInl,;C)n~llalltcd I I' , I' r -Id ,- . , . " ilLt, mud, ,,' the ' , 111 t lC Ie, <.) syntOlx tn Iceem ye", I, I n!l.c"i.trl:h und~nak t • I" M" leell dev 1 1 I!fl conl.olratn s un movement. It ha'i heen "-hown th" ( I, C( ,(J dC1l:rmuunK, targeted by movement rules_ that only'" t, ' • H Y l:t:rtmn CiUeg()(t! ar. • r d ..t:r am P<)'>tttOIl can sites lor move clCll)cnt and th'n th' ~. I' . CfVc" 'anulnu I r . ~ ere arc ltlHt on hc)w t. ~ be ~~ove{. "'or cxarnplc. invcrion l.:an move an' .. dr C :0<:1 can position only to the ncarc..,t ("' poition. .uXthary frolll H)c nn 52) u. movement of:.m aUXiliary to the nearest C poitton: IeI'llI' Ilarry ,huuld know ieI' Ih'llthe bUHle mitthl explod 'III IDe lell ,hould Ill.) I larry kn()w ('P whether the tx ttl . Ic.. ep ..ru(,:turcl t. ___ --.I ) c m,~ I .xp',,(clll ISurt""" 'no"ur. b. movement of an auxiliary to a more d"tant C PO"tion: Icp IIp ', larry ,hould know ICp Ihat Ihe btml. m'ght explodelll {De . ep 'lru..:ture ICp M,+gllt liP Ilarry . h"uld kn"w ICp Ihat ,h. bolli. _ explodelli. {Surtace L,---- - __________~J teu<lurel There are also certain context!> in which transformations ' . bl' A I" . , arc un..: e to o~erate. s a pre Imlnary IlIu..tratlon of this, consider the fOllOwing two ai" ot sentences. P 53) a. movement of a wll word from inside a complement phrase: Carl should see [a picture of Draculal. [Deep structure! Who should Carl see [a p'Clure of _ 1" [Surface structure! + I b. movement of a 1'11 woru from inside a subject phrase: [A picture of Dracula! could fnghten John [Deep structureI Who could [a p,cture of _ llnghten John! [Surface'trueture! t I In the tirst example. the wit word is extracted from a complement phr.lse and the rcsult [s acceptable. In 53b). in contrast. the wll word IS extracted from the subject NP. The ungranunaticality of the resulting sentence suggest that It is lIot {X)ssiblc to move an element out of a subject phrase. We can capture Ihl' fact b} f011l1ulating the follo'.ing constraint on tran,j'ormations.
- 118. 4 lJNl'CRSAl (,R A MMARANO l'ARAMr TR/(· ARIATION 5-1) The Subje<.'f COllstruinr . a sub'eel phnlse. No demenl Ilhl) nt.' remocd from , ~ . h uhieet) that does not permit extract' A COl1"i,iIUc:nl (such .:1.'> ( ~ . .s 'J IOn Of rt .. "'lied an Island. . a COI1lf.l(.l.lleUI Pi) IS t;. I ty""" of island found In English S b NP art' nOi the on Y t-'- . 'A. U .I eer .l .... . '. also not possible to remove a h!h w S tht . II ' -'Imple" show. II ':-i . . I Ord f to OWll1g eX. .. Th . rdinalc structure IS p aced in bra k ro", d' I "(ruclUre ( e cOO _ C Cts It ('oor Ina t: .... - _'. 5 I a coordinate structure IS a phrase in .; il outlined in derail in .,e~u?n. r 'g~lher categories of the same tYpe.) Ihieh a word such a. ' lind or or JOins 0 55) ' . ' [ r a poem]. o. The author ollght '" fire a ~wry 0 ., h. ' What mighr rhe author wnte [a story or _1_ ]' t 56) o. Sue will talk [to Tom and to Mary). ., Who will Sue ralk [ro Tom and to _ ]. h. t I , th 'e facts by formulating the following constraint We can accounl lor e. . , . ... . 57) The Coordinate Structure Constraint: . No element may be removed from a coordrnate structure. There arc man) differen t types of islands in languag.e, and a good deal of current research focuses on ho they should be descnbed, what properties lhey ha,·c in common. and how they drffer from .'anguage to language. Howe"er, since most of this work IS too complex to diSCUSS rn an rntrodUCtof) textbook. we can do no more than mention this important phenomenon here. -------------------------------------------------------- Thus far, our diseu"ion ha. s focused on English. There are many other syntactic phenomena in our language that are worthy of consideration and We wrll cuminI.' some of them in scction 5. FiN, though, it is rmportant to extend the scopt.' of OU I analysis to ()ther languages. The syntaurc dcvices prescnted in earlier sections of this chapter arc not ti)und onI) in Engh.sh. Indeed, recent work suggests that all languages share a ' 111.(11 set of '} ntactic categories and that these categorics can be comhrncd 10 (orlll phraSl's who.se Ifftcrnal stmclurl' indudcs hcacis, c·Ol11pICf11enls. anu 'pt.'lIlr<'rs. .I()rem"r. it aprears that tl.(nsfnrm,Uronalopt.'r,ltions arc suhlc'et In Iflghl srflulal Wnql;lfnls in all languages, (hlf CX;lfl1plc. the prnlflhuion against ntl.Il'IJOn from Coordinate . s(ru.:turc.:s dl'l"lJ~sc'd In SCClfllfl 1.~ holds YNIAX: 1111 AN",y, rH "'rNrrN( r ~lloi:j( H.Jk:f 11'> cross-linguistically, "'0 th'U ...cntcnc ~ t ' . < . f " 1..: I ....C ,ISh) and 56h sectIon ~rc ~ot _ound in any hmgui.lgc.) The "'Y~lem (). .. ) ~n he prcvOUs. and co.nslramlS ...haTed by all human hm Ua' . " 1cut:&?ne..... mcch;,m'tn (UG. for short). g ge! ,... called Unlversa' (~ranllla.. The fact that ccnain syntactic prope t- ~. . . r ICS are. Untveral doe languages must be alike in all respects U . ~ ". t G ... n(lt m.ean that .. It· . . . n'Versa rammar leav vanaHon. a OWing Individual langu"ges t d" f f . e... n){)m for . (Y , . ~ , 0 1 er WIlh re~peCt 1 para":,cters. ou. Can thmk of i.l pnrameter as the Set of . 0 ce.na,ln pemllts for a panlcular phenomenon.) 1n this sc t' .OPtlOn~ that t,G t f · . . C Ion. We Will con... d f examp es 0 paramctnc variation heginning with th . I Cr a eJv . . S .. ' e mventory of ";ynt . categon~s_ 0n: e addItional instances of crOSS-linguistic differ ,," aCHe are conSidered 10 section 2.3 of Chapler 9. ences 1n syntax. Of the syntactic categories considered in this chapter onty n d ' II h ' Ouns and verb, are fOlln . In a . uman languages. The adjective category. while ve . common, IS not unrversal. In many languages (such as Hausa Ko T I ry . . ' . rean. e ugu. Hua,. and Bemba), there are no true adJeclives and no direct tran,tacion for English sentences such as 58). 58) The cat is hungry. Instead, the concept 'hungry' is expressed with the help of a noun in Structures such as 59a) or a verb in structures such as 59b). 59) a. The cat has hunger. h. The cat hungers. Some examples of this phenomenon in Korean folloy,;. (""om = nominath'e, the subject marker.) 60) u e of a noun where EngJi ·h me. an adjective: a. Ku cha~ k-i cayml ~ta, that x'lOk-, 'om inh!re:,t euq 'That x'lOk i, IIltere"ting.' 1>. Ku pap-i 'ria' "" ta. (>/ ) th')l fcxxJ.- . om ta, te e, i, t 'TIul fe xi i. ta't~, l ,,: "fa l'rh hl'r ' Engh h U,(" an adjeclle (/ Kn I JP- lnaJlfll, th. t fe" i-. m - PI _) ' Th t f, :xl l '1" ):
- 119. l16 (ONTfMPORARY LINGUISTICS 4.2 Vari.lfion inphrase slruc-Iun'ru/t,s h. Cip-i khula. house-Nom be-big 'The house is big.' Despite their English translation. the words maypta 'spi~y' and khllta 'bi . the lauer IWo examples are a Iype of verb in Korean, lakmg tense Illarker~g in other Iypes of infleclional endings used for verbs 111 thaI language. . and Slill other languages seem 10 lack the P calegory. Where Engli~h h preposition. the Mayan language Jacaltec. for example:, ~ither U ses"" a morpheme al all (see 62a)) or employs a noun (such as S-Wl head' for 'o~? as in 62b)). , 62) a. XIO Jlaj conob. went he IOwn 'He went 10 IOwn.' b. Ay naj s-wi' wilZ. is he head hill 'He is on the hill.' There are even languages that lack both As and Ps. For example, the NOO tkan languages of Vancouver Island and northwest Washmgton State apparentl have only two lexical categories - N and V . . . . Y Table 5.11 summarizes some of the vanatlOn m leXIcal categones found in human language. TabJe S.H Parametric varialion in lexical cmegories ~===-~~------~--------------------- Language Categories used ~~~----~~------------------------- Nootkan N,V Jacallec Korean English ~~----------------------------------------------- N, V,A N, V,P N,V.A,P As you can see, the N and V categories are apparently universal, with language~ differing from each other jn terms of whether they use A and P. Even where languages have the same categories, the precise rules for sentence J(mnation may differ But this variation is not random, For lllMance, there are signIficant patlcms that recur in language after language in terms of the po,'Hion of head, within tht'ir phrases, To account for these pattern" we can po"t a 1ft-ad Parwlwtel that offer' three optIon, - head lllltial head medial. WId hC;IdlinalIn Japanesl', lor example, hearls c(m,j'tently OCCIII in the Imill position wllhill Ihl'u phro,,' (Hgurc 5,11). rhu" the nOlln ,'Ol11,', at 11ll' end or the' NI~ the veil, at the elld (II the VP, iInd () on Bccilusc », (Jet'1I1 III the elld til Ihe 1'1', they lire lalled III"lpII,iliflll' rather thilll prCposltlllll', (Nom = 1I t1 l1ll1lJtiH', tli ,uhl~l'1 lIIi1rkcr; CP I~ "mIlled In S,lve pal C) s ~ A Nl Det N N P v I I I I sono gakusei-ga gakko kara modot the student-Nom school from return 'The student returned from school.' Figure 5.31 Japanese phrase structure: the head is always final. Inl1 ta Pst 217 These word order differences reflect the pOSitioning of hea~- 'th I ' . ~ Wl respect to the other e ements In thetr phrases, not the presence of an entirely new type of syntactIc system. We can aCCOUnt for these facts by formulating the followmg phrase structure rule for Japanese. 63) XP ~ (Specifier) (Complement*) X As this rule indicates. the head unifonnly follows its specifier and comple- mentes) in Japanese. In English, on the other hand. the head fOllows its specifier but precedes any complements. Matters are not always so simple. however. In Thai, for example, head, precede both complements and specifiers (the head-initial option) within phrases other than S. Thus.;-; appear at the beginning of NP,. p, at the beginning ofPPs. Vs at the beginrung ofVPs. and so on (Figure 5.32). (Tone, have been omitted here.) VP i'.1' PP /'~ AP ~ ~ ~ Del P • 'P V Det A neg I ';'11 nii p 'It 7aan nang"'H rul suung maak ..:oour thi 1th •-it read book thl tall 'eT) 'thi~ ("0 l)Ur '" Ith •"it' 'read th" book' "eT) tall'
- 120. . l) 'llr()R -'1, I IN(;Uh' IC~ 'j(hill S. h(l L'l'r. ~t, Figtll~ 5..0 .,hu '. the 'lx'nner Clhc 'l b COnte, fir'a. )U" ~l' if JUL" in Engli'h I 1C q N()J s ~ I' // f'i"r N Inn P N/ / / / Phim ell klap clluk Phim will retum from rongrinl1 school figure 5.33 Th.l; s(>ntt'nc(' ~tflKture: fhe spec-ifipr (subjecr) pre<.:uies Iht~ he~ld. 4. ! Vilri.ltion in the use of tr.lmformdtiom h"-nQ qUt'stions Thus. Thai usc, one w,io/1 of Ihe XP rule for phrases ,mallcr Ihan S. 6-1) XP rule used in Thai for Ss; XP --> (Specifier) X (Complement Xl' rule u,ed ,/1 Thai for phrases smaller Ihan S: ,p-->. (Complemenl ) (Specifier) and another vers- , . • On lor The ,mportanl Ihlllg 10 rL'cognize here is Ihat. despile the differences jUsl noted. English. Japanese. and Thai all have phrase, and Ihcsc phrases inclUde II head 111 addilj(1I1 to oplional specifiers and complements. Beneath Ihe o[,,·ious word ordL'r differences. Ihen. there .is n more fundamenta l Sitnilaritj in Ihe <:ateg()ries und rule Iypes needed to bUild syntactic structure. ------------------------------------- Lungua!!l'S often Ilttfa from each othcr in the kinds of rules they usc 1 0 fonn it particular 'cntl'neL' Iyl'<'. To illustrate this point we will consider threc phelJ( l l1lcna. 10 in"olving ljue'tion patterns and onc involving statements. 11I'I"mil (a Ianguagl' (If India)..'"e.' ··I/(} Ilueqions are SIgnalled hy the prescnce (If the lIlorphclIle 'il at tlw clld of the sentell<:c, rather than hy an inversion Iramt(lrtniJlion. (The dialTitic indlcato a demal point (If 'Illll'llialton: Ihc diaaitlt - marks a long "(1 d : 1IS a retroflex liquid) (5) l/, 1tJlIUl'a[,1l1l panIt all , ItHlll Inllt I'lL"/( 't! 'lullll pld,'d tlw fnlll • Figure 5.34 Wh questions Verb raising /J. MUHu PHlum padHun-i.I Muttu fruit picked QUl! ' otd Muttu pick the fnll')' The. l~orphel1lc 'Ii is (remed as a Iype "I COl1lpkmem"cr wh",. • , positIOn follows from the fUCllhm TamH is a hc'o-"" ' . ,l! ,enten;c.hna In I-*tgure 5.34. corrc'ponding to sentence 6~h)' lh ...,~a . anguagc, 1., dl.:{>H.:lCf..l t 11 I d fS - , l! comC'atlhe.enU h VP. n at t 1C en () . nnd C (containing the question m h' () c of CPo orp eme.) at the end CP S ~'T NP V Past NP L MutlU Mullu !:::::". I palam pantJim fruit piCked A question structure In Tamil. c -a ·Ques Examples like this ,how that languages can Use very different meam, to express the same type of meaning. Whereas English can use a movement transformation (inversion) to form yes-no question,. the corre,pondmg sentence type in Tamil is formed by the phrase Slructure component of the grammar. Just as many languages foml yes-ito questions without the help of the inversion tran formation. many language, do not make m,e of in Movement in the formation of ,,·h questions. Languages of thi, type include Japanese. Korean. Tamil. Chinese. and Thai. The following example IS from ThaI. 66) Khun 7aan 7aray .) n)ll read what :What did you n:ad·?· otlCL' that. unlik.: Englbh. Thai does nOt front the question word in its wh qUL'stll'ns 11. b. 1'.11 .1'" , "l) P.lIl! r , h J~'.
- 121. a Tlll.. I..".)ntr.l,r I,e,f"'="'(l~. m..:e thl>" rn.·ero.1.hlu~htier(lf"-c:'. t~n~tIO" <l.... fi~r of Uk" ,'C'l't.l3.DJ ~n"fl.)re ,ht.'lUIJ ,.-,"l..'ur h_""'I It-. left. 3_' 10 0 ." J urpn.Pe-cl~ 00", '" er. c.'" n lTh,)Ugh ,pt.'"("iri "I"" ,gener.t.ll~ r~"l."Je (~e head In Frent.:h.'tn I)' fi " ...urn a., I.lUJOun 'ah 3~"· mu...t folll.) the, em In mal language. ql1a.li. 6..) a. -Pau' h,-'UJt'lUl'o £J:IaJlle. (= Engli...b 6/,N PauJ alw"J'" Of.... b. Paul IflI,aIlle ",uj""'" (= English 6-b! P-Jul"Of -... a.!w:n' WI" ,"'-'uld th" be" Onep"sibilil) thaI i- currentl} being considered i, .h. Fre~('h h.l.., me! erbr3l~ing uan~forrn3tion ouumed In 69). "1Cl( 69) Verb raising' ~ 10'< . 10 lnll erb r:u~ing is obligato!) in French. applying 10 the deep structure in I'i~ 5.35a 10 £1ve the adjacent surface -tructuTe_ - b Surface strucrure Deep ,trucrure S S ~ :-'~'P ?'P In11 'P I ~ I A :-.; I Qual ' :-.; . Qual ' Paul I I I I I I IOUJOun. Ira,mlle Paul travaille 10ujours e Paul always works Paul wots alway~ Figure 5.35 ~ r.lrsilg i1 French B monng the 'erb 10 the In11 position in French. the verb raj in. uan..s(ormarion accounl, for HS occurrence ro the left of its specifier in rha~ language. A fascinating piece ofindependent evidence for iliis proposal comes frorn the operation of the im'ersion tran. formation in French. As we have a!read' seen (section 3.·1). this transformation moves Infl ro the C position. Now. i~ English only au.'-ili3/)· "erbs occur under Infl. which explains why onl) they can undergo inve~ion. 70) o. Inversion of an auxiliary verb in English: Will vou know the answer? L-.I b. Inversion of a non-auxiIi3/) verb in English: ' Kno vou the answer? t . -, Figure 5. Have you tried? However. unlike Engli,h. French abu allo" , inv" f cr"'lOn {) nun-aux..lharv J 72) . , Inversion of a non-uuxiliary verb: Vois-tll __ Ie livre? L-J see you rhe book .Do you see the book?' Figure 5.36 depicts the interaction belween verb raisin. and l·n·e~·1 d ~ ., e ."onn~eed 10 form thiS sentence. (We treat the pronoun ru 'you' as a type of);P) CP ~ C NP~W I . ~ V Infl V NP I I ~ e Vois ru ~ tL____)'---..J Ie livre Inversion V-Raising 36 The interaction oi em raisi1<;; and im<!rsioo in French. Although English does not use the verb rai<;ing transformation in general. there i.- reason to believe iliat it applies to the 'copula' verb be 3> a special case. As shown b) the follow ing example. be sounds more natur~1 when it occur,; to the left of a qualitieruch as a/ways. which occur<; in the specitier position within VP. (/. b. />,' to the left of the specitier: Jonathan is ai ay, on tnne. h to the right of thepc.:itier: .?*h'nathall •h a), h on tune.
- 122. I I f 'tlf III 111 1' 1' <I .. l t t I til ~I I I' ~ I' 1,,11 I t ll.d , I I J"" Ill! "I If" 1 J,IH.IIII"'tI ,aI"" • " I 1'1' I 111111111 II" th.u , h.t, IIP",,,It'I'" Hh 1.P~h 'I,h' """'1I1'i ""'d ,' Ih, III.hll i IIIlIIIIII'HI II' II,,' 'I IHIII1.11 III "IlIlt.ltl l.tII '11.1 '" II h I'P"jhh It ",,,.IIln 1111 II ,'"'10 III ••1 I iI'll II 1111.1 '" "'h'II, .',11111111111' ,I '"1111""1 ..I ,111<1,1111",11 I 'hili"" Ilhlll , 1t"IlIllIlI""','lh'Il'tllhh', ~thh p.llh·II" " ldl l1llh' ~tl1h III ' 1I"",ftlh 1 ,'1,1111 11111'. Ill" 1 I tll1 1.111 ," , I Itt Im.lI1III" '1')1, I""" III Ill' 11101 I " ,.1111.1, I ,I" 'I I"1, ,,' 111/ "' lhlllol ..,,1 ",,~,~, " II I,. II 1t1'IIII, 11"'1 ",d h''Ilq I lilt.." I ~II I Itl" 71 ,111'111111,111111' III " I' II 1.,.· dll"'!!lh, 1.111 " 111111111"111111. Ilqlll II II"' 1111111 tllIi .."' I tIII In 111111, I II" ,,, ~ .'J 1111111111111111111111 I' II '" qlllil IWIIIIIIIIIII,IIIII I I' '11'1 ry, "1" II" ,' I I. 1 1,111111 wlllllhVII'IlI I" VlIV 1111",'1 '1/) ,llIlIdlllll11'1 pi '.", II I hI' 11111111' 11" II'iI 1111" h"IIt1II1~'I'Id 111" Wtlllhll fUIII,lln In ,11 /' Iii 11" IIUIIl l'IIII'It'llI111 111111111111' '11 ' Ih,' WllIlI,11t WHIh'tl 11 h. 111 ( 'llIlIdIIlHlhlll· .. ll1hll .. IIIIII jlll"II'I~lllllllPIIIII'''' '1.1 Ih"'1 I ltt!lllHIIIIIIu 1111111111 I II1I IIIH 11111111'11 I '111'~! 1111" lililil 1111111'1,',11 III 1111 111111' 11111HllI 111111 'hH' II,," p. 11111111111 ,1111 hllll hi""I 11111"" ~II II ,I Nf},,)" III WhH II 11' ,lhI'11 Nl'lIlIlLHH' 11111 11111111'1 Nl' IHIII 111 III,' I11l1lt'lll1ll'd I 1I11i1lHthU illul IIItI 111"'11 (Whnl 111111' 111111 V,'I Nllll 1"', 1111t1I1I1'1I wllh 111/.1 till' lllllHll 11111 t ""Im,ty Illl I 11 lilly 1I1I1I1t"d "11'1 yw ltl',,'" "'11 hi Itllt II,,· Llt;1 N, ,... I" IIII' l')"Imph- MOl" l. SIl) " IN,' A 1111111 uud.1 ho •.11111 .ll'll. IIld it II"r', 111111 a t,lIn',k, VI" '1Itllh~ rIll , /', IN I' A IIlttl "'ny. jl l ,II, II ,Iup III"t.1 '1Il"11'I V"Ht IIHn IW lOl' St' t 'IUll!. 11 t. II"'~'''I} lit 11' k' t" tW,UII! .1 'tllll' PI UI Il' lUIHthn,ltn I'll' plrl"'dll'~' ,·.,,"pl,·... 11I1I...".11I~ l"tll1lttlHilluH III Xp~~ Hl' qIIWII~' ;1 .' llIlIpt'· ... JI' lll,lIl~ -'lllt 1"·1 t ,Ih' 'nil" I 81) "0,,"111.,,1'111 III N' '11t,' I" 1..11.1;1,11111 .., Ill.' './IlIll'l rnuutlll,ttHl "I l' II' "I'I ,1111 II' ",," "IIII' 'I,ll" 'lHlldIH,ltU11l III . 1''',11' I,ll' II ",1111lllh ' h,','1 Iltlld , 1'1'<,,,1,,, 1'" ,'",,' '1111'" Ill" I I", III Ill' ,"'II' I P" '11"", 'he l.' lHHdtll,l.'d l.Ih 'lll1,,'~ ,lI' bnlh ',,,, 11 7 ). V)... ltl 7rd. ,1 "Ill' . .(~) , Ill'''', ""P'.I", 1111'" ..I "11III "Ill ,,'I,' 'III) 1}IW' ""11",111 """,' '1'''ll' '"11"'''",II " "It 8') I ""Idin,,",'" I.t "n I' ,Illd ,I'I' 11.' 1l';,,1 l.'I,lll,'1 1',.1.,11111,'1 '" Ill"ltl"," ,,''1 1"1,111111' ,.1 ,Ill, I' ,ud '" 1' Ih 1 I I 1'11" h"" ,Iud "" ,Ill 'I
- 123. l'ol.l hTI .., .1P P ~'P I . 'P Con ' NP ~ I I .6- read a Otl(lk l'r walk the dog b . 'p -----:-------. . 'p"- I ;-';P I "'" Del ~' Con De! N I I I !hi, man and that ch'ild Figure 5.38 5oP1e coorcinate 5Iructlr.".. How does the c:rammar form coordinate structures? One possibilil, is th there 1. a ,epaf3r; rule for each coordinate structure. For :-< categorie~, f:~ example, the following mo rules could be formulated. (The • sYmbol indicales thar one or more categories of that type can occur to the left of the conJunction.3l m cample ~Ol: Con =conJunction.) ,3/ a :--1' ~ ),1'* Con:1.1' b. .' ~ 1'>* Con :-: A .et ofparalJeI rules (onerbal categones could also be fonnulated. 4) a. 1' --> VP' Con P b. ' --> V* Con ' S,mJlilfrule> can be devised for othercategones (5, AP. PP. and 0 on) as well nut?ou (an probanly ec that the result v.ill he a rather long list of new rulel.· fortunately. we can al'old these complications by u'lng the 'X notation' to Junnulate a ~mgle general statement that can take the place of the more specllic rule ex~mplilied above 5, The ( oardmatlOn Rule. X. Con X" 5) difiers MO ..,YN1JX III( ANA''t'IS (11 ~INltN( fl ' S'~l( l)Wf 1.1.5 The ~ymhol X _10 tht... rule ""and", for -'" (;ac tndit.:uttng thal either an X or an XP I:an ~ -' ~(lry at 1m)! ll'1l.:lu 1 . d- , h ClM.lfl.htillt::d A he fa eve' ( ) ,'11 IcalC~~ 1 at one or .more cau:goncN. Ci.ln ( "" .. iotl!, the a.. ...lcr...~ conJu~"Ctl~n. rhu~. we ca.n lorm not only ...truttures ~~~r ,t() the: left h the in whICh Ju~t two clcmcnl~ ar~ COOrdtn"led l.. ch a... u ,"Un ul1d u b d • , Jut a 'Ih "'lructu fly. o boy. CJ cal, a og. and a IUlnlster. in which ' re~~uth <1' a nUl d d"' B ' a much la.rger n he __ fl, Ull crgocs coor InatlOn, y addtng Ju...t nne mOre rule to urn 'r ot lkrru we can form a very broad range of Coordnuti.()n t the grammiJr. then ~ ruCtures. . Thus far. our treatment of phrase structure ha, ignored modifi ' clements that encode optionally expressible propert' f" ,ers, a ca." of . ' ,es 0 ..eads Alth h leXIcal categones can have modifiers, we win foeu h .- l>ug an categories that can modify Ns and Vs. s ere On Ihe lypeS 0 Adjective phrases (APs) make up the single most co .fi .' E I- h A h f ' . mmon Yused ca" of modI lers tn ng IS. S I e ollowmg examples show AP : . Th" h ' s serve as modIfier of Ns. ( IS IS not t e only function of APs: they ca I f ' ' 1 f b h b naSoUnCtlOna~ comp ements 0 ver s suc as ecome and seem, as in He became/,ee d [very' allgry]; see Table 5.5.) . me 86) APs serving as modifIers of N: A very tall man walked into the room. She made exceptional progress. The most common modifiers of Vs are adverb phrases (AdvPs) and PPs that describe manner or time. 87) AdvPs serving as modifiers of V: describing manner: Helen proceeded carefully. Helen carefully proceeded. describing time: We arrived early. 88) PPs serving as modifiers of V- describing-manner: Helen proceeded wirh care. describing rime: Hetayedfor rhree daH. As these example, ,hov.. Engli,h modifier> vary in terms of their posinon with re:peet to the head. Thus..'P~ precede the.' while PPs follov. the verb. lam Ad P< can occur either before or after the verb that they modify, as the tin.t ~,ampk_ in c'6) and Tahle 5, I:! illustrate. Tllhl~ 5.1~ ~lodifier (X' Ilion in English 1' PI' d,' the head
- 124. .>..1 A rult' formodifil'rs n ,,, h 1' N Qual an Intcrn.HUlnal .I. cn~l:-' I """'ys I ' I I" 'uIII '·,'r Ih·· pbceJ1lcnt llf I1Hxliticr:-.. we 11111~t exp'''ld n llrucr ll. I.Ll . . . . . . . ' ) -..... oUr (lrigillJ.l ..P nile ~ll th~lf It ;ll1llslhe vanl)U~ oplJ(ln~ sho n m89). SQ) Th,' FII',lIId,'" .P Rllk :-"P --> (Sp<.'cl (Mod) : (Complement ) (1.10.:1) This mit' allo, a modifier 10 occur either before the head (as in Figull! 5.39Q) <'r atkr II (SCI' Figun: 5.39b). When: there IS a co.mpkmcllI. a modIfier Ihal (!<:curs alkr Ihe head will nonna/]) occur to the nglll of Ihe complement u. wclI. This i, illuslr.HI'u in Figure SAO. 'P ~ / NP AdvP ,If" '" /"-....... V D.:t "I Deg Ad I I I I I accepl the nell S IW) calmly figure .5.40 A plY,1"'" hleh hOlh Ill<- nllnplt'l1lt'nt Jnd til<- modifier Octur Jiler Ihe h""rl. In "k h C.N'" Ih.· n1<>d,ti(~ ()('cur, JIIE'r tilt' compil'mP11t. ln 11m cilmpk. Ihe .P rule gIVl!' a phrase consisting or a head {the verb <lCCf'I'/}, a cOIllI'il'm.:m (the NP Ilr/! 11<''''.1). and a motlilil!r (Ihe AuvP l'l'I'' UI!III!y) - in thaI nruer. . Rl'I.llh l' d.1USt'S (,,,h,llln'd) YO! II. .sUI' ilia) knOll (ItI.' m,lIl/whom Boh critICI/I'U __ I. I>. Harr) 11IIIUtltt' IllIagt'/hlclt SUI.' wa'''''t! to I. '1'111...' hrac:keh.. 't phi "....... 11 (J,,) i.tl' n.·'""vt' c"u~~,. ("P 1 , ,"nv uh.' lntornmlHlIl ..,hoH' w N lW"It ,,' ,I I lel ll1,.Khh t 11.._ 1 1 . . '. H.'If ctt h,,,. ~'4 l·,umpt~. thl', rda'ive da"'t: hdp... I"lt.-mlry the man h 't .~nl·I)C. rlfl(.l). f.)t pl.!l'Slln ..:ritll.!l/cd hy .Boh. . "i I llI.:.ng h.! he, lIke (),hcr 1l1otllt.1C' .... n:~ltVC d~U...C'... tX:l:If wn' L , " ',., , . lin Inc ' ''me pI"., • head that lll.-'Y mot I y. HI..... 1le rdallV..' dim,c n 9lJ I L • 1 he , N 1·1. <1 ,,,,,"1,1 he n· n f C NP hcuded hy lle mwl. 11... .:a1 he vcnflcd with lh ' L 01 '" I'" l) Inc , . "I h' c ne 1 1 Ihe '"n'lll h:~t illustratc( In .., ). W leh show... that the 'c"uc.nct.: " ' U()n • " " .., 1t mWI who Ii L ·/";tici..t·,J IS a syntacttc linn ~"'c~ It C.n b~ n.:paced hy lh.. Un ( ... ... prun~).n hun 91) Sue nlay know INI' Ihc mall 1('I,whom BnhcrillclI.ed __ Iand I<.I111W """I,x, (IIilll = (/tl' mall witom Ho'" c",'w/:t'cJ) . Relative clause structures resemble embcuded wll 'lucstinns in two respect . First. they beglll WIth a wll word such a.S who ()r which. 'icconu, here is an empty posilion within the sentence from which lhe wh phra,e has apparently been moved. In sentences 90a) and 90b). tor mstance. thc NP positions following the transitive verb cr;r;c;~.e and the preposillon TO are unfilled in surface structure. The first step in the fom1ation of the relativc clause m 90u j imohes the deep structure in Figure SA I . CP ~ C s /V~ Su~ I lntl I ma~ ' I p , Det ~ th... man TIlt' ck'ep tru<.ture for a 'ootil(' dau-
- 125. '" , p " , I' I• 'P I' I i IT I J Ii f t' s I r- , " '" I"II P J I I 11111 11", , (''If ' I I I "'h' 111.1 ,,"'lI) ,,,,'1".'" fh11ll ""h dUll'lh,'" " SlUC- 'iAJ I he'" ,t"f.it I '111It Itlfr' Iclf .114,1.111"',1,111'1" Ihtl hplll.l'" ',,1" nh lH'd tn fhf' 'It "N.'I ll{l~lhfl lIlun Iht' ( " 'Ii' I " ·,l111.(' th.1f lit' rh' ft.lll,f,llIl1.llltl,,' .lI • I 'quirl't! ttl Inll11 I "'.un.' .'I.llI'l' "'U,'lIm', ,,,,'/1 " lit,·,,' 1{.II/1,·" "'1.11,,,· ,'1.11" ,';1Il I...• "'1111,·., "h 1 1 ll' h<'il' ,.1 Ih,' ' .'1/1,' 1111 1",,'1111'111 11.1I,,""III.III<'lIlh.11 ,,"ld,·,...·'hl<-lIll) "',/1111,." 1(, 1111 '1'11"""11' 1/1 Ih' 1''''''''''''' l ,',11111''''. lit,' u'lI II ",d "" f lll.II,', in Ill" '''"I'l"! ""1"1'1 J~"II"'n, Illil I ,inl/I.II .1Il.1"", i, .11'1''',''1/11,' 1,1 "t11l'III"" "I "'1.111',, d.'I1" . '"11"",,·,. Ill"''''''''' Ih,' ,lilt' ill v":J. ill '''lIdl Ih,' ,,1, 1"IlI "II~ill;II'" ill Ilk' '''lIh'~'d 1''~111Iln v,iJ . 11,' 1Il.1 ~'lIl1 Ih,' 111.11' I h" ,' III'l'l l l'd 11,,/1. 1/,'", "It" ,"'11"'1"'11.1, (,1 Ih.· 1'." 1'" IIlhl .1,,,, tl1l' ,'IIII,"ill' Ihll l lll' 1" " "'11 I h" 'I''' ,'III", ,'d.." ill 111l' 1'''''"'11' ""11111'1<'. nll' d," 'p ,llIldll',' Itl' Ihi, ,,'111",,'1' Ihl""I<(,' ""11"'1"'11", I" 1I,n. III 'I hKh Ih.· II'It II "id "1'1'<,.11' III Ih., 'lIh,,', '1""lIhlll b , , 1'1' () I "I N I A Vq "1." 1lI.1, ...,,1 ttl' IIl,1 , I' I' hu liltl III , 11'1 lJ~ ) Slt' Ill., ..1' tht Ilan ' 1' "ho 11' t Uet'Ht rhus Lu in thi S ,..'h;,h.'r, W~ h;I..'_ hli.'U,cd ~)l1 'lli.'ntl.l" tll thl.." an,,y () 'l'llh'lll'l' ' lllh..'lUll' l'lnplny l'd hy pi a.I.:tl1tntll't " nt tt ~tt~<lrmalnl;l "~"'I ;" ,nl' IIHHle d at thl' llltsl..'l ~ hO:I".'ll'[. thh I~ not h~ nnly )ipl.' l ,y t;1..:1~ 'll;.Y S ,,'l,tI In l'nntl'nlpOLry .lll1:!UI~i.·~' in l~ Sl'l.:tHln, We win hrldy COlhll. h. 'r WI.) 1thl' l t -Pl'S of s~ 11a~ lH: analYSIS. nne fncustng lll) grammatll.:a tI!Limn'!;. MlI..:h ; , ubl,·,'1 and dll ~"1 ohi~~I, 111,1 Ih~ Ih~r ItKu"ng, ll1 th~ ay In hl,h S) n tm'til' s lntc.:tlln: Is Ils cd tn Clllllnlltlll.'all· Itl~',-)nlatl)tl ltl lln..lcl III 'u....r.tc. h.n Ih,'Sl' :lll:lly,~' wor". W~ w, ma..~ Usc III a ,emcne,·type Ih'lI has player! ;, l'I, nllpurlalll mc III thc dcvdllpm"111 III' '~lIlaCllc Ihcnry IIVCI Ihe ""I ~l' ~ ri dl~("ad"'·s . ()/Isid"1 Ihe pair lIf scnlcnccs ,n )5 l, hich arc virtually idcntical in mcaning ,,,"SPill' nh'illllS slrIIclural dil'fcrcncc" <)5) (/, l'lll: lhic cs 1ll..,Is Ihe painting., Thl' painllng. ,I' !alscn :I) Ihc lh,<: :, . In 1mil'l III de,,'I;he lhc dilTercnccs and ,imiiarilics :IctCC1 lhc,e ,10 ,CIll'n"'~, II IS nl'c','ssar) I,) ,hsllllg.uish helwcen the <lv-enl (thc dc~r 01 thc :ll.'lilln lk ,, ~nal ~,1 :I) the crh) and the th~me (Ihe clltll) dlrc':ll) :111r:(cd :I) Ihal ;1c'lil'n), (Thc,,' nlllH'Il' an: di,cussed III mme dclall 111 Ch'lplCr 7,) .1. ,1,'li,' s,' nll'nCl': rhl' 11m" l" l..)"k Ih,' 1':linllng, , ~( 'Ul 111,'111, p~b,n l" ' ('nCn....·l..~ I h '!,aiming .Is 1:lkl' l1 h) lh, lhi.: ·s) 1/" /II. I ~ Clll
- 126. il (I '.J 71lI'('~ ,~, ""'(if J"tll( <;; 1'7, II Ih,,- dn ' :h.l'l'd Ihe..' lIud. " 1'''...'tlild.. a... l'ha'l'd h) IJIl" dog. <lSI fl. rhl' 1t'-'ldll'I prult'd (fllll'Ut' II. Gil1l'Ul' il ... pl'.II'il'd hy rhe (l'..u:ht'r W) 1I. nil' dllld hlOke Ihc' dl.,hc, h. rile ""Iw.' were "mk"JI hy Ihe chi/el. l'hl' (1.ln~I(H"l11ali()n;l1 "llllllysi.... of pa,~~c SC:lltl'I1Cl'S, cannot he adc4U~IICI> discu'I,'l'd WII,' WI.! han' cot).'i,dcrcd sOllie ISSUC."iI~I.lhc study of. semantic, (set '1 '1 I' ('h'llll"" 7) lIowever il is p<)sSlhie to eonSlucr two <llh Sl. 1011. 0 .... . " " l.:r pcrspl'cliv....s on Ihc lInalysis of Ih" important synl;tcllc pal/c'nI The kl' POIIII ot rclutiollulul1lllysh ".lh"l atlea,l sOllle sYlllacli<: pheno n,en " ;It' hC'sl ut'senhed In leflll' 01 grallll11<1llC;JI re/allol1s sLleh ~I' SLlhJc'CI "nu direci o"I,'el ""I her th"l1 ltIorphologkal pal/cm, or the md:r ()~ words. This C;ln he ."'L'1l hy eXallllllJlIg how Ihe passlvc' slrLlelure " lormed In di/fcrenl laJl!!lIa!!e.s . III Ic'rll1.' of IIHlrpholo!!y alld worcl order, the Fnghsh P,lSSlve has Iwo d"tlllelle pmperlles hrsl. a passive sentellce COnlal/ls SOI11C lorm or the ,Iuxlliar) I", (11'(/', /., "nd so on) lOgether Willi a ver~ In thc so-callcd 'past parllnr'c torlJl', WhldliS norm"IIy lI1ar~ed hy the .sulfIx .'1/ or ell (as in Wa. '"At'II, 1'(/. c/wwcl, and SI1 on) Second. Ihe rdUlI"'! order 01 the agent and Ihc'IJIL' HI passive sentencl'. s IS (/Il: reverse of that found 111 active sentences (Ihhk ~.13). ThllS, whereas the th...me pncc...dc's the agent I/l passive 'ellll'lle..." th... oppo.,ite orde, is lound HI aclive senlences, as M:rllencc 96) ;lhOl'd,'mollslrat,'d. ~nlll(.· form nf Au ht' p''',ll'aI1I<'1I'''' Ii>nll ,,/ II", Ihe Ihel11" l'IIIlles hclore Ih,' <lgl'1II rh,' g"Ill'I;IIIl'lld"Il',)' IIIIHllllall lallgll;lg" is to Illark paSSIlI"aIHlJI hllth hy ,I dl.lll 't' IlIlht' lelallt' old''J'tlfllw agl'nt and Ihe tII...III... aud hy a 1110.111'" allon III Ih, 101/11 ..I fht' H'I h. rh, /(1110 iug calllple from SI" (a MOil I.hl11el I II 'III 't' '1'"k"11 ill 1,'111,1111) JlI<lltk' .lIlllther "IUstr.ilIOIl ol'(his. Ilifl) II active ....entence Cal pu"l mpHn WITlU open duur 'The wind opened the Uoor b. pa~ivc sentence: Mpon g;lpa? m~ cal. uour Pass-opened by winu 'The cloor was opencu by the wind.' Ilowcvcr. it seems that passlvinlliclO is not ~lways signalled in t . TZ(lt~il (a Mayan language or Mexico), f(Jr instance th I" h" Way. In d I h . h ' e re alive mdcr ,,[ th agent an llC t ClllC IS t c same in active and pas!-.1VC con<;lructHm..... c 101 ) (I. active sentence: Ui snakan ti vlmke ti Xpctule. theme agem seated the man the Peter 'Peter seated the man.' passive sentence: lnakanat ti vlnike yu7 un tt xpetule. theme agent was seated the man by the Petcr 'The man was cated by Peter.' Here the passive is signalled by a changc in the form of the verb and the appearance of the preposition )'u?ltTl 'by' before the agent. but there i, n(J change in the relative order of the agent and theme. Mandarin Chinese employs yet another Option. 102) a. active sentence: Zhu laoshi piyue-ie wode kaoshi. ng/'III Ihem... Zhu profe. sor marked m) test 'Professor Zhu marked m) test.' /I. passlye semem:e: ('de ..;wshi het Zhu laoshi plyue-le. 111('111,' (/~t III 111 (es( b) Zhu protes..or marked. ,;-,:1 (e.I as marked b) Profe,",or Zhu.' 11,'1," (h,' I'a.., C i.. IIMr..ed b) a changc in word order and by the ppearance (1lllw pr,'po,tl1on b, j 'h) , ht'fore the agent. hut the verh ha e:v;.actly the same lI'f1ll III hlllh p:ntem , Wh:t( th 'n do Ihe p ,h e 'ent~nce' of Englih, Tzotzil. ChlOe c. and olh~r Ian 'll.lgc" hay C 10 lllllUllon Acc()ruing to proponents of relational nal) I ,
- 127. , 1, Mf'()1J.,> liNe ,1 1'1,( Ih..., ""1,1,: I,ll t h. '" "" ph~' H 'Pfl~"'Ptllld""lh.l· h"'I"""'1I IllI" '1.t1l"11111 1 ItllJlld "' .11',""(" ,,'flll'lI ".IU,' Ilhh4.-IIII1"i ,14.:ll.C "111111"11,111 ~,' 11.'1" ' !l'n" 111i} 11/11'·('( tJ/l1i1lllt It P;"'Il' ''''lIll'lIn': nit' P;IIIIIIJlg ;I.... I;lk..·U (hy Iht' Ihic..'V(,"L Nt)/Ivc £I,.1f II,.' lined tlf~ll'L" III lilt.' 'iI,.'I I V(" /OJ,,) (tlu' l'fllltfllJg) I~ Ih , III rhl' pa"i"l' /lU/.) IJlIl' Ifll' ' lIh,t:CI HI /(UlI) (flU' (/tU'l't',) Oc..'4,;I1I'''i .t 'tlh1l'q , ' I ". /l"11 iI PP III NUb). (/11 NPlh;tI uc,,·c,,'llr. ,.,h;/ pn..'pu" IIIIHI IS'li H 10 hl, ohlic ,,' lit It ' rlIH ptI"jh/l' III IllInk ttl P;'''i,l,oIVC M'UIt.'lll'!,." iI.' rhe ,.,rodll~:1 of ,Ih ~,) dl.lIl!:l'S hllII"1 'l;,hk:' '-J In fhl·l.'WH,'''flo,H.lJnp UCII Vl' palll.'1'11 : tl,.1) litblt'5. '" 1'101)("'1("', C)/ pU.',n- ,fIIKltllc," -------------------- /'"../1'(' Pel""'''' ~ 'iuhwcl I )Jfl'd oh;"'l" ohl"llIl' ....lIh,,"'t:1 --- Sillee' 11lL' <Til"'''' ""''' 10 idt'lIld' ,"b,t'US ,lI1d dirt't'l oh,t'l h diller I "lI1pu,,!!,' 1".I"n~lIal!", IIW't' rhang"""'Ct'Olllp"I,hk w"h a varit'ly of l"lfc~~::1 ,"IIIcluml <'lit'"", III 1:1I"",,h, Wht"l' Ill<' dln:C1 oh,eci appears aile, Ill" I ,~ " ,.~~ alld Ihe slih/l't'l ht,'forc ," a challl!c 'II all NP, !!'illllnHII,,'ul relul'oll will I ' " " u~ "I'Olll' a l'IliIlIl!t' In ,1. '''l,'ar 1'0""(111 1 hils" thclllc NP Ihal Sl"ves us .uh,cci (a" IIllhc I'a,'"w) ralhn Ihall dlll"'1 oh,Ct'l (as '"lhe m:l,vc) wI/ I UPPl"U 10lhe 11'1I (If Ih,' vcrh ralher I"all 10 Iht' Iighl. If)';) (/ i.lL'IIVc..- sc..'l1lL'uct' TIll' Ihk'cs I(lok Ih,' paillling, i ,h,'ml' ,'I'/I'mg III di"," (1/'1"'" h. pa'SI'(' Sl'nlt"ll',' /Ill' puintill~ ,u, I;,kt'll (hy Ihe IIIICVCS). [ ,ht'nll' II'I'I'ifJ~ 11,1 "d'll"" III Olh':1 IUllgllugl',', l'h'lIIgl" III grallll ilalical rclallOlh lTIay h,' 11I,"1l'lI hy SIIIII,'lhlll , oilier Ihall a dlallg" III word onkr III Ihl' '1/011" passiVl', 101 " alllpl,'. ,111.1"'011 01 Ih,' PH'I"I,sIlIOIi m/lll/ j, l'lIoUgh 10 illdll';lIl' 111il1 llil' UpClI1 ""0 lOll ,,'I lite SlIiljtocl D,'spill' llics,' dilfrrl'lICl's, hm~"H", P;IS"v(' "Iflll'l III ,', III hOlli 1'lIgb"h ,III" IlOllil itaH' in t'OllllllOli Ihl' pair 01 II'bllllll;d than/!n ",lIl'd III I.lhlL' 'i, /.J 1.1111 III he, S) IIlaclit ph"IIOIIll'na "'III Ilt' allaly",d III Il'l IllS Ill' pill'" s,', Sy"ta('lll' illlatY"'I'" l';111 :IIu lot u.... 1111 l. , a W.IY 11 'hhll' , s llUl.:tUlt.'S 1I1l' uo.,(,·c,1 to umHIlIlIlIt'll' "II" (1'" /t'nl ~Y"I, , ' , • 1 111;11111 Sl~' . . . 0,.: II'" l"IlIl'd funchonal SlIln· tlwy M-d, ttl 1IIU'l" ' I' I ' 'I,lly,,_, ill'- lIh • . ... ,11( "Ylitilllu' , n oj tlll'l! l:OIHItIlII1Il-iltlVC tllllIIOllllu.: till'" I. P 1I'1"11I11t'O;111 h:nll 1,1~t lCtWl~4.:I" ...l'lIlt'IH:·... IS t·...pcl: lall y III"'UlIl'IIVC III Ihl"'I"t'j.!,iU" Allh()I'h hl lf' .mcl pa I". IliI Vl' Ihl' ~aI1H.· ha....".: 11l,"·unlllg,. tlwy diller ho, I " ~ uth l'lIh'nrr: tY'le~ 1 lln.: )h! ll'r ITI tI • . Ilu.'y rUl ·...<.·1I1 the "111 HHtH)Il that tlwy ((.''1!. nhe '1'1' 1l~ w;'Y III WhKh ,mOIler W',y II, II c'lc h othel' In the wily 11 wtlll'h lt1l'y ')'ll.l. ' . , u y (I h:r hC11l1 • . • . , f I""')!C t 1t' Into . ('OI1HHUllicatcu . I wo dllft'n:tI<':~""l:an bt, noted here 'n"'tH}1) tt) ht: 1'11"1. pa~,sivc ...l·ntclltC.... tend lu (ii, C1l1phalIc. lh' ' I e ro c 01 Ihe well h ...ilu;ltlon bClll!! (, l'SClth'd In LKI.lhc va...t rlnlonly I' . ' • e 1n c- • <) passive ~CntCIl:c t menl,on ,1111.: agcnl at '1/ IlencI:, WI: call s"Y "tlI"ly 7'/ ' 'I 11111 , ' ) , )(~ rlClI n'ltI1{ We t t ~. 01 'O/(' ""hi" W('rt' /"(1" '11, wllh""1 :llIrih"llI1g rc' p<",sin'lit lor h"" ","/I III any partl<:ular p<:rlI1 , Y I . eVelll Se<:ond, pas"ve senlencc, flllcgroundlhc Ihctne hy 'k' h ' , ' " , " , ' . ' Illa Ill!, II t I! Un}e,1 01 Ihc sentence, As" Icsult, Ihl! htlu.n"," IS prescntcd fromll ' , , ' , Ie p.:rsp.:ct"e III that IIHJ, vl(ual. (As we w,lI Sec In (haph:r 7 the ,unJ 'c"t U<U' II I • . t • . . . " " Y ntfm He!.!", Ihe ent,lty Ihat the n:st 01 the cntcn<:c IS ahoul.) COtl>otucr in Ihls re ',trli Ihc followlIlg passage, g /05) Mad,n:gur is a pn':lly lud,y hlokl!, Lasl night, he Wl!nt out, got tlmnk. an,l starlcd rolllllg around In the slreet Befme 100 long, 111' WIIS hi! hv (/ rur, But he wasn't even IIlJun:d, In fact, he got up and walkl!tI home The iwtcilcd pas,ive cntcnce in thl~ pa sage sountl, cOlllpktdy natural sincc It hrings ,I() the fmegrnund th~ pronoun he, which refers to the per"lll (MacCiregor) Ifllm ",hllse per pectl: the entire series of event, I I1<:lng described, In contras. the pa ,i IS not nearly () nalural in the follOWing t:lHlIC1. /O!i) ~l,ll'(irt'g()1 I, . plt'tl) lud..y hloke, La~l night. he went out, gilt drunk. and slall,'tt 11,1ling ,lllUnO in thL' strCe. lkfof: 100 long. *(/ C/irWIl l,il hI him, But his hand :sll'I<'.:1I lIIJlIrcd ", lut llt' pl.l"" I his I bee us II reM tit the p .lge cl arty about OIlIIllUlI) ill lhe noV, of m mnallon, Olen c Ih key
- 128. 24 ,~ummin.~ up off'S ;l~hl--";lpl~;:;' h;1:-:::11:';;;:;:I<'cl IIh some of Ih~ funcl<U~ In (lh cd In rh~ ~Hla" " ... of ...~nll"nL"t· fonnarion. A:"I t.~ h~ C.secn. thcC u~ ~c~ 'l'em to hc..~ of dift~r('nr (' pt."'_ (hen" are phr3sc structure ..utes ( C"I...•e, r 'duciblc tll a ;-.in!!lc XP r;lIc) rhat dClennin~ the an:hirccrurt' l)f a )liCl~~h~~ deep struclun:'. suhcalclloriz!ltion infnnn;Jtl0n Ihal elbures 3 Illalch ~I co, head,' and the cOlupJements ir.h h.h..~h thL') ,..Ippear in, s~ ~ta~th: stnl:~een snd trans(ornuuiOl1s rhJI (U1 nu)Jit~ deep :-.truc(urc 111 anoll~ a' ure, pmdu<'e a surface "truelun:'. Taken ({)~elher. Ihe~e de iccs Illake J10 IIllportaJll P;lrt ", our ," cmll lingui,ril' C"lllpcl<'nC' III Ihal Ihe) PrOid: an 1l1t.'an, to .'(lmhIllC ord... int4.) ...eJlten('c... 111 endk....sl) noyd a)~. the '/th"Unh Ih' prl'l'i,<' rules for ,entelll'e fomlJlion difrer fmlll lannu ~ , - . . ~ age to l:upua"e l nilersal Grammar pro IUCS alliancuages 'lIh the sallle g'n' <- " ' . ' , - c el':ll 1 p<" "f UCll'C,' I,) nt,Klll' ,'alc~one,. phr:bl' 'truClllre rules, and lransfo [1(10... ) boy llt Ihe diffl'rl·nct.·~ am(m!! languages ,can be tJ41ccd to~a <'I'I<'lk'<' "f II ,mall <'I ", parnmelers. each of h,ch makes available: anel) ofaltem,lIn e ---- It I." C-ol1utKlOly 41' umC'd r..hat the lnflllod(' aI-.o ,..:ont3~ns Information .3boul SUbject_ Crt> 3 Ittnlcnl hl h Ilk,' I,'n e IS oftl'n realized a.' 'erb", rnfleClion ( • (1tapl r4, sc,'uon6 41.TflU ,th Irec .. ~ FJgure S 9 ouldal'lUally look Itke FigU;:ei~ Hrh the (C:IIU uncl rthe lrf1 f'f'n nll.abel malchmg rh,,,e on Ihe,ubject. Int1P ( Sl Int1 P Tns gr lp [kl PI 1 • Vel lIcnl III ,1, red lh IInS '"k',,! - - - - - - ~dn'fOmlaI10nal 'ynta. i the mll't X'pular of the half dozen m' . . . " . . - ajor synta,;lh.: lhenrie u:-.ed In cuntempo.rar) hngul')l1C • orman.". It ts the the~!", tau""ht " . both L._ ~ ' . t:' tn mf('UU~OTV hngulUCS .course~._ lJCcause HI. ...0 hj~lJ used anu bec;lU~e man) o{ the Qh~r approaches that eXl, t today hal < dc eloped t,n rC'X'>n,c to il The pan ' I, • • . • • . " h.:U ar ) 'tem outhned .he~ 1O',oh es a ,anety of "'lmphfic'J.tl.)n~ to make it appn,,'pnatl! t'nr presentation In an Introdu~t~"lf') COU~. The treatment 01 aUXlhaI') erb.... inohe~ a "'impifh!d. 'er-lon of the: S ...tcm proposed in Barriers b) . '. Chorn K) (Cambndge. "IA: "IIT Pre", 1<)0): '~e the book by Radford (Clled below) for a ro're detailed imroduclton. The 'l'lcm of subc3tegonzauon ernplo~ ed bere I too,d) b'bed ,'n the One outlined In GrneraJi:".1 Phrase SrnJCIUn' Grammar h) G G:uJar. E. Klein. G Pullum. and I Sa~ (Cambridge. IA' Han'3nl Lru Nt) Pre', Pl,5, v.hich del.'Tl~' an; tram,fomlation31. approach I ,) ntl!: , The Ibe. f) of tral"illrmation pre ctlled bere I essenti3l.1~ the one erop )ed throu~houl the 1'1 ,b) the a,1 mal rit) f p<-'Opl wNk.ing ithin tr. nfooolll:lllicltUlI The statu. of rhcll' HdH' II t! J~l'ahc ' ' 'Ii n;1 1) " f In,l!;l,l l ni 1'11 '. I
- 129. - .. ,'pt-ndi; HOIltn bUild II,-t- ' tru( lure, Htl~c.lbm Il.)l)(). RdtllimlcllGrammar, London: .~ouL1edge. R{l",C!'.. R~I'lCr1_ J9l)1. Srn/tJ("/ic TIlt'OfT: A Unijlt'd Approach. London: nwJd lin (In. 1:"111). 1911..J. ,II/tU: A FUlIctiollal T:rp%gical APPll1OCh, Vol. •.h.tdphi.l: Jl)hn BenjJlIlins. . . Ha(,.~St·nHH1. Lili;lIlt!'. Iqq..j.. /lJIm{/uclioll {(J GOI'l'rll1l1t'lIf and Bmdmg rht•or)'. 21ld edn. (hlt.lnL Hla~k.L·". . RJJt()ni. ~.nJrc_ 191':8. rrUI1.'ifnrmaticJIIl1! Gr(unmar:.A First COW',H', C:lll1bridg e . Camhndl.!t.~ Cnh ('(SHY Pn.'~..... ' . -"'wren, Tin;O[hy. ed. 19:Q5. Ltl~lguagt.· TypO/Ol(Y illld SYllItlCIlC Dt·S(·"'ptioll. VO ls 1-3. Cam~rid,ge : C'lIl1hriJgc Unl er.,H) Press. ---------------------------- 4./lhough III' rd.1li,·d) eas) 10 check.1 tree ~trucrurc 10 s~e if it complies With Ihe XP rule. il is some hal harder 10 hulld a tree slructur~ from Scratch whe Ir.' ing «) analyse a ne ~hra,e or senl~nce: In suc~ cases. you wi ll prObab/; fllla il <,."k.'1 10 pn>cced rn step> workrng from th~ boltom up and frOm right 10 lefr. A, ~II illuslralioll. kl u, Ilrsl conSIder the phrase lIeor Ihe door. The ftrsl 'IL'P illo/,es assigning each word to the appropriate leXical "aft'gol')' "., dt'plelcd in Figure 5.·13. P I nt'ar Oet I thL' :>I I door Th"II, I orklllg 'mm nghl to left. the XP k,·eb are added above each N : A. or P. a, .~ figur.:- 5 44 Thus. we fir. t add an iP '~hcl above the N doo; 1hl'rt' I' "earl) no cOll1pkmcnt h re. but there" .1 ;;p<!cifier (the determiner rll I, hlch can he attached at th 'P lelel ill accordance with the XP rule. 'r I' Dtl , liar the duor 'lgutd.44 BI ", thl. 'I' III FI -u 4~ lIe cam Qui Ih am PC( dun' lor Ih P /I nr, rcqutn.'d PI' I I pp /~ p Det N I I I near the door Adding the PP levet above the P head. figure 5.45 The N P to the right of the P clearly functio . I · · ns a.. lis campI . names the ocatlon entaIled by the meaning of ) Th. emenl ("nce It . near . 15 eem . attached at the PP level In accordance With the XP I . . ent" therefore structure depicted in Figure 5.46. ru e, gIVing the complete PP /A p Del N I I I near the door Figure 5.4 6 The complete PP. Figure 5.47 Consider now how we.proceed in the case of a complete sentence such as The apple /!light hit the man. AsSignment of each word to the appropriate lexical category giv"," the structure depicted in Figure - A,. Det N Infl v Det I I The apple might hit the man The categories lOr each ad 11 the 'ffitence. ·,)rl..m>: fT.)m right to eft. It I' e ~ to .... "" that the noun man head, an.·P tFt= 5.4fl that ~'nt:lln' 'lfier UI DO mplemeDL - I ' I Ill' lnll mi'ht hIt the man
- 130. 1 8 P ~ P Del ""'" Infl Del~ The al'ple nll..he hI! the m3.n .., on Ul,r.m..'~ of Inel. lhe n"li~ ""~Clrl ,lhe he~J of S. with the P ~r1r.g ...£... .... mplemeol:mel the .:"'P to the .len luncrioning a~ i~... 10 the n }1eJ~, the ~;omp ~ie ,eoten..: iHU...0"3[N In Figurt" 5.5( P'ectfiey - "P---~·p ~ .:P ~ !nil , appl DlIghl hH mall The lin" > "5.! CP (--~ ;p---~P ~ Del Infl num hit man -- SYNTAX 1Hi A. Il'VSI'i Of E It l ha, .!ppht!d: it it begms Vrolth a wh w the ec""menc-e 7uu s/wuld Ih on!. ~ Wh Me. etne:m. u-ansformation~ ha"e :tpphed. ~ fa~rJ planl '" ~ both In oroeno detennine the deep '1IUct <>f Ihe.e to it!-. po....1110n under lnfl and V!.e mn ur-e. Vlie mu return the wh "ord ha., been moved. Smce the ~~D<: the i'OSruon fr:"'''lar)< <tb fanners planr? "'k ahout the comple: In the ~ hat planted). we pl..ce" hDC in the ,erbal m of the em (the thJhouId lito Ttli' ",yes the deep -tructure depictedcomFPlement i'OSlUon In ~& 1hat - 1n 19ure 5.S!. ............ CP C~ S ,p~ 1 )~ Det Infl ' I The farmers ,hould plant "hat Frgure 5.52 The deep SlruCtue io< the sertence what sinJd:he larmers plant. r -- The au:ciliaI)' should then mm e-, to the C position hn,,= the specifier po~ition under CP 11, 10 emem ldin lOl1) and ..hal to urface structure depicted in Figure 5.53. . ~ e g the co ete CP /~ /~ ~ ~ / . ;P ~ lntl Intl' .;P p
- 131. (,.~) fhl' CthtOIUC(u,h·J lur .1 ~o'u fx·e!. dJ The l.'U"'(Ollh.'( fl'qUL'It..·tf lor.1 I.:uld nct..·( c, I k' g;l'. the H:c..'d ('ro" .urnc mOllcy. n Ill· UOJlalcd fhe H:C"u ('nh ,Ollie mOflcy. g) rhe pJJol I.,"dcd Ih~ jct. tl) Th~ Icl I""ded j) "Juurnal"" wrOIC the arudc. J) fhc .tnide 'Hole J..) Julie" bored of hcrjoh I) Julie" IIred of hcr job. 2. Intllcarc Ihe c:uegory of cHch word in the fol/owing ,'cnlencc~. I II (",Iu help 10 rdcr back to scclion 1.1.) , a) "n1111 gl~lss suddenly brokc. h) Ajoggcr ran lowarcl, the end orlhe lanc. c) Thc.sc dead Irces mighl block Ihe road. d) The deleclivc hurricdly looked Ihrough thc records. e) The peachcs nevcr appear quile ripe. . I) G,l/Jan will play Ihe lrumpel and Ihe drulm III the orche.slra. 3. Each of Ihe (ollowlllg phrases consists of a specifier and a head Draw Ih. appropriate Iree ,trucLUre for each example. c a) the 700 f) this house fJ) always try g) very competent c) so witty h) quite cheap d) perhaps pass i) never surrender c) les.' bleak j) those books 4. The fol/owing phrase.s include a head, a complement, and (in some CaseS) a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each example. 1'(Jr now, there is no need to depJctthe J/ltem~1 structure ofcomplements. (Sec the tree diagrams in Figures 5.4 and 5.5 III the chapter.) a) into the house b) rcpa/red the telephone c) fuJI of mistakes d) more towards the window e) a film about pol/ution I) always ,tudy this material g) pcrhap.s earn the money h) that argument with Owen I) the success of the programme 5. After carefully reading the tirt [wo sections of the appendiX, draw phr<lC tructure trees lur each of the lullowing ~entcnces. a) Tho,c guests should leave. h) Maria /lever atc the hrownie. .:) That shelf will fall d) fhe gJass hroke. l') '1hl' stUdent lost thc debatc. fit. t.t I, " III" !UilflaJ'cr .flay "It, , lUI lOt.r ru;t)t ¥.) ' Jhe ,udy-(· hhr., 'It(,11 h"flllhen, h) 'I he leadl", f,ft"fI "rgAfIlI'f.:41I Ih U' Itu, I) A p~ydllc Will IK!4I~ If, HIl gfU"iJ ,. I • 14 J} Marmflrw (.:(lUlfl )('(..1111' 'IUtl,· ffln,", I,t Larry ft. Apply the: Io.Uh,tllutlCm If! I hI f1~I'''SIIfj i'tllch fit Uk hr4k.; 10 the fulll,wHlg M:Ulcnc:c~ tllnll ("m lItuelt rtcd ~~U<::tlC<", 7. al IThe lragedy uP"'IIIII: enllre hrlllly hi They h,d lin IhcclIvcl CI "I he l"orllplIlI'r Wa, veryl exI"''' ive. 01 1"1 he u,wn s'l"are ""< the CIVIC hu,ltl,")! ",1 he rehullt ~) Jane Ileft lownl. f) "' he 1'",11111:.' I ~w"", ;"0"'''1111<" l:th:. Apply the rr".'vcmenlleM I" delcrrnllle which (,I Ihe hracktled in the followlIlg <,cntence. Ihrrn c"n"IIUeOl. Aeq~ a) We ate our lunch Illearlh,;nverbank. 0) Steve I,,,,ked lup Ihe number in the h<~,k. C) The li~l"nd ha, been fl'~"led. d) I love [peanut butter and bac(," andwlch«. C) The environmental [m"verne"tl~ gaining mOnlCntuml. 8. Lexica categ(,rie~ are diVIded inti, ubcaleg',rie~ on the basIS (,{ them c()mplement~. !-or each hf the foll',wing "mrd,. tWh phtentlal compte ment option are given. FrJT each e,f Ihe words; i) Detennine which one of the two optl'ms beller rruw..h« the ~ubcategori/..ati')/l requirements "f the verb, noun or ad,ective ii) Justify your choice hy creating a 'lCntencc u~ing thaI complement option. Verb Opt/om a) expire b) destroy C) observe d) dlscu c) clean f) mumble g) thro h) paint Noull a) debatc b) hamm r c d) c) dJeclhe tron " or P • 'P ,'P or') • 'p or PPto PPab<"" P or ') •'P PPlor or ·P. 'P 'P or 'P I ' P ( or 'f' PPIce 1 'P PP",or 'P PPfOf Options PPof PP to or PP"ilh PP obout I> or PP....." PP about PPof PP to or PP f pP.. th PP about or PP PP to "orPP.... PP Optwru orPP
- 132. ( flNjlMI"H '-t IIfjld!1 //1 NI',,, 1'1'", I' IUllt'l/ 1"'."11,11 ",.". ,fJ ~ thl I,'dr.l "h'. ,.'1 ,,, III I'P"t."", r ) 11,..11 PI'" , 01 ~, fl, t I 1111 '111111 IIIJ" ',lIl'lIll " ,til I Illl/dlli ['till wild"., , Idll''U''C IIIi I j ' J I 11I11t I l l lllllpl"1111111 111 11 illh 11", ,,",, I"t", .. lilt , lilt cu '"111'/1 1,1°1111'1/1,,11111 II) , lit " 'pili It / '111Id fil l" .111 .I- ,',d,'lll 111/"" d .1 hoy. c hI , lit " 111"11111 '/1 '1I111~ 111.11 IIII' tlIIlIJ "'IIYp"JJIII,·t! Iii,' hily I' 1i,1I".II., " 'Pltlh'" 111111 II >;Wr/nll ih}..l' " wlll'IIIt" "I(' cod,p'w I,t 01,,11 " 1 1111 II I I Ii, 1,,/111 1/1" ',"IIIi'II' ,'~ ,ill l'O1l11l1l1 t"llIhl"llll,'" d " " 'Il" IlulI I r tllI" •t·, "'"III'li'IIJ1'lIh III dJllld" 'II/,t '- II I"I' PO't IIIl,II'" il IhUl1) I )/.1 "" II / "h " lIl/lfl/ll ' hll l ', U I, "'''III('lIn' /t'c eI, I lie' polin ;tPPt'dll 'd li.IJ1PY IlIul I~H ' I 1IIIIIII,d w",dd "! lIl h ' li dl'l , ' ) ''',,' III/h ·t'l ",iI" .. 1111 dldl (H' ll ), ,,111"/1 ' pt"'d,, doW" till' IlIuft,, .,} II ,'"111 ' ))1111'1 1'" " hOIl! /Jl' II It'J Ifll lO i lll) !OO('t'/H III "I "~, . ,,"V ,II,"'w, ,,,.11,,, ,·lh,' <"1,""1111;11111,' <l1I V/'1 W",, , I ft ' , '~I~ J'I II ~l h" I". I I", " ..,I·I/IIII" 'i I" IJ u~ ' o IlU;jJlh' l·rllelli.:'·... II lvol Vt~ Ow JIl Vt" "UIII II,ItI' IUlIII.IIIIIII ( 'It' III(' tI"CIl IIlIdlll,' dlld Ilh .,t11l. ll't " 'lllc.llIll~ Jo, " "11th M'lIh'lIn' III """111"' 1".,, 11"" "".11 "I "''"II,,' "lit' Irldlll,,' 11"lie,·" 1'1 ,1111111" 1/'" si lldrlli "'fI"" III,' 1111'1<11'111'1 " , 1111, ' 1 1,,' 1111""'1,'" 1'1 ,,), 111.11 111",,<,'1 I I " III,III'I,I,TI "',11 III/-! 1/"' 1 "11111" II. r l,,' IIIIIIII'III!! MIII""es //IIIIIIe lit,' IlIlcs III IVII M UVI'IIlCIlI alld 11111 "'1111 (;111 1/", "1"'1' "/II lilli' ulld Ihl' slId",'I' SII"' IlIl C lUI ";jeh III Ihl"""l t """Il ,- til ~ IIII /""d" 1/", dJi 11111,.111' /'1 /II'Sh""/d,,,1/ Ih,'dll"'III" I I til 1'1 II WII.,' I 1".111111', .'"11 ? /'(1 llIlhll' 11I11I1I!'IUJlIS /IVC wllh" 111,,'1111 hi ('/11" h,iI, 1111 Ih, p,lIly I h;ll II I Alilit'/" 1/I'"lg I" Ih,' 8,,11"'/111 • 1 12. /'I" 1 "//,'"JlI' d""IIS 1, ..JlI / '/11', I /,IIIJ.:I1;1/o:, ',p"k"I1I11 NI!'l" II01 , II /I 1/) N",I;IIIII IIhll '" 1/" .I (/111.111 Ih,1I hllil I Ihis 'rhlll 011111.111' II h,IIIS III I ,,111,' ""/' I "llhl' II ,It I Jill II I lid 11""11 1I"Il""'! ')1111 1/11'/""1 "11/111111 11"I'~ /11' Ih IWII I '/ulI'IIIII cs / I. / 11 fll//I1IIiI' d,lI, II "(lill ' / ,I, '" y. I'"klll 011 1111 I l.1Il.! "I lJd,I' II 14. iI} /' .. O 'I IX 1111 "" " 11 { I' 1,1 IUIIII' ~ al,· I/y. hi III~' ''' t IItt ' t:: hi ' Iii- hflIlJ'" ("I,lt,· ., ILt,(·c! UII till" I ILtla M"L,V;" ~y" 'H ft l! 1 "J I Jlaw tll'- Ill'" IIUt IIIII' tlu ('",.u h I,t the Malall.)l ~y ( '(Ht, iC"( HII' h,lI.,wtllV, 'wayar('-.c «1c11 •• it> La'):dh'i 'h w', IIIJI, I B"....,I IOU" 11I'"Wy tit' Bao." , ' Ba CJ It.,,~ tltl' 11IIHICY.' h J Itl a" hal ~iI"qll 11110 I..'olla [)'-,t·d lu,u...,· Ilw ·'lllc hCHI',l' (,:t,l1ap...lo d • L:) I,alw'" Ii, ,.." 1"10 Ii lalltari Inl" i 101'0 put IIH)jWY 11,,- ill t.:.llpho:!nl tlw Ba'-.o ' Ba""J pllt tlac IWlIley IlIlh(! Luphqanl · Ucturc ru / ) Write ,III; X I' rull"~ f '1ulfcd 'I) '''lI1llh ~e !ienlcnce. it I tlow do III"y 'hi " :1 hOIll blgli h phLle ~Iruclure niles" 15. 'I hc fol lowing dala ru' tr l"" KI"o.:~n Y'Ju may rgnili c III numm bve huhjc~t) ;I/II! acCII ;IIlVC (llire, 1 "lIjccl) marke rs f"r Ih PUfp<Jl>e<; 1) lhl cxcrc,'>e. :I) 'lcrry ka ku ycca lui , ..ahanta. 'Ielry·Nonl tli:u girl-AI! hkClo , Jerry Itke~ that girl.' b)! num I hakkyo cry ka 1,. IhlS man- om h()ol 10 W ·tIl 'Thl man ent to hool' C) 'iu -kd bm w u c)'k )' ~h:I) ul il s ta I) II) , l h m Cn nd 10 book c read 'Su r d th boo 10 friend: d nth d Ll. v,;h t I the XI' rule for Korean) tru lure lor ach of Ih Kor lh formation 01 e 10 que lIun l r lehren t a h n' h In
- 133. (0 1{"Pt lk"1 J INc .lIIS' I( , d) Lic.:-hr lin 't.UIII dil.· 1'1.11(' lo"c~ till' lIIali e/lt' tll1l.111 •D<l(." the.' m,ltl In(.' Ihe.' "tHtI,III'" i) '"lUllillg tltOit (;e.'IfII'1I1 IJlilke, U'C' 01 Ihe 'aIBe.' IIIVer,' , - - , . I II I· (. . 11)11 t tllrlll~III()JI ~I' "lIgll,h (Ll.: ~JOO:l' II. to l U.: PO~1I 1 01l'), UI ,"Ill ~Ihol' d.Il,1 IdJ lI' whether (.erllJ.11l l'lIlph,ys thl' vClh ~"the u-all,formatloll'1 You 111111 1I11.:ludc IIlL' In:c ,trUClurcs for h) ':111~t'It)J! } Our alls.l'1' ttJ III l7. rhe.' ti)lIon In}! '("'l1tCIICc"" all t,;ol1l:L1I1 conjoll1cd calcgorics. Dr'l . . 'Inlc.'turc for t·'H.~h of the .'iclIfem:cs,· • ; a trcl! a) The cyd,,' d,.tnk a galloll of waler and a lilre of Coke h) rhe .tcrnpl'IIlL· will land <II the airporl <lnd t:lxi to Ihe lerminal e) The <.log wellt dOWII Ihe Mairs and oUlthe door. d) Cru.soe "lI1dL'd 011 (In ,sland and ale a goat c) Jill ,hould recycle Ilwl hook ,md IlWg:lIlI1C. J) Hilary kllows Ilwl .sprillg will come ,md Ihat Ihe '"0W wili melt g) Mary IS keell 011 c"lculus hUltired orchemistry. . 18. The followin!, . ,elliellces c()Jwlin modilkrs or vanou, lypes. h'r c' . ,entellcc. lirsl idenlify Ihe modifierh). then dr"w the Iree Mruclurc, uch a) A large Iguana .suddell/} appeared. . h) The headlcacher mude an imporlanl announccmclll after Ille class. c) An unu.sual cvcnl occurred nc/ore Ihe gmnc. d) The very hanlrdous waslc seepcd inlo Ihe ground quickly. c) A huge moon hung in Ihe hlm:k sky. /) Timolhy drew an enormous map during Ihe afternoon. 19. Each of Iht: /C)/lowing scnlcnces conlains a re/:ttive clause. Draw Illc dec slltlelure and Ihe sur/ace slructure Irees for each of these sentences. P a) The animals which Sam saw came from Kcnya. b) Kyle likes Ihe girl whom June befriended. c) The woman wholll Keith lives with recycles plastic. d) Helen recited a poem which Wordsworth wrotc. l') The canoe which Crusoe built was too heavy. 211. Tn each of Ihe 1,)/lowl!Ig sentences. IIldlcate above each NP whether it '. suhject, direcl ohject or oh/iLJuC and indicate below each NP whcther Ii; IS agenl or theme a) Marie purchased a present h) The class was conducted hy an expert. c) Thmc hooks were read hy youn!! children. d) All expert ('ollducll'd the class. e) 1 prescnl was purchased hy Maric. 6 1.1 Morphophonemic rules Interfaces M ich<lcl DoiJrovo/sky, W illiam O'Crad . Kc1ldmba Y dnd rran( is . ,tlu~r(' i afw<lY'" "'onll' '/{'<lk<lJ.w' /)f'Iw{'('" tht· hiNdU I lle " .. ( .f {'Vf'l'J fJ (j{'(J( f' ,. (). I lof~t~ldt(,'r Up 10 this point, the individual components of a gram . h. • . I ' · .1'1 l'h mar ave each he. presente( In some vclal , esc components however .1 j . ' ,n . R I ' ' . un not unctltm 10 isolation. u es In one component may depend on or afj·e,·t lh . I h· h ~ '''e In unothcr component. Il t IS C apler, we explore some ways in wh· h h . f Ie c <llftercm components 0 a grammar arc rclated to each other. These int f . . d . d' I' .. . er aces, a, they arc calle In to ay' Ingulsllc research. involve morphology and phufi()o phOnology and syntax, and morphology and syntax. (A fourth Inlerf!~ betwecn syntax and ~emanlJcs, IS considered in the next chapter as pan oj h~ diSCUSSion of semanucs.) Chapter 3 dealt with allophonic variation, which is represented by rules that derive alloph~nes from und.erlying (phonemic) representations. A second type of vanatlOn 111 language lI1volves morphemes and their alomorphs (rust introduced in Chapter 4, section l . I ). An example of alomorphic variation can be seen in the English plural morpheme. which has different aomorphs in the words cal[s]. dOI([l.]. and nIlIlChllZj. Like allophoOlc variation, thiS phenomenon is analysed I, ith the help of a single underlying representatIOn from which the allomorphs can be derived. The rules thaI account for both allophonic and allomorphic variation make reference to phonetic environ, ments. including .) liable truclure. There are. however. differences between allophonic and allomorphic variation. two of which are outlined in the Il)llllwlJlg '<':Cllon. Rule, th,1I account for altemations among allomorph mllrph"phonemll: ,llll'rnatil)I1'-) an~ calkd morphophonemic rule. Th.: major ditTerences h ,t Cl'n allophonic' anJ morphophonemic rule,> can be ummeJ up unJer two majllr points.
- 134. 1.2 ·JJupht)llIl.· nJlc..~... an,"f"",:c..'plionless - (hi:") apply In the up ('0 irllnnh..'nr hl all ....h .....e... and foml.. In i.l language. ThC!r,.,. p.f1:>Pria'. . . . E '. "are '" (,''-HUrlt:'. n,l C I..'c..·pt ion.... (0 ..1rule ··.UL"h as asplr ..HlOn In nghsh Of v . .' f()r ,top", {'X"l'urring _,,,lIable-inttially in srres!'lcu sylIa.ble.~ (SCe Ch~lt.:ele., st.'L'I;On 5.5). It; ......;ntrJ'l. morphoph~ne.mic rul~s oft~n sho'A exce:~~r 3, Thc rna). for ('ample. appl) to a IlIllited class o~ forms, as in Lh ot) . • . IJ' . 'n the plural 01 a few E I' e ca.,. ot lh~ rule (hal change:". tma to ~ I " . ng I~h 10 '': like klllJ<- and thie/" (but nOl in cough, bluff· whiff. cll/e/. and So on). 'd, will Cilmine this ~Je in more de(ail in section L~. , .'e Morphophonemic rules often (bur do nO! always) JJ1ciude affix bound . . h ' · t Su -h boundaries are not found JJ1 allophonic CUI .<!rie, In t eirennfonmcn . l: es. Deriving allomorphs . II hs in much the same wa~y w We analyse and denve a omorp. . . e deli, 1..1 Conditioned allomorphs English plural allophones. An underlying representation (UR) Is set up. and rules apPly te deri"e all phonetic varianIs from the same underlymg repreSentation. Ofl 0 . f Ihe morpheme IS the elsewhere all en, the underlying representallOn 0 . , . n orn0'Ph-. the one thaI occurs with Ihe wldesl d,stnbutlo . 'd . - - - - The allomorphs of Ihe English plural morpheme proVI e a typical exarnple Of phonologically conditioned allomorphs. The plural morpheme in English shows three·way variation in its aliorno'Phs The three allomorphs, I·s/. I·zl, and I·rzl. are dlslnbuled In a sYsternali~ manner, as Table 6.1 iJlustrates. Table 6,1 English plural allomorphs ~~~~~------~--~~--~-------------- Elll'irollment Allmflorph: I·sl laps tn"irs hach puffs momhs AI/Oil/mph. I·v cohs lids lads dOles lalhes pi", plUl'" wUlgs klll'l'S "ay.s Ilops! /twits! /b",ksl Ip~f,1 Im~1l0sl Ikobzl Ihdd Illcdv Id~vd IleHVI Ipuu) Ipl"mJ/ 1'''Ud Illi:1! 1"",,1 • bases end in a voiceless con~ Ihal is nOI stridenl Elll'irollmenl • bases end in a vowel or a vOiced- consonanl thaI is nol stridenl ------ - -- "'atiorl oert· Tnbh: 6. t Fngli..;h llhU, UIl(HllOrllh.. klln!.) .-lImnorpll: I- ILl Lm'irunmnH hi!'.ses blll'.t!' cnttches judges wi~hes /h,'II Ii IkrAtJLtI Id3.'l.d31t1 Iw'J.ll The phonelic form of these allomorphs is dctennincd h the, - Precedes them. Bases that enel.n a stridenl hibil,.,t) . Y ,ogme.ntth.t consonant a.w' with the 1~lzJ allomorph. Bases Ihm end in a VOwel Or a voiced c ays."PPC"r is nOI sindent take the l·zJ allomorph. and bases th' t d' <In'onanllhat I " d .. a en In, voi "1 consonant tlat IS not stn e11llake the I-sl allomorph. Co e" A fundamental strategy III selecting the underlyi f . . h · h . . ng onn (UF) 0 a allomorph IS to c oose t e one With the Widest distrl'but' s. n < f Ion. mee Ihe I tJ allomorph occurs a ter all vowels as well as afler most vo' d . b . Th' h' . ' . Ice consonants, It is chosen as aSlc. ISC olce results III underlYlllg representations th I·v afler all bases (Table 6.2). at show Table 6,2 Underlying representations of some English plurals lOpS /top-v cobs lkob·z1 hisses twits Itwlt-v lids Ihd·z1 buzzes judges 1h,,·tJ IbAz·l1 Id3.,d7;7J Once the underlying representations have been sel up, the phonetic forms can be derived. We can account for the a1lomorph I-IV by noting that whenever the underlying I·v appears after a base that ends in a strident coronal consonant. an hJ (or a schwa in the speech of those who pronounce this fonn as 1';Jzi) is present. This reflects a phonotactic constraint of English that is expressible with reference to syllable structure: an English word cannot contain a sequence of trident cononants in the same coda. We can see that the reference to yllable tructure is a necessary part of this statement b) looking at other structure in which sequences of strident consonants occur. Such sequence ' are found across word boundaries in phrases and compounds. such as bus shelTer Ib,,-o:. !elt;)/. crash siTe Ikne! §.anl or bu~~ saw Ib,,; ~J:/. The ma ewn occur word-internally across syllable boundaries. as in {lOS;""" 'P()stJ;),' VpoJtJ;.>1 for some spe~ers). But ~h:n a sequence of two (oronaI stridents oceurs U1 a coda (Figure 6.1), It IS broken up by the epenthesis of a ~ome hat centralized and re,duced III (or a schwa). SlI1ce the cl1th sequence is irnposslhle, a new S) liable IS created to accommodate It. lh~ IbhlC1 ' [+strident] ___ l+stridentJ (J +rcdul'ed
- 135. -- - R' c:PL:f ~ IF Pf
- 136. .... f "" " , J't IINtoll/ III I. h 'r.I" ""c/"rh '''1: rr,lrr't·",.1"."" ''''r.IC ,j,," .111" 11I~II'h ".I'C" III 1'111'1,,11, II' ,',," d"II,,'IIIl' 10,1/ pi "plh ,'I"..,,.ilkl "lid "'....II/I'li/l' Irllll 11I1""II.lIII~' 111111, T"j, "1',,11""'" l.11"1I1'" Ih,' '''1'1 lilill 1'11"1"" ' 1 " """,' t: . CII~t'r h'l..'n!! II lit' till' 'nu 1111/11-' ,1 .tll'lJll~ 01 rhf." ''llIh.' IIltH phf.'lIll' ~'Ultlllill tl ' [ I' I .. C 1'lIlh' I ,'111. III~, 1IIlIIII' Cl.1 ""''''''' h,," ,' ..,," '111,' ,'II""I'''''l'holl''II". Ih,lI "",II').!'" ~ I" ""'oll'lh" ,"111 III Iliit , III I /,hl' ',11'''''' "I Ih,' "",,' Ihal ""d, j" A j, 1'1"",'" ./ um"''' II1g lor, /<'''''''',. I'll . ," U ,'" 1',1,' , It't'lI/, ~ ,1"" ,I " jdl'r di,,, d,", jon than Illl' aIlOIlI(II'~~ ,1r'"1/': ,,, "Plillr, III I lId, ,u..h ,I' d""ll'Inl! a, '11 ,1 III Ih,' 1I11lIlfi Xtu ","" ,,,'1'1,,<1, Pili 1'"'I'IIM'd lid,' h", Ih' a!l,.IIIta).!· or rl'llt'(',",!_ 1/ 1I11I1Ir,,1 1'"'1','" pI 111'111111 '01 Ililal lk./ to ", "1'1"", till' 111 -h If011I ,owd ur,hl' slIfl,. I( ""l1ld I", 11101,' d(IIIl'II,1I (olllld I'h'}('I'tll' 1I11111Ii1tllllt 1'01 illIIll- Ihlll dl'"lg,', 111/,/ h' , ~ 1111 II",ilp'"'' II 1(1 II( 1>,'10,,' the' 'lilt i til It " 111'11 " '11111" :111' Ih,lI Ih,' 11111' 11,,1' IIldlld,' 111111'11010£""11 IIII'}("',1I11111 II,,' '''''lItl/ 1/ tll' '"ltl Ih.1I (IIgg"" Ih<' l'ilallf," ,jlln' I~I ,s 11Il/ 1'"'''"II1I,'I'd ,I' ,s, "h"lIl'1"1 ""1'1'<,.11 hl'/ill" 11ll' ow,'II'1 ill 1'lIg",1t 1111 I ('I, • j." ,I"h SI""'~"1 S" Pilid ,III/Pili"Ii,':ill 1'" }(IOIIII,',' A I!IllS I II, alld Ait!., a, 11).t"tt.(,,1I /I hcomparative Eng S d" lives rlrgrrea Jce . 'Ihe underlyillg. ['"rill" lIh"r:."1 ".' Ihe '''''I'III ",lektn" I" h ,,-I '" Ullmr rule h", "lIowed "' LO rcprc,'senl all ""gl"h spc,'aker', knowledo, Ih' h ~ I I ~e al I t! ha",. I'i"tlrllkl anti t' ,'UfIS arc allomorp'" "I Ihe "une morpheme. Thc nexI 'eellOIl CXal1111'CS Slll11e 01 Ihc Inlcracti,m, hctw.. h I ilntl syntax. ccn P tm{) ng)' --------- An aspecI of the phonology morphology interface thaI ha.s received consider_ ahle attention n:cc/llly in the modd called prosodic morphology, i, the way in which the applieallon 01 'Clme morphological niles is suhjccI to phonological constraints which relate to prosodiC struclure, It is common 10 find morpho- logical rllics that only apply to hases that have uccn,lin numhcrof syllahles or a particular metrical foot struelurl!, As well, affil<. morphemes in ,omc languagcs may he rcprescntcd by forms that have no lil<.l!d, canonical segmental makeup hut instcad borrow whatcver segmcnts an: present in the base to which they arc attached. Such aftixcsean 'ary cnom1llusly in their phonological manifeslation, The only requiremenl Ihat has 10 be mel is thaI Ihe borrowed segment, mUSl salisfy a pre-specificd prosndi.: conliguration - i.e.. the copied 'cgments must nl in a parlleular 'yllahlc or metrical root template, l .ct 1, takc Ihc fiN ('a. e fir t. 'i c will illustrate it Wllh a simple e:<.ample from Fnglish , fahle tl.4 ('n page 252 show." the comparatie degree of adj:" 'Iin's IS formed ,'ither h) suf[is,1I1g -a or by placing the wll~d ~'I/Ire h,:r"r,' thl' hasll' d.:grec fonn. The choice" dependent on prosodIC factors 1111:11 ,'an he' latcd in tcrn" of the number ami internal ,tructure of syllables. ,' (an formulaic the fol(IWing ruks of Ihumb: Ilonnal), 11111llosylabic adIC(l i'l's .I1C inl1c(ted lth ocr, and '? ~m: dis) Iabt.: adjectiles hosc. eCllnd s, Iahlt- ,'mls III a light rh) mc c('ntatmng an un,tress<,d OW.: I,-:>u.-;)r) 'I .t ,Iahk [1, hlr thc purposcs (If Ihis rule Ihe diphlh'llg -~)l Cllunt, as II 'hI' .t f.K! tho t b Illlt sll'1l'lstng since 111;111) ,pc. kcr, eaken thl vowel and
- 137. II mJI' I'( "'"rphf.lf. r , fir ,.,,,,~ /, t " hIli , J, till !Q n If tWcr nrla mot Ufill f At" pr "Ie, tn€ /''''' I ~/mpla ~u" Icndct , 4~1 at ,he C'nd of II """d, eo " /I "'fll",~ftlllllll( lnug/rct I Jl.1)1I0" 1( M,lh 1I1f'" '" IIf,l . IIlIl,l,. d/ftln /Jallrrwa ""bier mat ra Irndc:t t n /jab w"h NO '1"1 md. 1/01,1,. mr;r handwmc -- Consonantal er a b CV..tler c ( ( ( (
- 138. 2 254 Rt'duplication and prosodic morpho/ogr h h~"ht.'CIl ,htl no.., Jin,gui..b work.mg Itt lhl' Jrallll'Hlll uf mnrph()Jtw th;J( l~l.'nllHl~ unih of proSllll) sUL'h a.... the moru a rhy hPtl),~ J:"~ ~ • . of ('J. •. l . _ t 1l1i , I: COITt.'Sfl(lOJllJg hl a ,hon s)lIahlt..· 11 UI..."/t; w. (&.: _l~IPtl:1 -. """l'lIo n I.; Unit syJlaolc dnd th.' ttlH ()fh..'11 pI;}) J. It.'Y mit: III I.:undlllonlltg ur UClcrrntS). tht appJil'arion of IllPrph()lngical r.uh..'s. Vc ha,,~ .tln:au} oh'c:rvcl.l thi~lng t~ di ....cu......ion of En!!Ii...h l.'llrnp.lra(,,~ degree ~1~JCL'I1,C'" above: Ihe ~t',. . II} the ali!..' ut."·rel.- endin!.! un" gne, with aJJccllVC hases lhal do nm c" C:OrtlP;lt '" • . • ',ceed . , ~ IIaole,. t",o ¥ Evcn srrnngcr c.''iUCll(,C or prosotlic .units condition ing morpho pn:k:.·c...,Sl.·s i., pnH iJed h) a numbcr of . languagc.s Lh~l employ I:)gi~al reduplkalion. This phenomenon typically IIlvolves manufacturing u rPathnl cati,'e anix oy making a copy of a portio,n of the basc. The copyCdUp,,_ pre-specified canonical prosodic shape stipulated by the morphol h ilS a template. 8m il 1 1;1,' 1I great variety of vowel :lnd cons~nant segments ogu ,,;al its esact shape always depending on the segments ;tvarlab le in the b'. " 'tn Ph'I' . ) th I a·C F instance, in IIokano (spoken in the , 'ppll1es e morp lOme me .Or 'co,eredlfilled with' is si lollowed by a tcmplaric target which is a" ~tng containingJ'ust one morn (0' ) while the plumlmorpheme has for its te y able . .' . . . lllPlatj target a bimornic prelix (0'""), (By convention the mo~a IS symbolised by C In borh ca.,es the template is satbtied by factOring out and Co .".) appropriate segments, starting from the left edge of the b~se, unt~y:~~ template is satisfied. (In the examples III Table 6,6. the dOl mdtcates SYllable boundaries.) Table 6,6 IIokano prefi.,al reduplication .'I; + a'l - 'coverecVfiJlcd wilh ' bu.neg 'buneng' ~ dJja .kct 'jacket' ~ pan ,di.lig 'skirt' ~ 0'1# - 'pJural' pu.sa dJja.ni(or kal.dia 'cu" 'Janitor 'goat' si-ill!,-bu ,neg si-d~-d3ju. ket si-lli!-pan.di.lio Q!!!!-pu .sa dlii!!l-d3,ja.nitor kal-kal.dia 'carrying a buneng' 'wcaring aj",;ket' 'wearing a skirt ' 'cats' 'janltors' 'goms' PH ONO LOGY AND YNrAX We saw in Ihe firsl seclion Oflhis chapter that some phonological rules inclUde re/crcncc 10 ~uhdasscs 01 words and Ihus inlcracl wilh Ihe morphological t:UlI1poncnl 01 a grulllmar, There are also rules Ihal u.:pcnd on cenain k' d' I " I' . tn s (l synlaCltc rn ormalIon,. Some slrcss pallt:rJlS of bnglish, I<)r example arc t1clennrneu by Ihe synlaClIc Gllegory of Ihe form 10 whkh Ih.: rules apPly.' A H grfcnhi.)usc blucbOtilc f..!Htherbcdding blackbird '1 pluce to grow Ilowers' 'il Ittrgc nythm defcClICs on I'ood ' 'ovcrclllploYl'ncnt' ' the blnckbird' A,~el(li"s "holl ie!'''.' IC..lhcr hedding blal;k bird '~ ~U!c tha')j, hue' '~ldln~ With h:,h,,'r 'any hint Ihat'!; hal.:k' In Ch3ptcr 4, section 3. 1, it was shown that When d . W()r arc grnulX:u. together to form compounds or phrases, One of the prim'ry d '. ' -. • wnr ....resses ,.... usually more prominent than the others, Wc will now s"" h, h ' . " ...... )w C srcs~ pattcrnlllg 0 1 compounds and phrases IS represented nn metrical Icvch respectivcly called the compound level and the phrase level. The column A forms in Table 6.7 arc all compound' The rul ' . , , , .:'>. C Or ....tn.!s~ placement In Engtsh noun compounds places the primary stress over the leftmost word. Stated In terlns of feet, the rule is as follows" I ) [n English noun compounds, build a left-headed unbounded foot over the leftmost stress on the compound level. T he column B forms in Table 6.7 are all syntactic phrases, Unlike the compounds, they have been constructed by syntactic rules rather than rules of word formation. The rule for stress placement in English places the primary stress over the rightmost word. Stated in terms of feet_the rule is as follows. 2) In English phrases. build a right-headed unbounded foot over the rightmost stres~ on the phrase level. Presented step b) step, the as 'ignment of stress to compounds is shown in Figure 6.11 (tm.:r1eaf). Foot-level stress is present for completeness in the c,ampks. This stressing procedun: results in a primar) , tress on ~r~ell ami a seeomhlr) stress on hOt/se: Kdt'lliJc)t/se.
- 139. I H)' a"d~flr I d 11 (ompound tn: J IX (XI IX) I/grecnl M, I" (X) Ihnusc/" (X) (X) ,hllu",,' HI ~ W(,rtl le'eJ /."", level COlllptJUnd leveJ Word Jc~c/ [-00' Icvc:l (jl/",' HII,..h<,,,"'. It:••herhcddrng. ,ml o.her compolJo,h) !;r" d ~~:'..rJl·nt In «(1frlfliiUnrh. Srrc.. 11 "vnmell' In phr;uco undergocs .he ICPS hown In hgurc ".12 (A) (X) Word Jevel (x) IA) (-00. level Igrecnl,wl IhCluw:1 ~ i'hm,c level ••r ~s ( X) Phrase level Ix) (X) WI"') level Ix) (x) foot level I/greenI 441 Ihou~1 "I.;p (dl 0 Hlue (1(, c. 1c;IIht:r bCddmg. and olher phrase ) lin"'" I, lJ ~II ,d ,;nrll(ltt "Ina Ilere. tI. tre sing procedure proVtcJc a pnmary tress 1m hOllle and a liCL'l/Id,/ry tre 01) grel'fI Jlrel'lI h,," f', n '"'''''('''''11 I "'''/"/UIIII ItI' •• ·ou: that ea..h tIme a ""'" K :oddcd matching ~. mu t be added to the or(( ':' a ~ at ' - (a. It i. tr, tu!J1 here) Thl prO<.edure ra. =the pare _ be c"rree Iy plau:d (The ltabc .. ID f- gtJre 6 1~ .ndkate. ~ that mu," he added It) the other word( I outside the: tIlaIcbi 1"001- and word-level re, (Xl (X) (Xl (X) [black) [bud Compound tre s (firbl cycle) (X (x) (X) (X) (X) [[black] (budl Compound ~tres (second cycle) par~, "'ord bel (~) Foot Ie e tne ComPOUnd le.el (ftrstcyc1e (Xl 'Word le'd [oe t} ex x Compound Ie el >ecood C":'c1e t Compoond Ie I [mt Ie (X) oro Ie el Foot Ie el lird loe 1 1 rigur< I>,n all
- 140. 1.3 Stress clash (ad,anced) . -d on' can Icad ro some su~ The IOh:rfJIt.~t.~ fx'Cen metnc... an . 'I) ~ ~ h . e Chang _ ...~(!~h rh) lhm. An e"~I~lpk ll~ Ihls phenomenon can ' card Clearly i~),j in ca.,e of personal name.... 10 English. . _ . _ th~ . . .. I ames in EnglIsh pauems like phrases . The stres....lOg of perso~a n_ . _",""ord's and the rightmost ete • In that th firs! anJ IU....1 name.... are.~"JIe.'is~d as . ". Fred Smith, Mar' D rn~nt Of th~ full name: nonn.111} receles pnmlU) stress. . . - eV1ne Fi ' e: . . E' 'h :ord in the name Fred Smlfh IS composed' ona .1.ft:Cwdt'y. and so on. ac ". r the (sino-Ie) stressed ~ Of 0" ~rres~ed foot; word-lend st.re:SS npp leS to . e . ~l. as sho ,e I · . F' "0 and phrase-level stress applies as shown In FIgure6 I "n ear ICrln IgllfC-",-+ • . 4. xl Phrase level (.x) (x) Word level (x) (x) Foot level [[Fred] N [Smith] N] NP Figure 6.14 Phrasalstress applied to an English proper name. In everyday speech. however. certain ftrst names such as lo·ann, JOhn Paul. Mary-Lou, and so on, may optionally show an altered stress patte~ when combined with a last name. In Table 6.8, note how the stress pattern Of the first names in column A changes when the last name IS added, while th stress placement in the first names in column B does not change. e Table 6.8 Proper names undergoing/not undergoing stress clash resolution in English A B - RHinn -> Jb·ann Watson Yvonne -> Yvonne Watson- John·Paul John-Paul Campbell Akim Aklm Campbell Miuy-Lou Miuy-Lou Henner Annette Annette Henner Represented on a grid, a name such as lo·ann Watson takes the form shOWn in Figure 6.15 before any adjustment to the stress pattern takes place. Stressing of the first name and fuH name takes place cyclically. (The italic x indicates the matching stress that must be added to the other words in the group: see section 2.2.) Note that in Figure 6.15, two stresses (x's) stand immediately next to each other on the phrase level (lirst cycle) and also have corresponding x's on the (.lord) level below. Such a contiguration of stresses is known as stress clash. (To see a different configuration that does not show stress clash, compare the two .x in Figure 6. 15 with the x's over black and Ilest in figure 6.11, where llit're is a gap belween the two .~'s at the compound leveL) The 'hili JiulIl what is represented in Figure 6. I5, jo·ill1/1 Wdl.lOll, to the figure 6.15 x) (x) (x) (x) (x) If'il q"" ' ),,) PII"'t.~ h:v.'l t l.Un';'yI.:t" x) Pht.IW level Iht. I.:Ydq (x) {'X. WUI,lh:'d (x) (x) (x .) "n(l evel 1I pol N lunnl NI NI' IWat'''''1 NI Nl' commonly heard pronunciation ./b-wlII Wat.liml can h' .1 ~ .• 'L.,.. • . II) . . " Ucscn,",,( 111 111<ln terms as (opllona y occlIrnng tn order ll) resolve. ~tn!~~ I''" .:a . I ' ' "c ~'!Il, As hm~ ' there IS a stress on a ower level tor the dashing ~lrcss to ~h' it h' .. " '. '. - . F' , I ac hl, mal This adJustment" s lownln Igurc 6. I 6, where the 0 'tand, I·, r' . II hI ,. . . ). ~y " <with no " on the gIven level. The phrase level (first na111") ·,s h 1.'1 ' " ..... - 0 U iU':l.:.d 0 emph~1SILe that the metncal adjustment lakes place there. Rememher that Ihis adjustment can only lake place because there is an x over the na111e I" '10 Ihe level below that where the clash oec.urs. The ahhn;viatlons Ie anu 2( stanu lor first cycle and secarld cycle, respectively. x) x Phrase levd 2e X -+ (x 0) x Phrase level Ie (x (x) x) (x Word I"vel (x .) (x) x) (x .) POOl level [[[Jo] N [ann] N1NP lWatson) ) ,,) "P [llJo] N [annl Nl NP lWalsonl1 "I NP Figure 6.16 Stress clash resolution. We must now ask oursel,e, two questions. First, why h there nil Mres, clash resolution on names like Fred Smlth'1The answer 10 thi, l1uc,ton IS easy: there is no other S) liable tn the name Fred for a stress to fall ha,k nnto The second question i more tnteresting. Why do names like Y'onne ami Akim in column B of Table 6. not undergo stress clash resolution'? The answer to the second question lies in the formulation of stres'·ca,h rcslliullon presented abtwe tress i~ shifted one syllable til the ldt what' possi/J!". All t)f the c.arnplcs in cl)l~rnn A above resolve stres c1a,h by ,hifting a "tres, bad, to a syllable v.hleh IS already :tressed on t~c lxltlevel ,ince the namc consist of tO ,tressed feet. In the ftr1 namc hmt/It', blll, and 1111('lte ho.ecr. thc first syllable is not tre 'ed, and u Joe nul ,1)Il,tHute a pwpcr landing ,ite for a n:tracteJ ,tre s. figure 6.17 how tim 1111 a t1ll'lrical grid.
- 141. llYvonneJ, xl Phr.s. I eVel rt"solutionnot possible ''ford 1"'1 FOot leVel [Watson] .,1 Np (. .l [aNml ,I '" llYOnnd ~ figure 6.t7 Stre..s cla~ re~o'lJtion doe:. not ~lPP"': 3 MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX Subtle derails like lhese gOlem many aspects of stress and rn e"eryda speech and provide-convincing evidence for an interface ~thlll in . • Cl"e. pbonology and s)0I3. cn . . f th ------------ Many Iinguisric phenomena reflecr rhe Inreracl!?n 0 e morphological an syntacric components of rhe grammar. An ,mportanr example of d interacrion involves case. which indicates an NP's position in sy th, Structure Case is usually' marked by inflecting the head of the NP (whlnhtaCt,lc • • C "III always be a noun or a pronoun). We noted earlier (see seclions 1.4 and 6.3 of Chapter -I) that the En I' . th I t · 'tten 'h' g "0 noun has only .one case ending - e. e emen . wn as . s w Ich marks an NP that occupIes the speCIfier posItion wlthm a larger NP. as depiCted' Figure 6.18. (We extend the system of phrase scructure preSented in Ch In . N apter S by allowing an NP 10 serve as specIfier of an .) NP A~ Det N N I I I The minisler's briefcase Figure 6.18 The genitive case marks on NP that function as specifier of an NP. As also noted in Chapler -I and shown in Table 6.9. a somewhat riche system ofcontrasts is found in English pronouns. whose forms reflect a thre ~ ~=~~~. e Table 6.9 Case for the Jrd person SIngular masculine pronoun in English "orm Name FUllction ---------------- he hIS hlln nominari"e )lcllltln' aCl'USafl'C subjecI specificr of N compkmcnt of V or P Ewmp/e He left. hIS hook --- Mary saw Illm. Mary sat lIeal him. Figure 6.19 1NtUtfl( t!. '16 Figure b. 19 shu,,,· .... thilt .h~panc, •. , ' 'with thl:," nominuttvl! ~uni'. -),:U u~ccllil,,:-'U ,mUkl"S a hrel~-~ay _. '. ,- f N or ., 'uh,c ' h I.:~ dU'llC . .~ ....pCl:l lcr 0 ,and lhl.:' ~u.;CU""'tl.. _- 1..:. t e genitve f&- 'lon, L . • L .. '" lthx. f !IoU ItA -n f (Complements 01 P uo nOllUkc i.l eel'C .... t1' _ -II nr 1 Cnnpe 0 (JI( 1I IX In Ji.pane'e ) men ()f 'J. II Tire Ilominlltive lind Uq'UttU'e . b Tht· Rt'niri't' s ~;- Inll r , A~PL, N nClIll Det N~c V I Gakusei-ga kono hon·o yonda student·Nom this book-Ac read •A student read this book: Case contrasts in Japanese. NP Np.....-- /" Dct N to • kono kodomo_lIo this child.Gen 'this child's friend' N yuuji frien In order to account for the case cOntrasL~ found' E . th . In ng Ish nouns a d pronouns. e grammar must tnclude a set of rules that . . n .fi ' . . Th assocIate case With specI IC syntactIc pOslttons. e fOllowing rules capture the e " about English case noted above. g nerahzatlons 3) The case rules for English NP : a. The complement of V receives accusative case. b. The complement of P receives accusative case. c. The specifier of N receive' genitive case. d. The subject recei'es nominative case. Let us assume that the lexicon of English includes a list of the various case forms that each word can have. So. the entry for the third pe('<;on singular mascultne pronoun. for example. wtll mclude the following information. -/) Case fom1:: he (nominative) him (accusative) his (geniti e) ccording. to the rules in 3). Figure 6.~O shows that a sentence such as MUll' .1'(/'" hl/II t~ well-formed since the pronoun in the complement NP is ;!ccl1satiYC. as requtred by rule 3(1). In Cl1l1trast. ,I scntenceuch as *MClry S(lW ill' is ungrammatl:al since the I'H)I1)I111 in h' '~)'l1pkmen .'P has the nommallYe form. in iolaltllt1 of rule 30).
- 142. (» TE 1PORARlINGUISTI S Case filter (advanced) s ~ //It VP ~r Pst /7P N proN", I I I l.fnry S3- him figure 6.20 An example of case assignment in English. You rna} have noticed thaI Ihe case rules outlined in 3) do nOI Specify fonn for every imaginable position in syntactic structure. For instance a c~~C: . ( I 3 ,whll the complements of V and P receive accusative case ru es a) and 3b) e rule specifies the case of the complemenl of an A or N. [nterestingly. !h no latter positions cannOI be occupied by an NP. esc 5) V with NP complement: criticize [NP the girl] N with NP complement: *criticism [NP the girl] P with NP complement near [NP the girl) A with NP complement: *critical [NP the girl) We account for this by requiring that every NP recei ve case, regardless of whether the case is overtly expressed through mfiectlOn. ThIs requirement' known as the Case Filter. IS 6) The Case Filter: Each NP in a grammatical senlence must be in a position to which case is assigned. Phrases such as criticize the girl and near the girl satisfy the Case Filter . since the NP the girl is in a position to receive accusatIve case (Figure 6.21). (Although nouns have no visible case inflection for the accusative case, a pronoun that occurred in this position would have the form her rather than she, so we know that the accusative case is assigned here.) VP pp / )Z / / V Det Nar P Det Na" I I I I I I rrili(i/c Ihe girl ncar the girl 1l/1ur" 1>.11 (.1'" .1'-'IIl"llPlt for Ihl' (Olllp/!'I11('nl of V.mel P INHkfA< f1l. In contru~t (sec r;igurc 6.22) lh. ·11 I' 14.1 . I . • C 1 tlrnH~U I *c,.it;cal Ilu' ~tr In 5) above vU,ll·,1 Ih p lra...~... •('r,·, , . ' _ • c c (',''''. 1- , Inrn rh not III n pOsitIOn to which ca"c ,... as..,ignctl C 'Ihl:r "nee the NP e ~lrI.and to the complement ofN orA.) . (kccaH that n<) ru-. Ih~ gIrl 1 e a.SMgn~ l:,,1lC. /~ N Oct N AT' /yr I I 'criticism the girl A DCI * .. cnllcal the N girl 22 The absence of case on the complement of N anel A. figure 6. In order for these phrases 10 be grammat' I h . PP h . . . Ica , t e comple reall/:ed as a , as sown 10 FIgure 6.23. ment must be NP //"A N POet Nt>< I 1 criticism of the girl AP //'A A P Det N .1. 1 '" cntlcal of the girl Figure 6.23 Case assignment when the complement of N and A is realized as a PP. As you can see. this trucrural pattern avoids the problem found in Figure 6.22 since the complement ofP reeel'e accusative case according to the rules in 3). Sometimes. an NP', ease is determined by its position in deep structure rather than surfaeetructure. A good example of this involves wit questions, in whieh the '"h word appear- in a position the specifier of C) to which no case is assigned. In such circu11ltances, the NP's deep Structure positiun lktefmines its ea~e. Direct evidence for thiS comes from conservative arietics of English. in which who IS associated with the ,ubject positiun and the ~rccial tll'Ctlsaliw t)rm whom with the tlirect object po'ition.
- 143. ~u"''''lnl: up Nu',', Tf MPORARYlIN( UIS, I( C; 7) ...·h wooJ In J~''' I'H'r of ( ~ pw.llion 10' Who Is" ",II help Mary II'! -.1 ,kcpslrm:lllrt' pc,,'IHIII IIh)t'C:f hC'n.'c." nnllllll;tll:1,;' (,'."1..' Wh wtlrd III "J>cc.:ilicr 111 ( fN),,{U)JI ! lin' Who(m) w,lIls Mary help ell'! ---J dt!l!'p ,Irul:turc po,.. ion COl1lplemenl o f V hence il~C: lI ..,a tl vc c:.bc In "Iummary thell••tllIlOUgh case is ~ln , .i~~cclional (morphOlogiC '., nl ',el'" "lformation..TllIs IS caplured hy !'tIc"n, '11l category il 1'IlCOuCS · ...Y ~ ... , -' , . ' '. or th I 'I' I ') Wll,'''h "sSOCHlIC each 01 thc vaflous case fornv,. of E C ru cs our I!lC( In 1. . ...: ' -' ~ • ~ . ,. '~, ~ ' ngli~h will} " different posi(Jon III synraC(lc.; sl,nl~LUn.: (suhjCCl. "PCcll!cr 01 11.. . ) "",king IlllS ,dea ano cXlCnO,ng il " l'ornplClllclH 01 V. and sO Oil, , ~ , '.. ' . . ' (~nc ~Ic funhcr. rhe Case Filter Ihe~ Cl1surc~ lhell NP,.., c~1n onl) occur 1:1 POSltiol1 tP which C;I'C IS "",igncd. ThIS explain., why an t:JP may ~crvc a COIl1PICIl1Co~ of a V or P (r'lj!ure 6.20), hilI nol of an Nor'" (F'gure 6._ I), ---- This dwplcr provides a glimpse {If Ihe "lmc"n~e.' complex inler:Jction Hmoo Ihe ,anOilS compo"ell" of grallll1lar, Inlemellon helween the ?honOlogica~ alld mOlphologKal wltlponcnls IS refkcted hy Ihe presence 01 allol1l0rphs rill' lise of IImlt-rlying rcpreSt'lItalions and dcnvallon by morphophonemi· noil'.s ~1l,(,(IIJ11ts for Ihesc morphophonellllc allernallol,ls, In some cases C al/olllOrphy " dclermincd hy the laCI Ihal only eertam crasscs of fonn; IIl1ckr!!" " glvell Illorp"nphonellllc rule, Dealing With allomorphy leads 10 undellYlllg rel'rt',,'ntaJoolls, which III ltIany cases arc abstnlct. The Usc of a tTrlain a1l'01l1l1 "fallsll"cllOIl on untierlylllg representatIons allows allomorphs wllh d"llIIt't phnnl'lic forms 10 he denveo from single underlyrng forms. A Illr/hel "'pc"1 (,f Ihe phollolog) morpholog) interlace deall wilh involves Ihe W"r-' III Whldl pf'("odk phonolll/tv charactcn/ec.l on terms of the skeleton lIIay afled or delellllllll' the appl;callon of morphologIcal rules. This chapter "Iso shows how II II "I'holo£I al and "ynlaclIc structure play a role in dCI,'rlllinlllg slll',s ,1"lgnlllCI1I Int'ol1ll'ounds and phrases in English. Finally, II d(,I1I01"II.oI,'s Ih"l ntI' marklllg rellerts ;U1 Intcr;ll'IIClIl helween Ihe form of (ll<h (1I1C1I·phulu!:} I "",I 11ll' '"'''lions Ihe} on·upy in ynta<.:lil: struClures () II'a~ ) 1II'"ill') ,II;t'III" (" i!lIlhh i-o'gll,h, Ih"phllllell' /01 ill 110,' t'nd oj a word I"g., fl" IrI' If" """ ,II,df/'" I" ,e,tlrled hy Ih,' "lIol'hnllc f'f ",'her Ihilll fll , "h~ lIll-HIIIII tit slr~ss HI nll1lf)(llIlId IHl' nl d h rt!' h.I' hn'lI ~O11l(' h.1I IIlIl'illlI.:" c /r.I(' IIIIIIHed Ihe It.·s COlllllltHl ri!'iJ( "c,utul noun I.:OIllPOUllll suJII!!i I' mall i/o(fOl. aprl" p(t', dnd Alltlun Idb't' Wllld1 ,lit· fll'~('d llll llw ,,,,,nd d<lll{1I1 'S Ihc ~,tld,' L I'II1<jlll' "I d hclnw I.If ,'tl<',""I<'1I1 (II IIl<'SC I , ns QuestrO -The: problem of an un~er1ying tum, tor the: PlUT". - __ varialiOn In gc~cr~1 I!-. dl~cU'oI!-.ell 10 Arnold '/.wick ~I ....lI~hl(, and (It m0fl)h(, f rm' the English tnOeCllonal cnllm"...· In I Y'" anlt:1e ·Seu!.no Ph')nl!mlc o ' . e-. f"'1tcMR U, • - - e()oanunl1c:, cohen and J. Wirth (New York: John Wit!y & S. I~UI~II(' H-YPOIht'f> ed: r Yn't;. m ornhology is based on. J. McCarthy Fr r " (In,. 1915). The acc{)u~'t filed hy ) " - M1T PhD . .' J rna prohlem . S ,_ () tempht morphology: . thesl!-., dl!-.lnbuled by Indiu .. ,I~ . e'~JtI(' phonoto. Ie 1 979. The dlscusslOn of Bokano and prOsodic h na UnVer~lly Unou, t gy ,and , 'p.. . m(lrp ology- b I:: ~C (un und Alan Pnnc~. rosodlC morphology' (cited below) F I~ Ued on John Mc:.C:mh' of the Case Filter. see A Coune in GB S)'Htax b 'Hor a mOre detatleddl"'-:.u. ,Y (Cambridge. Mass.: MIT Press. 1988), Y . l..a....nik. and 1 Uriage:~: Cin4uc, G. 1993, 'A null theory of phrase and com und . '. 24: 239-398. po stres. Ltn-,!ui.[i(' Inquiry Dre"ler, W.U . 1985. Morphonology: The Dynamic, of D. . Karoma Puhli!-.hers. ' enlQUon. Ann Arbt.lr-. Gleason. Jr. H,A. 1961 . An Introduction to Descriptive Linguislic.~. Rinehart & Winston. New Yorl<.: HOlt, Inkelas, S. and Zec, D, eds. 1990. The PhmlOlogy-Sym C . . University of Chicago Pre~s. ax onnecrton. Chlcago: The Katamba, E 1995. 'Skeleta and the pro,odic circums . . . 'I J D d cnpuon of morpho . domaJOs. n . uran. and E Kalamba (eds). Frontie ,r Ph oglca Longman. rs oJ onology. London: KensLOwicz, M. 1994. Phonology in Generallle Grammar 0 f d Bl . d K' . x or, ackwe KenstoW'Cz, M. an "",berth, C 1979 Genera",'e Phonology , New York Academic Press. McCarthy, J. and Prince. A. 1995, 'Prosodic morphology: In John Goldsm,th (ed The Handbook ofPhonolog,cal Theory. Oxford: Blackwell. .) pullum, G. and Zwicl0, A. 1988, 'The synlaX-phonolog' interface· 1 L· .. • . j -' n rngUl,'irtcs· Tlte Cambrodge Sun·e)'. Vol. I. Edited by F. Newmeyer, pp, 255-80. C~brid ~. Cambridge Un;ve",,,) Pre,s. g 1, The follotting data provide the possible fonus of the regular past tense morpheme ofEngli.h. a) walked lw:t:ktf I) heaved Ihi:vdl b) cracked Ikr:rktf m) wheezed Iwi:zdl c) tlipped nj fined Ifamdl d) h;;-.;o;.("l1 0 t1med ItlltJdI to) hut1<'-d p) butted 1b.tdI n hu,hcJ q) padded ip:rdldl ~) 'lll'lch J rl loaded lI;lUdldl h) lrub 'd ) collided ik;)aldldl t) II allowed /;)audl J) j<'g u) owed ,-..udI k f1 I) 1, llh all mal lnn ofm pa lIen e morpbeme II) ~lll h , It 'm t m th be I underl) In); f rm Who
- 144. .,. J. ~, 'II) ·'1t.th' UItllth fh,,' l..'t1ndllltllllll' lal,,:hH'" Ihal .IL'I,:nWIl 1t)1 11ll' ) ,"111' 41lh,'II1.lIl''''"II' "llh,,; P:I'( Il'n,l' 1Il00plU,'IIH.'. It~C:h:C" ,''1 1I.lInh l l1, ' .1 I'lf~'l"""" th.1I Il',ulh III .111 'lld, ur U ,. I "orl 0 .1 n"l.1I11 ",'.illlh' tll k.HlIl,," Iftuphophtllll'lIl1.' ulk·... 01 '0" h. '11Ift .11' I,'und 111 m,llI l,tIlI.!U.lb"'''', .IIHtlllI Ilh,'11I 'urki'h c 'Irfl}UI1~ (~tlh·o. Il , Ii )) '",glliar l'lunll ~()/ !-,!«l/k" mum IIIl1l11/ar .1) 'I' ,,' b) 1..lIld,,'" h)J1 IOp/al" ,II ,iliaI' ") '};tIIl dl 'Ihll'c,," ") ',tw,III1' J...1l111 "-Ulnhll n 'Ihn',hr 'I' 'pier 'J Ithe gill !-!iillcr h) 'halld' <'I cller I) I ""h,' "11'"1I<1rph,, r1f Ihc plurallllorphclllc III the pree"'''''g d,u" ii) Whal rh<ll1111110,<'al kallirc " ,harcd hy 1IIl' vnwel, 01 hUllI <' alt", llIorph" "I Ihe plural" Iii) hal l,h"lIolo"j,'al kalur,' dlSllngui,he" the VC1d, III lh' ' I C'" t: all)... IIHlrph.,·' il') I.s il p"",,,hle III lhi" ,'a,,' In p,"'k o"e alloJ1lnrph 'IS the he'IUllderl}l" fOil II '! ~ ") CI"~l'" Oil" "IInnlOrph a, lllldcrl>,lllg, ;1I1l1 provide a repre'elll"t • _. < lUll 'SIll!! Ihe li:alure hicr"l'~hy th:lt d~me'.lhe '~Iher one Imnll!, Provide ,,,"riv,,tIOI1' lor II", ,,,,,,1 1M eye lind gun, I'lln "k dellval,oll,' lor Ihe ','IIowing English ,'ompoulld, and Phrase IISIIII! Ihe Ill,)dd pr",elll<'<1 ill Figures 6," and 6,12, Be earefu/l S()tn~ ph,.'IM.·~ IlIH, l'OI1(all1 l'onlp()und!. a) (~(JIIII1(JlIIld. /1askelhnllllel h) llI)!ht dllh at'l ,etsuil desi!!IIL'1 11t'''"ippi lIIuJpic c) tI) PhrllU,' c) dnvc·in 1II00'Ie n ekctri~ pencil ,harpener g) ,econJ language kaming h) Pnncc, Street Gardens 'CCOUIl! f,)r ,tr,'", dash r,"olution in the following e'"mples, Be SUre your an,wn aCl'lllllll., lor the folluwing queslluns, Why docs the strc;, lelraCI a<'I''', a 'vllah"''? Why I., lhere nu reversal of stress In forms d) and e)" a) );paneSl' h) 11lnllladli c) 1'l'lIl1t"!o"" d) Illallda ,,) 1 tj"ouri Japancse car Mrrilllal'hi River rl'IIIll'S"'C Wall/ '1II;)lIda Klllg 11i"llun W;ilu 5. The fnlto.w,lng RlI...~Hln ~Cllll·llI.:l·.... l:UntioHn Pll111()UII I . ,o,.m,',,,u. "IIIO:. and 'mit' (No,e' Y J, ~ J, and C ~) , NomtllIW'f' a) ya p00l11layu lllOk I understand C~son 'I understand the lesson' 11) ya VI}" YOiika 1sec hedgehog 'I ,ee the hedgehog.' A('CIlSOf;ve c) 011 lIvidel mCllya he saw me "He saw me.' d) olli vSlrelili menya they met me 'They met me.' Instrumental c) vi po~li sa mnoy you went with me 'You wenl wilh me: f) oni pogovorili sa mnoy they spoke with me 'They were speaking with me.' Dalive g) oni posli k mne they arrived to me 'They came to my place: h) on podo~ol k mne he approached 10 me 'He approached me: "era' litlerent f (lf1l", fnr be i) Draw the tree Structure for each of these sentences, and make a tatement aboul the COntexl in which each case fonn for the flrst person pronoun occurs, ii) Doe: the complement of a preposition receive the same case as the complement of a verb in Russian: iii) ls lhe ca"e as igned to the complement of a preposition the same for the lWO prepo,itlons used in the data:
- 145. / 1 THE NATURE OF "'HANING Semantics:the analysis of meaning lViI/ian? O'Grad;.... • iJ t".ItY oJ>jt?d there is ine,tl.JlIstible meaning .. Th,JfTl." CJrlvl.. Up to no, thIS book has focused on the fonn of utterances - their . " B sound pattern. morpholoeical structure, and syntaclIc organIzatIon. Ut there is - , I f lfil . . more to laneuaee than J'ust fonn. In order lor anguage to u I Its communical - - . t h · II'e function unemnces must also convey a message, e} must have Con . . lenl Spea~ing very generally, we can call th,S message or content the utterance's meamng. ThIS chapter is concerned with semantics, the study of meaning in hu . h'· j' d fl" man language. Becaus~ some work In t IS comp Icate arc:a 0 mgmstic analySIs presuppo.ses consIderable knowledge of other dlsctpllnes (partIcularly logic, mathematics, and philosophy), not all !l.>peCb of contempol1l1"Y semantics are suitable for presentation in an introductory IIngulsucs textbook. We will restrict our anention here to four maJor tOpICS m semanucs: (J) the nature of meaning. (2) some propertIes of the conceptual system underlymg meanino (3) the contribution of syntactic strUcture to the interpretation of senlenct and (~) the role of non-grammatical factors in the understanding ~i unerances. u1ng before lingmstics exisled as a diSCIpline, thinker, were speculating aboul the nalure of meanmg. For thousands of years, this question has been conSIdered c<,ntral to philosophy. More recently. it has come to be important in pSyChlllllg) as well. COllirinutions 10 semantics have come from a diverse group 01" cholars, ranging from Plato and Aristotle Ifl ancienl Greece to BcrtJ"and Ru. st'll in the IH~ntieth celllul)". Our goal in this section will he 10 con"dl'r in a IW~ general wa) hal this research has rcealcd anout meaning II( human langu;lge W,' ill t>egin b) considcring some of thc nasic anai)lic D"lion' used in ... aluating lht' mcaninp of words and SCIlICIKCS. B) nrlm:?f their meamng. wun.'" and phr;.t'c, itT! . _ )f selllantIC rclal1on~ with mhcr W()rds' .1 .,hit' to t:nkr 1, ( . . h'· . ' ,~I.I phra....c - h 0 11 Vafltt Ih'''~c rclatlon~ IpS help idenltty ,he). tn I c language II Y ..... • , , ~~ a<.,pc:';, (It . ~ lU linguistic analYSIS. they con....lltutc a gOod 't-· . t~'t:anmg rd!'', - , anmg pt.ltnl thr lhi~ 'h ant hi .. c I.I.pter Synonyms are words or expression' that hay ' th Th . f C I.! ame me- . all contexts. e patrs 0 words in Table 7 P'd anmg! n )tlt=. ( , . E r h . roy, e plauibl 'r synonymy In ng tS . e examt:le'l'. h Table 7.1 Some synonyms in English youth begin remember pUfcha e vacation big adolescent start recall buy holidays large Although it is easy to think of COntexL~ in which both d' . . t h · war S In each pair have essennally e same mean1l1g (J spent my holidavs/vQCQlion' h S . I . . . . - IIJ r e WIS.' Alps), there are a so contexts 111 wh,ch thetr mearungs diverge at least 'lightl For example, Christmas and Spnng Bank Holiday are holida~s b t th y. '1 f " J ,u eyare not necessan Y part 0 one s vacatIon. Similarly, although vourh and adolescent both refer to ~ople of about the same age, only the lau~r word has the meaningof .Immature 111 a phrase such as He's such all adolescenl! Many IingUlsts believe that It would be mefficlent for a language to have two Words or phrases whose meamngs are absolutely identical in all contexts, and that complete synonymy is therefore rare or non-existent. Antonyms are words or phrases that are opposites wi.th respect to ome component of their meaning. The pairs of words in Table 7.2 provide examples of antonymy. Table 7.2 Some antonyms in Eogh'h dark boy hOI up in conte light girl cold down out go In each of tlle,e pail'-. the two word contra. I with reo peCIIO at lea: lone c'{)I1l[,<)nent of thelr me:mmg Thu.. the meaning.-. of boy and 1,1 are opposite ith fl'PC, I to gender. although they are alike With re peel to peete<; (both
- 146. Po/Ysem)' and homophony ~OI)~eR1~O~...·cu" h('~ a wurd has two or mO,re relaL~tllllcanings.I.' ~um~un... some t:illllplC's of polysemolls vord_'i In Eng lish, able 7 3 Table 7.J Sllme poly~('m} in English :-1l_'_'nl ______I_It_'''_I_In..:8:..'_ I________ il_le_''_"_if_'S_'_B___ ----------- bright 'shining' 'intelligclll' ___________ to glare 'to shine intensely' a deposit 'mincrab in lhe earth ' '[0 stare angrily' 'money in the bank' h . d" . ------ If you consult a reasonably compre enslve ICIIOnary for any h you will find numerous examples of polysemy. The ease with whi~~guage, acquire additional related meanings allows language 10 accommOdate th~ord conceprs and perspeclives that accompany technologIcal and cultUral chan~: For Instance, wllh the advent of the Internet. surtersare nowadays r()Ununge, only on the ocean wave bUI also on the Weh in cyberspace, nOI Homophony exists where a single form has IWO or more entirely d meanings (Table 7.4). In such cases, it is assumed that there are two (nr "linq . h .. h h ' more) separate words wllh t e same pronunCIatIOn rat er t an a slOgle wOrd' different meanings. ~I(h Table 7,4 Some homophones in English Word MeoningA Meaning B --- bal 'a Oying, mouse-like noclumal 'a piece ofequipment used in c':;;;;;-- mammal' baseball' Or bank club plol pen "a financial institution' 'a social organization' 'a plan ofa literary work' 'a writing instrument' 'a small cliff at the edge of a river' 'a blunt weapon' 'a small piece of ground' 'a small cage' Polysemy and homophony create lexical ambiguity in that a single form has two or more ~eanings, Thus, a sentence such as I) could mean either that LIZ purchased an mslrument to wme with or that she bought a small cage. I} Liz bought a pen. Of~ourse, in actual speech the surrounding words and sentences usually make the rntended meanmg clear. The lexical ambiguity in ,entences such as the following therefore normally goes unnoticed, 2) He got a loan from the hal/k. 'II t.lf"....,""•• l) I-k.'iH"l' 1 1/ 'h.'l"(kd " .pl.ln' q ~"'P hn ~'llIh'l, PI and houghl il p",. 1111 l10 V hI' "'t"I' Itl 'ht"., 'Ktp -I) II. The poll"c chased Ihe hurgl;1I 0, 5) The burglar was chaseo hy Ihe pol,,:e, (/ , h. 6) C/. b. 7) £/, I gave the summons 10 ChI'''. I gave Chris the SUmlll(IlS, It is unfortunate Ihatthc team los. Unfortunately, the team los. Paul boughl a car frtlm Sue, h. Sue sold a car 10 Paul. 8) a. 17, The game will begm at 3.0() p.m, Al ),00 p,m.. Ihe game Will begin, The (I) and h) sentences in each of Ihe ahove pall's are ohvlously very 1II111ar in meaning, Indeed, II would he impo..,ihle I'm one sentence in any pair u he Irue wilhoUI the other abo heing Inte, Thu" il illS Irue Ihallhe pullet! dl;lSCI the burglar, it must also be tnte Ihat the burglar was eha etl hy the loll"e Similarly, if it is fabe that the pollee chasedthe burglar, then It Inu,1 al 0 he f"bc that the burglar was chaed by the potee, .(Scnlclll~ whll t: III ',ulIn ~ alt: related tl) ea,h (Ilher in lhi, wayan! alo 0 havt: lhe alii truth conditions,I 1'01 'lllne lingUists, thi is enough 10 JU III Y :I) Ill' Ih.llih • two I!n nec, h;n c th,' sam. ll1e:tOln', Howewl. you Illay null e that Iher' If! ubll dllt'nl'l1cc' in empha,j Pclw n the a) d hI enl nc In 4) to 8) l or mst.lI1n:, 1 i, nalural 0 illl<:rprct 4a) a a t teillclll aboUI wbalht police O~~ UlJ 4h) as a ,tat III nt anout hat happen d tu the burglar SLmllarly, )
- 147. 'f' 'm 'n't " -R>II .Id 1 • , • >11 .~ , 1t1 N, '~Ot
- 148. ( f IIlI,III/WIII;.1' .111••,>,,; 'h;1II1' 7.' It ('II'lt/(, IOltll',,) wI ,. ' hUIII.111 S ,. III If, IIl1l'JlIOn Illvolves , notIOn... like 'I'. Irs ('Xl<'" 11111 ." I}. Ih,· pht.ll' I'rum' A-1I11i.{l'r 0/ 11ft' Ullill'd All C,,'lliJ1c' ct.1 ~"I/I .lIt 1I111,VI I 'I (J I ' , , 'I< on ld. 'J,' It.!· " l tI.t 0 HI ItJaJor). hut lIs Jlllc",ion "wolve... lh 'hi. • ,t, n (I,' gO'l'llIll1.L' parry' c<':()I1<.:.al) 1ht dlIIIII.:,1O I ' _ , CPt " I I 11 lc:IWt','n I1I1Clh1011 und exlenslon docs not . II l '0 t' 'Il' '"1"('"°11 of whal flH.'aning ,. h simply penTIns lis IO~1 lJw u 11 1It'", ..I} ""hill illl' IlIIl·n.... 'OI1,·/ . pc.)Sc it in I (>til' 111111' t' ' I ' - <t I ""e--'''' 1011 ' 1)(11 11111.:11,,011 I,.'orrespond In menial images In. fI l loU, lIllPIOVc,'lIlt'Uf OVl', rhe n.:fC,.cnll~d thco~y. slI1ec it is POs'ihl I~ i, iln •, IIh'IllilJ IlIln~l' 01 a IIII/COrtl 01 even rhe king oj "nine," althOugh til ~ to have .... lldl.·lI!lfll·... III Ihl' Il.'jll world. Ilowf..'vcr, prohlcrn... ari....c wilh lhe n ~.rcurl! n() (IId,,,,, 'II ' I · " . lCilllll lg . I( II, (OR, W/1I1'11 cun he lI ...ed 10 refer to HIIJIll.aI ... of rnall . " Ii lit · ...,/l· ...h;lpl.·..... ;jlld C%w .... ",hl' IlH.'uning of (his word COfrcsPonu"i~) ~ltflcrelll 11l1;1'~l:. Ih", IIl1i1,1.!e would /lilve 10 he general enough Lo include Chi~mental oIl1d ,~, Ik,""",,- yc, ""II exclude foxe, alld wolves, I,. you Iry 10 ~~hua,. r'l"furc.' Ih,lt ...;III....IIt,·."; Ihc...e Il·(/llIr~IllCnh. you will ...ee .iu..., huw hard .r~ a ("oll.";(IIH.:I illl IIl1a1-!I.' I"or word I1lC.tnillg... of 'his "iOIl. It 1 tu ."tllI .I/Hlllll'!" .Ipproadl 10 meaning tries to reprcsc..'1ll a word's intcns' I ' ' S . "00 by l'C"P"Jllp II do 11 11110 /twlll'" "icmantlC compnnt!JlI."i. OIllCIIIllCS lna ('('IIII""...nll,,1 analy,i, <II wmllnfic decomposition. Ihis approach haw,o a . . ~ (song I>el'1I ""," '0 """'y,,' ,,'" lIIeanlllg 01 certam types 01 nouns in terlU' 't'lIIanll(" Il';!lllIl'."i , 'nll' ,"wlyl: in "'gllrt~ 7. J for (he words mall, WomaN b S of I I I I' -r ' OJ' W" );1I/,I/I1"',Ii(" "m. (No"lIlIg depen" nil I,'C C 10iCC 01 eaturc names her~: 'he all,dy.,i" wnilid <11~ jll" ii' wdl wilh Ihe leature ±'+MAI I' as ±MAIL.) , III,,,, : /10 1+111111 N I 1+1flJIIN'i I ; 11 I I + 1,1 L ; 1)( '11 fIll I 1I'0mall XI/I t"IIII'/ t"lIilA!'.: I ~I 1 I iIlL t 1)( 'I I Ill'l I ~(" lI,tll It li'1't l l OI1~~j-':;llIolllcJ( "'.111,U LN11.",. h ,~ SIf!. hll1.lI) "'.III11<s Me"ning and concepts S MAN lie '. t 1 ANAlYIS ()f Mr "NNf~ l.7~ semantic ~()m~n~nt thal i, c'pecay u....cfu for the ,mal ~h. .. cO which IS used to repres.cnl change of V' . y .. of vt:r) tncanlno IS ~ • I h h ' anou.... ~n,'o;. A., lh f to examples he p. sow. l e nOimn of Change a.....'iociated . e omoJ¥'ng, manifested in dlfferenl way~. With (ih C.an he 12) Manifestalions of the concept (;0 a. positional Patel went from Delhi to Sydney. b. possessional The inheritance went to Mary. Jdentificational Max went from being, a rational gentleman to being, a ,. 'tar~ ravmg maniac. This concept i< manifested in many verbs other than just go. For example. positio~al GO IS pr,esent III the meaOl~g offLY ('go through he air). walk ('go on foot ), crawl ( go on hands and knees ). and 50 fOM_ Po>ses5ional GO i, manifested in the meaning of g,ve. buy, and illiteri!. all of which inVolve a hange of possessIOn, while IdentificatlOnal GO shows up in become and 'urn ~ to (as in The carerpillar runted into a bUl!erjly). In I . . Componential ana YSIS IS most useful for uncovering and representing similarities among semantically related words. _As Illustrated above, a few . pie features allow us to capture the slflulanues and differences among S1~c1asses of people - men, women. boys. and girls. Similarly, componential ~alysis reveals a surprising similarity in the meaning of (for instance) 'ravel. . 'e and become. all of whIch Incorporate the GO concept (pOSItional in the ~:;st'case. po ses ional in the second. and identificational in thethird). However. there are 111mb on the inSights Into word meanmg offered by componential analysl . What value. for example. is there in characterizing the ina of do!:! "" [+A_ l."AL. +c_o:: 'r.-;E1 so long as there b no funher anal~'ls mean", - th th . . hI ' f f these feature_ ') imilarly. do we say at e meamng 01 ue con'''b 0 Of · ture r+COl 'LR] and something el e? If so.....hat i that other thing" bn't the ea 1 , t h . - 11 ' bl .) 1- l) men e ul1 hay e not broken e meamng ot 'ue mto it uene~:-., l . - 1 - )M no- n'r .mJ I! are back here we started. $(11<. er I....I...! l t '.... . •
- 149. 2 eonl'cpt ". it<I,,,,, "ttle gouo to 04u.u" the meaning of "nguisti . ~ l'oneept~ 'n the' mino, In Ihe ne,t ,cction of thIS ehapter, We ,1/~ol~rQI' ~it/} hUm,ln lone"ptllal '.ISlem from the pomt 01 le 01 IIngui,tIC Illea Sider u.. tf} 10 o"lermm" 'orne of Us oa."c propenie" n'ng ""0 THE CONCEPTUAL S)'STEM Underh in1! t.he lise of words and sentence.' to express mc.:uni"g , - - . " , 'n h ,language is a conceplual syste~ cllpabl" ot,organwng ancl c/a"ifYin > ~lli'n 2.1 Fuzzy Concepts Imagma!>le "spect of our e'pellence. from mner teellOgs and perCCPtg vel') CUltural and social phenomena. to Ihe physical world that Surrounds 10n 10 section focuses on whm Ihe study of this conceptual system reveals ab~~; ~i' meaning is expressed through language. We w,l/ beglO by conSidering 0" esamples thai illuslrate the way in which these concepts are Slru SOllie extended. and intc';'elated, ' Ctured , We tend to think thai the concepts expressed by the words and Phrases of language ha'e precise definitions with clear-cut boundaries that distin UOUt them from other concepts, Some concepts may indeed be like thisg ~'h example. Ihe concept expressed by the phrase Member oj Pariialliellt,' Or , f P I' 'f' ,celli" to be clear cut enough: one IS a Member 0 ar lament I and only if one' duly elected to a parliculru' legislative body: no other person can be truthfulil, called a Member of Parliament. l' But are all concepts so straightforward? Consider the concept aSSOCiated with the word rich, How much does one have to be wOI:th to beelll/cd riCh? Five hundredlhousand pounds? EIght hundred thousand' A mlthon? Is thete any figure thaI we can give that would be so precise that a person who is sho n by just five pence would not be called nch? It seems not. While One COuld miss Out on being a Member of Parliament by five votes. it does not seelll possible to miss out on belllg rich by just fi'e pence. Moreover. whereas SOllie people clearly qualify as rich and others do not. an indefinitely large nUmber of people fall into the unclear area at the borderline of the concept and it is Just not possihle to say definitively whether or not lhey count as rich, This is because the nOlion of 'richness' does not have clear-cut boundaries; it is What we call a fuzzy concept. Many hnguists he/icve that this type of fuzziness pervades the human conceptual system, CCl1ainly. it is not hard to think of everyday concepts Whose houndaries arc fuzzy in the same way as thc prcccdi ng example _ shrub, tree, tall, (I/d. clel'er. strong. grey-haired. /a,l1. cleal/. genius, bargain, and so on. (,radt·c/ membership A sCL'Ond tmp0rlant I:tct ahoul concepts IS that thcir memhers can he graded III (t'fIllS ollhclr typicality . Consider lirsl a fuzzy concept such ," 'film slar', h l'n "ithin thl' sct of pl'oplc who wc can agree are fllrll stars, SOI11C pro'ld~ h"tter nalllpks (If this conn~pt than othe". At the tillle of writing, h)r 1:17 , lance. Tom Han~s. Arnuld Sl;hwar/,cncuu. . ,I lOS fi I . e>ecr anu JUlia Ro~ ,nplc s of a I m Sl~lr than Bell Kinuslcy • h .fh. i,lfe hev-r cxa· . . e' • I,nl ony H k ...... S e 'p Although movie Ian... agree thai an the •. , hp ".... H,r Me:n.. . tr c . . ....c actor... arc ~t" . ~ cars the for~'cr have rcccVcd n~()fl~ media attent1on. en' () .t~s.. tn recent y.• lation. achieved greater box. oftice ....UCl:cs... and h 1 )led fl)t)rc f:.m null I ' I r . . . ence have. d .. d received morc co ossa ,manclal rewards an" '( T ' ttlan,d,«1 an . . u ~) On. h" m- k Hanks. Arn~d Schwancncggcr. a~c..l JUlia ROhen... bener exam a Ci. 10m than Ben KlI1gsley, Anthony HopkinS, Or Meryl Streep, pies III ,I 'tor Even concepts whose houndanes can he SCientifically dcf'., " b h' Ineu exhlhltth' Pe of graded mem ers 'P, A good example of thh invol"e h " (y 2 E ' • , t 0 clIncept 'b'rd' (Figure 7,), ven assumlllg that English 'peake" alith,'nk I'h' 1 J l ' f . . . () lrd." itl;, 'warm-blooded, egg: aYll1g, eath"er~d vertehrates WIth forelimh, mO(IIf1ed to Form wings' (the dictIOnary dellllltlonl, they still feel that some of these creatures are mo~e bird-like than others. Thus. robins and magllies. fot example, are II1tul~lvely beller examples of bird., than are hummingbirds. ostriches, or pengull1s. Examples like these suggest that concepts have an internal Structure. with I best or prototypical exemplars (for instance Arnold Schwanenegoer in t )e • b' 'h f 'b' , ~ the case of 'film stars, ro illS 111 t e case 0 II'ds ) close to the Core and Ie" typical members arranged 111 succesSively more pellpheral regions: The eXIstence of fuzzy concepts and of graded membership III concepts rovides important insights into the nature of the human conceptual system. in particular, it seems lhat many (perhaps even most) concepts expressed in Ostriches Robins. Magpies Hawks Hummingbirds / Storks! Penguins .lternal ,trlletLiIe of the conc('pt 'bIrd'.
- 150. 'pI n I. 11 1." ','" h' , ,t '1 ," 1' III III 1111 '''1 1111 '" ' 11,1 , ",t h, ,hh . .u" nh{ h"1 ~h~' ,I, , ,hI' "H' ,If'' ,h. N h, 1 .,,~ M "', , "'et".
- 151. ==~--------~---------------------------- J.! l..:l bole 1 " 1bebolt! In. e3d. the moDOIl -
- 152. 2.4 lIlt' ·r.IIlJIIMlidl.ltion ()f (1I1lC ('ph I,ble7. 11 Some.' 'I:ro root."i expressing motion and the thing moving in A -------------=---.::....-:--:---:--:--=-~~~ I'"ge" luI' for mO'Cl1lenl of ~I small. shiny spherical Object (3 hail I , . I' 11 b' 'lone) tOf mon!menl 0 1a sma! Ish. at 0 ~ecl (hill can be attach f-ael swal tJfJUI ,'falj ilnothcr (;:1 stamp. a clothing parch, a ~hinglc) ell 10 for movement of a slimy, lumpish object (a load, a cow d for movement of a limp linear object. suspendt!d by on rOPPing) shirt on a clothesline. a hanging dead r~tbbit) c end (a for movement of loose. dry dirt for movement of runny, unpleasant material (manure. gUts chewed gum. roUen tomatoes) . ---- We learn two things from these facts. First, the concept of rnot' associated with a number of other concepts, including 'path', 'man 'on I, movement', and 'moving thing'. Second. the way in which these concc;~r o[ grouped together foJ' purposes of lexicalization can differ systematically ;r:c language to language. Languages such as English have verbs that sirnuit III ously Icxicalizc motion and manner while other languages have verbsa~c_ ,imultaneously lexica/ize motion and path (Spanish) or motion and the tt at Mthll1g that moves (Atsugewi). ype The general picture that is emerging from this Iype of work is that With' particular scmantic domains. there may be a small universal set of conce In (motion. manner. path, thing that moves. and so on) and a small set of OPtitts for how thesc con(:cpts can be combined for purposes of lexicalization. Unli~s the lesicali/ation differences involving snow and light discussed earlier, the e difflorences appear to be highly systematic and to reveal some gene s~ tendencies about the W:I) in which meaning can be e.'<pressed in hurn~ language Further work of this type should provide additional insights into the organil<llion of the human conceptual system as well as the ways in which its component notions can he Iexicali/ed in human language. Of the inul'tillitc/y largc set of concepts cxprcssihle tn human language, a rl'latle/~ slllall suhset enJoys a special status. These arc the concepts that :Irc l'sprcssed h) affixe, s and non-Inil'al (functional) categOries in one language III ,11I(lthl'I, SOllle of the concepts Ihat at'L' treated this way in I ngli.h :U·l.' IIstcd III l:thk7 12. assertion ~idatsa (1lorpher11es 1< , 111 l""I~'(')'So <J M "N~l. " Lft concepts that tlrc .e~pre!-."cl1 ;." ~ttli)l.~'" hr nt)n-h!~'.. , have been grnmmahct'l.cd . ICd Ci.lc.;Uft!$ < 1f t ...;U' ,~, Some conc~pls .tC~d H: be hlgh~_ gr~tl'lmalCi/abc in th' . I, nguuges lcxlcah/_c them a... alhxl!'io or I'f-oC"' 1 at mh't, If 011 01 " d " , ..... 1a non-lex,:. . Negation an conJunctton arc posSihle exam I a. caeg1lr 1l!. .' d ' 1I I P e, of conce h grammat.tclze In a angungc.... Contra...,,, inVolVing ingulaf P'''' t at .ne , d past versuS non-past arc encoded by 'pecia aff . ver..,u<.,. -PUY'l' "n II h d" -' Ixes In many I, b t not an (Reca 1 C ISCUSMon of Nancnwry In e . anguagel U " " . Chon 6.1 (If Ch' • ' Still other concepts are grammal1Clzed 10 a ' maHer numhe f . <ptc.r 4.) . I f h S· r ( language the followlI1 g examp e rom t C louan language Hidat,,, ilu'trate" '. '" 'fable 7 .12 Some concepts a~sociated with afflx.es and non-lexical C01teg,orie in English COrlcept Affu Pasl More than one Again Negation Goncepl Obligation Possibility Definite, specific Indefinite. non-specific Disjunction Negation Conjunction -ed -s re- in-, un- Non-lexical category muse may Ihe a or nol and In Hidatsa. each tatemem is accompanied by a morpheme to indicate which f the five categories In Table 7.3 (overleaf) It exemphfies. (SItU other ~arkers are used for que tions. commands. and wis~es.l . . Choice of the appropriate as eruon morpheme IS .extremely tmportant m 'd t A speaker who makes an unerance contamrng the morpheme -ski. HI a sa. . d h d th h· h tum' out to be fa! e icon idered to be a har. Ha e use e w I C " • • . h - on the other hand it would be assumed that he SImply made rnorp erne ,(. . :1 mistake. b ' . While EnglL-h ha. way, of indicating these contrasts ( y usmg expressIons I .' -rlt I/H I heard rha/. and I guess (Amencan)). It,doe, not have a sue 1 as 1'< , .• - • '[ . . -. .-, I --(pm of morpheme that obligatorily encodes thIS In ormation gnumn.1l1c, S s, . . . . f d . - . - B, 'tn,'e<tigatino the "rammatJ.clzauon options oun In . "'," -..ry scntcille... ,1 =- e . . Il1 ~ ~ . I e ' I't rna, eventuallv be possible to t.de.ntlfy the [actor' that n l -!'I.'nt an"uag s. _ II ~ ~hl'' h c.)n"ept~ are inoled out for a_SOClatlon WIth affixes and detl'nmne c , - , '" ()n-k:xtCal categorie
- 153. I.t .III.. ,', 1'1'1.JJ "ij'~ I IN',l I II YNrAX ANII " N " N( r I N 1/ /(I'/(I IAI/ON I ,''' ', I o .....:;,:;::::.;:..:......,;...;;,____-,-:::::-::==':::'__~-___ (hI" """Art If j, Iljllll ullill 1,11'-'''''111 J Ifllilt "',"11 l,k,pI ~'H II 1/ I" hUff' I ".. mil"" 1IIII""YJUlfI/C'II,Ilc:tpl, • 'h, 'I' "ltt'l "t'/Il t', .Ih, {,If,."w"'/II h,> In" ,. ",,1..'1" ," ..,,"tH.·" (.: '''C''m.II' ""1'0 t,,,,,,~.ltIwdl'II'IJI'" I If#' 'I" ,,11.1'1 r-('K,uth 11,,- 1/0',.,""", I" IU' "'m''''111 ~1I"'-1/"'1 " ',J' .. 111..'1" "-1lI1~ Iwo W,ltt',.t }If Ih "..."",mwd,h'·I"IlCllh,'Y >fly) I I,,' '{u(r"","' " hrH/'r/ mlllll wH"'rtlll',III',NII{ 110111 '''''''' W,1f 1'41 WIll,! fiu:k"-I Iwo /jllw Ilfl•• ,./ r ' IIH' "',," filii II:d 1/1(" K,jI)...c "" . IUtnf}lHnlJ • /h/' 1IIIIh oj ,h,' ""IIII'fIII'/l1 if unJ,.""wII 1111111111 'JII·flJ,.,·r 1111'/1 W;," "U (;Ill,'" ,,,J.a;,lwH Jojl~ I "'1'''1 flu- frIO/II fOi".rrd till" pral(le d"lIi (J)t',-hap " ------~~-----------------~ '11w two (In'(xcjillg edllJlj have I(xucd 011 Ihe 1n1!:1I1JUI.' {:unvcYrtJ J, "III/vll/llill worrl IlTIrl f"I1"'(,~ 'h,,' make "I' a ""IJICIl'C, I" 11,,- ""eillm, II Y ~~ 10 'he I'f(I"km 01 c tllcncc JrJlcrplf.; t:d r'w, w"h ;'" CllJph,j '. 1m h"w t} l'oIIJi",jng 0/ wont- ,mrl phr;, " //1 ~y,,';It'Ji.. ,IlIltiure heI,. " 'Ier",,,, Ihe: mCIUllllg (,/Ihe ('n/lrc I,enlcm:/:, _"""lenl wrlh Ih~ /""OWIII!' """cIJlle 1(,) The l'rincilJlc /I/' ('l)fflf'/)ltil)tIldity: Th(' ",c"nol1~' ,,/ a ,t'III"IIC'· 1 delt'nllltled hy lht: m''''lJin~ 1,1 II tl"IOf.,rltnl pwh am/ II,,: ",,,rlller III willdl lhey iJrc aHallged In sytlt;J(.;ll~ lroJl.lurc, 'Illere iJrc many dilkrenl jdca ah"ul pred""Jy I",w the mellOlIOg ',f ~ sClllcllcc comp'mcnl wI,rch alld Ihelr arrangc:mcnl rrr YlOlaclle ~lrlJ~1Ur ddcmlillc Scnlcllce ",c,,"in£, /'''r f'tJrp'le~ "J i/JUlratl"n, we WIll C'm Ide, It; relevance 01 syntactIc Iruclure to Ihree apccl I,J f>Clllcncc ""clprellotllm Ihe fl'prc~cnlwI'1/I 0/ SlnJclura' amhiguily, the a~,jgnrncl)t ,,/ them:"1c n,t,! , ,wrllhe Itllerprclalj'l/l ,,/ pmfl(,UlO~, , Iru<lura/ ••mbiguity Some enlcnr;c~ arc ~trUClur"lly llmhigulJu "I lhat Ih" mcanlnl(' (,Ilhell "'1It/potlc", words can he CIJln/),ncd HI m.1t( than em, 'Nay, A ~itnjJ'c example "I thIS J trlUnd in Ih~ 1'1"'11; WI'(J/,h) ItINt (Jflri Wl/ltJI'fI wlJ<;rc 'WC:lflhy' tao he ecn ilS ,I property ,,/ hoth the me/l and 1/1{' Wflffl(:n (,r 01 /111 Ihc men :,111111: 'hc~e Iwo Inl, rpICI<Jti(1IJ or r~ading.s arc depKI~J it/ hgllrc ":1 If (,,, • conl"tl( lieJII). /'Igurc 7,3rJ co"c~p"'llh 1(1 lhe re;,dillg In whkh ~/'f/I'lry 1II'"Jlllc IJ<Jth 1111'11 1/11(/ k'III1It'IJ,l hj~ I~ i'(Jwn "l' haVing Ih' ,uJJCCIIVC ",mblnc wllh a lalCgOry II,iI[ Hlcludc~ b"lh "'11m, In hgurc 7,3h, "" lire other hand the (( flgun 7 M" II. "If A I, V I' / I' ,- / A" / 11- , I A ; ( 'UJ '" I I ( A". I Wc:olllty HI I, :tJul Nt,,, " ""allhl " n totJd " (J '. ------' "1' Inll VI' " I ----- I l' t V I' ~ IJet I" I ../" I I'ltolc wthe peopl flOC , h ..---r I' 1'1' Inll ~, I' I V I J4;ole the
- 154. T['tr(""~I' 1I lll'"" ].2 Thematic role- 4 nl"'U1Cf .I"'pt""~·( ('If" 'm3nfi~' inrcrprcr:Hion inolc~ determining the the I'('f'n.'m:-- l't ~'Ps pl.}) in the .-jfuauons de~cribed b} :"Ientences role that in lhi_, n·~.:lrd (hi' s(.-'nr~lh."e in I...'I. .. COnjdet I -/ The lalfu "cnl me ,:tlm,"'n fn,m In"~m~Y~ {O Edinburgh. It '''>!lId I'<' mlJ'l"'ibl~ rn undersr;md this ,,,Olenee if" e could nor id . '''1' di' enlJf, ••. 'aim 3.:-- lh '" pt-'n.l)n ho IS rt"~pon=-IL' e tor .<en ng ~omething. the s.al . "'It rh> rhmf th3r " ,eOl. ;OJ "lO. The. renn thematic role i. u.ed 10 dmOn the r.1It rl:i, ed b, 3 ram.-uttr enol} m 3n eent. In mo,r hnouistic escn!,. Jr k~bl Uk' rh"lluti.: n)k, in Table 7.1-1 are recognized. ~ anaJ~~, Tab" :.14 1bemall-n,l, A.,,'D! lben> me l"ntit~ lh:u perf('lnns an 3ction ______ the enul. undergoIng an J~l-jon or a mo'-emem ...- lUr...·e the ~l.lftjng POInt for a 010 emenl G..X1I ~ end J)l)inr ior a rno ernent L n", the pI 'e , here an action occurs - J / 'Jh.> I ird DI the ~mon from In' erne. _[0 EdinbUn!h. A ,ml Theini' Source Goal ~ TIle BMb:uidll, prarti ed a[ T" icenham. r.I U>cGlion 'Tbt- nolton of mm ~m~D1 u,ed in [he defimtion of !heme Ou~e d . . '~,dIl.~ In! I .1Oohe DOl onl~ JC[ual ph~ [cal mOilon, but al 0 chdll 'e~ In :0), JIJd.d mi[). in : J). • g In fem ~ 10 1111). Thnrte Goal ;!iJ The magician changed the haH Into a rahhl gt'lit Tht'lrle (;o(d Vhcre do thematic roles come frum and h d . ' . _ . • ()W (lC!sthe npprop~a~e the.mallc rolc ,... ~Ss()C,at:d With each NP ~r-~mmaren.,ur~hahe rolcs ongInate In word meamng !Table7 IS) Th . In a '>entence) Tnc~- . . . ' . US,lfthe.. .._he ball coniam, an agent and a theme, II i, bec' h senlence Hurry h" rh . I" aUse t e verb h h ~ mcnning Ihatlmp Ie, an entlly that does the hill' (. " a the t).·~ of . h ) S " I ' mg anagent) d y~ gers hll (a t erne. Iml arly, If we understand IlIvern ~n an entlt~ that Edi/lburgh as a goal In sentence J9a/ it is bec ~H as a ,">ure< and . . . . ause of the d ff mcaning of the preposlllonsJrom and tothatoccu . h'''' . 1 crence In the Table 7.15 hil walk 10 from near rWlt u.e'iCNPs. Some words and the thematic roles imph db h e y t eir meanings <agent. lheme, <agenb <goa> <source, (location. These roles are !hen assigned 10 NPs based on meir po". t' . . . . Ion In wnacIIC srructure. wllh each NP recelVmg one and ooly one role. . As a first example of this. let us consider me complemenl of a p .. . repo,ltl()n In such cases. the proce s of themallc role assignment can be summarized ~ fonows. 22) A P assigns a thematic role to ill> complement. 'l'. The operation of thi con,'ention is illustrated in Figure 1.5. PP ---------- b pp --------------- a P .'l' p :p I ~ ~ from to Edinburm <~,------,j ~ <:ourxe> l Figurt' 1.5 Then a ,1l:rvnent bv prepo_tions. 1 Iter'> re bghU) m re ompb ale<! m the se of Here :e mu t di :tlm:U1 h beleen the theme role. hi his i-;ned to the . romp ement, andth- g·nlrole.tu~hi 19nedloit 'Il eel the 'Pimmed1atel~under
- 155. If PO , II -~ ...,~... thelItc"n'lI"'{lfUh3...-.onejh."lihl,."Om.plemcm. ·P. .- .l......'l~, gent r.llC' (rflt h.1' ()fie) ltJ it.;. ..;ubJt.'=t :'P. Tht... J... e,err."," ic..""J :"1 Figure 1.6 " s ----~ 'p- InO 'P , 1 P,r ,/ :-.;p / I~ ' Del :x Del I The campers boiled the t <ago rb> J wa[er LJ l'--__~. Frgure 7.6 Thematic role assigrrnenl by erbs. In accordance wim :33). the theme role (where present) i a;.sian d . I' . ' d e e lO 'c. "5 :-.'P complement while the agent ro e IS asslgne to the Subject Ihe ".'" assianed !be theme role - which IS typIcally the first NP that follows th :-;" - is ~orrnally referred 10 as me direct object. e verb The structure in Fiaure 7.7 illustrates me assignment of thematic I D ~~. a sentence mat contains a P in addition to a V. . In s ~ ;I.'P Inll VP I ~PP I I~ ~ I N Pst V P P NP I I ~ i ~ Terry gave the keys to Mary t'---__ <?'tJ <gOU Figure 7.7 ThematIC role assignment in a complex sentence. Here, me P to assigns its goal role to its complement NP Mar>' while h b · . . Ie ver K/I'e assIgns 115 theme role to the complement the key.l· and its agent role to the subject Terry. This ~entcn(:t! has the deep "ilnlCUfl.! dCrH~!d n l~gur~ 1 R S . . J----.... NP 11111 V~p ~ ~ The m'lJl should bring what t~'__________<_Jg,t~ Thematic role assignment in a h question. figure 7.8 Passives (advanced) Since the theme rolc is a"igned to the complement of V (scc 23) anu Figure 7.7 above), It follows that the NP w/tar in the abme example recei,cs this role by vinue of ilS posilion in deep structure. not surface structure where it occurs at the beginning of the sentence). This allows us to dm the following conclu ion. 25) An NP's deep structure po ilion determines its thematic role. The relevance of deep structure to the assignment of thematic rolcs is imponant for two reasons. First. it shows that syntactic Structure not onl~ represents the way 111 which words are orgamzed mto phrases. but aho is relevant to semantic interpretation. Second. the fact that an NP', lIlsition in deep struClure determine it thematic role provides additional supplm for the existence of thi underlying level of syntactic structure. This, in turn. lends uppon to the claim thaI there must be at least two types ofyntactic rules: phrase structu~ .rules. '.hlch form the deep structure. and transormattotls, which com'en It 11110 surface structure. 0 kt u: recollsider the passi'e structures tirst discussed in seclion 6 of Chapler 5. :(1) Tht' thief a arresled (0) the police. Theme
- 156. f 1ItJIl Jr'ylIN(.#III~"( 'i r NT' 1,,1/ I 1'..., / V I / VI' /r V I i"rc~(cd VI' NP ./' Ihe thiel nl~, Ih" J l '--_--' IlgurI' 7.'/ Iif'f'" ,I"" III... lor ""' lh"'1 W.I' "'" "II 'd; Ihf' ',m' th"'"gh Ihf ' " '1;' 'ymholh"II" ,II I 11,, /) UtI/if ,11f'" 111,lt Ih,·,IHI'MI te,/" ,......uppn......flll ' 1 t li' S llll'l' 1Ill' NP 11r(, lhi,,! apf"'lIfS a' complemenl (dlln:1 oO/Cet) of Ihe ' " . ~~ (/IIf',1i11i dt'l'p qnlt'lufCalld ' "In' an NP dcl'p , qlUt'tlllC positron (ktelln ' ., " . Inb 1/.' thellla/,,' role, Illo/lows Ihlll II WI/l Ol' .Issigned thc theme role ,1 de, srre!/ HUI wh", olllll' agellllfl/c'/'l he crucla] assurnptJOn is UHIt the pa'IVc forlll 01 iI vnh low, Ihe ahrlllY10 as,,,!!n all a!!enl rolc . ~hKh IS why the 'ag' 'Ylllool hnll'alh Ihl' H"" III "'gllle 1.1) ha, a IlIlc Ihrough Jt I hi, " why P",slve 'entcnce .fll' pl'rlixlfy alTl'p/ahk CYril when thl'fl' j" no agellt NP (forc)(ample, lilt'lhief 11'</1 (///('II"r/), Whcn an NI' heHl Ill/! the agcnt rolc docs appcar, it OCCurs not ' Ihl' ",/lWl't po"iliol1 hilt falhl'f a, l'(ffUplel1lelll of the preposillon hI'. Becausc t~~ WIll IS ullahle to a',sr!~n Hli .Igcnl rok. ,01l1e othcr c1emcnt mUst take Il"'I"",srh,llly fill IIll' as'W""ll'nl 01 tim role I1v tS that clement. heing unique amlin)! 1" l'I"'''I11111, III havill/: Iht' tYPl' of /1tl'uning that assigns an agcnt ml ' llll~'. II" M'lfll'lIn' n",Ilri'lll'</,' (/1/'('.1('" /'v 11t(, po/il'e has the rll-cp stflfctllle~ d(,(lIl'lt'd IIII'I/:U'l' 7, 10.(TI", hI' ~hould not he confused wi th Ihe hy in / /e,l/ood hI' rh(' III'", Jrldl "ssi!!I" a Im'atlve mk.) III Ihls slllfl'llfl e, lite passive vnh (>1'<11) flllf',III'II."si!'fL' It,~ Illl'llie mle 10 tis l'olllplcltlcni (Ihc NP 1/11' Ihit'/) whl l ' Ih,' slll'nal P'l'pII.srlll1n hI' as"iillis ils a/:l'ul role to Its l'olnpleltll'II' (th~' NI' 11r~ /'(}/'f(' I, 1'I,,~ l'U,~lfIl'S IJr", Ihl' Sl'IIll'fIl'l' has Ihe CflITccl IIIIl" )1'"'tatloll, with Ihl' polin'dofff).' Ih.. •11 Il'.Sri"!! '''Id Ihl' IIIIl'Igl'tlln).' HI'l'sled Figure 7. 10 FlgUrl' 7.11 s __ 1 N I' Inlt I P..t Nt' /' Pa",c"ivc V ctmn(Jt a~'ign agent rolc 1'1' /' I' hy NI' L. • the pohce j <ag> L In oruer to form the correct surface structure for passIVe "'nt' " ' I 'II h N ' cncc,weneed a tran,formatlo n t 1ut WI move t e P hearing the theme role f ( h." . . b" . r )m t C UlfCt obJect posItIon to the su Jcct pm"t,on when the latter" empty,' 27) Nl'Movement Move NP into the subject position. This transfonnation ~ppli:s to the deep structure in Figure 7.11) to gIVe the surface structure depicted In FIgure 7.11, S T h , Pst / ~/ NP V V NP P NP / I I ~ the Ihu:f was arrested e by the police ) SIll f,1le ,II II{ ttlft' rcsultinf: from NP movement. (n this figure e stal1(h for trace which was 111tlmltll I'd in w( t.OI1 ,.4 01 Chapter 5.) III ~1lt11, theil, the transformational analysb of passives makes use ~f both lkcp struetme and surfacl! structure In order to account for th~mallc :ole assignment. the P that rcceivcs the theme role occurs as complement 01 the
- 157. 2 3.3 The interpretation of pronouns .eludes ords such as he. she h. The ~~regol') or: P:-o=~;:sar.::rerized by the facr thar their inr~rp~f1Ise!f. ~ her"'''IJ· The,,, H rd. I '0 the same sentence. (This b tatjon <,. be determined b another e emenr I _ _ Ot er eJe ""'It (ad,anced) Principle A 'aJI d th~ a-;'tecedenr) Consider ID th,S regard the fOllo"in "lent I- c e ~ g t<~ ~emence.s_ ,:?,,"J a. lim' friends admire him. b. lim admires himself. In the firsr of these senrences. the pronoun him can have the same referent the ;-.;p Jim or can be raken to refer to someone not mentIoned 10 the sente <1. . J. . C th r) In the second sentence. rn contrast. the pronoun h. flee lsa) 1m s.a e . " . 'fIIs If ' h th ame referent as Jim: no other InterpretatIon I~ po."ibl ~_ must ave e s . d th I . e. "Je former type of pronoun is called a pronomlflal an e atter type a rene"he pronoun. fl . I The interpretation ofpronominals and re eXlve pronouns a so diffe" in the fo/Jowing sentences. 29) a. [s Clare knew that [s Alexis trusted herJ]. h. [5 Clare knew that [5 Alexis trusted herself]]. Notice that her can refer to either Clare or someone else not mentioned in th AJ . e sentence. but that herselJrefers only to eXlS. The contrasts illustrated in 28) and 29) reflect the fact that the int pretation ofreflexive pronouns. but not ordinary pronominals. is SUbject to ~ following principle. 30) A reflexive pronoun must have an antecedent in the smallest S containing it. Malters are straightforward in 28b). where there is only one POtential antecedent in the sentence containing the reflexive pronoun. The sentence in 29b) presents a somewhat more interesting case in that there are two NPs that could conceivably serve as antecedent for the reflexive pronoun - Clare and Alexis. However, only the latter NP can serve as antecedent since only it occurs in the smallest S containing the reflexive pronoun. A ~omewhat more abstract feature of syntactic structure enters into the Interpretation of the reflexive pronouns in sentences such as 3/). which hal Figure 7.12 FM"NIIC., lin ""'A)'51 (Jf M'A."',.... ~ the tree ..trUClttrc in HgUic 7.12 IfJ'n ,I NP . InC)Ih~ are Ire:, d thUI hcuu .... to ~a'e 'pace. Urne whrd 1 a e UN-type CiIIe noted in the prevlou.., chapter, phSses u; ~v~!I. C"leghry lahel are: flnlU'(1II1eI. ""llhin larger NPs.) )CeUf In the Pt'clfier ~ A. 31) ...."."Mlft The boy's uncle admired him,elf s ~--- NPI Inn VP ~ ~ NP, N Pst V NP .LS. ' The boy's uncle admired himself Structure containing a reflexive pronoun. Although there are IWO NPs in the same S as himsel'f( I ' I) I ( h name ~. Ihe hoy and lire bov s unc e , on y one t e boy:, uncle) can serve .< ant d f .- Th h ~ eee ent or the refleXIve pronoun. us. I e per~on Who was admired in 31) mUll h- the bOY'S uncle, nOllhe boy. ave been The principle needed to ensure this interpretation make' U· f h . • • > seo I en()llOn c-command. which IS defined as follows. 32) NP c-commands NPb if the flIst category above NP contains NP a /l h' AJthough c-co~and might apl,lCar to be a rather technical notion. the underlying tdea IS very Simple. FIgure 7.13 illustrates the type of confIgura_ tion in which c-command OCcurs. Figure 7.1 3 The c-command configuration. When trying to determine c-comrnand relations. you can either use the definition in 32) or apply the template in Figure 7.13 to the tree Structure heing analysed. We .:an nO formulate the constraint on the interpretation of reflexive. called Principle A. as follows. In order to keep the discussion at an introductor, level. we con ider only the version of this principle required for simple. one-clause sentences.
- 158. Prjo . It'S .?, Pr;""il* : n<'~I ~ pro In u' t h3' :tn acre '1..,1....0( (h~( ~..•........)mmand, It '<) lei 11. 'on"d r the mterpret tron of prono.mmal~. A, the f01l0li o example h,) '. Ih(' mr rpretauon of the prODomrn I him oonr:ra, b 'barpl~ lrh that of the rdln.1 e him,clf m the ,UU,'ture that 'II e ha e ~ ('011 Jdenn;. Thu.. him ean refer to the bo). bUl DOl to the 00) '. un Ie _ tht oppi ,it oruh I u ob>om ed for himrclf 34 The b,,)', un ~k dmired Inm Ho'll aT to (" Unt for tbi>e faCb'" The rele ant .::on ITaint. called PrincipJ B. I' ' !:.It d rn 35 (A"lth Prin iple A. "e pre-.em onl) the ersion f thl. PllDtlpJ I'd, ant 10 'impl one-clause. cntenLe. .) JPrincipi B: pro nuna.! mn. nl<C'edcnt thaI <,-command. it. Th • 7 15 figur . ---- ~ Ie of beliefs Thera and attitudes NP, I Th~',uncl" ; I admired StrtIC. tun." containlng.: PSOOOffiR"lal. N;. 1 hun There i, much more thaI can and 'hould be .aid about.~ . d '1 d - . . ulelnterpre.aItOllot: Pronoun,. A more etal e e,anllnauon of thl,; e~' co I • J mp ex phenomenon "ould reveal the need for e'en more ab,trac principle< ref' . . . ' , emng to addiuona1 PronPrtle. of S) ntacnc UUcture. However. the e ample,.. ~_. t - '11 . ' . ~e U'''e alreadv 'on'ldered ,uffice to 1 u,trate the CruCIal point in all of '~'I ' hi'h . . ... - . - ' _ Ul s,. JW C 1 that ,,,ntaCllC suucture pIa? , an Important role m the inteq>fe.atlon of both pronominal. and reflexw e pronoun,. Syntactic suucrure prmide, only pan of the infonn:ui.on needed to detennine the meaning of a emenee. Other necessary infOrmation comes from pragmatics. "hich include" the peaker's and addre:,ee', backgt'OUnd attitudes and behef. their understanding of the Context in "'bieh a sentence is unered. and their knO ledge of how language can be u.-.ed to inform. to persuade. to mis~ead. and : fonh. TIu- !>CCtion focuSi'. on the role of pmgmatics in the mterpret non of unerances. -' we : " in the preceding ,ceti n. the grammar include. a tructural ~rin.:ipe (Prin'irle B that regul teo the imerpret3.ti D of pronominal,uch 3.' he :md d1..y. Hoeer. the follo ing senteD e:, ,hoI!.. non-linguisnc j hef, -:m 0 pi ~ an important role In ele;.,"ting the Th' Judge 'med the ri, b. Th J c-ni"d th pn, n r', reoque.:t l>e-c:J.use be in the nte e
- 159. o TfMPOR -RlIN<JUI S TICS Presupposition en;us d(wgt'n)lIs in the ·..cl...·llndL Yet, mo!-'.( people feci that Itt! re~. Judge in 36(/) OUl to rhe pri<.;one~ in 36h). . . ' . Cr, tu ~ The.'ie preferences have nOlhmg to do with structural pnnclples. R: crudal factor inolves our shared belief!» about different gro ather, II.. . . I'k I ups·'" societ. ~fOSl no:>opJe belie"t~ thar a Judge IS more ley to be caUt' -lth l . - . ,- th . th 10US n pnsoner more likely to be dangerous: More to e ~omt, ey also belie and a a plausible r~a+"on for i.l judge's denymg a pnsoner s. requeM IS mOre li~e th'tt be caution (on the judge" part) or danger to the pubhc (on the Prisoner,:I) 10 than ,ice 'ersa So. the} take the pronoun he to refer Lo the JUdge in th Parr) sentence but the prisoner in the second. e r,1t There are man" other ways in which a speaker's beliefs can be reOe J C II . Cled . language use. Compare in this regard the ,0 owmg two sentences. In 37) a. Have you stopped exercising regularly? b. Have you tried exercising regularlyO Use of the verb SlOn implies a beliefon the part of the speaker that the r ,. . . . . IS tene has been exercising regularly. No such assumptIon IS assOCIated With the ve~ In'. - The assumption or belief implied by the use of a particular Wo d ' . Th C II . r Or structure is cal1ed a presupposItion. e JO owrng two sentences prOVide another example of this. 38) a. b. Nick admitted Ihat the team had lost. Nick said that Ihe team had lost. Choice of the verb admit indicates that the speaker who utters 38a) . presupposing Ihe truth of the claim that the team lost. No such presuppOsiti IS is associated with choice of the verb say in38b). The speaker is simp~; reporting Nick's statement without taking a pOSIl.lOn on Its accuracy. Still another type of presupposition is illustrated in 39). 39) tI. D'Arcy McGee was assassinated in 1868. b. D'Arcy McGee was murdered in 1868. Notice Ihat usc of the verb assassinate in J9a) involves the assumption Ihat D'Arcy McGee was a prominent political figure, but thai no such prcsuJlposi lion IS associated with Ihe verb murder. (For the same reason it i, all right 10 say 'jolm Kl'l1l1cdl' 11'£1.' ass£lssil1ated' if the John Kenncdy referred to is Ihc late American preSIdent and not a Dublin docker.) A" noted .at the beg.inning uf lhl~ !-.CChon. th~ sentence .1I1tcrprClatiOn can IOc.lude knOWh!u.pn.~g'nallc fi.l;.l()f r~, •. cntencc IS uttered. 1vo types. 0 Contcxlu' I' I~e uf the cnncXl' t!.......n h) , d . h h it 1n nrm' . In 'Wn h first having to 0 WIt 1 c physical '-'!nviro . allOt) afc H)VO ....1 h h.: . . .) d h nmcnt 10 who h v~ ere lh (the setting an t. e second haVing to do wi h Ie a entencl! is t. e sppech event (the d1scourse). In this stlb' , l" t the other Ultcr"n' Ult.:r~d .... . .. . ...cc Ion We . I .. c.c". In th of hoW information about the selting em " WI COnsider an ~. ! '11 b . e r s Into lann t!Xatnne discourse Wt c exammcd in the neXl b . bUagc Ue' the I" . l' hi' "I 'CCllon B h '. '" e <>1 examlOed from a s Ig l Ydifferent perspect' " . Ot these "'U" . lYe tn chapler 4. . C:s are All languages have forms whose lise and illle rpretation de d of the speaker andior addressee within a parf I pen On the location " h f · I ' · ICU ar setttog C II d . dCIChcs, t ese orms are exemp lfied 10 Engl' h b . a e spallal . ' . h IS Ywords s h !Iere (proxlmlly to t e speaker) versus that ad, .Uc . as.' thi.. and dI d· n Ilere (pro addressee an or Istance from the speaker) Th'f xlmlty to the ' . us, I Steve dB' Sitling across from each other at a table each w ld f an na.n are . . h' ' ou reerroa I d in front of him as I IS plale and to a plate in front of th h pate Irectly h h · e ot er perSOn distant from bol as I al piale. WIthOut an understa d' Or a plate . n 109 of how the' . in which a sentence IS uttered can influence the cho' [ <;etttog . Id b " b Ice 0 words Such h' and Ihat, It wou e ImposSI Ie for speakers of En Ush ' . as I I., these forms correctly. g to use Or IOterpret As the preceding examples Show, English makes a two-w d" . . . f d' . ay IStlnctlon to its expreSSIOn 0 elctlc contrasts. However, many langua . . h' f h . ges use a thIrd set of forms t1 t IS part 0 t elf grammar, as shown in Table 7.16. Table 7,16 A three-way deictic distinction Language 'Ihis' 'thaI' •thar Over there' Spanish este ese aquel Korean ku ce Japanese kono sono ano pa/auan tia til~cha se Turkish bu J 0 An eyen more complex system is found in the Amerindian language Tlingit. which make~ a four-wa) distinction: yda 'this one right here'. hei 'this one ~ll~:lrb)', lI·ti e 'that one oyer there'. and y60 'that one far off. l1l.'ll.'nniners 3J': not the only type of element whose use and interpretahon rl.'qutrl' n:ft'n:n<.'e to fl.'atures of the setting. In Engli h, for example, deiclic nllltr.l,b an: abo crucial tt' the understanding of uch commonly used ,erb... as COlli,' and gIl otice in this regard thetriking difference III per;pectlw found in lhl.' following twoenten.::e..
- 160. ... I I IVUht' Old ilnd nt'1 inlornMtion " ' " I , PnlJX·ftIC, ,f,llhcf un "'r.ln~.·' in the s~lrnc"iJX'c,.:h lo'Vl'nr Uh.... diclUl, .... l-'nh,'i.II tll UfHll.'l~tanJin1! .1 seurclll't'. n:'f) slIuplc l'ampk ,~f th l'} .lrt· 111'0 • ... . ' 111 I rhl' Intl"fJ'In"r.Hiltl llt dl'lllellh sw.:h ~l'" Iw. If. and rlwl'f', hu'ic h,'fcrl'lli .. )" J"'c('nuincd h~ .1 word or phraSl' III it pn.·~l·dtng utk'ralll."c.' COIlSider" utt.,,'n J '~ard rhc t(,)llt) in!! ra~.IA!l.· . In Ihl -Ii) "hild 1 ,'11/ ("r ,I II ,lik in Iht' pilrk, Whik III,'''', lit' ';1 a rahol! '" ,"l In c e.' il inJun'd, h"Il><,k /I ''''"It', la, F'k'h (f rh,' italielfed II "rd, ill Ihi, Pel"iI!!" rd,c, 1'0' it. 1Ill"rp""1 ' f ' , r n · Oil'In In .(lmlMIOIl ~·III.:oJed In a prl"l-'c.·( 1Jl~ Sl.'nCt..'l1cc. l~IS. t..' Illll'rprl'l flrt,/'t , ,In 1'/.:""11,'" 10 /II Ih,' 1"lIk, ht' wl!h relt-ren,'" 10 (I duM, mid it l ilh reI" " Ih a fabbit. : r~nl'l' In Ont'of rhl' mosl imp(lrtanl COnlntsls 111 Iht' sludy (If dist'ulIr'l' IS Ihe di,,( " belw,'"n 1It'1I' and old illtllrmalioll, Old (or ghen) informlltion cons"l ,nclIIOn ' u Ih' "11'' it'dgl' Ihal Iht' spt'aJ..a assulllcs IS u'ilIlunlt' 10 Iht' addrl'sscc al Ih ' c t' h 'h L ' 0 c lillIe " I e 1I11l'1'ancl', CII ,'r "CCallst' ,I IS shared ) hOlh or hccame il ha, 01 " . L ' ,,' d · h d' , rc,ld, "t't'U /llln"'Ul'e 11110 I e ,scourst', In conlrol'I, ne" information in" I .. I I d h ' d d ' h d" ' O'Cs "noll',' gc I al" IIIrn' uct' WIll I t' !Scourse hlr Ihe lirsl time, Consllierlh' ,'l'nlra,,1 belw,'t'n Ihe foll(H ing 111'0 st'lIh:nl't:', C 4:!) 0 , The woman IS al tht' fn>JII duor. b. A W(llllan IS al lht' fronl d(lOf, (h(lln: of Iht' ,Is the dt:lernrill,'r for 11'01/1111/ in -I2l1) suggest.s that tht' rcJ'ercot lf~ht' jhr,lse IS SOlllt'(lIlC "ho has ht'en Illentloned III the previous di scourse lin IS I ll:rl'torc alrt';~dy "n(IWn 10 the addrl'ssee (old Informal IOn), In COnlrasl, "hl'll'" of ,Ihe dC'll'n,lIlnt'r (/ in -12/1) implit's that the referent IS bt'mg intrudu('cd Illto tht' dlseour", hIt" Ihl' first lillie (nt'I lIIt{lllnation). SOItt'l' Ihal /loth sentenCt'S III 42) Use fh.. as the d"tennin," lor lroll! 1 / . ' J'l ' I ' . , (//, m IS ,<,<'aust' Ihl' 't'tllng lilr thl' t'olll'l'rsation prl'sumahly lIIL'iudt', nnly (llll' ·N) /I, The police chasl!u Ihe hurglar /), Tht: hurglar WUS chased h) Ihe police, In some languages, a 'pt:cial affi l< " uscd III illcllllty Ihe lop,,:, The fo llowing senlt:lU;es from Japallc'e IllllslrtllC Ihis phcnnlllc"l", (Nn", = nominative, Ihe sllhlct:lmarkcr: Top IOPICmarker: Q lucsIIl", marker) 015) Speaker A: SI','aker B: Dan:ga kimasila ka'] Whtl, om came Q'1 Aklra ga k.lmasila, Akir.l' 'om came, klra a J,m:·to kima,ila·ka'? klra-Tllp lllH ilh camc'Q'? ' 110 Jill , kil1 ,ome ilh'" rile lllpic- mark.cr in Japan,'sc tht: sutTi, ·11'11 ) i, di'lin~ui heu tfllm Ille suhlCt't Inar..t'r -1:(/) hy ii' ust: III mark old or hilt:kgrullllli IIh'rn~allnn Ihls is ~'I1 s{,,<'akt'r 13 re'pl'ntt- 10 's first ljUC,1Il1l1 ~yUStl ,lhc SIIOlc' l marker <11 tll' P ktllL Bc,'<lu,C this P pro llk' n~w tltlln~'Illl1 hen: (an un~wer t,l ', qlll'slllll), Ihe lopit' malkcr l'lIld hc Il,lppmpnalc IIl''cv r, 1lI1:C It I I" 'II 'sllhlishcdlhal ,1.:",1 IS the ""NHl , hl' C,lnlC. tlk curre l<lIlumg P 1,1' • l c" . , • , ak :"" ,',In then lX',II thl'lt'pIC IllJrh l, Ihis is pn:.:i,d) "'h,lt happ<n ' III pe er"
- 161. ('ON TfMPORARY LINGUISTICS 4.4 Conversational strategies finalutterclnce, .herein the NP Akira (which is now ass ' pre'iously established infomlation) is marked by the topic sUffix~~~ted '~Cl, "ith In addition to background beliefs. the setting. and the diSCOUrse c . . f . C . th onte, f.Ci at lea....t one other major rype 0 mJonnatJOn at enle : t. ther interpretation of utterances. This infonnation has to do With th~ •'nto t~ ConveNation " our understandmg ~f bow language IS USed in rul~s tOt situations to convey a message. If, for example. I ask someone, ,(,an'CUlar like to go 10 the cinema tonight?' and I receive as a response "Ita. aUld Yo . d I" " le la II for an exam", I know that the ~r.her perso~ IS ec mmg my invilHti Silidy thouah there is nolhing in the IHeral meanmg of the sentence tho On eVe" eo , " at Sa, 'j Moreover. even though the response does not contam an explrclt 8OsVe }s "'. invitation, I recognize it as a perfectly appropnate a) 10 respond rIo Ill) that the same could nOI be said of a response ilke '/ "m'e 10 Comb ;,,(Notoce or '/enjoy reading books ',) J ha", As speakers of a langua~e, we are able 10 draw inferences abo . - . th . d . Ut IIhU . meant bUI nOI actually ,aid. Infonnal1on at.s com'e) e on this Way' I.s a comersational implicature. The ease ith hich we recog IS cUlleo ' . ,.- '1 d ' n'Ze mlerprel Impllcatures stems /Tom our IU'O e ge of how peopl . and " t h e In 0 lingUlsttc commulllt} use language 10 commUnlcale WI each other. Ur The general overarching guideline for conversational interaCtions' - - .s of called the Co-operatiu' Principle. len 46) The Co-operathe Principle: Make your contribulion appropriate to the conversation. More ,specific maxims or guidelines ensure thaI conversational interactions ,"ctually satisfy the Co-operalive Principle. Tabl.7.17 Some COlli cr. atlOna! maxims ~~--~~------------------------------------- Iht'M<lXIIN ({Rt'/alivn' II<- relevant rhl' lIfaum ofQualm fry '0make your conUlbullvn >fie thaI I true (Do nol say Ihmgs thaI are fal'e Or for "hi,h }'/lU lack t.ie'i!lJIC c"dence ) 'ht' [.lI/lIl ( {Qu(lnlm D, ""I mal" }' jur mnlnbul.oo 1n(lre or Ie /Of II"allYe Ihan re<]""",1 I1It 1/1.1..1111 'If I/ulln I , lid an'!>1 'UII} IW<i obsclllltv toe hrl t and orderly Quantity SfMA.N1It.S: Ilt ...."'A.l.... S1 ("If . " f'IoolA.Nt<.lC The MaXim of Relation IS cruci'l. 1Il, t h " a 0 eva responses to e question '--'ou/d 'Ott fk ualng the ap e -aonple given at the beginning of· lh" I e t~, go to the C."ln PtnPriatene os ()j .... 1 sect emu to " h conversational contribution! of others arc r~~n). Becau".e We a' ~:.:: I?' (the able to infer from the response '/ have I eVant to the tOpic at h. e that the '11' 0 "",d" fo and "'0 is unable or unWl log to go to the mOvie S" ". r all exam' that.t..' are . be b' . .m.I'fly ..._- u.c 'peak a connectIon tween commg one', hair d be· ,vo.;ause.t is h. d er J ·udge the response '/ ha'e to comb m,~nh . ,1ng able to go t~ a:; ~{)!ee " , air to be . O"le We inapprOpriate, - Irrelevant and h' Of course. the Maxim of Relation can. . cnce h . SOmetimes be speaker w 0 wants to create a pan.cular im . . S"spended b 'H '.fi' I pre'''on. For exam . Y a asks you ave you nrs led thai essay vet" d. P e, If someon . I r I r I, h " ? ' - . ' , an )OU res~ d e raillwg a 0 a e). aSIl t fl. , you viOlate th M.' 1"'"n 'lfs been . ' I 0 e ax,m of R . respondmg mare eVant way. n the other ha db" e .llon by nOI th th n , YglVlna th signal to e 0 er person that you want to ' e" response you ' . th h bee mme away from th conversauon at as n raised. e topic of The Maxim of Quality requires that the slatemen" . d' • . . '-3 u..e m convers.ati h some factual basls. If. for example. I ask 'What' h ons ave d '/' ' , . s r e "eaLher lik ? someone respon s r s sno",,"~ . I will nonuallv as th . e. and . bl . f . , ,ume at this State provides reha e in ormatJon about the current weather. " ment In order to achieve tron~ Or .3rCa;.m. however it is so' . 1 · f Quali ' , meUme, po. "ble to abandon the ~ axlm 0 l) and "Y >omething that one 1_ be . I Ii' . th . "'10" to fat e Thus, If twO peop e e m e rruddle of a swelterina desen and . . k i n · , · " ~ one per,on inSISts ~n as g e~ morrung Whal s rhe weather like?'. it might be appropnate for the other person to respond sarcasticalh .Oil, roda- . . , /' rha ·th· - I( S snowing, as usua , pe p. 1.1 a pantcular facial e"pre"ion Or mto~atlOn to indicate thaI the statement "'"3., not intended ;b a true repon of the facb,
- 162. ,t()2 Mannpr rhl~ jJaIJIIllt 1l.lIlIh..'r .Imp.."l" "'t" l~rul l..'OIl,lr"lill". 011 J.lI)gll.l~l' hJI..'h ," boc..~ l"l'mpl,fit.'d hl"n.' Firtl. 1Il1i.1~IIH..• lh.u I n.."cr I U", .. t..... , . I· U it II pcr.tm .1' rhc-- ""UJ U /lI)ftl HI1I1 /tn'-, u'lI"- "h!lll'r 'uulcJ 1... _ P'If'1,. 'If . '1' I .." III . '~I L'lll1cluding (h.1[ thl." man 111 qUl',UOn I.. rIf.lI I" uf) .., }u"thallu. I"tll _ "'hf1~(j.q. h} ,hI..' .l.I'illl tlf J1.lIlllt'r. d hri.~t~·r anti Ie....., llb."'l.'urc U:ChPI, ! hcl'i.tt, If) hll.balld olJJd h"l,,' lx'L'1l u."l."U It II t'ould ha.c corn..·clly de, .. ~ln. AI" ..' • '..:r1ucu ','! cvmpanton _ ~...'). t'L'und. imacine .,hul I ~Im wriring a ll!u~r of recommenda _ ' l'mplll) er nnd. l,htl(l.,mg my word-, carefully. I sa} about U forme/Ion lu q mine. '}im ~d" ht'liJrlwwle indeed ifJ'()U call gel Henry 10 ~V(}rA r. ~tud~nt Ij , . b' d . J()r 't} • bl d~libt.·r.lleJ} w~ing, a sC,ntcncc! Ihal cun ~ e tnlcrprc[c 111 two dram. l' h~ dllferenl wavs (')ou I ,II be glad to have Henry on your Slaff' , '11""11 J k') I 'I h ' Vcr,u, Y nor easy 10 gCI Henry 10 do lilly wor· . v'o ale I ': Ma:<lJn of M, s II, UStng an ambiguou:"I slrucrurc. Since (he maxIms are vlOlHlCd only l" dn'lcr.hc - , fQ ai" d'd ' I'Jr,,,.. , purposes (as when Ihe M'lXlm 0 u lty IS sU,spen ~ ,10 YIeld '''rca., I~c"i, person to whom the leller "s wnllen would be JuslJficd III Conclud· 1ll),lhe . ,,' , I.~ choice of language conSlJlUles a velied wamlllg .tboUI Henry, (Sec, I"'illy discussion in Chapler 17. seclion 5,) <I Sl> lhe The maxims in other societies The preceding maXIms represent constraints on conversalion Ihalm' an inlegral pan of l'lllguage usc in all culiures, This is nOI 10 ' ay WeB he , II I' .. ay Ihal L Relevance (advanced) maxims are employed in exactly Ihe same way III a IllgUISltc com mu ' I", however. In facl. we know thaI the circumslances under Which nlhe~, appropriale to suspend a maxim can differ, A good example of thi,. II i " d ' I f h Involv the Maxim of Quantily as II IS use III ~ra areas 0 t e Malagnsy Rc u " (formerly called Madagascar). the large Island off the cast coast ofAf ' ~ bite , 'h M I R "I' < ne,1 Because rural VIllages to I e a agasy cpu" IC lorm small ' inlegrated socielies. new informalion is rare and considerable prestigd, lIghtly to its holder, Speakers are therefore often reluctanl 10 impart it to jUst accrues When asked aboul a particular evenl. then, they may reply evasively a~n~one, mention of the information being sought by their conversation~1 ~Idlng Thus. a visil to Ihe market might be described by saying simply 'Ih/anner many people there' rather than giving any specific details, This sugg;e were only thai the Maxim of QuantilY can be overridden. but that the eondSl~, not d h' h .: h b ' " IIlon un er w IC ttJJS appens may e intertwined wIth the cultural praeti . '1 ' eel of a partJCU ar socIety, How do we interpret utterances in context? As we saw at the beginning f' h ' " 0 t c prevJOus sectJOn. e~nversatJon that appears superficialJy disjointed may he qu:te well-ordered, IlJaI'e 10 studv for an exam' can be an appropriate rc I to ~ollldyolll~ke 10 go I~ Ihe clIlema IOllfghl?', Why and how docs the hc!/r dra" from the addressee s response the Inference that the invitation is he declJJled? Ing It is this problem of drawing infcrences that Relevance Theory i designed In address, The essence 01 Relevance Theory JS that When !nterrr'!' utterances. "C focus un mformation that is relevant. as seen frol1~ :~~ 47) IJllrbam: Janet: Did yowenjoy Ihe 111C..I'1 The soup Wa' lumpy. Ihe 'leak wa, '1'1,1 (werc(lJlked and Ihc descrt was l1lISY~ y, Ihc V'l!.tl"h -. writ Toe inf.ormalion cuntamed In lanel', 1,,1 pc<){luc'. I u h' h h d e , Ilr ".,h'In Ihe effeetlrom w Ie s e raw, the llnpllc'llure 'Nt 1 I I " ."hl·XlII,,1 • " . III not enJoy lh~· I' We arc asslImlng. "I Course. lhal th"u"h ~hc . "''<' . I J 'be' . , " nil' a'''Wtlm& ,I . nonetoe ess anel IS 'Ing co-operallve ,md provuJin' retev'lnl lIetl y. Since we know lhal lumpy ,oup grislly 'leak 'Od I!. . 1"1<"11".11"" . d b d · ' • UVtru)(,~td Vcucl hi followc Y a musly pu ding is nm anyunc', ide' ([ 'I I ",I ~, h J d' d · a 1 ,I <>ve Y meal Ihe inference I al anel I nOI enJoy lhe meal is justllicd. . Ilow do we as~ess lhe degree o[ relevance lhal ' P'rt·, I , ~ Th a a H':U i.1f P'C(:C Hf information has, e degrec of relevance hi an ullerance II 'n,. I I . ld I ' . Cy".O( ." On .t C(~t- benefit a na YSIS, ea Iy, an Inlerprelalion whIch rna', , , , . ' . ,ml / e~ C'>I1le~lua effects and mlmmlL.eS Ih.e processIng COst IS preferred A simpl 1·1 , . , . c e~amp C WI I make tbls clear, Suppo..e you al a cheese-and wine part- whOle" . f , ' . , "I part () a univerSIty stu~ent recrul~mcnt laIC. and you nOlice a beanJcd. halo lCN>I1 wh., is wearing a kIlL From hIS appearance and altire y()U infer 4X), 48) The bald. bearded per-on In a kilt is a SC()t~man, The cost of am ing at this inference is minimal a, the clues are obvlou and require very liltle proccs.,ing, Moments latcr. you art! introduced to thi man and J()U are lold hI name is Mr Hami,h MacTavish. From his name you con1irm Ihe inference m 48) s ,OOB as you c~change grt!elings and hear hi~ very trllng Glasgow accenl you gel further confinnalion of -IX), and you al,o dra afurther in!erence: -IV) Mr HamISh tl.l11CTll'ish i~ a Scol'oman from GI go'. :-;l, leI us uppose thaI you arc a foutball Ian nd adore the GI w Ranger, UPXll e you al 0 have other interests. You are in ted In h;1l1c1 a'1J (lU kno, Ih I GI go', i the h adquartc f cotu~h Hallel; you .Ire hi IUD. {If e"hnol 19y nlhu iast and asl mght you a documentary
- 163. fI-f (IJI.JIIMI'UI-',AN"t IIN(.IJ///r'i SO) Mr /1m",,/) MacTavish is a Scot 'rom Gla.sgow, home of the Ran ' . h· b ·Id· gers a OIllhe Clyde. whichu,cd l<> he a major s Ip UI "S?g c~ntrc - Where the'ro t'ly Ui:rtbl'lh " was nwlt; it i.s Ihe headquarter!>" . COlll,h Ballel and h """rPI, SlnJlhdyele Unlversily (which was created ?y mergmg the ROyal C()/'~c "I Science ,md '/Cchnology (whose alumm Include John Logie Bai lege I'f iuvcnlcd low dcl.inll,oll te/evi,jon and James (Paraffin) Young. wh trd "'hI, . . I .'. . 0 oUnd Ihe wI lIlelU'lry ,II Scotland and Pcnn,y vallla) wllh the SCOll;sh COile ,td ('OIllUlt·,,·C; unfortunalely, II " also a clly where plraled VIdeos and. ge I,t . . I d· . h B compu'" prol'rallllllc's arc sold hy enmllla syn Icatcs III t carras. "'r til printiplc Ihere <Ire" million and one other p,eces of inform, r coutd pmcess ahout Glasgow. Hut (Jne wouldn'l. The scnsible thing a 'on 'lne 10 ,klemllllc asUliahle eUlOff point hecau,c processing informalion c~'~Uld he ,mel efJiJr/. (In real life convc""lion we do not have all day to S, lIrnc "'["IUlUlioll /wt(lre saying omcthlllg to our IIIterloculors) The bl' prOCe" . gger Ih (,(In/ext li,ken '11(0 acc!)unl gels, the greater the number and compl . e p,,,,,hle IUfercllces hccomes. Therefore tl is ncceSary to determine e~ty of Ihe hCllcfJls ohlilillcd '" Ihe processing of various strands of infow ~thcr ""IW('igh Ihe eo,1 IUvolved '1 he hearer selects for processing the c'>n:atlOn yield, II,,: greale'l conlexlilal effect for the least amount of proces' Xl that I I .,mg Clllt 11 ollr c'.xiltnp c, Ihe eml 01 processing 50) ....h'ch is 0 complex and u . .. ' . ' .. . nWleldy wOllld lar exceed any likely bene/II' '" lerms 0/ Yleldmg a COnteXlual effect. ' )UPTH'''''g you arc III th,s che c andwII/e·party because you arc Ih' k' h h · . . 'n 109 II oul C II,,,,ng a ul/lvcnlly (If whIch 10 ~Iudy the ml)sl relevant inf" . II ormalu," w, plllhahly h Ihal 'irntlhdyde Unlvcrs,ly whICh b'I</,ls of som ' I·. '1· I · . e aml'"1 ., Iltnll' (illI(l w "'h I IlIeStIIl/ahly" repulable lO)/ilUlion) i, in ('1'1" II. . ,. ,gow. Ih,. pc, M,nlllllllllt'l'IIIg YOII IIIclI say" ~/) "" Mole I,m It,~ III /)lIcelll, 01 Adllli~,i,,"s ill SIr.'lhd}d(' SI tlldytlc: (lIIlIlI~lIy /ll()(/U c Ille 0lc··1 I I I .,.. COli I 1.1 C IC'1 1/1 1111 III lIOn 0. II lI.oulJ f I/Iore n"lur.·11 It Ih I neXI (,011111 1111011 10 lhe Where do YCJU want CJ gc) nc:::xt year'l H,,,, que!ottion will nht be vague. Cf", bench, ana' this is a student recru,tment fair and Mr M"·t Y'" WIll uE¥e "'_ Ii d h • . <Ie aVIh'. ·I,) ..- IDee he wants to 10 oul were Y'JU w."nt le, {t I . 1 f. recrUit hul_ I t;,cJ tj unIVer~Il'J "Mo.II; where you P an to gil f'" Yl,ur 'urnmer hohday,. ' 1Ie.1)t:ar rather than ~r() f,um up, relevance lit a f.;.ognltve princlpl lh l" Proce"ing. From the mUltllude of availahl e .a 'C~ hehmd Inf(,rmattln . . f h e plt<:e. "f I potentIal ,n crences Ihe earer ...,ICCls Ihe Optlmall I In (",rnat"", and I . . Th . . Yre eva", l>rIe Re evance e<,ry" not WlthlJUt ,t. critic, Wh I . . t " h . I C Of1. dl~)U menls, ,ome pragma 'CISI~ ave critlcil.eU Relev' Th ntlnt I 'ded C . f . ance elK)' for be ()ne-~I . ummun'ca "'" IS a tWll-way 'tr<:et. Bein I . inK tQo Ji~tener at the expcn<,e of the ~pcaker/writer'. '" int f ~ mene( towar(l the d I ~"~,, ...., 0 "'ew Relevance The, does not <,eern to. ea ~uately with Ihe ways 10 whICh ~ >ry the lask of encodmg their c•.,mmunlcative Intentions wh hpc go about communication. . , Ie IS a IlIlqI)r pan of sern~ntics and pragmati~ are concerned with complememan and ov . lappmg aspects of .tudy of meanmg. The boundary betll.een the' er d I tV.l) canllO be clearly rawn. A~ a ru e of thumb, <;emantics deals with a b ._.l . I d' h rv,"" range of phenorne~ Ihnc u mg I e natu~e of meaning and the role of S)lllacUc strUCture lJl t e IOterpretatl~n 1)1 sentences. Pragmatics, on the Other hand, investigate, how the mearung that the. peaker intend to communicate b" using a panlCUlar uUCrance In a particular context i under tood by the addre see. Although nou problems and ob tacle remam in all th~ are work in recent. ears bas e;c begun to ldenuf) the ~ pc of relations and principle_ nyohed In the unde tandIng of language The include the nOlion. 0 e ten."ion and inlen ion in the case of ord mearung. thematic role a 19nment 10 the of ntence mterprelallOn, and c-command In the case of p oun 10terprelaU n. Other factors known to be mvohed ill an UlleraJI:e" 10letp laUOD I lude the peaker'~ and addressee' ground bell f ( ted, ~ r example, in pn!'uppo itions), the onten prolded b !ling and he di (our-e, and the maxim soctated wih th l ,p Prl Ipie Ftnall), rele' an:t play a ey role In under
- 164. , , ,,~'''' ---1. 1"0 n:;J.lio~.... in,,')htng ).rd n)ca.t)mgs are :.nlOn~'m~ and 'nonm Wh,,:h r:l,mon " lluqnll<:d III <:a~h of the pc,i" of wO(tb ~Io~' ' .' a) tlouri'h-lhri' e) unde-aunt ' b) inldhg':l1I-slupld n intdligent-able .:) .:asual-ll1f,'m1<'! g) Hog- hip d) yQung. )1..1 h) drunk-'o~r 2, It .IS n"led in this ~hapler thaI a single fom' ~an hale 1 , or more Im:,mings, Depending on hether the,;e meanmg, =relaled I" 'ad, ,'Ih'r, this phenomenon ;10 " poly,. 'my or h mophony, Vhi.:h of Ih's 10 rel;)!i, n, 1$ emphti-d by the fomlS belo" ct) gmss h 'rbag' b~ f,'r gr.lLmg alUmak mariJuana t'» Ie 'h a 1:>1- )J,ud..ing rm: a hanger·on hoe' ,a,ianlage ., rang~ :.l ".) ing. ~h") ('. ;.} 'erie... of nlount31n~ d) ' an tn'lnIm 'It u,cl 10 Ilpen a I~ -k an an, er shn!1 f, r a R" n r,t" '11( iii d in t "'...t or "'~gnnl~nt a 'IX 'I I, r ph 'Iograph'" til1n: round deke at the t-un 'nd ,I' a fi'hlg R)J for Ihe hne It ",'t,,' run1lg ,,'mpetillely: peopl' bel, ngmi; I' th'
- 166. · I) I ...r J'1'('11 rn~lI 'rLlll(her. (Co" dud1ng )')U) ~l1d I "f'l n mal .~ l'U (h~' any rx.e' I) ~rd {'''I'"l" rn.a1 ·lho_...e th.r'et."" III) nl " .. mUlU. I..., p..."f"llft r1ur.ll ·u... (more than th..ree. includ r'l 1'<''''''' plurJI 'u, (more th"" three, "xclu ',ng Y""r 2nJ 1'<'"'''' plural ')ou (more lh"" three)' (liogy"" 3rd 1'<'",," plur.1l ·th"m (more than three)' "~ ..."'l. n '.."rh .lft" gramma(i(,lzed in the Fijian pronoun _, h.'h .. ~hl( !!"r~lmmJti.·JleJ in the English pronoun 'SY'S(~rn~ern lll; lJ "nUh (hem" Ca,a I) hkh ""II" 'pI I' gramm,ludzed in the Engli 'h pronoun 11( ill Uk' FijiJn'~ 'Ien.-,' Y tern but 10. E ,h :1' in th' 1"11,',, Ill': ",men.::." h;l5 J themJtic role that rep p..trt thaI it> ~f '~nr 1'1.1): In the ,iIU;)lion des.::ribed b) the senl:~,:nls Ih" 3 Th' nun ch.h,'il Ihe Intruder. ' t» TIl<: 'alJumped from the .:hair omo !he table, ,.) -:m'n WR'IC a !ellerlo :[.uil'J1, d) TIl<: pn'lII.cr "m"named the gues!> in the lounge. d Hellr: IX ,I:-J the lIIanu..,cripl from [meme:s, l',tIIg 11,' t"mb J",,,ril><!d ,in this,ch"plc!r. Iarel ~he themalk cole of P III the" men"", and Idenu/) the as '.goer lor each thematic ro~ e, E., " t'. Bill 'R'le a flL>l'd in liz,. par. " Lag,~ <IU [1. 81'b ,'I the I"n,)IIlg ,e",en-e, has undergone a moemenl Iran fClrtn:! u~ . ) ltat h;b Lan: giwn 10 the bride'? " n..) ill Chn, Ij, , Which h:>ll, ' ill the group lea' e from? d 31 ha; Hm forg ,nen on the bu.>? e The 'I ce " Ilfen b~ the burglar, t The h '",1 '0 .. hu: to :'(' bride ...~g, th> • <l!oal> -L-: nreox') rei t lOooran if au -h~", hi '5.I:M"""'11 UtE "NI'y , 01 "'I" S "1 ~ 1 Inll VP / P,l P, V NP • 'P ~ brother 6 ~ Jack s gave himself a haircul 13. In the folo"ing senrence. the pronoun ~he C"oIn re~' or the secretary. cr to ttther 'he ur(h'~CI The architect gave the secretary a ri<oe •f.· h a ~r, e typed the rtpon, u) 'hich imerpretation for "he comes 0 mmd f" t~ b) Why? c) What happens to the pronoun's inrerpretatio 'f secrerary tojaniro,~ n I you change the '"ord In the following pairs of semences. one of the (w presuppo irion relating to,the truth of the comple;:~= COI:lIalm a a) John regrets that ~1ana wem to the graduation cer John belie,ves that ~1aria ....em to the graduation C:;::;" b) The capllll1l thought that the hip "as in danl!er, . The captain realized that the ship .... as in danger, c) It is significant that the criminal was sentenced. 1 is likely that the criminal was sentenced. For each pair: i) Identify the sentence that contains !hi:; presuppo-,iuon. ii) Locate the word that is respolbible for the presuppo;.ition. 15. In ;"lalagas~. the use of the deicti cry 'here' and ary 'here'depend whether the obj<!Ct ill question is ~. i' 1e to be speaker. H 00es differ from the Englhh be of herel;here" a) E~ nyrranoQY, 'Herellllibouse(, -letoilie peuer: b) A~ nyrranon~, 'Therei hi boose tlOl·..isibletoUll:: peaker: 16. rioo II "as that u-.ed in eru:in di!...'"OIlI"-e 3 B. B, B
- 167. I J hB's fl· ...pnll'.C' l·qu.ll1. th.:t:~p~.lhJt: I.n aU ~hrcc InterneIIOn...." II J C'JU}('''C (lnl.· of rhl.' th".:(lllf';l.·... In I.. hlch B , rc,'pOIl,t,! i a . Ho. Ull Ih,,· unut.'rltnl·U part:-. c(1rrt.'pond 10 new and old ~~;()Ptia~ (hln" ()rnla~ iii) for Ihl' c,.J' ...COllf'C In hlch B', ~pon,e is unacceptable . no ""plain h) i( i. ., unacceptable: . can You ,,') In "ddll,on In Ihe deft conslruclion, idemify the Way in wh mt()nnatHln 1. mark.ed phonctlcaJly in 8's re~ponses. Ich oelo 17, E"ch of Ihe 1'"11,,,,Ing ",,,mples cOnl"in, a conversational imp)' ,,) ..t H""e you «shcd the t100r and done the dishes? 'ealure. B' 1',,<, ",,,.shed thc 000., h) I' Did you gel hold orO,rl yet? B' I tried 10 call him yeslerday, c) A' Wh"l did you Ihink of lhe film? B, Well, the supporting aclor was great. d) A, Oil you have any pelS? B: Yes, I have IWO cats, i) What is the implicature for each example? Ii) Fllreach example, which m<lXim oflhe CO-operative Principi . relevanl to the implicalure? e 's 18. Using Ihe vanous dImensions of pragmatics, including Rel e - Theory, explam the peculiarity of the following extracts from RI~~~ce Lederer's AflglliJ/tu/ t."ngli,l!t which are all taken from records of sni ;d of ~xchangcs from American courtrooms, (Q = QuestIon; A = An.,w PPc)t , blb ' I ' ? er a) Q Whal" your ro cr-In- aw s name, hJ c) A Boro/kln, Q What is his first name? A Q I can'l remember, He's your brother-In,law for 45 years, and you can't remember blS firsl name? A No, f tell YOll I'm too excited, (Rising from the witness chair and pointing to Mr Boroflin) Nathan, for god's sake, tell them your first IlUme! Q Q II Q Plea.se stale the location of your right foot immediately prior to lInpae!. Immcdiately hc/()re impact. my right foot was located at the end of my right leg, Whal is your namc" Erncstjn~ McDowl'i1 And what is your marital status? !---- THE NATURE LANGUAGE CHANGE Of Historical lingu,st,cs~ the study of language change Robert W Murray Many men sayn that ;n sweveninges Ther nys bul fables and lesynges; But men may some swevenes sene Whiche hardely Ihal false ne bene, Bul .1flerwarde ben apparaunl. .. Chaucer, The Romance of Ihe Rose(c, 1370) Language change is both obvious and rather mysterious, The English of the late fourteenth century, for ~Jlample, IS so dIfferent from Modem English that , hout special lrammg It IS dIfficult to understand the opening lines to The ;~~"C11lce of the Rose cited above, Not only would these sentences have a f 'gn sound, but words and structures such as swevellillges, lesynges, and orel 'I' I Th' f h dOff be fi I Ile bene are umanu Jar, e eXIstence 0 suc I erences tween early au I " d later variants of the same anguage rruses questlons as to how and why an , I uages change over tlme, an~, torical linguistics is concerned with both the description and explana- , I~ language change. 10 this chapter we examine the nature and causes of tlOn ~a e change and survey in some detail phonological, morphological, lang ~ lexical. and emantic change, We also explore technique, used to syntactIC, t rn!!l1.istic pre-history and briefly discuss interrelated research II1to reconstJUc I 0 " " . e acquisition and lmgm 'lIC uruven.als, languag d chan"c oyer time, Engli h h~ undergone continuous All langua~~~_un :;~roughout its three major period. Old English roughl~ and dr~Il1.l!~~~tiddk~English (from 1100 to 1500), and Modem Engll'h rom 451: to 'e- .re,ent). While Chaucer-, ~1iddle English IS at le~t Inml I:-00 to th Pt>l' xl' Old English looks like a complete!) foreign pal1iall~ comprehenSi. <.: t~ a), tract from an ei"hth-centurv Old English , Th' It)lIo Illg l' an ex " . p languagl. <:, "~)f Bcdc' Latill Hj~tol) of E'l~lalld, IThc letter d,x IInent, a tran,lanon l h '91 in Old Enoli. h: here and I ' .'pre'l'nteJ the P on~me I l: t'"lkd 't lllrll " 1<.: , k, u long vowel in the onhography,) 'I ' h, re 1Il thl' 'haplI.:r mar ' l ~l
- 168. I I " ,/1'",.11"ih I" ,.III/:U,II{I' ( ,.,111):(' , l t '1 Hid: 1.111" I' ',',-",...111 Illd', "'1 "h 'h 1,11 ",III 1,' th, ,,,,111' ,'"lh,' ''''h'I' ' I' "d.1II hi II 1111 .r!,'lI"dlol,',1I1 Ilh II ,' llI,he rhlllll Ilh""'II~"'1 I1h lIlh,~, ,,'III Ihlllh'.1 111,·",'11 ''I "Ilk III , lOll'! .lh,,"1 1,111 '1111 'C dlall ,,' III gl'IIl,,.,,1 " jh fl'''' I " I ill Hy '1111 ""l'III.IIInl ,1'''1 n,lIlIpi<'. Ih d ~I"pIIllnl 01 ,I 11t'd 'Ilhl"CI " ,t I ' , VII) dll" 'I "'1"", (S()II'a"I' I'PIII"ldcI III !orI ''''h dId 1101 ,,1"'1'1 1111 'I I'"" I C , v VI'I ),' 'III 1l'1'" III 11~lrfll Iflgil h IPPC,II h hlle /,11111 I Ihall ,,11"1 Ihl' ti'l' 'I I " , I ' ,t "'I''I'I "111111.11 ,Ihl" h.1II ,," tlfc'lllff' 111' vowci III Ihl! w",d "(/1/1 dId II I ., ' I II 0" III III 11,11 '(lld 11,,1 Ihn l,p'eScnl 1111 I!' IlIl.u dl'wl"pIIII'1I1 0' Ih,' Old hi I '(1,<,1.1 (/a /1 (",' I Ihlt'll I I, gl"lr Itil II fa II/ II~ II/ II" 1/ I'tli /" "I ------ IiIHIIII/ ) 11,,"11/ ) Ih,""1 / ,,,0/ ' ''11111 '1I11I1t' III', , I I~" I ,, I I t II II 1 " I. r. II A '" 11I1 ~' ht Ill' l', pt'l ln 10' 0111 ~ ill)' '" h 'VI' I" I " ' II I , 'Y .1) "Vh il hi . ' IKh '-IOIIIHt I. h;H~'t "" ly pn't' Y It 11 11 ,llil 111lmy , I I ' .1 111. 'I111P I h'lllI11 II I 11 'I{htltHlHlly hn'l1 1 LI''''! III thr uk .1 "I '' ,. 111 " I . " . '! I;V , , I I, ,11111 Ihlll /,,1 1"" I , ",IIlull III IlrI"1 1''''' I ,I'l y "'to " III I II I ~'II1 I • ,I, v 1II'II1t' y I,lIrllli'OI Y "ln11"'"lhilh"n 11 11 "TIYI.IY I" " h n " 1 ,I ~ 11 , ,1'1 ' III h ,I' I' "dfllt111 01 a l'Ull',tllh1 111.1 lOIHP'" I III ,If! 1 , lll Illlll ''',11' hl" I 01 it vnwrl III hll'ak UI' II l'oml'h l ill tu • ""n '11hl<' Hl-:-_===___..;.._________________ PI'/f'luHI oj rI f f,""m,III' /11111>1 Ilrl 1 Iljlh ' fll-oll"noltl'"ud 1,.,1111 II 1
- 169. Analogy and reanalysis LallgU<lge contact threehundred years ago). spelling pronunciation Can r",ntrOduc lIOn that Hl.... earlter altered through sound change. e a Pro tlll ore ~llsll tha~ changes inuuced by spelling pronullciUlio, IlCfil,. t~e nOlonous arbitrariness of me relationship between spelli n .tend to ftd tlOn which is a femure of many names. For example. the ;~~~prOlllln~~ Ilen:i..... hich used 10 be always pronounced [mqJlsJ Or [menIS] ISh ''''''~ nonnally pronounced [menzlz). The same applies 10 place IS no","<la Frirhsd,,11 (near Berkhamsled in Hertfordshire) is often pronou n'lnles. 10h rather Ihan [fnzd'lIlJ. and Cambl/slang in Glasgow. which r::;=: [f~le'<l.~' [k;)mzl::eIJJ, loday tends to be pronounced [k;)mb"sl::e1J1_ espec"1 onginun I Who are not from that district of the city. I. Iy by tho Y Spelling pronunciation may sometimes be triggered by social ~ '< is obviously what lies behind the change that has affected Wo dactors.1q; origin such as hUlllan. herb. humble, humour and horel. These: S of Frenc~ stan with a vowel sound, and had an initial 'silent h'. as the Ords uSed 10 French. But mOSt of us now pronounce the initial Onhographi~ :tll1 do in 'dropping one's aitches' (as III [ousJ for 'house') is generally n'e becau", evaluated. gallVel} Cognitive factors also playa role in change in all components of th Two sources of change having a cognitive basis are analogy and r e grarntnar. eanaly' Analogy reflects the preference of speakers for regular pallems Ove' SIS. ones. It typically involves the extension or generalization of a regr ;rregUlar the basis of the inference that if elements are alike in some res~ anty on should be alike in others as well. Both phonological and semantic c~ts, they istics can serve as a basis for analogy. For example, on the basaracter. h I . I . .]. 'th h b ' IS of lis p ono oglca SImi anty WI suc ver S as Sling/Slung and SWing"s . . . ,. Wllng . some dIalects bnng has developed a form brung, as m I( 'vel brung 1'1' , In . ~~ house. Chtldren create forms such as goed by analogy with regular past e forms like played. As we will see, analogy plays a very important rotl:nse morphological change. In Reanalysis is particularly common in morphological change. Mo hO- logIcal reanalYSIS often rnvolves an attempt to attribute a compound orp r rOOt + affix structure to a word that formerly was not broken down into comp h A I · I ' E li h' th anent morp emes. c asslc examp e In ng s IS e word hamburger who h originally referred to a type of meat patty deriving ils name from th; cit Ie f Hamburg in Germany. This word has been reanalysed as conSisting of~:o comp.onents, !ram.+ burger. The latter morpheme has since appeared in many new forms rncludmg jislrburger, clzickellburger, veggieburger and even as a free morpheme burger. Note that the reSUlting reanalysis must not neCessarily be correct. (There is usually no ham in a burger!) Another cause of linguislic change is language contact. which OCcurs when speakers of one language frequently interact wilh the speakers of another language or dialect. As a consequence, cxtcnsivc borrowing can oc,'ur, partit'ularly where Ihere arc significant numhers of hilinguals or multi III"'l()~ILAI IINC,lJIIII( S 1111 'llUtJY III INC')A(,I r""'''lC,f '" t· gunts, Although horrHwi"~ l:~m aftcct a1 . In . II It C(l1n{kHlCnt'i t" h t xicon i s typlca y most ~t cctcd. HngI'o.h. f()r. t c ~r;lln"t;lf the c d ' . Ich .,.... P ' . t:Jli.tTlple h'1 h< r French war S Sl. ~ - CIrelli, ('oU,III, unullal, UUr, c:"(;ur ) f()~C:t~ In<0"f teau and blll.e. In North Amcnca m'n'-l A' • t11a.)or, Cltl tru' 8° ' . , I ' • J me.nnd'an W{lrc • Canada, moccasin. 10':"" Wnw llI-'k, c-hulook. mlJfle ' d . ndudn~ been added to the Engh....h leXicon. • an '1kullk have a~, Among the effects that borrOWing can have. On the Mlun he introduction of new phonemes Or allophone, ' d' _ d "),Scln i.lrl! td'stribution. For exam.pic, some English speakers' nran Clange, 1.0 thtir I B I ' . t"' ooounce. the. nam the classical composer, {Ie I, With the final velar fricaliv I ' e () . ., t' If h . " - e x "lUnd In he German plonunclu ton, 'ere IS a slgmhcant n h._ . t I h b Ulnucr of horroWln, from another anguagc, t c OTrowed foreign segment c' ll' h I h . . an eventually become a new[f] Pboncme. n t e early M~ddlc English PCriOd, the I"'muon dialect had ut I;Ot fV m wOrd~I~llal position. The v1 was latcr introduced as a hresudtd0 contact wit Other English dialects and with French, in wh,c It I OCcur word-mitially. As a rcsult of this COntaLt a contrast developed between IfI and Ivl word-initially, as found in Mode"':' English pairs such asji/e and vI/e. Language (as well as dIalect) contact also results in another minor but nevertheless important source of language change, hypercorrection. Hyper- correction occurs when a speaker who IS attemplmg 10 speak another (perhaps more prestrglOus) dIalect or language overgenerahzes panicular rules. FOT example, many speakers from the north of England have the vowel (ulin words like cui, grumpy, and Slump where RP and other dialects have ("1. But there are also a few words such as pul, sugar, burcher, and Buddha in which both RP and Northern Enghsh have the vowel (u1. (This is becam;e Northern English is conservatrve and dId not .take on board a histOrical change that urred elsewhere whtch resulted m the spht of the short lui of Middle ~~CgliSh into the phonemes lu! and IN in certain words.) The problem is thaI . present-day English there IS no way of dtstmgUlshing between words that ~:IOng to the WI (lkAtI) class. which underwent the change of /u/to /A!, from rds in the put (/putl) class that evaded the change. So. somelimes speakers ~fo orthem English wi hing to adopt an RP accent. overgeneralize the rule th t makes their [u] correspond to RP (Al The result IS the hypercorrecl r~nunciation of a word like butcher as [bAIJd), although thi word is an p., tion to the historical change of [u}to [t,,]. They may also pronounce ex-cep al" th h tho d b d I II '[rubel~]) as [r"beld]. not re IZlng at w en IS wor was orrowe rlIU' O, " ' t h l ' th thL' from Latin (cf. rubel/liS 'reddIsh, ) ill e ate mneleen century, e atm rOl1unciation of II a [u] was retame~. . . . P A th~r example of hypercorrection I the use of I m constructIons such no ~ ' - . . f h h I H ' .J >/111 and I. This usage is an overgenerallzatlOn 0 t e ru e t at on y t1~ l S(III ( -. . . th' , I J h Id '" used in SUD,'eel pOSItion. never me Accordmg to IS.ru e. 0 n I S lOll l·e, '_ . . . II ' ';Il" is correct but Johll and me/me alld John are ~()mg IS IOcorrccl till< tln g( ." ' . I d ' th . f . th' I all ' 'n.'ttk.crs h,'n.>rcorrectlon h~ re,u te 111 e 111 eren~e a F,)f 'OI11~ ' •.- , • -"'-. . d . I d ' · . t> phra<e< contalOlO" me buch as JollIt an me) are 1I1~urrec even (0.)[ lOa t ., ., e b' ha h h th 'e~'~ as the direct object tcomplement' of the ver .• ole tIt e en c ." I 'h' ays HI: s, I'}(,!rn allill would nOla) He ~aw , ~rson 0 _
- 170. Ol n '- H~"'Gf A/thlll/gh all L'<'0lp'1J1""1' <'flhe gnunll~ :l)Olc'" 1)0 J:Ie' of I,,:'h3n!!~ ,} lelJ more ob'lous results than others ~.t! ?ver ti I.'hangc :tre paI1h..~ularl) Ol)lil:eahle in (he phonology of a I. .. ,ilrialtofl~' Common l~ re... of sound ~hangc can be distingujshed. anguage. Sev ClOd !thl sounJ ch~UJg("_' hegin a~ sub[le alterations in the So d elitl language In particular phonenc environments. The ling u,n, . pattern unJerl) ing ,u.:h phonetically conditioned change are iden~~~;C prOce~~a t,'unJ In the phon%!!) of currently 'poken language, (see Ch to the 0 ' (Il. The application of such processes usually brings about apter 2, ett~ "lIlp/ilrcation anJ over time significant changes in the P::nartlCUlato~ language can result. Ology of : Although all aspcc!., of phonology (for example, tone, Stres ' • qruclure) are subjecl 10 change over time, we wilJ restriCt ou' s, and 'Yllabl ... r aUenf e to change In'Oh'ing segments. Since most sound changes involve' IOn here of,egments, the main focus will be on sequential change. Howev:eqUence, r, "'e lI'ill Tab/e 83 Catalogue ofsound changes A'lmi/alion Place and/or manner of artlculalion PalalJ.lizalionlaffricalJon :-':a.s.aliz3tion l'm/aul Di~simiJation Epenthe,i, (segment addition) .1etathe"i! (!egment mOl ement ) "akening and delellon bweb oeJ reduCU(lfl Syncope Apocope Con,onant. De-gemloauon biClng FJi tIon Rhcra<'1.'rn IX-ktion Coosonanl lren?th~ning ~_G..d~ tn'n~thenrng ----- {' --------- - -~- bas de n n II" nbu (.h~cu",'" one, common lYfM; ot ~~mtnlu' I..:h'lIl • tion ot an at,'ncalc. In aUOtllun. 1ft hrl- ~ • tovu"lng,1he, , cr to "I(h Illp nl..~ 'U1icuiatory factors playa role In OUIU ' ' l;.j,1C th", IHtlt.- 1,. ' ~ .. 'al)~eo we 1 ~ II lU ...ound cha~ge ~).a~ed,on ~'Ul"lOry tal:hU 5. 1' lin WI,' 11 'II l c. u di...eu......ed 111 tl'l1''' ,cetlOn and rcfcfn:d 111 ptJtl..tnt OUnl "'""--n 11 ttt l:h'lPl '-101. ll! catalogue of sound change.... prc",clllcd in 1unle ~.3. . CI an: "'Uhlt In The most common type of sClluemia change" a'm'" t errect of increaSIng the effiCIency ot articulation th I a h on whIch ha In . _ roug. a "lmnit' .. articulatory movements. We WIll locus here on the f . I' tl.:i1Hm (It in the catalogue. (Jur rnam lYi>C5 in(tcl.11·(~ partial assimilation involving place or manner of art· I h h' h ' .cu at on I ., 'cry common c ange W Ie • over lime. can result 1n lOla a<' 'I ' • , ~ "'in" a'l(Jn. in the Spanish and Lalln examples en fable 11.4, the place of artlcul,t r h assimilated to the following consonant, a '{)"" t e nasal Table 8,4 As,imLlalion (place of arlIculabon) to Spani,h and Lahn' Old Spanish Early Lalln <emda i!!£O",bllis Modern SpaOl,h Later Latin "''l...da 1~"lh,1t 'path' 'llIIpQ&Olblc' The first of the Old English examples to Table II.S ~h()1", voiceng assimilation and the second shows the assimilateon of nasality, Table 8,5 Assimilation in voice and manner of artIculation in Old Engl!>h Earlv Old English sl;£~e stefn Larer Old Englilh '~Iept' , lem(nfatreef In the Italian e,ample In Table 8.6, a top a imilat~ totall~ to a follolng stop, Table 8,6 Total Latin Italian ~o« = 11..1) OljO 'eight' "'Elem ,en' ~ ,um <lanno 'damag Another t) pe of urulall 11 palatalization - th e lee' nd lh palatal Ii IJ) lyp Jy ha~e elar, ah Iar and maklfl th if pi e of arti ulauon more palatal If cornp;sre
- 171. Table 8.7 Pat..t(;]Tiz;]tit)(J/atlnL';]uonmduL't.--d b) fronl voel! and Ul U} Latin WOn I' ~ ~ nlum (k/ Old French fent [I'J ,enlum [kl hahan fient" (IJI bun m<!liu., (dl hah.n mego [d' J ~ ~ • ""'''<j' one huod . 'half' fed _La_ti_n__-=Il~e_n_le_n_'..:[g:..,I__O __ ld_F_l'C_'_n_ch ___,;:Il_e_n_t___I_d_'l_ _ -.:.. peo .:: pie' ----- l'iasalization refer. 10 the nasalizing effect thaI a na~al consonanl <'n an adjaccllI lOWe! (Tanle ' .8). Thi". change occurred in both Fr~:hale PO/luc:uese. lth Ihe suhsequen! 10" ot the na.,al con.nnMl. (The pro and • . d . dd" ~~ rion of rhe od In (lur ",ample. un emen! a Illonal changes in h' . and lelhene" In Frcnch.) eIght Tallie H.S l..mn Uf'.'ir Frtn( h -- b<1l1' 1x1l1 :lxiJ tx.m Ib5J 'good' -- un urn [OJ un [re] 'one - D issimilation. the proce" whereby One <;egmem " made 1 1". . " . e~~ b.e CUlOlha- -egment in l~ enVironment, 1:-' much less frequent than a!-.~mi"'; Th' S . II h . . ~uon. "I~'pe Of change typlca y occurs w en 11 would be difficult 10 i1rt1culat . d · I . . I! or pen:.eloe 1",0 SImilar soun S In C ose proxlm1ly. The word anma '",ur ',n'" .. 'fi d . - ' ......Ie '-"lin for example, was modI Ie to all11a In Sp"';ish. thereby aVOIding tw~ consecutive nasal consonants. LIke assImIlation. dissimilation Can al", operate at a dIstance to affect non-adjacent segments. For instance. the Latin word arbor 'tr~' became a[bo! In Spanish and a(OO[O In Italian. thereb~ aVOiding twO Instances o~ [rl In nelghbounng ylable,. <By contrasl. dissimilation did not occur to French ",here arb[. has retained both in.,tance, of [rl·) Another common sound change. epenthesis. involves the In--en1on of a consonant or vov.:el into a particular emirorunent ~Table .10). In 'orne ca.ses. epenthesiS results from the anticipation of an upcoming sound. TableS.lO Epenthesis in Old Engli:ill Earlierfonn Change Larafarm g3!l0l YnrV > Yndr gandra 'gander' . i.mle YmlY > YmblY "mble ~alv.."3~ .: remrig "mll > mplV re~g 'empty In these e-.;:unple-.. the epentheti.:: lb], ld1: or {p] h . the pi of articulation of the pre...··edm'" n al but ~: "'1m the foUo~lng '<.~ent In t· ,. ° t::e and n - o r. Th epentheu~ "'!!IDem mereore <;ene, :;, a tenns 0 " ° • _ • • t>ndge for the tr.lIl,iu n t>e n the ,?menl> on enher 'Ide (f 1e .l').
- 172. H' hh ,t , , ",tt· " II ,I I ,., II, I, ,I, h h I, h h 1, ,', l' 1
- 173. I I h'hh HU, ",,,,1"1,,111111( IlIlIlff "/,,,, /..,,,,1 ( 1I11,'ttll""""'" 1(1/111" Ipml Ir..1 Iv, ., ' I.tt!:,· ' WilfUl ' ~ ",.., II'" vowel lC'd"dlOt1 "UII 111" ,dcn,Jlll'd a" iI Wl·jl~.,;nllip PIII(,' l,plC' " /11 1111 111If"llIlI"d'Oili' ~It·p on '''t' PHII!wuy frOIl1" ,.dl VIIWt,! ,,','" "hI"", pI IIIC' vPwc-J, ">" "'04 oIl1l'il/hwuy., 01 con~t'tJnunt w("Hk..'niut. ht, j I 111'1,'1'1 I ,., I crill' '/. ('.1' III ('uu~(UUIl1fJlJ kln'f1u,,. ..hoWII III "'J.!W(' Ii. l LMI I, It"l It u/,'nl"ywjl (il"'(· ... 01 Wt'JJkt"'lillV It 1"'lpllil ~ ( '''Il ~mil''I','' "ftc'III"" 'HHli'C' 1vW(,("/l",., :0.101' VOl( (,.'k, InCilll ye,",. YOKed ~topl YOHt'd Incill;v,-', ".",11, 1"1",,1 w" ••~.l" ' IlI"II', (No/I', (i"IIIJ1Ii1fC u",.,Olli llll s life ~ltollgcr th,m ,"ell lHHI 1" IJlllljlh~ COIIJlft:fJ,lltl.) I '~I"'·'J. I (,I, t,' (("I'>lIntnl,.J ~frI·lIt:lh. Al"C'IIIII'''l'fy, ge,,,,,,,.IC wCilkl'" I() tll'/I gl:""l1alt.., Idl:l:crniJllllion) WC,,~.I'" ,,, I,it .,,'v,'s ((ric-alilm), and v"Kcl,' ~ s'oP' <>r V()fccit, I .' !"P '" nC,lllve wr••kl:u In v",n'" ~Iop, /I' VO'll·d Irr""'ve~ ICSpcl:flvcfy (vulein") ''' .. k. ~ ~ . VVell ('n '''1; ell/I ulJ'"ldlcly 1(",,1t III Ihe (kkl,,,,, 01 Ihe (IIn~',""" 1 F'l!urc k'l . Iyp,nd p","way 01Wl'akl'lIIn I . 1 it ~/) II • I ." IiI:U'~ II. I IYI',••I,..•llrwJY III I ""y,,",,1 Wf Ik fllflg ((lfl ",""I Uti' p."I,(ukJlly ~11"if'l:1 I.. wcakcfllIlll ,n ../I '1I1'·'VI K.II" <'UH'II"'II,,,I l'.",~ ,flli' pal"way ..1l:flli ..".'fllirl WC.lktlllllll.rr,' C~, IlIp"I,r.d WII" d vd"l'm III 1/{)1I1 II" kll,,,,.11,,,' lilII '" c I<h,,' (j III I ,rI,ll,vely ,,,mll""1 Iy" "I w '.I~ C""1 Ulvulv tli (.hll' 011/110 II) (III" (Ir"'I' III I 1" c'd rI hy ,I la' IIIVO/VIII' til VlI'llll' or I I IIIII1 Wllflll! IIr CJ rlllllll' I.IIII"Y 01 /'111'" on3nt31 COtlSgt/lening sIren 'I$,bh' k. 17 CfllI'II'lo.1,,1;, Wr.;'Ir J,;yrOlIll;l1l1/11 (II ,...., VPltWU. (1" d, ,"oc.llIon (tt '" '" 1)I.k1100 (f)., 0, (io/hu hnscllft rnl,r,: (h;(:.r hf)aro (,f·,.-m/.m SWf'dlh nlehr 11lCT. "l1(:r (ilUr II.." In M,><lem r....ngll h, r~"t4C1 m I the ,urcc hr th" ahernatulO betwccn 1 and Irlln waf and ","'e, In" Ir re~uhw frhm earher 1/ which IN' nn!1,mally Intcrvocarc Ju~t as con.."nanls IAoeaken. they can al'>" trength"n. elide <;trenl,>th.nnl!, (the blrength mng of a !;lidc t" an aflnca",) i~ p3ntcularly cmnm"n, c~peclally in IAoord-mlll.11 po'>ltton. In the hahan "Jl.ample$ gtven tolahle 1.19, the glide jJ ( pelt I ) ha been trengthened II) 1<1 1. IlIUdlllO gtOvane
- 174. 2.4 2.3 Auditory-based change EM Phonetic Io'ersus phonological change ~'lfc..rs IhJ~m F",nch rn ~lier £h3ndelier .:luutfeur ,"hautTeur ~~------~~-------------- 'I'~ h '-'culalOl)' faclOTS (particularl) relating to 'ea:>e of a~1 . .... moug ~u . d' , atiOO') are of cenrral importance in sound change as In lca~ed .In the P!"ec!d' di . " audilOry faclOrs also play a role. SubshtutJon is a h. III ,cus>lOn. . , . f ' J pe Of audilOrily.based change Involvmg the replacement 0 one segment . ' . T bl <, "I A . , ....Ith ano!her similar soundmg segmenl ( a e 0. __ • common t} pe 01,uh . ' [n) Earl ' . h hi 'lltu. rion invoh'e; [I] replacing eIther [xl or u. ler In t e story of EngJi h. [t] replaced [x) in some words: today [I] replaces [9) In the spec,h of sOftIe Londoners who speak !he Cockney dIalect. Table 8.22 Audilorily·based substilullon ~~~~~~------~--~~=-~'~ h--~~~------- [x) > [I] ~liddle English laugh [x) Enghs laugh [I] [II) > [I] English !hin [e) Cockne) [flO) ~~--~----~--------------------'--' So far we have trealed sound changes without consideration of their effe(1 on !he sound patlern of the particular language as a whole. Bul. in reali!). since languages are integrated systems. a phoneuc or phonological change i one pan of the system may have implications for the rest of the sound system n Thus. all of the foregoing sound changes can lead both to new types of allophonic ,·ariaMn. and to the addition or loss of phonemic contrasL~. Examples ofsuch cases are presented in the next section. The sound changes outlined in the previous sections can affect the overall sound pattern (phonology) of a language in different ways. Commonly, the first stage of a sound change re ults in the creation of a new allophone of an already existing phoneme. The term phonetic sound change can be used to refer to this ,tage. s plits .t. I .t.!I( l U (UI 1 H l"l l UO't If - :i::. ....:,,~,/,.._"_'_'_F_r .. _"_,·h ______ ....:. '•.:: ..::: 'tan I f ..nch Clt)<;t'(/n-/l(lbJ~ [,itl [1i"~1 [<, utl Il'us] Opt'"Y,yllanit- 1 i I llil [ u] [Iu] [ ttl llth'1 lekut 1"'>-1 ' h'l~n' 'thumh' ·ltk· 'he<l' 'you' ' wolt' Vherea" Canadian French .has the lax vowels III and l l ' . , E F ' h h ' " In do",d final syltabk'j' ~o[pelan renc ~s kbeptlhe tense vowels li1 and luI.Bolh dialect. relmn [I an u tn open S) a Ie . ThIs suggests that Canad13.n Fr ' ' developed the following rule. enen na, y - [- Lensel ' _ C(C)# [~:~~; 1 vawel laxing rule in Canadian French. figure 8.5 While this rule clid introduce an allophone not present in European French, it did nOI create any new phonemes ince there is no Contral.l betvoeen a:<. vowels and their tense counterparts in Canadian French. Sometimes ouod change can lead to changes in a language' phonological system by adcling. eliminating. or rearranging phonemes. Such pbonological change can involve splits. mergers. or shifts. In a phonological pht, allophones of the same phoneme come to contral.l with each other due to the 10 s of the conditioning environment. with the result that one or more ne' phonemes are created. The English phoneme lUi was the result of a phonological plit. Originally. lIJl was simply the allophone of /nJ that appeared before a velar consonant. During Middle Engli,h. consonant deletion resulted in the loss of 19l in word-final position after a n3s31 consonant. leaving [IJl as the fmal sound in ords such a;, sill~ (Table 8.:!4). (1 ote that this change did not take place in the area of the midland' and the north of England stretching from Coventry and Birmingham in the outh
- 175. /1/ II ..11/ 1 , I~' '"1',>11 ' I 1 • tl I I ""II' 11~IIII.ll.l ) IIpl"itllng phill1t1I()~II'.1 shift 11 II 1' 111 r ~ II I t l t I (UA. . t I" .II 1. '" 1111<1 I" 1111, 11' .1 1.." ~I 111 0' 1111' 1,'0' , I ' ~, ' ' 1 " ". ~t'l: 1"., ,· " .. ~" "1' .' ", IIW "t!IM) 1" .' k ,,,I hlnll...'I ".111....''' In, 111.'1 .1 0' 1'1 11'11'" 'hUlk 1 n,U1C' ,: " ("" III .Il) J I I" :'I: ,I rhl' <':Im,,', ami n '1 111<' d,'I'111s nr till' {Ir~at FII!,!lish Ilcl SI"rl slill r"llal1 III",k;11. In la,', Ih,' 1.'1U"'" of phllll"IIIl!i,:1 shirl in g.cn~ral m~ mil I:1 IIl1lkr"I,,d. , i'1I,,,,"k 11I1111Valll)1I 11 'IIlHl.' (a~~~ arp~ars III inlllhc lhe ""Iinll III' phlllllll''.'II.';11 '11:1 '1.' I ilhill phlllll.'ll( S ,1(11" s 111 II", "I'~ 11' 'ca,e lIf ;llt'III'llillll', phlII''''':l1 'pal.'" I" dllli,'ult til IkillC prl.·,i,d . hit "II pmpII",.", an,1 h)('''sin! III 1I,'1s (1111). II,' ,an ,'I)lIsi,kr tl'" ,,eI 'Ira 1" 1111' t,l ,dWtl;lIil'i atll111 1) till' Ial.:alit~) as th~ I'h'III"llIgi(,I 'P,I,C Ihal 1,11'" nI, "(I,'U, . lIll)lIl!h th,' ,..: ,~,t~I' 1)1' ;lgu;lg" .:an Ie ,I ran:.",l In ,111)'" II ')' (,,',' <.'h.lpt,·r }). h~rl.' is , tcndclll') fllf Iall"!;' ,,"
- 176. no ((}Nll>1PORAR'Y ',NCUISfICS aTypicill di'itrihurion of vowels in phonological space b Atypical dIstribution of vowels in phonological 'pace ,,7 LiI figure- 8.q Vowel distrihut;on I to ma.101Jze the ,,,c of space in the trapezium. Accordlllgly. if a lang only thrce vowel rhonemes. the) will i1kel) be Iii. Ia!. and 101 Or lui Uage ha, " .. I h -, . nOt (~ t'xamr'e) Iii. IL'!. 11:/ Slmll,,,I}, II a. angunge as.llc vOwels. they W' Or distrinllted Ihrou~houl the rht>noloclcal space. t) pIcaII) as Iii. lei h1 1111 be rather than IlI/lo/,/a/./o/. ,md hi. t~r example. • , , ol,IUI I~JI1gll,,~es wllh secn (or more) vowels (the case in English at the, , point of thc Gleat f'nglish '0,,~1 Shift in Figure 8.8) often ust~rtlng diphfhongizulioll fbi- can t>.; seen as a reaction to the overcrowdingno;rgo phono'ogiclJl 'r;h.C Its dfect " to rcdue'c the seven-vowel system to ~ the d· h h " . f' . a nVe Owel'y""n. ( IllInk or th" tv,"!) Ip tongs as not to nnglOg on the sp . aCe of lilt' sil11p/e Q"'ek) 1,Ihlc f< 26 hows thaI ocr,mwtltOg appears to have resulted in d' Ilttl" 'L.lt'lln 111m) bnguagcs, mcluding Old High German and SpanishlPh. II u P' , Ie cJ I /11/ - u we I) :'J HISTORICAL IINGUI<;flCS IHF StlJO't () I INC,UA.CE. {M "Nc- " 33, The diphthongi~ati_on in the~e two languages difter English Vowel ShIft In two way~. The mid !I. from hat ()f tn. G :rc affect~d. a~d different sets of diphthong~I~e~:~: ~:~ not the h~he"f):~ honologlcat space all these cases of diphth ., . enhee~!i.. In term f P h d . Ong17..aon . h' , " esult: namely. t ere uctton of an overcrowded, at: leve the . m rowel system. (Of course, the Greal Engl~evhe~-,v()we '!YMem .r) a. f1V: v b h d IS vowel Sh' f· ~ complicated Yot er evelopments.) I t IS further .....--~descrihing language change, it is olten crucial to'de 'f _ - -- e and hrono1ogy, or times at which different changes hI ntl y the relatIVe j,i./ dchang Cnportant changes in the history of English can be g' ave OCCUfTed, Three /'~~ . g I . ' lVen as the ( 50~ rderln .,implificd) rules presented In Figure 8.10, someWhat (,Ie0 ced) dva~ (I I) Voicing C 1+V<Jicel/l+voicel __ I+voice 2) Syncope V 01 C>I [-Mress] AssimilatIon 3) C- [H01Cell C Three nAes n the Figure 8.10 [- Ot el
- 177. II ",l ,r to~PHOt l)c.:; 'l .l (H GE I" -ddition of .liihl!' llibl" 8.1S Fu,,,," ----------------------------------------------------- hlrU l)ru > bJ~t.· +atlh (sunh;nic'Ol orJ ON > 3tli + ~."t" tprefiatilm) - Tal>k .- .~Q ,hOIS that a nUIIlt>er of :-lll<lem English suff,es arc derived from .:arlier "rde I>~ 1lI,'an. of fusion, fable IL!9 Engli.sh suflic, resulting fn.>m fusion Suffi' Old Eng!i,h word -h,,,>J (cn,IJh,>t>J) -J,'", fR't I,'m) I~ (fal1Jal~) hJd d(ll11 tgc-lIic 'Slate, condition. rank' 'l:onliiunn. pO"t:r' 'similar, equal. It~c' AI1<1thl'f c'as,' of fu.silln j.. th.. dl'ydopnll:nt of thl' futun: Il'nSI! "nixes in haJian II hic'h ,If: defiled fnlJl1 I'anous fonns of thl' Latin word h,,/Io,' 'to h,1 C' (1,lok S..l(}), 11I ... llKn ( INt.~J"'I1 ! 11 , , 1' _ '_ "_ "_ "_"_ "_ "_ '_ "1 ;;.. "_ ' _",;. 11:;:1:;:":.:".. ' '::"':':":::":.::' ,11 ---_--'_"_11_,,_"_''',;.'----------------- IhllhHI ,.""t ,l1UI' t h.x',) 11,',, lu,." _'''-"'' t h.,l~-t'I' "'1 ________ --------------__.:..:.~~______~~~.~~~,I~II:,,:S:<'~_____________ ... htl'l''':" -+- '1ll ~' -, N ' "(';",,nt, 'l.n:~ahk' Imm /1(1 ·pk;s.ur~' 'pmh..'I.:(lf' Ifl....un mlUhl'pru~~hon' I is als" very c,lmmon for anhes 10 he It"l lhrou"h '1"n" 'h. ' ~ '. . eo' U l: .mgc. '~)r c'stnuplc, Old English htld a comple sysle", of tllli,cs "'"rising CaSl' allll ,,,,,d"r Nouns wcre d Ided UIIO three "cnder cia"", - 11I""'ul,·n' g.... ...... e o , , ...., u........ .:. neuter. an: feminine, sSlgnmCl1l,lll a cia" lItis not hased on sex (natll!",,1 gellder) hUlllll grmnrnalical ~cndcr: tor C':l!Ilpk, the word fm Slplle (Old English .lUII) "nil cvt:n 3 word lor u'onuUJ {W,}lUO'III)..Crc masculine. the. 'ord for ",WI ~..I)WUlt") wus reminine, :lnd :l11~thcr w(lrd lor '0111<111 (wi!) Itl,s neUler, Each gemlcr class was associated wlth a dlt!crclll SCI of casc endings (scc Table 8,32), Table 8,32 Old English ca.e ali'i,es Alascu/ine 'l'Ull' r Ft'mil1iut' Sill,~IIIC1r hund 'dog u~(lr 'anitnal' gid 'gih' NI...')tninatiYe hund d~or gief-u Accusative hund deor g.id-e Genilive hund..:, d~or-e:s. gid-e: Dalive hund-e d~or·~ g.id·e I'/lIrtll hund ·dog. dh1r 'anunal' )!oie[ 'gIll' ,")tninati:~ hund-;> Mllr )!old-a ('(,l1~;.ti '-~ hund·,,, d~llr gd-a tll'nitn t" hUIIJ-,1 d~I..'r-a g.ld-a Pat;Il' hund-1I11l J~lr-Um ~~t·um
- 178. ,t If fI, , I til J , 'I"'" )""If·I/. '" '1II,lh ,,. '" ~y""""'( ·u J , '11 'IU 111 1111 II f 4 III . l "~to III ,,'I. ,II (II II '111 1),11 II Ifllli ,'10 II. "h. ,II .It! II) Ihl t"" IIlh I tllIlI). J "#.'" II 1,1, j nellllM ,.,11 1 ,1"1',. " ,, I 'CIII<lIIIIIIII',lIlIlIfi tI"f,jllllh,ltI'i 1111111 I,nlhllllll"'",, I ,hII: til ,,", till ''''till ,II 11"1' I 0111. IlIlfl 1111 III, 1111 III ,"I rI VI)Wr I 1,II1y PIlI) , I I I , 'I'll ,", (lItllll 1 'I I ""'1 d h,lIll 111I1I,d ,'. .J (y, It. It WII, 1.II1'j It, 1 I ., i1 I I d." ,,,"1) ('''''''1/111 IIlh IIhlll)' "I Ih. 1',11111' 111",,' '1111 1 "I' , Illrqll I , I,, )i H I 11111111 j ,,",, ," II/Iflll I ,/I d I I h. f ,lIllp" "' H I I .1 !'in IIh IUdl ,I "III Ih. It.l I 1111. ",,, 111''''' I Ihl /1·,,1111111 '11,,011' I"tll 1':r.'1 ". lIh 11I1!11Iv, ;;::1'(1 t " , H'II " 111 'Shill) 'II J It hUll",,) n~lIld'" 11111111.!lIt. 111111.1 IItllI.I hqUHrl " tlH( hlill" IIlIlId hlllllitl 11111111 11111111, ... 11111111 (I) hlllllid I tilth IlIIlId I '!lwei {(.) h'"IIII, J'h",t! N'lItlIII;III1 111111" .,-. hlllld (I') hOli llt' 1 I 1/''',''1 I' /lilli" ;1 "lind It') h1111 II"· fulllll1 hUrld ;1 IlIlIId II'J hnlllltJ., ";illl Ifllllllllill hlllld (t'l /1'11111" W'"',,';" 01" "III""" 11:1<1 I,v,' """IIII ,,"'X," "" ,,"", M"I"It'I, I III' "11 ",ll' ,,,IIv III" ,,,II't'" I ,lIltl n IIII"'h, willi Ilh 10" "' "liw'01, oUt' ,,11"",'h' 1""",,'''',,:1 IIII'''' ,,,111.", ,'III"",,, III MO""III I 111'I"h ,tJl Ih. 1'1111,11 III" lilt' I""" ",I IIII' II'I'''''''III~ II III'" al 'X:IIIII''' 01 It"w ' ''''Iltd dl,III~" ,;111 I('!<ol'" III flloclll" all"It 10 lilt' flhupIIOIIl~'h.1I n)llll'Olll'llI , I U I h' 1',11111111,11 Sill,,' 1:llIit"aJ"" v;"Y v"',lIly III lit, """P"''I)' 01,1"'11 ItIOlpltoiollY, IItIV II"" "'h'" '":Ik,' a ",,'"It ""11 lI,o'w""1I 0111,11 Vi 1<' :lIId ~)'II' Ih" I< I:IIII'''''~'''' hI'" ('h"ph', "I WIll",',,, :llIillY'1< lalll'lI;III" ilav<' 1" Y kw all IX,', (i'li "''"''11''' M,ltl""1 I "l'I,.,1t I, '}llIil,'I" 1""1''';11'''' Itlt v, ,":llly I"" ",:111111"', I,:1'111 ,Old "'IVI "h), I I,'" II"h, ,11",'11", 01 It"""WIIII', ',IIlIIld <'11;1111'" :llId 111',11111 ,'II,,,",,lta',iI"II' ",In""""" II" II"I"'III'''pholo,'y 01 :11:"1"":1)'" OVl" "lIh' A, W,' h"V<' ""'ll, .III" 10 III, "", "I ",I' ,"dlll)" ,III"" 'il ,,,",,d 1'1',(11)" hl~'I"h 1,,1 d,','I"lh'" II "III" ) IIlh,'l< 1,111 '11"1'" II I,IIIII,III}' ,"11," "",,,d ,11I1~""'O:l1l :111,,1yl It OIl<' w"h 1"1 It'IV. IS,II, .11"1,,,.11 ,'IIS'''''''''"o''IISSlh 11."11,,1111'/111<1,,':11<,, 11 """" I", ''''''''1 <'IISI"" ,II<' ''', III "" II SII,IIt'II< !til III" h"I'1i1 1':111 It.. "It" II, dill '''Ih' ~t"d"1I111I 'IIsll dl:lil"I' '" !tH'IIS Ill'll," "I/I1d" (1'11",:1111 1, ~e'ln<llysIS III I 1)'1 / AI Ilfjl,J1 III 1111 '1111011' H..01 hUH".' h;ultLl IIiIlU vuwd 1t',lI" 11'111 apCK'(li"' Ollv""I,ly, 111'1 Ih,' M",k'il 1 ',I1~'I"h plu,al 11(11,,1< ,annl,1 h" Ih' ,h'",:1 l'tHl'1l''!lH..' IU:t: 01 (tuud ~ha"Y;l' Rathn , It, h· 1l'~1h tit rarhn iIOIlq~'Y Illh w""h "Ilh '" M"I,II,' l'IIVIl,1I 11II:"I' I"'"n'~' (,~c Tahc ,1.) wIIch dill I""n II,,' plll,"1 wllh Iht ' ull" ,', I hIS MIIt., wh,,,,, earlier I""n III W:t 1 111''''>1111","11 'Vl'n III Old 1',lIpll,lI, wa c.lI'n,ktl hy an"h'IlY I" all I',n~h,h IH)llIt,.. wllh a Ic.w cxn'rttOI1, ((H{'tI, "11'''', J{IJIJ,I', Ct,; ), Othcl plural fllnn"l Iw",(I" /""Id, lhal WI'IC ,n:all,d IIlIlhe ha'l~ III all"<lgy mdulh: """ """11 In Middlc l n~lI,h) anrl "It",'. (I'"lllclly 11<11111'11), (',)lIlilllllll)' "lIal"~'y alon" Ih,!,,, hnc~ " rc'p<lI1'1ihlc I'm Ihc ,lewl)l'm""I "I Ilw plUlal i<lIJ1l 'III'V" (t01l1 '/lit) III 1111<' 1~lIgh,h Ihalc~t~, hKh generalill" 01 I:nrll,h 'p<:aKIII I ~hildrclI t 'llIp'"allly "''''lIlb Ill' amll"IlY "1 IUllher by plodlll.:inl' 1(11 til, .ud, a~ ,11",'/1. XOIII'I. ~Ind tlWIIII'1 'I'll date. hllweve"lhcse Jl:lII~ul:II 1I111(lIalillnS have lI1lt heell accepted hy auult l!Cakers 01 Stalllar< EII)'I"h and "re evenlually ,,1I;lIIullncd hy yllung lang"a!!" earn I A, 1tl<'I1I111lled in 'c,lillll 1.2. IcallalY"ls ~an leMlll ill a new I11l)lphol"&I<:,11 ~lItll'lUll' lot ,I ~lIrtl lc,ln ,Iticcl hqtlt hllllnwet! Wllltl~ allli. parltl:uary 11 l'aSI" WI1'll' lilt: IIllllplttllo '1<:,11 ,lIlIlIlIlC 0 Iht: woru" 1I111oll 'cr 11,11'parcnl. nallVl' ,1111" I{c.lllal)", t:all IC,,,IlI11 II<:W prmluclIvl! patlern" '" 111 Ihc ,a o( ( Ihlll,~,'" (M'l' 1''' '': 'IIJ "hlwC) ,,, it ,all remaltl 'lllll~ 1~<1I"lcl alkt;lll1& Pl'lhal" 0111) 1lle Willi. SllICe Iht Iypt: <11 I :tilalysI l!CIlIPhllcl by II<IIIIiIIII II'" IS 1I1l1 ha III )1 ~I c0l1l',1 an,II),,, 01 .1 WIlII ':" I'a, 11(111 a h,,11111 ,II 1'1'1 I'I'l'lI':) ,Iml do('s 11,11 lI'lI,tll) IIIVII I CIIII 'llII III "dalled ~1I11" "I Ihl' 1111 11 Ih 1';111 LlI IIIl' 1"1'a)..Cl, II "LlI"'1I c.llktl ftllk ~tyml)ll)ltY 1111111 .h III Ihl' <:.1 CIII /ralli/lurger, the (111) IIklle til lull; IYl11olll ') I Ihl 1'1 ,,,IUtll' U sill ( )1/111 ,,'f (111 ampl,,, ullllldcpcmlc111 W ru untlln 1I 111l1"'tnlll Il Ihl 1)1" /1 hhurgl'r), 101k lYlIlIlo'y CllllUtl 10Iy mVl)lvc'
- 179. III. ( 'INII ,,,'C),, 1, IINI,II,'l", "oJk dyltlolol-!} III 1111:1,,11 (Ilall'(,' wp,.d~ nlld htHIUWIII~r!ol) ----- --- Muldk ' ·,lIgll...h h~·,:It'~'''~'11I (IIml'lal~d 10 )(100",) kUI1I)' • Old i'.111.d,h "nd hrule and t.:"l11a Illun ) I !Ill JllLI.,kr.:,' wooddllld.. 'I~tlnrltJiilll IIllllfUCHh (IInrl'I.lll'd 10 l'ulwi mllA III' 'til) ;Jgonqulilll Oft II('/.. (wlrl'I'lh...d to "'lllIl'! h'ond til ,"lUI, /.,) Allholll.h "',,nillpi, 01 indlvldu,,' wlJId, IS ~01111110n, l1f1IX~' C'II1 'II C" . _ • t "i0 h. :dkct,'d, son,,'/lI11<'S WIIh I1<'W flJOtlIlCl1VC nlOi pholo~''''HI IUIe, "evel" I" C lll~ '1 :1 Il'sull Th" " 1/1<' <'ll'" 01 th,' Modern blgl"h udwlhial SlIflh .. (d(,Vl'lopUlI! Inllll Old 1 ',lIgll,h !t('I"))' 111 Old 1',lIgllSh, udjccliv~s could I~ (JenY,," lrolll IlOU/I' hy ,1(lcllllg the ,ulflx lit', Adv~lh', In turn, could hI' cll.' IIVl'cI hy a"""lg Ihc u/flx ,'10 adJ"~IIVCs (Ilidudllig those dcrivecl I fI,.), us '111 Il!' "I'll lII'lllhlc' H. lfl, Wil , IOlllllllul/l 0/1111 mljedo"·,'O/tl II fllllill Ill.l/lI~ +lit Icl<. 'I1cl.. 'J,u/y' la, 111 "",/,' "h"tlI/It, } I 01 lIIul,,,,, fit an olin rb jm'" all IIdl'" IH', ,,,, "",. t I' I" "I I.. """,/v' I,,· ,hi' rllll tluily ) CIIIII ''''lIplt II ullix h, I,· was I '"I,dy I Ii ,I ,III III"" II.uhll Ih.1II a 11 iltl,C~11V I III1,X Ilf pili IIll1d~rdll,d 11111 d by "".110'), to cI TlV "Ivel" """1 "II' IllhM III /.'1111 d helUi • f uhlllg III Mud In hi ·1, It .I"I"'Y 11111 olh r 1 ,..I IIlhr l 11111 111111" III 11 1111 llYII I,U IU h'III }'! 111111 IIIIIJlIII it ti ll ,I'~ till 11I0!ot' (OllllllclIl UN(J , i) s v () lit' ifl"'l'"h l}(IIII" 11Iantl III' ~aw tht" rllall' Wi1 I IOWl'.V(, J, WII('H tilf ll.1I1 ~wl'OIl1w1thHl1 I"IH( Itt .lIl hhl'" Ih 1 "r,,, flIIt 111(' vl"rb {J( ,un ,tim tiIIH! pn 'tlltll lilt I P"'j .,',," H,,' "h,,. -I} v S IJa Ihe/l "'til lIi! C)'fIlli the a/l' " I hen Ih~ kin lIC/llllt Although IhlS worel order I 111 tuunll In M., III lim lIed and IIbJCCIIII peel,,1 r 11 Illm unll(e II 5) V l{afl'ly ha S he When the dlf I ub 1),l'kJl (,) S 0 pn tun, n
- 180. t I l I' ) , I '/ Ih'III,I~ ,'llh'lI 1 ' ~J 1' I ) tl 1"'01, lh'rn HI "" 1.1 ,d, n1. d.~ 14 • II , ~ 11 I 1' 1' "f ," I,kne,' I~ r 111,'.11 h,'r S( l 'Ihkr" f,'"nd in "" IllI"'IIIl,1 I """1111 '111 IIIIIh' kl 'Ih" , n III' 11I"llIh , ·""l1n.' '111 1,'11,' 1'111 ' '" ' ,c.nh, I',", '11111," ,,'I{' . ' ,111'1.1,,'.1"'1 ,'I '.lIha ' Ill," Ill,' ~ ) ""1111"'11 t " I1UlI< II 11 ~1.1 t I: ,11 I.h ,.'11 ,I' in : h I'In hI); h' h, ,'n I'I'tI~;; 'h 0111 ,1111,'1 ,1,1:,' .'1 ( "Id "da. m,lIhl,lII!!hl"', hllllkl' '.ll'l'kt '.lnn" '. " III ,,1t( lt liN ' ,t 'u I, ,," III v) ",d,'11 kl m ,1 ' 'll 'I~kl ,I "Il' HI :-.'" "...1 P"!-.ItH'" 1 '"WIH"",n ,:,nlW)oi t 1,, ' til' Uhl ngh'h "'' nh-Ih'.' "I -0) S ( lh',l'I" hn1,· "'Il ",,' I, ''1 ",· ...1.·hL h .I th'ttl,,.· ' h .Hl th) tUH.· ""h'ld,~ " S() 1 ,'tIIIl,'d,"'d d ,..""s II '1111',11 ' .1<' I)1. 1 ; Il~ h'h ,,'111,"1',' III 7) ) S 1 1- ,'I ,h'Illl.l1Il1 ' ,Ih Iw tw tll' tn.l " i . 11'11 II<' ,.1 Ih ' 1tI,III 1'", '11.111: < ' 11'111 St 1 S () " 111 '~'ln<'I~,1 1 -.1~I"h .l, ,lhel t k t tl~tI.~ 1.ttJ.h~'I.·s , w ....'."w .~hit~l.~ s (' .('nt. h.w .:'~~ml'c ~"1l'.'kh 11111";11"" 1!1tI~11.lll'" "I"h ,I' Ih,I,,· "I Ih~ Ihm" 1,IllIII) nl lnc.l . Sm,',. hll!lli' I' :111' ,1111 ",I .'11 ' 11 hlll!Il:l)l'" "h'I1l!l" 1'",, "n~ ')1ll:1~1I" 1' In .",,' IIl'I. Ill ' ....11"'" "I '~I"h ,'h,I1l!!" III 1111.1""11,,.11) [""';Im .11l1111I"'",ml ,lI~,1 "I 11I,'sl1~,ll "l, "'I""'lall) ' 111':,' 11ll' 1"':111" 'Id~1 ", "Ih .I1l.l "hi"" l ,'''11' 0 h," 1""11 ,'hI",,, lin...,',1 llh "Ih,'r ,I,I ,,,,kr 1',111"'1" ,~" t 'h,II'I"I 1). III l)hl .111,1 l'.1,,1.1l, FIl)lh,h 11ll' Iml.'l"'1 n:llbf,'n":lI'1I l" '" eh.ll'lt.'r ~I 111 " " ,'.1 mlh,' f,Wtll:lIh'n "f Ve.' /Ie' qUt."""II, ",,,1.1 ,II'I'I~ 1, .111 ,'rh" 1"'1 ]11'1 ,Ill lti:l1i '" id dm)! t,WIl" Ii"" Ih,'''' 111 II) lr"tn Sha....:,t't.':U,' .h.1l "ul.l II< UIl:I"""I'I;I"I' 111 1 I,,,krn rn),!li,h 1(1) n,1 h,IIIl,lk,' ~ ,'I fn'tll 11I"Il"t.'I)!., Il'lai,'~ /I,lInl I, " '1 I ' i " Sp.l'" ' " " ith hllll'~ (I ( " , "1 I ' Ii I tllIH' th' ' 1'1.1" Hlh ,"hi ,,' 'nt"I'Hlh ,"'Hllno, Ihl' 1m ~I . I' n ruIL h,I11::' " :1' 1 ,,' '1 h' .Ill I ,.(~ 'It-,.
- 181. -', , 'h " ' . h , ..., h • III ,>,11 ~ ,1 , m h 1h ,,,-. tu ,11", ,,,' " "'t '" '", c{u ,I'b,,,"
- 182. .. " I R bgon JUdi'llTI ,I ,, t , fl~t!'nlJ('. g mD)(:"Dl.n')ll. ~tJrC'. r.lfli~lJn('nt. a~ pro '. Juk~. ,13~.1'<'3'3Jlr .' pr.!),'r <'TIl1Oll. ",bglon, e1ul'd, ,harIJin, rnar ludf, ~ ndant JUI) "d"0<"".J31 crdi,'I, ,rim~ m< , ph) ,I Ian an IptIIn", f shlOn,. 1m. fur, rub 4ITI1). n , battl Idl~r C'lem), capram 4,.'.U ..hl,.'"l' pI' -;;'111''("111 f'ng/",11 '""oct ea' I1Hh'Il l"tk ------ ",ul" ('ntH,n n'...·tH' .lllW"Hlt..· Tnble S.+' 1t,IIt,Ul ~p'lll'h ''''1h,tJ~ • ',uh a~ • - -- ·hig.ha~ (+ nll*'£'~)'f <.'f I I~U ~" all',1 1<1 l'U I. l'C' f fill the h;"k I ~ar' ,uch.: )1lt~(1 tn~ lab1
- 183. 5.3 344 . -lrhl1ugh htlITt'lmghJ' ~~n ~l (.1") r1('h ...oun:-e ot new 0rd It IS nll{t.~"onh thJ.t th~ ml..l-ir tOC'~u "nll) u,ed t.,",-' hul3.l} item... ha Ita It::"a,r 'u..~erlil't'_e- (0 n..·r'~h.'Cml."'Dt ~~ h.l.3.Il llnf:--, Thi~ ~ntX:l! "e, lend~n..') f,~ hl;hl) f~qucn( HmJ.. (() be relauel~ re, i~tan; ta g~ ...UO.,lHUtlOn.3,.......tk..l71 h~ T.1.brc:,' .~. 0 ~ Tabl.S..I6 FiN 1000 Se.:,'lld 1000 nurd 1000 Fourth 1000 Fifth 1000 9 II II 9 5.2 ________ ~~---------------------------------- loss of le)(ical items 1u" a,. "ord. can be added 10 the I."icon. me) can aho be 10. I <labI lo, ofa ord frequenrl) OCCUl" J..: a resuh ofchanges In 'oc'el'.. ~ in Ibe c"-'" here the o/ljoci or notion 3 ord refers 10 ha.:. become ' ole :151m<" ."'OIl1pt'C... tion for ounding' 'hunting -pear' "ten or oolif!lOon (0 £M jng to ~e~ good.:'oI" '3 "Iood Ielticg m,lJUmenf ---- " emantic change Jlhough change, in ord meaning !.he place contlDuall) in alll~ nrd., rarel)}umpfmmcnemeanmg lOan unrel3tedone. T) picall).lhec~ , ~ "epb) "l'Pand imohe one ofthe follo ing phenomena, , mantic broadening (Table ~ ..i ) i the pr 'e s in hich the meanin "ordre:-omesIDOO :ener.tlormorein-Iu le!han it hl>(oricall~ eariierf" I 49 r I '3D) fea.lhered ,enebr.!le ",lm a be an) agnrullUraJ bulk!; g' 'f;ubo-or IllOIher' I ler' Tuble 8A9 Semanltc ni.lrw.... 'ng ~_"_I________ O_ld __ m_r_un_._"_._____ t;"und meal f('I 1 di~a<..e "any dog"' 'an) type of h,lQd' "an) bird" "any unfa-.:our.lhle latc· Nn.. tJuoQI1UlI ·.hunhntbr~ IIesh oran IUUmal "~Ibud' 'anll~' '1<1-, In amelioration (Table 8.50, the meanmg <>1 po,itive or favourable. a "'O£d btto~ lll<xe Table 8.50 Amelioration prellY knii!ht Oldmeanint: -tricky. ~l). cunning' 'boy' "dttracli"e" 'a man 01 honourable IIItlttary ran The oppo>lte change. pejoration Table 8.SI). also OCcur;. Table 8.51 Pejoration on:l Olil "",anin~ ·haPl'~. pro'perou.'; .girl' Given the propen ity of human being to exagger.ue. it i, not ;urpnsm that !he ~eakening of meaning frequentl~ occurs. For example, v. d Sooll used to mean 'immediatel~" but nov. 'imply rnea.ns 'in the near ure' Other examples are bown in Table "S~ . Table 8.52 on:l Te$ cruc~ quell Weakening ·a,·enge, purllih' . 'n b~ O3llin" to a _ . ·'11. m!lIder- manti hift lTabl .53)i proce in ....hi havoooH me nner m anill£., "r." on:1 paruall, DeV., • re ted., me:llll!lb
- 184. h 'ttl ~" ft t' " t ~" '" II , II /f,,,j,'"lh,,,,, ,It Ih. I III 'u"'; , I I "I Iiltlh tl II II "., 1111 IlIhh I Idlhl ./1111 II. 1'1 ,01 un '1'1 1I.1If! In I , lilloill III " PII .IIII!' 011111 'IoIlulild p1lf llll.lIh lll ~"lIh'IIIIII" 1111 'III III .1"".... III I ",~,,,Io'," II dl III I 1"11 ",".1, 11111111 1 1'11 'I ,'/11.111 1''' .111 11111'111'11 1111 '1',lIhlll.lI I'IIII(·I.IIII'II,IF' 1111 l' IIl'III ,'11 J '"IN" " ,.Ii"'/ 'I'k,., ,Ii/'mill" 11,11 111",,,·./,, 11111'1, III I 11,,1,,11 111"11, • ,. t", 1 111 ,lit 'lllllJ.-' 1.'11,111 tl III 1I1l' llt' p.lIlt'llI til dl,,)'l.lhH' Iud, Ilh ll II"; t/J/II"." " 1111 II, .111 I.. II "d ,1,111111 111111111 III d Ir,b libllil It 1111 " I" " ""1'1111111; Id/ 11111/11' ,,·... '"d~, 1/,1101, I,' '.1101/, 's III h' I,.t! '"1"~"" y, III Iii,' 11111,'1 IlitlllIl 1111 11,', IIIIt 1,'1111111 1111...• ,",11 1111111 , "",'1. "",/,/11, dlld ,,'1 "Ir! ,'HII'" III h,. /'"'111'11111 ,'d II lilt 1111' iI,'~ "11 1111 1111 11,110" 1 111'11 1''''.1 ,j ""111" IhI' 11'11" !l II tllli II 11.',. illI II, ss ,11111 1101 " I lI,kol III ,"l 111111 "'1111' 1IIIIIIh'l tl' llId 11"'llh,~ IH 1 d, hh'i II", I h,1II ",It " '1,1/ 111'1 .11/111 ,'./ Iltllllll'li 1/1< ,"1111' III' "ltlll.lI 'III loti '11 h 11111, II< 11>1'111 I IiiI'll Ilid IIIlIIIl II/ Ih,' ll'in,1I1i 1111 lilt" It 1111 1'1.111' III<' IhtU" ,H II III II" II 1'' I It" ,I l II' IIII 11;1.( '1'1 'il' lf: 1 .11 11111 III ,II ~/ ',1 ",," H~' • I 11,1111 IIIHI lltnl I IHII" I')I~I 11,111'1 Ii , I 11')( 1 ,111. '1I1~ .11.. 11'1'1 Ii" { ,. " tlll~W~l' 1m I.., 111 Like ,.. I I,~ --------------~----~~
- 185. , f (Ut~ .11 It•.! Sprt'.ldthrnugh the pUl'ul,diul1 Ihi, Itlk h.h ft·,ulh.'d in l..'h.Ul1!{·,' ~lh..·h ." rhthL' l'.('mplitll'd 11 l'.nl..' X ~b. l"Hhk 8.5,.. 11", clf{'{'" ,,1' rh,'lsl ttllhl ch.lIl~t· III ..,lI1W Spalll,h lh.lb..'h '!.md,lnlrnmW't·,.m'/I,t I1t-lbIl1l,.'nh.' , It".,uJ,'J 1,·",,-,,··I 11<'I.hlllt'lI'", ",h,iloJ Idlp.I.!I.11 ---- -- --- 'h,IPPIi} . "y!'<" 'Spain' --- rhi.. Ch.II1"'l' i. ... l'nfln.'" n,.',1!ular..lff't.'..'ung .tli in.....(;lIh..·l'S ()f iol l I , . ,r, I1H~nl.ll " IIJhk~ti';;'II'lln Ih,' '11<.'l'l'h llf in.!" idua" II h,' ,'dopt it, , ""'I'."hn.'!I~. ,,"I t~Il<.'~, "I 1a~lgU"g~ ,'!I.IIl!!,' l..1Il h~ ,Ilit-nltril'" Olll" ,'wmpllftl't! h~ Ihl' ,m',,, ,1I11t, III "h~ lIa",,' Engll,h nnll'h nllh~ t~ pc W~ h'll~ d",'u,,,',1. ,Ittl"" IIldl Idual IIllrd, llnC.i1 a tlllll' and l!ladually 'pr~ads Ihroll h lilt' 111<."'''111,11'1 of till' languagl', rill' other. c~l'll1phfil'tl hl th~ l'Ons" g I ,,,.k 'lling llf ",I 1I.I"k~lin:III'1101hIin "'llll' dialct:t, of Spanish. 101 lllve~"~ .It'n'''~lh,'~ "".ud dl.III!!,' that apphl" II ithollt 1'L','pti"1l to all words, ' 1'", a 1,III!!Ua!!I' Chan!!l' tolakl' pia",,, Ih~ panil'lIlar 1I111l) ,ilion mu" h' ,Il'Ceptl'" 0) a ,i ,'ahit' Sl'clHIIl III' Ihl' linglli,'lit', l'Ol1ll1lUlllty, For l'"milk', ,Ilth"ll~h ," 1Ill'1It11lJll'd. dltldn',n acquIIlng blgllSh 1 p'l'alll I<lrlll til" I) . , ' • • 3M h,'Jhl~ <<It g,1 .J'" X()('d IIblt'.td llt ,,'('IIf, gOt'" ha ne l.~r l'I..'l'l'l'l'd ,idt.'sprtld .1,',','I't;UI"I' !)tlllbt/t'" thl' '<'I'h form in he ,1m'.'" (I/I./il/llt' ollid hl' <'qllilll un:Il',','pt,lhl,' In IIlllsl 'pt'''~I'I' Illda~, Inl',"lil'f' Fngli,h, hmH'll'r, ,h"",,,113" 11ll' P,I'I It'IISl'1t11'1II III '"ril' (rtlllll'arl' dril'!'!dIII'" I. AI '<lllll' pOlnl ill thl' P,IsI, thcn. till' ,1</ d hlllll 'hmn/lhd rl'L'l'i(' gl'lIl'ral al'l'l'jltalll'l', h 'n l' <.')I1I',m: Ih' x';lhu!ary it~n" 11' anous !:mg.uag.es, Ie Call1WI help hill Il<'li<." Ih,' 'tiling. fl'Sl'mhlanc" c'~rtain ords ~ar to each "ther. B s ,1,'I,lli,',Ill) c ,,'II',lring. Iatll.!U,Ig.l's, e <.'an .:,t,lhli,h helh~r tI 'll' 1II,lr' ;I"II.I! 's ,~' 'n,it'd tnlm a (,'ml1l1)n r;lr~nt ,mtl ,If: thl'rd,lr, gCIlLlKalS ll';~I' I s ',' eh.!11 '' tl) rh,' rOllpal'lti~ method rdeT 10 th pnlCeJure
- 186. ~ . The11K' b Ie _ "0 of fami!} relationship, i~ /he e'<.i.·'ence Of sy .....-:.. . .;dences in !he mcabu!ary lIellli of ddTerent I S .......~~ <vrr...-po,~ _n be found and Table 8.57 sho" anru;, I II ,"""_pon",,nce. <~. , a ~ • - . , E I"h Dutch. Gennan. Dan;sh. and S" d a"'PIt 3l) "errb from ng I>. 'c family of language,. e "II. alI Of .: !In." member- 01 !he Germaru ., Table , .$.)me Geml.1fil: cognates ~ Guman Danish U<.!i.s/t Dkrch ~Iann mand ~ m;m man hand Iwld hand Hand h..nd FoB (8; is]) fad fO( (00( """ bringen bnnge bnng. Orin; breDg~n $olJllTler sommer <Om11lar mwner zorner ------- S - !he re/ar;onshlp berneen the phonological fonn and meanin IDe t1 arbl'-~ the exisrence of sl,remalJc phonetl·c g of a "ani " mo. } U~." COer 'JX'flde~"'" in the forms of rno or more languages must pointto"arde. ~ "'ce Con~erseh·. whe.,e languages are nor related. theIr 'Oc,•.~a < mmoo 'o~ . - , . . . Th' be ....", I . l' 'j r ~ho" s}·,remaric "nulantles. I, can 'iCen b} CO~ . ' ary",tern.. 3J 0'" "' - _ . . •liPan" word.:. from Turkish (TabJe 8.:>8). which IS not related to the German! , " c with their counterpans in the languages clled 10 Table 8.57. 3ll"U3"e. , Table ILS Some ..ord.> in Turkish. a non-Germanic language ~~~==~~------------------------- "man" eI '/Iand' 3Jai: 'fOOl' gem ·bring· ]32 . umrner ~---------------------------------------------- ord, that hae de. cended from a common source (as shown bl ,) ternalic phonetic correspondences and. usually. M!mantic similarities) ar~ called cognJlt~. Cognate are not alwalS as obvious as the Germanic cUI1IlpJe lfl Table 8.57. Where languages from the arne famrly are onl) distantl~ related. the ) temauc corre pondences rna) be con'>lderably Ie ruiling. 1111 i e~emplified in Table 8.59, showing data from Engli h, Ru Ian. and HlOdr. all of which are di umtly related 10 each other. ronn from !he unrelated Turkl h are included to emphaSIZe the Imilantic among the fIrSt three language oJ • ueS of rec~Il,q tiOn IlstrUC rrcO tIiS10W:ICAl liNeAl TI Hit luO'i O. l" CU"Q ("" , :::.=----d-v-.--- dO --,,,,--___ _ tWO thre~ tri tin Y11 bro.her brat hhai wdeI nO-,.e nO'. nahi' burun Once the existence of a relation hip between th " . ~ ) Or lllQre 1""",,>& been estabh,hed. an allempt can be made to reeon tnl<:t the C<'>m ~-..a. bao This reconstructed language. or proto-lanonaDe ,. m"A- f mon """ree . . . . n-,; • ~ up () proto.r which are wntten with a precedlOg • (for example "hand ' . ...,. . I h t . . ) to IOdu:ate ''---'r h>potheuca c arac er a, recon'lrucllon, of earlier form, that have """ recorded or are not dtrectly obscrvable. _ been Reconstruction can be undertaken with SOme Confidence becau (•• d ' . . - 'seu sed in the prevlOus sections) the proce<,sc underlying language change are Mem- atic. Once the processes are uncovered by linguists. they Can be r;~ersed allowing us to mfer earher forms of the language. Although it is possible () reconstruct all componentsof a proto-language (its pbonolog). m()tphoogy, syntaX. leJUcon. and semanl1cs). we wll~ focus 10 the following on Phonological reconstruction. the area ID whIch linguiSts have made the most proyes . Reconstruction of a proto-fonn make use of two general strategie,. The Ill()M important one is the ph onetic pla usibility strategy, which require that an~ chanoes posited to account for difference~ between the prOto-foTlll' and later fo~ must be phonetically piau ible. Secoodaril~. the majority rIDes strategy stipulates that if no phOnetlcall~ plall5ible cbange can account fOt the ob erved difference,. then the segmen found in the majority of cognates hould be assumed. It is imponant to note that the fir t trategy alv.-a. tak.~ precedence OVet the ~e.:ond: the '>eCond 'trategy i a la:>t re:on. Consider the following cognate" ( omewhat simplifled) from rnembe" of the Romance famil). Table 8.60 Rumanian Th rut '<rmplif, rre pondence betl!. n l-l and inbefore the el 11 To - ount tor thi , e uld ume nbet t Rumaruan lIIldent;ent a
- 187. R"C(lIIlrUd/otl .lIIff 1/", ..,11,1/0,&:11('(If '"lIIlel, 1t,lIIg", S""IIHI (h;lfI,I:!'" CR"''',III1,11I ollly)· P,ntn l()Im, O J >, I ·Ilholl/!h 'hn!' ,In' lil<"I"" Illill c';111 <"<>lIlound our Ullc'll1pl In dl'lCllllinc 1/ ' /c/;lIn., plall"hlhly 01 IlinOIl. sOIl"d chanpes,lhl' druJlgcs h'lt'd In I~'. "1('11"1'''1' III h"I' Il I ..;I" "t'lle/,IIII he (ol1s"I('",(/ hlphl} pl.IUSlhle '1'. hC " , , " ' . .1 I" X.h/ 11.1 ""lit' I'laIlSl"'I' H'I.'", It',.' plauSlhle 0, cvt'n 1I11plaUSlhlc changC "",,'d (Ill ,hal I·"I;II.)!!"" I"h'" 11.61 dMII),'l'.' Rulr ------------------------------- 1't~lIl1l ' oj .tllllid dumg" ill ,·a/aIOHUt' I> 1'/ i " tnl II 011 V () 1 " IOII'I".ohtlhJ/,"r " 'I , pa lalall/illum/all rit'ilowl ;1"IIIIII~lIinll (phil,:,,' of ;)11lrlll~llioll) "(lIl'ln~ l'IHlo.;11I1:I111 dc.'It'1101l --- III "I h «hk'.' 1101 l'tlrll',pond h) i1l1y Ij'h,'d l'hllll~l') (dlw., lIot l'Olll"PUlld to any li.,ll'" rhullllc.') (dllt', "0' "(1""'lkllld 10 allY 1III'd dHIIl)!I') «(/Ik" "01 rolll"IKHilIIO a"y h"1'" dlll"p,,) 01 ,I ' II k I ' ,I III~ Ie Wit 1'" 'INI ,~JI'i' Ie .ftht~ ."ttl et.' ",,, ." ..If"l ~I' IO·tt O IIl.(' l:1I).'Il,lh· s o K01l 1 • 1 ~;':;;~--;;;:;;:7."-------;;:;:::;;;;::;:;:---;;;;;;;;::::--:7"-:-____ " ,-;,.11 11 I III 111,,,,"11 "m'''I><III'" HUffltJlII". ".H·o; S'," 0/11 (Jr, , 1""/ live HIV Ilh;, . ,1(1"" ~qnl"k ......-:--...i·" 111"1 ,IIlltt' IUIII 'li".,.11 np: "t'mhl1nl"nent' 'tj.'" lUI IInllt:,1 I' 'h:n I t UHlpC ,.upi t:0l'" ,:uI"K1 ,.. e neild' tIJ 1"· ( Upp" I I .:I{l hi' " t!.outtc 'ul VOl" VUI, .)In c=t ~ ~ .~ 1'" ,,,,,'rHo; Ik 111 all Ilk' ahovl' CXU11lpll'S :iIl! H.UllHIlUlll II n,'flre clW",I"1 lUI ~. • I: rl'Ptt: . S I I • , u 1' a hllahlal r"~ IWllll 1 r vl)l,!(,'d Incal,v " Ollie (('hll, III vowel llIallly hllvc x'CIlI • (Jllhl'~,IUlld 1,,1 ~I V'I.' H ~l1un~I.) ,·,,/t . '1111 't: I, ."lj,11o- Our ~ulIl here I~ In Il'~nnstrlct the pnl()·h)rm... for th., d ,'Il~ I C"'c W{)r !-o In Prot' I(OlllUIlCC, the par~nI anguHt-!,C tit Ihe Mmk'rn Romance ang1: 'C:~ . )~ ,tant" very close to I.alln g ,wh"h I c1 U'" fir~t cun!-oidcr the rCClHhtrUl:tlon or the Protu Rc n t. ' •. ~ • . . • • 1I an<.:c Hrm tor 'emhankmenl In rahle K.62. SlI1ce Ihe IIrsl two seoments 'Ir' Ih . e • C c "'~unc: 1n a Ihe CU~I~latc lal1gu.agc~, we. t.:an rcc()n!-otnlct Prntn-Romancc. +Or and *j )n the Ix,," ot the majonty rules strategy. In the case or the second consonant rrahle 8.6.1), however, there arc dlliercnccs hetwcen the COgnates. Tuhlc 8.63 Sy~ll.!malil.,; corrl.!!-opnndcnces In the ")cconu cl,."'msonant t)f the l:l)gna.c~ for 'emhankment' SJlOllish Sardilliwl /;rt'"dl Portuguesl' RUftt(ltliuti .--~-- P p v ,b· p. (( is most important lhal we first Ihl1k III term., of phonclic plausibility. In Ihe ahsence of evidencc to the contrary. we will assume that one ot the segmcnls found in the co,gnatcs IIp: lh.lv, or (.1) shoul? he recon'truclcd for proto-Romance. l.oglcally posslhle changes ranked with resp.:ct to their phonetic plausibility arc found in Table 8.64. lllhic 8.M Changcs t",'ed on phonetic phlusibllity ClIClIIg., ;" I _ I ' P h P p > II h I' II P P ('Ii(mg lll"lI1g Ip > hI ami Iricallon Ih:> I llicIg II' > h) and Ineallon Ib > ~I high high high I,)w 10" 10" 11 I,'rnl, of p,llISihiIiIY, the 1111) f'O..,ihle recon lructiun lur PrIlIO- */>. '1',)1<) R')mance *1' under'llCs no change l Sanbman and R,llllan'l' I "
- 188. RUIll~lI1lan, hili inPlr!U!!lh:..I.' il lIllI,h.',' WI..~111 Ullcl'(l..'ah.." VOicing ;'llIll J( lIJ1fJefl'UI ~(Hh (lll..'IUg .Iud ""....;(11011 (th.11 IS, I..'U"ellll1g). (W,. Ih ~Jla oll..'ing pn..·t...·l.·lkd fr h.:alhUl ... 111.....1..· Pnrlllgul..·.,e SIH1~ o Il...""iIIg bUI C .1!)1I111l,fll.h . . . r · · %r ~ It e..' ;t."UIllI.' Ihallhl.'lIn,l' nlI.·1 (,f thl..."" pn1l1 orin :1, MtI' JlrC't, .rtc;'ltifJ "I ht.'n lIw C(llI'''IlJIlI d1.;lnp~' h"l(l" plal.·l'. we call condudc thai III In "re fl., . . . 'II "I'· hI v,,, , "'h fncilllOlI {l.'I..'IIITl.'d III rtllo,; language ;1', H Sf.::l:.1 C K65, (In ' I.:Illg ;, tllnn, ,.i!"(~ r.'lalll' ~I'i!ln 01 ,hl' t'~lrhcr reduced H}wd tt".) Thl'.s! c~~, lrlitt~~ rhl1nt.·til"lfI~ pl.lu"hk ;lt1d (hu:o; c:pc.....lt.'c1. ~lngc~ art! Thblt.· 8.6...' SUIllIll,II) III rhe..' dwn!tc.s illl~clillg Pl'Ulo-Rol11:llll:c .,J I' > p/ <r>/1/ " p "'> h '>LI/ ' °1' >11> 1 _ ' 110 I..·h;tngl' Itl S;I'tlilli~1I1 or RunulI1inn voicing 11 p{lrrugllcsc nlll'ing ;1I1d IriC~lIi()n in Sp'lnil'ih h"1l llil)ll11l French ---- Tumrng 110, I() f/1(' filial "o~'d. e nOle lhut three. lan,gu"lgc!-. hav_ ' ,owd." RUlllalllan has/~/, and French ha, no vowel. mec VOwel rc C lUI/ and apocol''';'''' lucllIlf,cd as phonCIIC"U) plau"h/C change, in Ihe cal"~'ction II js "ppmr"aIC to pI"jl a (flU "mel tor Iht' proIa-language, FUrthca ogue, sInce Ihe Illn'C I,Ul!!Ua!,"!I" ilh " fuU vowel aU have lal, we can rIllOl'!, , fl· .. I't t' d' POSlllh' Hld on Iht.' naSl.'i () 11C..' IIlJ.lonl) ru (;!'I s ra t:gy, f ccor Ingly. th 1 , . . C recOI" ~rrw.'tt'd pnlhl-hlnn L' l"If1d. ntb'e 8.66 .sul1ll11i1r~ (If fht' dl~lIlgt'.'i alll..'~ling Proto-Romance *1I ('''on,l.:l' (H'on/:/iltaIJ Nall/t'o/change!s) _____ RUIIl,mi;m ·,1> " 'O'cl rculiction --- I'",neh -,I'>,' '> " vowel reduclion and del . _____________________________ ::.::el'on --- We ,'.111 nO oUllllle to Ti.hk S.b7 Ihe dc,·e1opmcnt of Iht! Word in F Illch has Ih,' 1lI1'" "omp/ie,lIed dCH:lopmcnt of Ihe live languages. renCh, ~------~--~~~-------------- eltam.', *rJPIl Sa"l(-- ofdllllu:e I' h nh.r "lul'lng -- h rrnl Int'ul/un ,I ,>I fl,' vlI,,·d rl'dUl'lion " 0/ 1/ m ,111tl(.'('I1C 11/ Ih,' 1,1',' (1/ Ih,' 1.·I'£.J;iI,'S "" 'li:II1,IIt' hWlld' (lh,' ,,'<'(jilt! nm 1" J', II '(' I . ,Il r , I. /1,' III I (/lI"e "'gll1"I/I' ,II,' JlI,' S,'llll' in ,./1 Ill(' languag," in lit" dOlI. k'l'ldlllg h' Ihl' IIWlo1l1 IUIe, '",'I"g), Ie ,"111 n'COIlt;lllId 111<' 111" Ihll:,' d *41IU III lit rt',PII'lllIdIOIl(J1 111l' ,,'nmd COII"II,lnl , 1t"'('"1 'I'~ '31 (0 ollr '",11c ') 0/ phOIl,'I.1.' 1'1,111 iht/II} . III"IOI-Ill A l lIN(,U·>lH ... 1111 ~lH'Y • 1 ~Nt'IA(.l f ""Nt., .'urtli,, ;wl 1''-('11,11 l'fllrU/{III'f' y' k- Once again. since intcrvoc;.tc VOiCing I' '.. . . - 'bl h ." . . fle.hon and. d icully plausl C c angcs. It IS most appropriate. to '0' -. e Chon afe tlhqnct. (sec Tahlc 8.69). P "t k (lIT the Protoh>nn ~rnhlc 8.(,9 Summary of the change~ i.tTcclin~l P D o rot)- "nmance . k /..(UlH"{IMl· (,lllllIge (ill V V) ------ 'k > g voklng voicing and fricallon POI1l1gllC~C Spullish French ok,> g '> ~ ' k,>g'>~'>0 VOicing. fricalion, and dt!l!tn In the case of the final vowel, we have the same·t . . Th f I' . . . . " uat,on we had in th Prev.ous form. e u I owel ,s found til Spanish Sard· . C . I· F ' ,man, and Ponugue,' but there ,s no vowe 111 rench. We can lherefore assum' th f II e, , f . ' th e e u Vowel" lor the prolo- orm, w. ~ub~equenl vowel reduction and apoc . F a Consequently, we arrive at the proto-fonn "ulllika. ope III rench. Finally, applying the ~ame procedure to the cognates in th' ~ I . . , C llna two row~ of Table 8.62 y,elds the proto-forms "kappa 'cup' and "gulla 'd 'All th . th d . h . . . rop . e languages 10 e ala retam t e 'OI~.al consonant of both proto-fonns. The vowel * 11 IS reconstructed on the basIS 0 the rna]'only rule' str"t'g ... , " .... .... c 'i, ~mce we have no phon~ttc grounds for ChOOSlOg e.ther lul or l01 a, the older ,·oweL The systemattc correspondence. II1vohmg the intervocalic consonants are given in Table .70. Table 8,70 *glltto y....tematic corre-~ponJence~ of the medial con~onant~ ot *kUPPd and 51'(1/1/.-11 -I' -l- ,,'II lOIs , ,011 1 t' pp- -1- m J nl 111', Fn.'nch -p -I Portll~ue."e -p- >- RUntlllllan .p -1- COL' tlII lh
- 189. 1/ I I Iii r•f dill ,illl I ,lnl '"h Ihlll II I 11 III I I tllllhl, Ih t 1t11l111 1111 IIH ld IIr", , II ' Illn 111'11 til" Huh 'II '111'1" 1111. h' 111,'11 "", , fllllli ", " ' l llllf l1 111 ,'II"" lIill ,HIIII'ldl. 1 1 .1l1t ill! , '" hi h',tHlrllh' Id"It III" Ik /I ,,!!lIk I ~ "1'11 1 • ' 111111 III 1111111101, I 11110 '1Ih, 1,1111" 111111 ''''1 III"" 1.1I1/, 11.1/,1 ~ 1",h'III 111111 IrI,IiI'11. " til dllllll ' h 111'11 hll I.lIhltl II' , h III.lth' I'''n'h Ih 1I II h ' 11111I"-'h I', 11 II' It.lh ! hllllllllllll" 'I'tllllh 'lll"IIIIJ'I'III"lIhlt ,dlllt, ' 1" 11 11 ,llIhl' dl li,'d hI 110 III "1,,111 '11,110 .11/1 ,.',111 rllt. 11111'" I h,III 'I 111'111 III ,iI" " '1,1"''' Il'h "I ' 111111 "','Inll,," 1,111 ' 11.1 '1 .11, l ,ill''''01 ""h" 1111 " '.1111 111.. "," "'"11 ,.'.•'ft h'lln Hid ~ II I Ilfl 11th II d 1111 ' 11.1 ', I I" dIu IlIu~n" I' I 111 II 'f l' A I 'It H I li lit 1111 -'I'HIlIIIIII II I PI' "lIhl. 11'11 1111 1111' I II" 1111"111 I I It II Iii I I" 1IIIIIPdl,III IJ iI .l Ihl 1:.'111 tUIH 1.1 It h"I».IIU ,4 1,,,.""'HtI01l 'I til + 1111111 ,lIl lll v , I ''''''IIH ""IIW SF. V 11 I I II 111<111,111 II 11 I n, 'n-' III . '" .'" ~I II , ' .II I II ~ I V 1"11111 h, ,I 1 I""IIIHII ~ "II.1t '" I 1,1 1111 1 I II"wn'nl ,411 1t1l 11ll plill I"" IIlIlIphllllll H, .11'1111 I 1111 l h'!lIV 1 ' I I 1.111 n: ,.. 1111tl1 I I" II h ,II I 1111111 1 111111 II I 111 1111 liP'" "" I II t I l l ' " 1" I, U I I II I 1 111.1111 "hll ,.. I ' 1'II,h, hi I ml .1 I I 1l11t 1 " 11I ~' , "vli II I ' hlhll I 111 afll" I1111I111 1 1 ,1111 II .1 I III hllll, 1111' h t, '''V''hl''g,~ n,hh' }(." III 11l 1 11 l1 1 " H Uilt III. "' I" '" h IInl ' U 11111 ,,11 11111 1' I' '''II ~ 1t "'11 11,11 111)111 11,1 I' Invlt hili 111 ....,H III"nil 111 '11 11 ' IV' 1111111 1111 1111 11 1111 1IIIII plWI1I1 1111',11 It IHW I ' ''IlIl t Iw I I I ' q lum . 1111" l' 11IhuV II I 111111' 1 ' IltlIIl P 111 I '1' I jll! 1111 ,hll,h 11111 1"111 I " In th. I 'PI II'" ,,, 11 l ll' IllllI l"'"l ll lh lll l lltll u .1111'IIt,,, IWI III " ' 'III ,11111 t III I 11,11 III V I 1 lI ,hUH .tHy • Ill! I II I IIII' 1.1111 11111111 I 1111 11 1 IlIql I wilily Itl " I I ' I I Ofl" I PI) 111 I • 1111 1holl'II · 1111111/111111 ~ IIIII}'. 1 il l! ;I ' 11111 1111 0,,· ~ "1 hl .11 It, I I •,I Y .IHI t. q nll'n By 111111 II II 111111 1111111 '~ ' 1'''',111''' IIII' I 11,1111" ,1 1""1111 11I1 I ' ,I I 11 ' ''j. II11HI1~ h 111 I" ~ Wll~ 1IIIIIh'd l 11l 1"1 II H' 1111" "' " III HI! "Iuh Itnll " I I' I e r ..- II We 11 H IhA 111111 111,"1 /11111111 1 1 11111 III I ,11111 ,III ,,1111, ,III' II I ( II" 1 III 'II '''1 I ' ' 11 . Y" Ih" W ,, ' ,11'1 _ ." lIplllll'd h i " "" al ll' I I 111 ,111111 ,1111111 ) 111 III 1111" I I l 1,111)tl' , >I", 11 1i1l11l'11I 1 ,lI y 1'1.111" "'1 111111 " ,11,.1 III II", " 11.,1,,,,,,,, "' Ill1k U 1, I ' I 1'1 "IH, 'nv,y. jllh ' lll lI V~ tHI'II II U"llIllllIft" n l,· th 'II III ,Ill ",llb"1 11tHIII", 1111' II I ''v," IIpnl"11 n 11'11" 111 Ii 1111" IlI" I 1I" "1'I W I1I1 ~ 11 11"1" X 7' "11''1 III nll" l"""01.lH ,o k '1'111' 11111' 1'1t' lIln 11111 , 1'11111 ,II 1'1" IV Ih,ll ,11" ,,,11111' ,111 1'111 "II~ II" ,,'III IIIdl ,l) WII', 1,' lall" II) I ,,1111 1:, ' 'k ( 11'1111.11111', 11111 'rlllI levllIIII1I1I1/...1 1' III 11pl',1I1 11I1f'II' III IlId,,' S II 1111,1111 1lI1I'., ,I 1I1111'1t JIIII '" ,I"l Ih";11 "'II~ 1I11' III II"h,I, 111111111'11 lip 11t, '1,11111 11111 IIl1pl" ,1111111 1111111' hl1lltll III III ' I IK!I ,1""1' • III 1111 HII "I 1,1111 SlI' l'ly III <',II' "II.' ,I 1'''1 I I """11 '111111" , 1111 ,II 11),n 1.11111 I' CI,II ti, " 1I1,'s 1111111,11 I. hi 11111 .11"1111' I II~ 11',.. IIltllll 11111"'"111 111 III" III III 111111.11 1111 III II , .111111 ' 111 111111 IIlh
- 190. /I 1 ,~ ~, INI .IJI lit r:,..rt l.Juill f,,~/,," L'lhl L',lh'l I.u/,,·r Ird, I, IlIrt'l' II ~.h'U ~ t"HllIIlI hUfldrt~d - 1111- '.11",./ ,,/>, 1,I/II'n h Ih,lIl1h"!l"'ngh,h h;), 1f/,IOI, '1I1(llhl (h . ~m " "rd 11111"'//""111"111. (,r Kulld / 11'" h n'lp),lr), ilnd Ik l ( iril111t1lah I • . : U alcd I' fI" P/ ""'''''II.1rll '/lIft, /"1 ''!"to (..~rlllilm, hrdl drltn"nlirucrJ /I f II I / , / ('" rllrn pl I II." 1111'/ ,III .111 'lUI," .TIIlUII' 1.11> ( /,lhle 1<.7·1) i, Ihe nall1e I Ill' Ih ,·(I,,,.'lIoIIII ,h/f" 1 /udl IIx,1,: 1'/,1 'c ''''/wel:lI I'wtll.Jndo."ul( md l'r. Il> (, '101,11lI,' • 'P'';ln IJllpJ 111 "~I th I IlIlfllll hlp' l<lplllrcd 11 Ih, l'rullI Indo / urol an lUlI'"1I 11 luff, .11 II crt' lIlt I 'n..ble 8.75 Some example, (If the con... . , nnant i-hlfl!-. underYlng Gn . Slu!' in Cit'rmcmll' Stm,krll Grt't>k r mm!. '..a~ ..(Ifm ~ :> x b :> P d > l g:> k bh :> b oh :> d gh :> g pud- tanu ~alam da~a ajras bhrala vidhava hansas ----~Ii_h pod 1_ r _ _ _ _ _ tanu6... fled- . fOOL hekat6n lenu" centum de•• .gr6s phraLCr eitheos kh€n liJbricu~ decem ager fralcr vidua (h)anser thin hUndred 'Iippery len aC.re brothel' widow goo,", Altho ugh Ihere appeared to be exceptions to G . . nmm's Law (T bl they turned out to be syslemalle and could be traced t .fi a e &.76).. I . I 0 SpeCl IC enVlrO For cxamp e., VOIce ess stops were not ~ubject to Grimm's . nment,. wt:rc immedIately preceded by s. Law wben lhey Table 8.76 A sy>lematic exception to Grimm's Law Origillol s + "oiceless stop Latin Latin Latin ~u -o g are pi~is Englb b Engli'h Golhlc ~il ~tand fi~ [spl (not [sfj) [st] (not [s9l) [5kl (not [sxl) A particularl) impon'illt discover: as made by Karl Verner. ho traced a group of exception to Grimm" La to the original accentual pattern of ProlO-!ndo-European. In a generalizatIon that came to be known a., Verner's La. he prop<: , cd that a oni-internal voice!es fricative resultinl'. from Gnmm'~ Law unden 'Ul oicmg I the original Proto-lndo-European~accent ,lid m)t imm 'dI3td) p~nI ' I mce ·tre" came to be f,xed on the rOOI ,,1l;Ir.k in G 'nnamc sU>"'Qu '1l to he change, coered b) Verner', La", the ,'n 'I,ll ,'1 ,"'IHl III l'r. cun.'li. However. an,krjt prode, uirect "I,kn" 1<'1 c I'r' d,UL ll inc.: ·an,krit was cr: Clln enaUe 0 it- l1,unt '0,11,'" ,'I t " ,ngmal P- 'tnlndl-European accent. Although the Fnl!Ii h I" nn, ,m.' (,'I lpli t d b~ other de el pmem,. the effect- l'f Verne,' I .I~ ,1 ' I P III til th' nhk ampl, hmn U Tabl<!-~ veri an 1 th' ~ 1 thl rd fl r mIll r, PH: *1 ttc, me: ( 1 cord1Og t Gnmrn- La h n' 10 th' ,rd f r fat l 110 ac rdan e lth .nmm' lid rn r' La
- 191. Subsequent dellelopmenh '1 '1 p-.. r 1 ......0 k > h f'<.'t/ (l' IIII" ~.Inah ~ "'IO,tI,111 11.10.11'1 fll.'·,k . ...rfl;UI r(' fltH 1U ~ 1,.:,111.1' ----- Th~ ilpp,lrcnl 1;lIlur,' 01 (or/111m ', La", here ~1<'ll1s Irolll II", filer In !:neli,h ,,,,,.I, ,,,,rt' norroweJ dlrcclly lIolll L.UIII or h"lIdl Illanv . ,II In - , I h (' , I ' . h' I I J cenl" nht.'r lh(' . ...(lund ....h,tt., ue..,....cnhcl }, ,rUllln S .•l.. .Il WII.'I1 pl.H:c I q~ offt~l'<)!],'rul'ljt)n cun olh..·J1 he (,.'omplll:alcd h) " w:h horro..ings. he t.l ~ l3y Ihe miJd/t' of Ihe nineleenlh ('elllury, Ihe sludy of lall!!Uil!!l' h'ld III I , slrides, c. 'pc"in'.'} ill ~he Ikld 01 phoncl"'s: which .Opl'l1L'd Ihe w,,;'l'll~rl'.1 del",led companson 01 IIIlgillS I1(' forms. One Influenllal hYPOlhesIS III til ,Ih I . I ' ' A '1 ,Ullln , "ii' Ihill sOllnd laws Openlle! WlllOUI eccpllOn.., group 01 1II!!1I1S1, kn . .• I h' '.' I " ' "I.n'l Ih~ Neo~rammartllllS auOplC! I IS luL'a .iIll maul' Illany IInp0rlant e l • . 1 I' I' .. h i " I Iltnh" 11011. 10 Ihe I edgllllg SL'lenc,' 0 IIlgIlISIJC' y apI' )'lIIg It 10 Ilew lind complicated datil, Allhough such factors as !c.:xit'aI dillusioll an" ntore . u ">Clal pres. ,urcs were 1lI0re or less Ignored oy the Neogrammanans, Iheir hyp h ' d . .1. " I . I ' . . ot ell, rcpre.lcnte an Important anu uanng lI( vance IJ1 t le sClentil ic stUdy ofIan . 'fl ' h i ' d gu,lge Ie Ilinctet'nl celJlur} a so saw IlJaJOf a lanccs III the da" lficat' languages. A Germ,lI1 scholar, August Schleicher, devcloped a d:lssirl~.>n 01 f· h I I '" I . I t· · Icalion or ( c ne 0 ' europe'lIl anguages In 11C orm ot a genealogical tree G, I t- . . u' I . h 'J . . cncllc c assl IcallOIl IS ISCUSSC( In llIUC more dctru In the chapter on 1 '1 , nguagc typology Ihal fol/ows. . Wod. iu comparalive H:collstruclion is far from finished. In panicular IJllgUISI.I arc now consldenng the posslotltly of supcrfamilies. Ou ' , . I f• 'J . N . " C slIcn propose( :11111 y IS , OSlrallc, whlt'h Includes Indo European, Afro-ASiatic (1111 nample, Amolc, l!ebrew), Alta,,: (for example Jal)'lIIcse K ' " . . . r . . orCUIl l urKlSh). '.lIld UralJc (tor exallll~le, Finnish, Hungarian), Conrp:mllive rccon' S~'~lctlon IS also plaYlIlg an Important role in determini ng the genclle ldatl(1llshlp. of the hundreds of North American indi"ellous hngll' '" t . I h 'JJ ' '" ' . ges, II oJlIe II lit' ,II remalllS htghly controvcrsial. III 11l~11 '" I tNt-II! lit 1111 1 1 I i'W I II "', Sl1ln ,II," t KlXhi. . 11"1 lh , I n ..:t1u 'ttUi. 1ulIl)t 10 ' ,,,I lIu.'ul't! h.we Iln llll1l1l.,tn l v ", I lIt() I,,,t.. , lil t ' . I . ''''11 11111 III ll "or'.I' ~" l.l Ut!IHI).'''·S , 'hl'- ,.. 11 I'at l lU I' III Ihl. ''' 1110 ' 1111, II Itl"""1 'Ihl) lin Ih (", C tIl d III)""'!!Y 'hu.h I U lU'-T llh: tI '"- Ith II. , I lu,l! llihe ll 1 nl Ilf ~ 1I1 1~ 0 I I,t lI, ~"HH!l tan '"a~l" 1 I.,~. tl tth·'. 0 ' Ih l.'1'" t ~., IIlH It lUt hl,,, U 'llI.: • I ' I tI t ' I,~ Y 111' • • Uhllaull 1.1I11·lhl!"·... I hH , 0 nu l ',.' Un )' 11 II,,: .11 • I I Ih"II4...'Y h 'I • r 1 .1 l ,11111 ), tun' I '4 hH l""mil .'. tI <1.u llhm I n , 1Ml l'< Wu I I .I'tl! I~HI H II . _ It_ 11111' 1 patt _ 1 01.1111 ( 'h~lptl'l (l,l. S()V .UI g uagl" :t'1H11l11ltIv • 1'1 t 11 I 't~ • -'lIn " ' I , J l)" 111 i 111 " 11, I"1!htIIlWllllg mOlp IU " BY tol ' Y1 Wn l l:ol1l' " I )"~ h' IU"III~ I ~r ' I ' I 'x,.tI .... ilhon ..... ( .1 ,.....OU( Ilho n u lugtt.:n pHll·....~~ ,,111) 1 iI... VlIWl" 1'1.11 ' 1 '.lltl...·I} I . I I " • IlIly,w hl' n · '1 I ' " Il' I ~ ,"'Il'"'h.'d 11 0 m onl' ul tw o ..."",... thut 'I t' III . ' 'Ie " " Wt:'h, In U'" I I ' , • l ')1patlhll- With ' . """I( lI ont v... hack vnwl'li-t. lUll1llll' ll V1-o, Utln ,HIIl.lc I I , l',U h t)hl' IMI{I, ' . ' (Vl)Wl·" Cl., ) ~~ 1 11'IY 11 IInpOllant Utc H the- 'II n lll "'I '~"''' ·'1 t ' .' YPOt)~lC' hhI ' • . . l"" " I: .1 l 1 UIlI ,," :..l ah; llu..' nt , w hich HI C ' .llIC for alllal1 ~lav,cs, .: 1~a " Ht ;Ui! IMV' T he cxtcn:..v(' inl olmatinn nn ,hl' hI'"' ' t ' ' - , - ' r" 1,lp.l'~ () the W()r 1 . . Itlotie rll h ",gUt1-o1S W.IS, 0 1 COlll sC, nut av',1" . . ( ,IV,lllahk III . I' , • •1) l' ,It the tllnl' 1 • I'l'(.'()1...lntl'ttllll 0 1 rutn Indo ' ..urnpc'l1 W',o., lin' " " ',nt~Ia . . ' " ort"~on M, " I Invol ved lit clHnpatall vC rcconstnlclion nnw 1',k ' ' k . ll l:rn IO)!.lH, I· I I • C.I ecn IIIC IC" ' 1 0,,"::11 SIUl ICS ant 11C rolc 01 lypolo~ic"l plnuslh'I'1 ' In IypII "' , . . ' 'I Y In I'CClln' !ru '1 c hCCOIll! an Important WpIC. hlr CXllllplc '1 linou'l I Id ..... C 11m 11:' , ' ~ 0 s W OU tno! Vcrv . ' to propose a reconstrucllon Ih:I violatcd 'I univcrsal .J re U C lanl . ' . property III hn'" , that oad no purallcl In any known Ianguagc. • eu,lge I)r SUI'l! linguists havc argucd Ihal the tr'ldilmnal r"CI I ' , , ' . ' ~ lOs ruelllln nl the I'll' ohstruent system (given In Tahlc 1l.79) should he rC j 'ccI"d I ... h , . . ·...·1· ~ • n IIIC a, 1S 01 typological plauslu' Ily. . '1Ilhlc 11.79 P (h) bh t d dh s The Iraditional reconstruction nl the Pnllll"Inun·European ub" nlclI" k k kW (voiceless slllpS) g II SW (voiced SlO ps) gh Sh S"'n (voiccd asplraled SlO ps) This reconstruction is typologically questionahle in al leasl two respects. First, reconstructed forms with PIE *b are extremely rare, almost as if there wcre a gap in the labial system. Such a gap is very uncommon in the languages of the world. Typically, if there is a missing labial stop, il IS the voiccless stop that is missing, not Ihe voiced stop. Second, the trauilional n:construction posits a series of voiced aspirated stops but no correspondlOg scries of voiceless aspirated stops, even though some typologists have argued that all languages which have a voiced series also have the voiceless one. Such facts have led some lingub ts to propose what they believe is a mme typologically plausible rccon~truction Of.Proto-.lnd~-Europc~n (Table I.tI.O) tIlvolving a voiceless stop sen es, an cJccl1ve senes, and a VOiced slop senes (as wcll :,S · s us in the traditional reconstruction).
- 192. III '(. ItI' INt '1 't( 1 l ~'" , - ,, ('hi t 1 ,It h I!(l~ I J h h , I t'h "'"."" h '''1 , U'II I' nl h lQ '" ,' , ".It,U Ilo(~ 'to I,UI ' 1":":-'--::--~':-:1-:,~-7-=::;-~~:::::::":::":"2~~~_ l ' ,h" lk,) 11 " 'k,"~ h,'" ~1.·1" lh~t " n:ppn'pn,-~ 0 a..c 3. ,nnph'tlC e"," af "n.""'l1: tht1~hl~~'. l'l'll~ .1l'k. M"'"'C "l,''IUld ~h;.mg.e, proJuce k ... n tun. , 1,lhk, '11"" 1"'1'.... h," Ih~ ~1t1'I'1 ,II reducing. ,I '~qucn~c "i C'C'c , 1,lb',', h' 11", II'" 1I.Ir:l' I.'CC ll"I,II) in ,u~h ~a,~,. a dlikrent 1111 ,lli,1" ,'an hI' "knllft 'd, ,"~h ,b Ihc I'ld 'I"nc~ for ,h,'ner I'h"nlliogl ' I "" 11' ,1 'I ""I,' 'I f"on" HIU ~i en Ihe emnl'eil, of human langua~e. nOI hI 11,' 1,, hllm,In l'<.'h, 111m 11 gene'-,I. I ,hould no' he 'Urrn'mg Ihal there 1 '1;1 Ihlkl 'II 1',Iram 'I 'r, ,'I Imgllbll': "aluralc" and Ihalthe ",an. in ;111 1, k;I~1 II' .11'1 'l,'nll) 1 " lntlICIltg eh,In£,6 in hnguage o'er ume. It remain .1 11II"'II:lnl I,h.. "I' lhl' hn£,llbl II' IMnltf,: r,m... and uti.m I~I. e pl:un 1<'I;II,'n, ", !itglli"Il' ,Iuralne",. The ',Ili~ "t hngu ge eh nge V.m ti.nue h' m,l.. ' .111 itll1'<'II,ml "'tIlo!>IIIl<'n 10 Ih" af'l.
- 193. 1M (l . -• l h..'d 1''1 (he..' IIn,g,lII,ril.' t:t)lIlIlllJllil,Y ~l I lmh'" .ltlon IS ulllnl~ud~ .tdl r _.- 1~le b)' It,k'lIrif) In<> Ih iJ.rg.. ~ -. l' It I' pt....... " . eo ..: ch. ')Ifl(: langua.l!~ l.·han~l..· I.' '} ,h: m.lIl I' h.I' t1lltf!,fV.'IlL', In r.cL'on"lr a~g~ I' • ... • Ji I L'Cr • - t::' lief I '1;, a p.lnl,.:uJ.tf tlfl~U.lgl.. Of. "fit:'r fom)s from ""hh..'h later f IOglli '" hl"hl0 .tnd ,hc..'f.'o f~"H rh~~·.I~oJOpnrllth e reconstruction al~rnt h...~'~ cohc..'d. lr....,ug 't.'h (It COAn~ I" p-lO:nl or proto-Iungua~e 011 [hOW 1.1, Ie f'e....·(lfI...rru...·( rhL' propen.ic:-. oj (11,;" '. ~ e ba..i () . '.. 'sponden(es . . Of .!t."stematlc ph~netu: t:o~rt!. _ '. _~an pro ide valua.ble 1Il.,)lghh int StuJj(.'... Itl hISh)n.:alllOglll.sU...· ...hc.J light on prehistoric d. 0 relillio " and oS eu cVelop n. ,hip. .., among language '" ' f language arc of great impona tnenh Furth~rmt)IT.~. hi....wrh:al 'IU.JJt:S, ~tl" competence, In fnct, it has on f ce to 0ll, . h . 1 ImBu" < . ' ten ... unul!rsrandJng ()J um,1I .'.bS onc of me most dJrect windo..... V!'en " 'h'lJlge pn.n Jut.: • "YS Int sratcd Ihat Innguag< ".' nind Furthermore, the study 01 language c 0 the "orll.·n~' 01 the hum,lll' 0'- of how social. cullural, and p'Y'h hang, - d Nan 109 . . colo . conmou.tes to our un .. e . ge Finally. the lI1tegralion of 'I . glcal h lpe languo . . , Ud'e fUL"wrs IIlremct to S ~ . l'tl'Oll and language universals re........ ~ on 1 c acqUls • ' . '"al language change. angling facillO" linguists coday, n~ one of rhe mosr important challenges ~ --------------~==--------- . r s is a... follows: The fT3n ...Jation tor the!<oe lOe. .' Notes 5 6 Many men sa)' that in dreams, Thel"<' is nothing but talk and lies Bur men may see some dre,ams Vhic;h ,Ire scnrcely false 2 B r' fterward come rrue. . h h U .. pIes throughoul thiS c apler. on ographic forn, I~ Ihese 'IOd hO~I,er .~.,o~), reflect the sound change(s) in question. If req~' are 3 glvcn whcn: I t:se Cea ., 'd d Ired, . f Ii honelie lranscnpuons are pro 1 e, . , panllli or u P I occurs between VOiced segments, l! can als Smce I'olcmg common Y a k " .0 be 'd I 'I type of assimiJation, h is treared here as a we' enmg Since it is ofre consl Cft''- l 'f m~~fchange involving various weakening processes. II pan of" lurger lPfj,lldehore in IWO respects. First. we ignore the fuct that the Ve b We have simp I Ie ., . h th d r l) he and htll'e can unuergo Inl"erslOn even w en ey 0 not fUnction as auxiliaries. AI"<' tht' here'! Hill"r y~u no sense" Second. we hove not traced Ihe emergence of the auxiliary verb do in the formation ofquestions. . Classical Lalin was the literary language of anclem Rome whereas Proto. Romance I"<'p~sents un aUempr to reconstrucl the spoken language of the Romans which spread Ihroughout much of Europe and which was the SOurce of the ariou, Romance lunguages. Eiectives ure prouuWd by a closing of the glottis and raising of the larynx. (Sec c"lwpler 2. section 10.) This chapler is basco un a chaprer In the original edillon by James M. Anderson Ihe adl"anced lelbooks by Anuila. Hock. and McMahon (cited below) provide Illuch rnvrc dClatled discussions of mosl of the major ropics In Ihis chapler. They are aho ---- d' ndedrea 109 RecOmme IU"'ltHU( AI IIN(.!!!"I( S 1111 !illJ)Y l), I "Nt.lllt..i (li~,,<.t '4,~ .:xcclknt "'OUh,:cS tor h.'It.-renl'!.". h.·!tthIIK In );111 illlponalH lor prl'lvu.lll}! uc:t.uled I.h...l.:u......'on' t (11,,1 tupH.:!I., H()(~ , typology II) feconMflictUlI) ~I ....yntUt:h,; I.:ha.Oi!l' ttnd P~fII':Uilrtv Overvic.ws of hi...'.Oficul lang.'I"tlc", .'" H' tIt: T(,Ie 'Jt b( k b · • .Ipp It" Il) the d. prcst:nh:u 10 _the Xl... 'i Wilham..., I)yll:.... i.tnu AI Cl eVe I)pm~ll tIt En h h lod Strung cited below, g '. Ha.U~h 'lOti ( 'Ihle nnl ~ arc ~ The catalogue of ,ound chltllgc, I'" tu,hntec.l 1- • ' I ~'oru 'h ' t , · · '" rtHl cataul Vennemann, til.' e arlle e LlOglll'o.ttc typologies an hl..torh:aiu~ pn'tM1SCd hy Thet.) /i1H:ui.',ica 1I111WrUl23: 87- 9 (l,)8~) lllld u nook e ttl U f hnglll..tc,·, 5;u(',,"r I S';llcture and 'he Explanation oj Sound Chang n{IAt:: >rt'ff'ren(:l' I"(HV, jm' S.,,,::~/ . ~ hi· be . t' IllMcrdam: M . t' 1988), Sectton - as a so nctitcu trom unpuhl h c.l . Outun (It: (inlYlc:r . 'L' . " h • k' d !o, e malena (p . 1 ' manuscnpt Ingul, ICC ange) 'tn lymadc·V·utabt.h. 'T'I.. antcli arty the . h I (R b M ," c uy 1 nco Vennem' n.] ofMumch)tot e aut 10r 0 ert urraY)dunnghl~Ma' M . . ann nlv~r..ty The data on vowel laxing in Canadian French ~rc~.tn ~nlchtrl)m I.)K()(,)~S . Tire ProIHmciatioTJ ojCalladiall Fn'tlch (Ottawa: Un,rom, Ou~a..,c Wakcr'sbo()',;. . I' b ' 1Verslty 0 Ottawa P I The diSCUSSIon 0 orrOWtn,g and semantic change in E. I' h res;" 9&4.) . Old d' . ng" .., well a, lhe . on word order 10 , an Mtddle English corne from the book b J: m.al~na Origins oJthe Eng/l.I·" Langill/ge (New York: The Free Pre", 1975; ';:'~Ph Wilham, 8.46 on the ongin 01 the 5000 mo't common Words in Eng" hi' dala In lable of the same book. IS a so come trom p, 61 Figure 8.11 depicting lexical diffusion of the stress change E I . b . ,_1- f h ' . 0 ng ish nouns denved from ver S IS Ul.IIo.en rom t e book by Jean Anchlson cited bel . . . d th . I b ow. Allch"on', remarks are base on e .n,c e y M. Chen and W. Wang 'Sound h . . . . La ' c a.nge, actuatlon and implemenrallon . nguage 51: 255-8 I (1975). The data on the re I' . f . h .d db H a Izallon 0 [sl as [hl in Spal1ls were provi e y erben 7.7.0 of the Univers,ty of Calgary. . The Genna",c c.ognates used to ,lustrate family relationships are based On Leonard Bloomfield s clasSIC work Language (New York: Holt. Rmehan & Winston, 1933). The data on sound change m Muskogean come from Mary Haas's book The Prehistory oJLanguages (Amsterdam: Mouton. 1969). The quote from Jones is laken from A Reader in Nineteenrh-Century Hislorical Indo·European Linguislics. edited and translated by Winfred P. Lehmann (BIOominglOn: Indiana University Press. 1967) and the quote from Rask IS tak~n from HOlger Pedersen's book The DiScovery of Language: Lingulstrc Sctence III rhe Nllleteenth Century (Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 1959). Question 2 is based on data provided by Dr George Patterson. whose generosity we hereby acknowledge. The data for questions 3 and 4 are from F. Columbus's !ntroducrory Workbook in Hisrorical Phonology (Cambridge. Mass.: Siavica Pub- lishers, 1974). Que tion 10 i based on data provided by David Bellusci. The data for question 18 are drawn from Source BookJor Linguistics by W. Cowan and J Raku'an (Philadelphia: John Benjrunms. 1987). Aitchison. Jean. 198 I. Lunguage CIlange: Progress or Decay? London: Fontana Anttila. Raimo. 19 Q. Historical and Comparative Linguisrics. Amslerdam anu Ne.. York: John Benjamin•. Arlotlo. Anthon~. 11}72. llltro<iuctioTl to Hisrorical Linguistics. Lanham. Ne.. York and London: l'niYel">lty Press of America. Baldi. P. IQ,' 311 frltroductr(1n 10 tile frida-European UIl1~ll<IgfS. Carbondale and Ed",;n:!>"lle: outhem llhnol' University Press. . Rilllch. Alt-ert C .. and Cable. Thomas. IQ1}3 A History of tile Engll,11 Utrtg"u~e, 4th <'dn. London: Routledge.
- 194. I , • lIlt, 'I' '11 " '1 '141., 1" 1 " hi"" ,II, '',. fl' ' i l I. l,l..h. I ,,,II H 101, . 1(1,1 , ' ., f,'n11 ... h 'In~ t " I r n. h h I•• I In til( , , .1) h) 11 IIIl 11 I I 11 "I) ,lIf) /1 I) .t..,l' ~, ~., "_,, ..1111 ,tk_' t .tt 1 , ", ...1 ". r .1111 .n,me-. ''''' n '",II . hll n I tV-hI"~ • 4Wr.' ''''., , 'run- '", ."n' l h.I "'tlth' d.1~··' ,"'kllo-'n! th.' , • ,111;''1 hum 1 l' "I I'h'I 1"1" l i1.It.II", 1 ,I"" lum.IIf, t".t1 ·fe'lit a",ua&e "'t.lh' 11k,, . h.1'p~·, 11 tn,· In! t II) ,jr) il' ' 1"/ ",,) /11 I 1) 1',..lId /u/'l (IUO''''JI (."IIIcUlI 1";1, I".' ',Ij-1 mo.q. 1'" "_l'l I'll). Il'l' .''" """.'..- '''1 11 1 1".'. 1'<'1/ i','., .,I.'tl 1.11.11 rI ".h ., nll' , n{': •"''''"t' '~l" I h1~' 'dl0 I' o mo.~' 'nl~(," ·hll.h.n<l' 4•.,) 1',·,,'11'" h, Ih. " 'h.lt~,·, th,1 I,.. l'''''~ ""I"'" n Prolll 'bK an,l ntI~.'n.11I III th, h.ll,1i".' ".11.1. Ih,' ')01""' 111' ,I w"cl ",.11,.,1', th.lt II" hI t1 ) hI :-,
- 195. " "11' , 11r4{.1 I "' 01 ,. jllIlIlIlI t Hd I" ,I I, I, 1111'11 llin>!j t 1'1, '" ·'111111111 .JlUII ,. hllllli. ""11111111, " 111'1111111,,1 1',111 t. '.111"1.11 110 ", ... 1111'1 1111 'P,IIiI'1 I~hllt I Itl lll,./. " 41'"1'11111 I ""1.,"1,111 1'11111 "''4' '11'111,11 " hi, 1,111'" ,Ii, {,II II Vp, I JIII' , 'IV, ,III Ih II", .11 I" il,,1 Ilu ~1ldl·'11 111~111I" It II III 1111111 1111 (HI' Ihl'll}! Ipllll 1.,'/, 111111 , .1I I1pld'!'ItI)t ..jJiIWII,,1 IIhll Ilw ()!", "111~1 -lli 1"11111111111 I'll II' till ~ III 1111"11 ) 1I~~I'.h 'Ill:" f lId /11"/,,,, A/,,,kIl1 1 I1gll'" II hiPI'd ,,, /lfll(II' ( ~"II I ) '" 111111101 h Ikl) ~.lIpl , ) 1 I Wlhl oil 111 ·fI" 'II , ' 11/1 1",ly 7. 1" II ,- 11111111"-' II" It""'! 111111" I 10 "IJflllll}' pHHIIIII~ '11111111 I, . ' , 11'1 1 .'111.,. I'ftJlIt"U ,.1111111 pi Ihl IlIlIno lur ,,0111 J jllul IIII'll ~ PIII)""t' Yhlll ~IJIII I I I PIIIIIII tllllI JlII /11.1111"1111111111'11111-11 iy 11 !~"nl 11,'hllll1JY Iln YUlll lJlll~ 111., VUlII ,JlIllIlIlIlIiII,UlIll/llnllly "", pl'lJIIW PUJlllllh 'IIIUIII '! 1111'( III ,I) ,",'PHI' I,', .It," bl J /1111111' ,) 1'/1"'1011111 oil 1l1''''01 I' ) (,Ill 'C'lIttl I) N,'w/l"IIIIII,1I1I1 1'1 II., " I Itl JlJl IIIJ11f'/111I1I II f..1'III·I 'Jllld'l· /l l<ct 'IIJI Jlf II Ilnl,v H. ( 'IIII1I',IIr, Iii,' (11.11 lI/l il,1t ~III 'ld,1I .lIl1ll'lllIoIll""I1~ S/I/ '/1/,11 /'/11",/ 111,( ,II Itt'l ' I".,kl )' ''',)~( ' I 1I1111l1r" 1111' elid I II~'" II ,,10,,1 II,'VI 1 111 1I11I/.II"I'III"d (" .. III (lid I I I • • ,III' "" '11' 1-:'" l:"",r/f "I'SI' 1 1111 /I.,,"k/II 1.11 ,II ,II '''"11 d" 11111 I XI'IIIIII hllw Ifl, " (hilll~'I' JIlI'IiIl.d ',,'III.lllfJIIllJllld lIilv t" I flliit ,lhOIlI II, ~ r ll''''"1 "' II" I"II"WIII' UIII'III'" Shllll,' a ","d"111 1111111' II , ' "1J'1I11~'r ' 1""1'1/ III ZIIIIIt,IIIII'I' II,,· sve) wPld 1111111 (Nol, I III' '111111,1"" ' lit (ll/tI 111,11 ~s I'" 1111" II " 1 1I1IJIWO V "',""" ~ 1I11"II ~ fI rlllk" 1111',1111111., !'VI/lnlilll f ,,-'. f It'" ,III" "'ill'"t""II. I ""d hhnl .,',' 1111 I llIId ' 1 ,IHII1 1I111~ ,11'/1 1111' ,v"I',1I ,/1 " W1tl11.111 Uw.n Ilwl/, t ilt' WIUII.U I h_ '1" '11"111' Wlll11 do '11 " I" .lIul''" 11IU ,III ,11","1 t'lIh I I',IIItH Will" Itllkl" ,hill!" 11f l'h 1"'1 "111 in Al111 thl 1111111 ....11)- '''ull h WIlIt ! , II 1'111 Hl1ll 111 111111 ,1111"1( "' h~,'111 IllI' I llllll' UI 'I,ll':" 1111 1111 1..1' In "HilI 1111' ", 111+111111 l "111I~tl' III.I Y h.I"'~ 01 lilli' I I I 1 II I ' l' 'II Ih, WIlII I IIV I, I) "'111 Y .",11 h hi 111' ,I tot'lllII I' I l,l1l 111, ' , ' 1 I ~ .1I1V,'" It III IIIIIIIIWIIIV- . nUtlll1 "'''tt- IIIIII"I 'III IIIIIHI lI'lhliI1111 WI I~ 'HI Wool /o.",IJn "WI/'IlII${ , It ,I) tHl;IIIIy -'II iI"'" h} litH IllIth 1I1'~ IHtWII' ,) IHIH! ,I) hl1 1'11 1 ,.) w,II" I) Iy V) ,I,'e ,tI,,'ol II) ;" ~', llI~ ,) ItII Y P ~Ittllnhk I) , III" ...., ') ll1ill~1 II') orck," II) ,1111' 0) ~l'(hH ' 1') 11'" ' 1IIhn'", 1 III IIIW Whtl ,,,,~'Illl'I'" ~'I"' ' llI"lt 1)llnnlliN (,II",' , ~ 11111' ' ,u, ." II" ' 1rt;1~ r. cI,",,,' ' 1;111 ,"'II ly Cill ' ' lIllIl1lH t n1.(~ IIW 11111' ' ,kPI"V'("I' WH kc' 'I) btl~t 'it ' I.; II . ,) . ) Ii II) VI W) I I) d II
- 196. Original/ext umer is I-ClImcnin: Lhude sing. cuecu! Growep sed. and blowcp med, And springp pe wude nu, Trallslarion 'Summer has come in; Loudly sing. cuckoo' Seed grows and meadow blooms And the wood grows now,' Transcription [sumor IS Ikum<>n III lu:d" slOg kukku gr~:w"O sc:d and bb:w~e e v Inc'd and spflgg (l" wud" n" :1 ' a) What affix converted the adjective loud into an adverb in ~ English? hddl~ b) What accounts for the difference between ,the Middle English , Modem English pronunclallon of the vowel III loud? ,Ind c) What olher words in this poem reflect this general shift? d) How has the relative ordering of the subject and verb changed this was written" SInce e) How has the third person singular present tense suffix changed ' Middle English? Since 14. The following Cree words were borrowed from French as the resul contact between the two groups on the Canadian prairies. (Notice that t of French determiner was not treated as a separate morpheme . d the carried along with the borrowed word.) What types of consl 'd an Was , . " eratlon could one plaUSIbly assume played a role III the borrowing of these S into Cree? ' W O rds Cree French a) labutOn Ie boulon 'bullon 11) /TIlot les bolles 'boots' c) lamt/as la melasse 'molasses' 11) lapwil la pocie 'frying patl' e) lili Ie the 'lea' 15. The ",I/ow,'ing Lalin roots arc found in words that have hl"'11 h()1 ., . f' I " ~ TnWl' u ltIlt> !ng Ish. Slllec Ihese words were borrowed after Cinml1l I.aw had c) piSC1:o;. ph.cine tI) tcnuis lCnU(ll'" d cornu cornucopia n duo dUlII ~) cdCf C cdihk h ) v.cnu~ gcnocH .c i) up.cr tlgricuhul'c 16. J I ~ l1lpl 10 reconSlrUCI Ihe Pmln,C;crmanic 'ml1 l'm .. ' cog.nates. Fo~wa~g nn the vl)wch., dc.st.:rihc the chan l . ' :a~~ l'..m n the Od English tonns. (NO ll': y y.'" = Il and ' _ gcs wh,ch alcclcu Gol/,ic Old ElIg!i, h J - .1.) a) kuni h) hadi c) d6mjan <I) sakjan c) hugjan t) nati si riso miei hierro piedra hierha uso cyn bed dreman Sll!Can bycgan nel si nll! mclc ferro pcdra Cf a ur~l! 'kin' 'hcd' 'Il) judge' ' to seck' ' 10 buy' ' net'
- 197. 'Ii I I I It. 10.11,hUh lilt hi ",I,lllIlIh Ih!llt I"'" Illi '111 III "tltlIHtlllllh.., I I I I' ,Il ,fitT.r.lu 1.111 'H.h'. IIIllhll1 ,II'II'III1I,I.II,I',I(lh '.tllh 1,11U.,·II.lIh lll' . . I I Ir I I~I.IIIIII~III 111'.1.,.1.... 1. Ihl 1I",.II,'Ih, ,"Ih'lhlll,.IIIIIII Il'llhlll'llllllhlllt ,,' .1 1.1I1I!II.IH' 11111 hi HHd,'I' Ithld h, 'I": Il· I 11 til ,hh'~lhl ",lldlH'lddll!'li,fth'II"1I nil 11I'1l IItllllHHhHI Ilh'lll II I! hi ,'1 I .hll/tIlI·1t lit. III Ihlt ••1 1';11" 10'"11 lit. I" ,It h ,.1 S,d", Ill<' I 11'1 I I L' hi ••, 1(11 11110' ,,1101 lit. I II 1t,1t ,'1; 11,11111 '1IIdlill II, dLtI•• " .., Iltl 1I1111 Ittll~I;II". 'll I'" tlllh I h.Uhl, II '"'' ""I" 'I"II~ 1.1111111 Ilthh ,...I.llId 'lilt' 1IIIIIIIh'I 11;"11 till '111,1, IloIlllI,tlII ,,'110 1".1. IIt,1I 1110" ,II. '1,,·,tI'tll' .11110'.,'111 loIlI~'""y", lit,' 1I,IIt,II1 ,'I I t"I' 110, UII,I lit. I .. IIdl "I 1',111' iii" "111111''''' "I ,II it'1I1 ""I "1'1'1', It IIt,lilll, 110'1 1111 IIIJ.iIII lI'h'IIIl'lit" I ,.ltllo tI ,1111111.11 s,', 1.11 It"",,,.,II 111.1 ..·It '10"1' I,ll h'" ,,11,111111,'1, Ih'lll lit. ,I" 1111111.1111'11 "11111 '''hi I< 11t'"l1d.III,', I "I I 111111'''' ....,·tI" .111.1 1'1,1.111,111 ,n, II 111.11111,1111 Ih.1I 11t,' 'I" ,Ik d,tk .. III I.,,, 'I.W,' 11,111,' ,'I ' ,'11 Ih""yh Ih, II hl'h'lI, h 11'1<'11, ,111.1 I" 1I11'~' 'I, "" .11110'1, ,lllIldlll d "'!'litllill ","01 1,1101.11,1 I r",III.1I1 III IIlltlll.tll 11111'111 'Ihl, til lit ," III 1111 'tllIH' '''"l'lIttV', , 1,·"I.l ItI I I•.ltl<·11 I", I ,. ltllH.h IIIHI 1".llIh 1 111Id~ Ilt~ ",!lld 1111 I I Wllltl" Ih' II. .1 "I 111l~11'"' .11,,,~III~·d'hlll ~I' ''''t·,t II, 1 • ";"114". t:lutr<l....11 n.,iH" ntlqhllt/I & ~lll!lhlV' , .IlI. III.h,,· II. 1,11 t 1 UntHHIpt ~ IlhH "Il !'IlIIII"! 1 huh ,tHy IIUIl lit" .... ,Hllt .IHq" til LIUtu" l.' tt'! PIIltll'I."It tdpd hn Blld lilt ~t.11' 11 III lot,·,,,,.in,Uy Idah-,' Ihl .un.~II)I m~y IIlhth,,-d ttlllli hit' b. WIHkll II 11' Llllt'"~It'" .IV" hi. tI ...1 lq''Il'I 't I.It IlIl'M'1 'nt u" tit ttw l'L1"" , 111 _lIlt), 1.11 H IIhl u' n I,'uul tllu lui hypu'htI.~ pl!.ltn tHlltHillr" hI! ",hi. It "" Illlgl".lt h' I~ l , ... , lot 1':1 t. l,l l hit Pll1l1.) hh1) l i1l111t!I'lllll (i, ' lle ' lll llil .... ttl .llhIH L ., l I':~"II hlltlll'1 ill ,'... tllill , ttthl.llI}-'h Vt""dtl..tH Id,ul'! LItI~IL~'l'~ "11 h,u, ltlll.hll.' lhhtb.~1 bth:~. Itw)' I.hl Illll Ih"u' :'llttlt hl.tt.1 I. hi'" ~lllh.. hlh' II ltHh.ml " hn " 1,,111''' 1,11 1,111 ,ltIll I lI~h, 1t .11' "'II' II',III~ 1<'1,.10'11 (1t..111 tI,·.k lI.kll Iplill Illdu "lIt",,1 .11" hut ,hell IltHph4Ihl'i1..t ~ltllUtt~ I lllh. lh'hltH' Au I'lip Ihit ,,'nkll'1 11..(' // /111 It) I.. /1 gil" 01 '''''/111<, ,/,11/1, d ,.1 II<' C lit' .1 til I 011 Iottl hv ,1,111 I. ",.tl.1 IJ I' 11,'1'It. l.ltll) tlnl I ••ItII,'tI'. (III 'lIt,1 I. Ill' "'Itt ,.I.ltll III Ltltll" 1.1,,,.111,111.11 II II It .11' 'IY ,It LIIII¥ Id.II"I"II,II,tIllla. llUi ,II' ,,11, ,h." 1 1.",,1 w,lI I 1'11,,11 h.II' ,I I.II~lt IIIIIII~I "I IIInlalll ~ t Itl lit, .11/1. I It.llld II I 101 ,I'Lt' 1111" Ih.11 ~~"" 1,111 liar." Ihll ". 1111 III 11111. .,1 tI 111.1 1111, 111.111'11)1'1'1'" I Itu I "&h h 11111 : IllIh I 1111'1 .11 11111,1.11" III,IIt I 1111'10 IIltln I ~ .h ohl" wI1I11 .1I1k! 11 IItll'''' tI, I II ,II t I I til It.,
- 198. Ol'o T( tPOI'10: liNt l IS I Ie "'I 2 TYPOLOGJCAL CLASSIFICATION .!) ~f~uia ani.IPl'nJ.I/li ·~I.tri" like, All' For thc....t' ft.·~)"'l'lO"'. a ...c!~oncJ app":);JCh .I~..J~nguage class.ificatioll i J...:.nt.H-n ;J~ linuubtic hpolo(T~. It classifies languages aceo .1- S rCqu1 ... ' . '" . rUIng '''<I slru..:tur~J chi.~.J..:tcrisric... tlhou[ .regard for _gen.~lI~ . reJationshi to their tynOJOl-'IS[S IllIghr group lOgerher I,mguages with similar sound Ps. lh • " e- . ' ddT I . I patte u, alternativeJ), on~s irh sJlndar wor or er. ypo ~gl~a studies aJ~ m Or' identif Jinouistic unh'ersals. structural characlenstlcs which 0 'ieek . , .,. tho f l ' OcCUr to the lanl!uage~ of the world. We return to IS type 0 c asslficalio . aero ., ~ n In ~ecr '1 _. . ' . ~ Finnlly areal classification identifies charactenstlcs shared b I . ' . . L . I Y angu· whIch are 10 geographIcal conracl. anguages 10 c ose COntact often b ago, words. sounds. morphemes. and even syntactIC patterns from each Otho"'o~ a result neighbouring languages can come to resemble each h Cr. A, • . dD m~, though they may not be genetically relate. ue to space considera . even . I I 'fi' 'fi tton, chapter will not deal WIth area c assl IcatlOn specl Ically; h .. thi, . cd" I 2 d oWe'e description ofborrowmg can be loun m sections . an 5.1 of Ch r. a apter 8. As already noted. the classification of languages according to the~ I · .. I Ty I . .truCtu I characteristics is known as mgUlsllc typo ogy. po oglcal research ra together languages on the basis of similarities in their word order group, . h 1'1 . Pattern morphologtcal stmclUres. or P ono oglca systems. An ImpOrtant· , research wilhin the study of linguistic typology involves the se at~a of linguistic universals - structural patterns and traits that OCcur in all arc for human languages. Palterns or traits that occur in all languages ar or rno'l absolute universals. whereas Ihose that occur in most languages are e kcalled as universal tendencies. nOwn Many typological generalizations involve implicational univ which specify that Ihe presence of one trait implies the presence of ersals. (b . ) F' J ·th f . . another ut not VJce versa. or tnstance. anguages WJ ncatJve phonemes (s h IfI and lsi) will also have stop phonemes (such as Ipl and III). althou u~ as reverse is not necessarily true. g the Another way 10 analyse linguistic universals is through mark d theory. Within this Iheory. marked traits are considered to be eithe e ness I . rrn~ comp ex and/or universally rarer than unmarked characteristics. In add' . k d .. . II . d . . ilion a mar e trail IS IYPJCa y loun tn a particular language only if its unmarked c.'ounlerpart also occurs. Thus. markedness theory is closely related t h I t .. I' . I . 0 t C stu( Y0 Imp IcatlOna ulliversais. An example can help to clarify these terms. Nasalized vowels are said he marked, while non-nasalized (oral) ones arc said to he lInmarkc~o Phonologrcally. oral vowels can be considered less complex: oral vowc! allow the atrstream to exit only through the mouth while na~al vtlwel ' II . . . . ,,t ow lIJr to escape from hoth Ihe mouth and the nose. Cross linguistically. we lind 11 ( "'·....,n It A(n" t 1 ~N(, "1, thut all 1.loguag...... ha,.' I)J"I low' , ""', v I 1 " P 11'1:" wi I huVl.· nasn owe p lOn~1lC' MOll'I)Vl't tov'" t to 111-; IIIH ~ o(lth. then: urc u....ui.Hy fcw~r n·'!',I ~, 'I l n HI lw .1_1 ""W:;l e • .• "UWe ... hl " . U':?t ~'h , , ('A h11,;h nrc con"'ldcr~c.l hl he IliIIKClI) . 1., IIW . '111 I( .,... complex than oral vowel, (whll:h ' 1" Me )oh {'Un ~lh 'hll": n., .,1 "'WIN' . . ~ C 1I1mlar...cll I IlW "'i 1 The fol OWing. ....cchon... present ....lIn. I lle universals that huv!.! heen P"'I)(y..cll II" tIll 'll! tYP"h)~I,;, da~ III' Ie 'IIC·', I L I.: ,11 ',nd syntux. • . H Plltl1q(I~y 11thI' L ,lUI' figure 9.1 ~ • finll ()gy - In this section. we rcprc~cnt a vowe ~1lll . . . .fi .. . l:OI~onall ..,'-I"CI h Thts stmp tiCS tllC prescntut()tl note h J 1), P 1)l·1n1.;·1 . . . ' . • • I wever, th,t lh' • '/. rcaill-atton ot these system.... may vary in the. indO ·ct . " C cJC.ac ph(ml.'h': 'VI 1.1 .mguagc,. Languages arc often dassilkd aceordin" to In" ,'. ., " ~ ,t I.e an" pallern 01 ~ . syslems. The most common vowel system n., . ,.. ~ ·t"CIr v"wel • uS Ve 1110nc.mc.... . vowels. twO mId vowels. and one low v(wcl (Figure <,) ) Tn' (WI) '''~n arc unrounded, as IS the low vowel. and the hack v( . ' e [mo( Vlwel, lwe S .uc. rounded. u e o a The most common vowel system. About half the world's languages. including Basque, Hawaiw.n. Japanese Spanish. and SwahIli, have 'ouch a system. . The majority of the world's other languages have three four 'IX ce . . " ...... .-, 'Jen. eight or OIne dIfferent vowel phonemes (disregarding contrasts ba,ed on length or nasalization. ;-vhich can double or triple the number of phl)nerm~ vowels). Languages wllh fewer than three. or more than nine di"IO~tVe vowels are rare. Some typical vowel sy,lcm, are prc..ented in Figure 9.2. u u e o c o a a a Four vowel system Sl:ven vowel ySlem • "1 aho (Ari/ona) G~el (Uhlopla)
- 199. ., .,,'- tilil 1111101 "11 11 '" I~ I '11 II Ii, I, , I I 1 , 'I, 1'11 I 111 III h I"'h, hh q 11, IIHt! .11 , 'Ilh lUlh 1. ,, tll IUU . 1I~I1' H''~"III ,'"1 III.' I I'~ III. I
- 201. dill ' l,hk-').S - ....' ~" k' ..."1hOi n 1'1 " " .~I.-' " .~~,~ ',,t th~, ,bg~'" IHlN lH -"U Irlr.,) "" I~ nh : '" d ll'lur.. ~('nt'(',
- 202. ,,1,, 1011.1" It nuII un H.·f! .1... n. "plh)Iv ' • 61 It J..nTtI.J~h.1 11111 fIPfI.d.dfl"r!lli.II-dl.ldl,nh"Cd"·',V,,llhlt.tl f "' O1pl~'11 ,It II 1101 I1l1h h.l-' III,h.'dUIII,d .tlfl~l·'i II h f 11 ,.d .llId plllhl' , nUl II It! 0 lUn~llJI, dl'fIllllCllI.t/ 1tl'I t: (UIUwl'l'l,lmHtllllt'd) IIIH.I I' ('lUll Uh/tm/) " t1flf h,l'Io hOlh.1 kll/lllolI.II amI 1111 lntl"L I toll. a! 1It1, I '''hI f), dl-n, Wililul "U" i.....:It",-., lu Itll,.· ,pul rUI" d--n',ltl0I1..a1 Ilr. I;~ht mtkl,.lh1J1al.llfi, ) I Ioh'·/.b -- tllf/Hh .fnrmJ ~ "flip fn~·IU.f ..lui> .. ,,"on JJ I 11 Rillil 1.1 () I lurA"h Ij III kl ' J! "" I [I lHk 1'( 1" "ur1 1'1 ..r NrJ'" IJI /.I /«11'/ I,I I', I - IJ ., '''II~u"f'l' h,,, 01111 ,,,lIht'S, II will "I'll h"~c 1>IIIy PI"II)()"IIt>n~ 1I"'nl ;11 Ch"l'lt" l'o'II><>lIiOIl HIe Ihe l'l/UI'"lclll 1>1 PICPI"III,," 1 ~n lallcuagl's th.1I pl".'t, till; ItC,IU at IltL' cnd 01 lhe phnlL',) lurkl h I " , I h ' lIr t' IJlJ/>k h,,, onh 'IIJ/i,,'; a Cpt'L'lt'd, It a So '" 1'1>11''''11;011 (II • , . . . . II I r 11""/ prt'/><)IIJ1>f1s. II",,, J1lu,lrakd III Ihe rOlll>Wlllg '~ntc ncc, "Iullel ajIe IIJill kil.lh,UJ "I dIU hnl"1 I}sht' 1t>1 bout. , L' huy P,l '1IUIlt'! tloughllhc houk lor ")'hc ' Ik" ,lu.t' lt' la('k dl'laikd desnlpilon, lill (llusl of Ihe world's '"nguagc~ much of Ihe II Ink IHl sy"t"clll' univcrsu" h"s tlcen re,trit:lcd 10 lhe slIIdy n; II nld oflkr In "llIpk dCl'lal,III'!: "eJllCJll:cs ,"Ul'h as Tht' WIJIIlt'II/JIIIJllhp /WllIf 1'.111,'111 .m' ri""iliL'd in lnll" of lhe mdc, ollhc sullJect (S), dUl'CI 001,',1 «()), .lIIt! I t'ro (V) rtlL' Ihll't' Inns! Clmillun WUlt! "Ilkrs (in d".,c,'nding !lfdt,( I 'J t I ,n"".f I I, ",,1('111 1) ~,,, (lul"-' h1 I'" .11 ,,"'til II ,,1 Ih" 1t., ,UI l. buy P. ' 11. U ,,.,t! ·hl ttl" ,,1(, • 8) ,VI>II nl'1I,h1 1111,.' uthkh hl"~,' h* Ill'''! "n V,(1 (w I 1.1 I l,uh""I" Y Ihh ,II '. Y llyn ~ alktl Ih,' d, i'~")" til" 111.1 I hl Ih l'i!(11 .-llkd till' 'Him ,Ill SOY, SV(). Hntl VS(l IMtt'II'''' have IlIU' PIllClly 11 (,h111111[111 1 the .. ,"c-. lhr ..."bln t 01,.:1..:11 ... hdhl It"" 'If 'ct hhwct 'he 1ll"Vill"l1 chi th, Ie .>llmn!,:11l umy . 1"" IlOlll',," I'~ lml he Uhl' I U,l"IIU- I • Yt . . " J'" 1'4111.1 tu the ttlI'll (what h.." "t'nh:ntl' I i,hhU' (h"PCl ~' . CUII1I1. '>,111 ,hI'{ hlf , nHlll' I,d"I"t.11 I.'july pUll" III titt' "1UitllC Allho'l)!.h itil uWfwhl'll1l1ilV il""IllIy hi Ihe WIlI(I' ""¥II,"" place: In lltl''1 1ll'IUrI' Ihe tlm'cl u"I"L1 11 'h, 'f h.1 I ' WUIII UIIII'(, thl P",d,<.c" "I>I I1I1'VI'r,al. '1lw(e I'" illall Illl/lIhel 1>1 V()S IanVI1"vr • Ill' he I '''nw" l'xaillpk of whid, I' Mah'g,,'y. /0) VOS (Malagl,syl' Nahlla ny lllpianatf" ny vehlvavy, o,lIW Ihe student Ihe WIlIl1an " he woman saw the slLllknl ' As we ll, there lin; a very lew OVS and OSV "ngll"Sc" "II 0 whlh he , poken in the /l1lllll>n oa,in 1>1 Sl1l1th Al1Icrlca, II) OYS (lIixkuryana); Kana Yllilimnn biryekollH> It,h ci1ught b(>~ 'Th~' loy caught iI II.,h • m (lSY (Apurina). Aflana not" "P'I pil1c,lpPIc I Icl~h ' ktt:h a pinc,ppk: mtu
- 203. .... •• u,.'lH" n , mh.. rh.lIr Ill' nkfh,,"r :m, .h from 11 e. ,~ Ch tee 4. .....1:i , mm 0 I 'ti,1 (lAoS It'(~nt) 1ft} { n~h....h S "' OrJ.nem" H.uui....h hke... h.ggi, b. PP h.")o ... 'em- Ge()rg.ma kft Pi' on Sunda~ . ~1.nn('r 3d.,erb:-. oer.he~mmg) precede the !?-ener;>lI) tollo the verb 10 YO language ~tb In ()'" hnguag 17) Jap:lne~e (S-QV {Xlttem. a........ecn n ISa)}: ltanner ad' ern precede... t!rb" hu) aku hasiru fa.....l run 1<') Engh,h (S-YO panem, a, ,een In 16a I), ~ tanner adverb rolow, verb, Sail) run, fa.L With respect to po,~"ive ,tructure., !here" an ov'erwhelmin d enee fe>r Genitive + :-; order in OY language.. and a (,orne" ,-" pr er· f . G ". d' ~u.... '" erl preference or, + erutne or er In YO languages. }9) Japane,e (~Y panem, '" ,een In 150)): Genitiye structure precedes head,-: Taroo-no han Taroo-Gen boo;: 'Taroo's book' 201 French a . 5-,'0 panero Pierre aime ~1arie 'Pierre likes ~larie: b. GenitiYe 'tructure follo'A head.': ta mai;;on de ~tme the hou..<.e of Gen) I.me '.I.arie', hou..-..e' Engli>h, althou:h an ,'0 language. eiliiblb r:lttem,: :J, a G n .... ·p nero, 1..1J) ', file d th Gen - " and •- - (;en
- 204. 1.4 ... Yl rilmmati<al hi rarchie 4{OSImLI~ nI , SubJ<"-"t Duecl obJ<'Cf OIher . Among !he /Il.1J1~ lypolDglcaJ ~oomen- ~I rompl. "'"th thi L yero agreement. first menuoned Ifl ChapleT .. (secuoo 6 -I). A !be: example, sho". there are language, Ifl "hi.:-h !he em agree lib >ubjecl and there are language Ifl" hich II agree> "lth both ~ !he direct object 3 = 3rd person. ,g = singular. pi =plural. P 1= :!:!) .-gre~""th subject only (Sparu'hl: SlIbjl'CI Juan parti.o, luan lea'e·3/sgJPst 'luan left,' :'3) Agreement" ith subject and direct obJect S a/uli); SlIbjecI I Dirl'CI "bjI'CI lurna a· Ii- "'a- piga ",alOto luma 3!sg Pst 3!pl hit children 'luma 1111 the children,' Ho e"er. as predicted by the hierarchy. howe"er. there are no lanl!U 0 II hJCh the "erb agree, with just the direct object. ~ a_c, In Explaining u~nhh~e~rs~a~'~s-~L;"::::-::'-::=:--.~-----:---:-------------- mgu1'l5 are sull uncenam about how 10 e.plain the eute f lin' u ' . 1 . ' nee 0 maUl ~UI' e Uill,'ef'a . 'onetheles'. a number of interetin" propoaJ h . been made. and It I onh"hlle to conlder some of them h;re. . ale u Table 9.; Ob'l:rUenl' founJ oro '-hnguhticall~ I , 7 P .. b d ~ ~ f h II
- 205. Syntax Morpho/Oil ~ ;' N /~ N V AIAt I I I tr~," ment flgurt~ 9.6 Tlw .tlULtlJrt' of.1 wOld (on/.li/llng tI dl'riv.lIioll.lJ .llti, ~lIlcl.Ir)lnfll·( (1011.)1 tlllix At le;!sl some SYlllil,'tic lllllvers,,', may be e'plailwd III tenn, of the H. I - , . ~'I) 11'11 Ihe humall nUlIn pron's,,'s M~ntl'lll'l' slluclur~ (oJl"dcl Ih,' 'lllnlnary III ' order p;!lIerns ill Table l),M, which is based Oil Ih,' Jlnplicalional lIniv ~I"d dJS(;ussed ill section 2,,1 "s,Ii, Table 9,8 Woru order paJll'f/lS ( '(}fHIItIlt'n/, I',~ NI' V'" 1'1' V '" ""I11/ler Alh (/"11 '" N Onlt'! III '() 1l/II,1:IIl/I((' (J"II'/' III IJV I/II/lillllli" I"l'posilion NI' NI' pmlpo'Jlioll vcrl> 1'1' 1'1' verh wlh /11(11111.:1 Adv Mllllnel Allv velh JlOUf) ~(,.·lIilivC' !!l'IIIII Vt' 1101111 --------------- ---------- - Olle 1,'n'lI! nplalla!IOII ~s !1I why thl' word mdl'1 prop"I!i," 111 Ihl' ,emil" alld Ih" d COhl/llIIS ,lusI,'r logethel illvol Vl', ,'llIllrast hl'tW""1l 11~'hl hi andllll~ "I 3 1111 I.,IIIl. (II 1, I'~I' 1~lrhl hlIlhtl~ (I(l) '" ' .d hl,"hhlllL 1t1V. VI' VI' V NI' NI' V Ih'l N I h,t N The wllrld, langua't" can I,' loupc,l ill"l a le"'"vely 111" lIurnlt<:1 II lanvua!!C l'IIIHIi,", liLICCI , 'ellcllC CLl''lllcalion I~ 1l1ll'IIIIl'~ ,rIll 1I1L ..1 ,lIlUIIlIK'lllllca")(l,, P"lhap' the higg"si {'/llhklll I~ IItlply Ih" ,lIllllllll II ,Iala that 1111 I I ,'(llk'tt'd Iwl"I' Irll 'lll,ts call Iw 1I1II1t1l1'III ahuut Ill<' lOll", II ;1 '''HII' III 1'llIglla!l"s, I "'lItl Lli th.: Lt,llhlce '" IllllI,k~,l!k" fUI t:~,IIIIJlk.thal (11I1Il ,It itlllHltlallll1l ha, hn'l ,1<:l:lIlIlUblcLllll plllpll'" a L1,'Llllt',1 dOl'> IIt';'IIIll."1 11L~ till 'Ilag'" '1I,ti....1 1.ll1 "I lit" lallgll,'gc 01 Suulh 1lll'lIla ~lI 1,,1111,',1 IIld .lI,lt.llL:l ,ll" ,ltllll'laltl'1 ' lI1..llllI , , III lIl,lll l'ol'" S, Ilil 'Ill I I,ll; lit" 1'1 "hk III III .; I Ihli IUllg III Ie I IIf I:lll lIa hI hI' usnl III 1'1)1'" III' ',lIl'llC: I lall)" 1111" , I h I IS 111111: til ,l'l m III II 1 "1,' ,II IIt.Ll houhl • I IUIl :1II 1;111 'ua 'e I tuto;" 'l'1" 1;: c.: :
- 206. 1111 1 11111""" 11",•• ttl"" '"," "" I"Hq In It,." ,,,111' ,III lUll' 11' 1111 IIh IH. , Illp " I 1'" I 111 " hi 111 I,tt,IIII'II) ~ ., 111,111 , ,h 11h I', III 111 11 111.11:1 'tilt 'H I 111 ~1 II I "h" 1,,11;1 t 11 (i 11H.Blh 111 h 11 ""hl ·1111.1 I ~II 1, ,1 -"kl 1" Ihl I ,, I" ,11 hi I hi I 11" (II I "';H'" II,h h 1 I,kl (,"Ih" • Ilh n,, '" ""~I Il,1pWIP' "" 11 h , lIH,'" II' h 1, h;1n~ "nIH Ih, '''""h 1" 1' (~,'lhH .mal ;Il ",h, 1 ;llr'~I' "'11).'1' 1' ,n' ""H," " (,',m.1 hl ,HI t b, ,'1 '"'" 'h' NIH!h l1'''l i1llh '" S,.,h11;"", "1,1, h ,, 1, IIh ""kd elld Nnl ' (lth h"lI1.- (), h ',11, ). ; I;r 11 "hi," . PH.' 1 h lh' ,"IHP 'I litH II tk ,'Ihkd h 'lhh.. NI" wq,lI .•"' .UtW "I""'!...,,, nil 11' 1';111'" ",',lld', Ih"' "~I '"';11). Ihr 1l"'1 NtH'h '1''''',lm .m 1.1 I.' ;1' S nh h ,Ind l,HI"h ttl" ,''' (~"I'H_ "11lh h 1 hhk~ (1'11., )II'h, 1"";,, ,'"~''''' ,111 '111',,".1 )11 It .1" ,,1" 1'1.-."'",1,, )"'1',,,,'11 H' 1,,11,1111',' "',." 1 Ih~ ,,,,,d '1 I' 'IH "t ' Im , h, I'll I' tI'I 1,11.'" h';1 "k"" h ,,,'1;1 '" l'l'''' 1 ,1 'H 1""" Il,,,, ", Un,,,,, 1 ,'" 1", '1 I,m '1,,' , tIt t hl' Il,," ••' ," , "11 ttl' 111 th . h 1 ,.,t 1 l,'1",1 1 ," h d", '1' ,~, t"'UI 'h, PI n hili Ih, 1.' .'. I'" ,,1 lull' . (,,'''''. O'( "h" 1' 11 ",,th .,, (,"ltl,It ,H 1 l'HW1 nun,H'!.. l1 ,1 ;H', lls I..~. ,, '" h ",,11'1-,'11" 11 .,.111' • IId.IIII '" h" ,h ,'111 ,11" '1111' h,', 1,hll' II I.:. II__________-:-_______~::_:_-::_-~---- (f t ,' I (1,1 p""h 111." In .",,, II...;II ,,,11 II
- 207. 1 (,.,1/. 11,,1/, f II ("/ I" III I', I', " III III II I f'IljiJ U lI1 dill 1'1 I, W I .111 1./ II, I,d.,. I) 11 "", I II,. "uHlIr -=~- 1111"1,,, II I I, 111 ,11 I /11 ,I, I /,/1 III I HI, '1111 f( IIJllh l" (MI/I/ / II" /f" II. I,wll/ v IIllplllldly, 1111 " /I'd 111.1 V,/l il Iy III I.II')!IL'I" '1/1 / , '''' 1IIIItt .111,' 111111 l"nli/wI' 1I111fdd y III IIllId, III d"y ILlly , III III V J ~ UI • III , ' , HIli', II" lI,dl, I.J/llil y .111 ,,/I .I,'" "I/I/"d 1111111 I ., /jll . II" 1.1/11'" '/"'- '" II I /,1 , " I III! J IIIJIlI' IIIHI ,III flu Ji /, ,11 1,111,'" 1(lJIlliIIW"- I.UI~jll.'}'lfili IIII'Y, 'III I I ',1/, • • It IIv,". I JIIIIt ,i ',11111111'111 JIll Jill' illHI ' '''''"M til '1.lId,III'1I1 illUI C Iii It 1111) ' I / • j 11 "I f lll"/' {, IIti h/llW II/ ,,11'"11 /111111'11111,1111.11 1/ "lId ., W'·""'IIJ 11 11 1"1 " • ("f' r IHI "1'/ III ,d/ii/l 1111//" 1'111,,,,'/11 ' 1 .11'11""1"'_ III, W, .1, /I, Il'1111" I IiII IIII'I iii VIII,'''''' I~ /I" III 1<111/1/1111' (1',1/11'" 1'1111111"" ,I' 111111 (',,'ill.lIll ,11111 (j""" I~ II" I I 1"ftH/II,' I> " , I 1111 II/I/' IIII' '11//11"1/1 1 lillIl%II" """klll III " 1 "11" "lid '>WII 'I 'III '" '" 1'0111/1 ', ,II"~ 1/l1I~11 .. I,',j III /.d,I, 'I I I, /I I illlIl lI,dl.", , IIH II,IIII.III 1 ,11,.1,,,. ~ ,,,,,,j ,Ii J'IIIIIIJ' III.I' I IIIlIdll.~ h (/tillu /lulIlIOJt " ' 11'/1' II 'J'lltlll '-';111 "1111;111 (I •• 111111 I Hi t '/It. 1,,1 tit, .. ,...'"~"..,,.. 'II", ';II.VII' I,nllil I, ,, ""'1 1.11"'1" ,," C"" hI' .h~II11'.I,,," 111 '- '- ,-" " J • ~Un nfi.t.nlnc I ~:'''( , "'"",h, ,11111 We ,I II,.. I,.' I Sh~l~ l"iI'" h, 111'"" up ..1 Ku 'all la , 1""kJi (,,,,,,, 'ill~la llJ. I/I" ,.IIII:JI' ,JlIII Byd"'lI "aJl (II' WI"'e "u ' " ~~"U')' I lC I""t' l "'I'"f,'UII' lIy. ,."" _ ,ii,wh,. II, IJI,' '", "I "I)rlh~1II PI)la,ul.'1hcWe ';llI VI' III '"11" 1/1 ""1- ( l el l! Slo~,,~, I'..h I! ,,,,.1 .11 al,an IIIIe - I IW" h"'II Ip"~'-1I111 1',,1;11111),' h.' S,,"1h S"v, III Jldll"d"," . lul~allall M' '"lIIall S" ,t", ( ,"att,,", i.II.1 SI"vclIl! (II' SIIIv'''''"11 h.' I"" 'r Ih'ce la"lIlla' ar ull ,,.,, l·" III /111 It",,, , 'II 'Ii lav l" III' Ihal 1 ,llh'lIlWh 1 lla..,kllh (,real w" IIIW " I M," Jill'"" IK'(C I kl III (;, 'I , ,",, ISlav, I Mill.:t.lo0l3n, f>lilVIL. ~ ,. ,'~ 1111' 1111 11,,111,,1 ",,,VI! 11"" IIIl' ,11c.:,. llIlIII v 'Ial ~enlun laler 'IIII' ." ',1111/,,11'"1 ..I Ih St.." rfllll' III . "!!'''''' I "I'" lied III lahl' .) I I I ,II' ~1r"'11 Wdl,llJl1 ItII 1111 lit" ,: 11 ( I h I J~, 1111111' S, l)l ( ', 1,111 11 SI)v,~ 1 '111111 Ian 11 dOHlatl '1" h lIu ,IlIi.IJl Lu all n
- 208. r ur 9.8l nw hh1,)·lt.tni.tn N'3Ih:h ,ll hht,l Fur'1 '.lIt I' dn id.'d 11th,) lralq ,uh bl.ln,.:h~', Ill.' le.lm.11l ,un t"or.l1Kh .·,In(.Hn, Ih..lll( .lU U -11 1l11d 1 '~l,!.'"lJ.l~.·'. IIldudin~ k,·k01 I' ·r-i.I.1I1 .t"~l .·.llkd Pa~l '.lr h~~n Ijillt...~ lroUl). P;.,hhl Ilh.·I'nn~·IJ'-11 tH1~1I.1~l" l' ~t~h.II11SI.I1l. ,..llld l.lIrdj,h "'~)~1.!'1'l. flt Iran.. Ir.t"l. nlr .'. ••Uht S:" n.l). l )lh...·1 1r."II~Ul 1.1I1!!1I.1~t:" .In..· 'PO,,"CIl {loUld ~'l ",00h.'01 J'..tn:-.. .If rh.· (,'nnet l SSR . •lIh.ll"'hlll.l. In flak.ht~ l*,f'e ~.1" Ilk' Inilil·lr.ulI.HI 1~"Ulltl~ Invwn f'~f"ol.Ul J= Elf'.IJ Pu..hru In.lll Hntdl ·l ' lltI Hl.~II~.111 -- ~ wd"h "'. 1n .f. 11" 1.11.lIhi (rUj'r.UI R~"I1l.m) [= G~T''''-' ) Cdtic Gemlanic -' Romance 4 Hellenic .5 lavic 6 Albanian Amlenian S Indo-Iranian 9 Baltic UlaliC 11 ( t'S Ie AIICIN (1 "N{ 'JI(. , ," 1'hcn. · ,If.' a.hf.l:n t'r'~'. ril~ ~Hcrct" tnl.'I.' an 'u. . :-.ptl~l.'n III l(ll tll::r~ lndl,. :a"'htan, .mt ".IIl 'h~l1 ,'It:''', Mm., 0 the "" . 'Ul") Fun.lpc4ln. Smn~ nt 1he tl)~ w . g c!ih )c,,,!, 0 .hl I.. ~l.~ 1 I' d LI ,u. c~"rc'd (" nral.:h ~u~crs) .~ 10 1- n.lu. Bengah Punah M' In h:rll n Tn 1... () : ' , I . ' . t. ara)1' ,.... nI)~=f n' 1hndl and Un u nrc two <.hacl.::t~ u, the~. 'I. • ~nf,: "U}lI.fi.. 1" . . . , . I . '''''e angu'' ~ .. ,u'u~h uifh:ren wrttmg ~)stcm~ an<. ~rc ~s~od~h.'d n' ..' Qt!, .ue)l h"~e . II . . l.. P'lk,' h W Ucr~n llta 'j sl")('Ikcn pnnc,.pa )0 tn • "an )' Mu~in" whcrca!-. H " eu Ure~~ J{lU in India hy -1mdus. nUl '" "l'Kl;.en ?tim<{ Lcs:, wen k.nown us. an Indic language ~ R.n . , 'J G . m,m~, '" G~P'" I ' 1ho the lyp~lCS were an entertainmcn eu:;,C 1 d', J' ~ ~hc""!d , h' M'lIdl' E . , n n la "'no were' . Perrorll1 tn 1 t: l! a~t some ttme in the M'ddl m~l!u to I d' b . II d , I e Ig", Tn, returned 0 n lao u lr,lVC c. lI!ead to Turkc" ... d . e'i nc....C{ ' b ' "n , eventuallv E Romany contains many orrowed words _ PtTcu. I ( J. urope. , T k · • h" '" Y rom Gr••" h· ,vas ~pokcn In ur cy ~ll t c ltn"c 0 thcir May. "Tabe 9 " W ,;.h organilUlion ~f Indo-lranian.. . - deplcb, the Figure 9,8 Ilustrate, the geographIc location of he Ind E itlentifled in this chapter. 0- uropean (amil,,, Although no introductory teXI could bope 10 present a complet ' . " e~q~~ of the world s language famllte" some fUMer discussion of th' ., . ... . .... . ~, ~ t091(: 1':'0 warranled lD order to Illustrate Ihe extraordmary diven;it) of human I, 9 '0'1 anguage {see Figure 9, on p," - , The Uralic family (see Table 9,15) contains aboUlIWenty language and ha> approximately rv.:enty-rwo million speaken;, Uratic languages are spoken in a band across the nonhero pan of Europe. all the way from nonhero. 'o[a~ 10 Siberia, Uralie has two major branches: Samoyedie and Finno-Ugric, The Samoyed branch contain a handful oflanguages spoken in the Arctic region of Ru sia. particularly in areasaround theUral mountains. and ahoinSiberia, 1Sble 9.15 FilllllC Finni,h f~h. nian : .1.lInc L"pp) K;r.:1i.I1 I t ,)nl.I1 l't!nc Hunganan O'tyak ' gul gan~~ Selkup ~ ·enet~ Enet.
- 209. "'1< II ,I~hl Ih", .. ,. I II~' II,~ " li"~l II h 11 I r I ,1,,'"1 III I' I ,"11 "I Ih. • • "'1 I' ,", I ,q II Ii"" II" I"""'11 11.11111.1 10 II 1111111"11 I" "ph Ii h 1,1t1'11.I1'1 III 111111111111 I' Iku .,1 11111 II II 1 ,111 '11,1', "lit 11 1111 • ,11 IIIi 1, III '" , III ,III,h I .JlIt tl j,m, ","" If '11/lIltllh 1 it ,1,,11111 , 'ill I" ~ I IIII,,·II·," ' " ,II IIIH '" tH,., , t {,ff ,. .,1<11"1111 I I II W 1,1 Ii. II" ',u"" ",I I'" J ttl IIif , till h 1 " .,
- 210. 98 illu I ibt'l,lII t)NJIMP(HlARt IIN<'lJI<';11I '; JlWllhlll} SO ~lJt" fuhh-".'H IhI!J)•."Hh,lIlt.lIl1ll) ,"nlt Kuru M .•"II Ulahul Kol.llI" N.II"" 1',111' ()lIulI C),uJ;lhH ,'lIl1lh 11'1111111 h'IIII-'u SUVlllil Kond.• MltIldll (;omll ."/IIIIJ, l il/IIII ~'II;IYillillh 1.111111111;, KIlI.1 n,dit Ildll _______________________...:K.:.-':.:.~hIVIJ ------ Mulltla Silllf;11i Mllmilln II" ftltlll khmt" V,l'III;IIIll'l' ('.lInl>"d',II'1 Khlllal M(111 "lIa, /L,II",,, Nicohurc'w --- -- - Ca, - Num:uwry - III ,,'JlII' III 1I111"lwl' Il/ '!,"ith'", Iltl' S'IIt> l,h,'lall LlIlJtly (S't, Table Y.20) i Iltl' l,tll'l',1 lallgllag" 11I11ItI)I alll't 111(/" FUIHpl'all, lit,'", ill,' IIhoUI Ih,w Itulld'l'd S'II1l I,hdall 1;111 'lIa!;t". II lilt ,I IiliaI 01 approxlIlJ;lIl'iy M'VI'II h'll,dlrtl IIItlllI'li '!,,'akl'l' Iltn,' ,,"' 111(1 IIla.l'>l h',lIIdll'S: Ih,' Itill'I(I 11111111;111 bland, ,11111 Ihl' '11111111' hl,lIIl'll 'I" lite' ""I hl,lIIlll h,lolI' Ihe Ilh,'lan lallgllag"1 1111111'" I" .111<1 111,1111 (liitn I,III~II,' 'C' pok"11 III Iltlrlltl';"II'1 II Int/1I1 N"IMI' 111111111, .lIul 1,11l'1. . Iitt' SIIIIII,' hlHlldlltlJ'I,IIII litl' lallgll,1 'l'S Ih;1I In' l',tli '(,hllll""', hlllll., I'llIl''' 1111 'III II,' 1'(1'111 III I h'll, ( 'itlll,'sc l'oll"'ls 0/ "''l'11I1 d,<;llIll t. 1I111111all) uunllC'C I'iI')CliI11 Shurpa Ncwun 1he.' SitU) Ilhcillll.u1lII 'I MCUU/lJ'I1l w" Mal1d~'rln Wu alwallc AnulY i-{).:.I.tIl hll.l..tn Hukku ('an(lne~ -"..~~--- unintelligIble languages. Yel. the 'peake" th · I _ - nOlmally call them 'dialect'" for h1stnrica an('~c~~IC '~I"" a!-. we a~ hngu'';,t" .. , U tura rca~(m' . • hccausc lhe _same ,W rltll1g s~!-,tcm i" u~cd acros~ China and .. ... -10 panCUar by speake," of dIfferent Chinese lan"ll'Ines (, .. Ch' Can be undCN(){ld S . . . ., '" - .ee apter IS ' Ilttwever, the 'nltle branch contains several d- t'f I ' "'c'l<tn 4.I). . crent anouaoc ( which may have a multItude of dillerent dialects)" _ " ", each of d· I k' . , rOr tnslance M' d - Chinese has la cell spo en In Pekinn (Beij'ino) S . h •. an ann . • 0 o· I.ee uan and Na k other major Slnlc languages arc Wu (with dialects in Sh 'h' n mg.The Min (which include, TaIwanese, Amoy, Hokian. anda~~k~~~nd SUthllW). (spoken in Ilong Kong), and Hakka. ), Cantonese The Sino-Tibetan languages typically have SYO Or SOY d II WOr order The Sinitic languages are a tonal (a, are many of the llbeto-B . I . , . " urman anguages) and are predominantly Isolaltng. Morphemes generally consi" of a sin . CY(C) syllable. g c The Austronesian family contains over nine hundred (and according to some estimates over twet-'e hundred) languages whiCh are spoken from the island of Madagascar, off the southeast coa.st of Africa. halfway across the world It) southeast Asia. Hawaii. Ea.,ter bland and New Zealand, Some of Ihe languages of Taiwan abo belong to this family: however. Taiwanese. wh.ich is spokcn by most of Ihctsland's residents. is a Sinitic language (ee aoove). The large.t branch" Ithin the Austronesian family consists of the MalaYQ- polynesian languages. These include Malagasy (spoken in Madaga'>car). Malay (which;'; es cntian~ identical to lndonesian). Tagalog (the basb fm Philipino. the official language of the Philippines). Javanese. and hundred, of other languages p<.)I-.en in :-'lalaysia. Vietnam. Cambodia. and the islands of Illdonesl". The Pol~ ne'lan, were intrepid ocean tra,eller, and eoloniLeu H~ ail. Easler bland. and :-;'e, Zealand. ,ome time between :?OO and 1000 ,t), .:II-I-.no n :-.aby~)·Poly neslan languages in the PacifiC include Fijian. I)ngan. Sam"~Il. Tahili.U1. . laori. lind Hawaiian whieh now ha, fewer than ,)IIl' Ihl)lI,and nati,,' spcal-.cr . S"nll' I 'cl'nl rcscan:h has cl)nfirmed earlier attempts to hnl-. the Aus- tn'l1l's(.UI famil~ lth lhe ,ustfl>-:sialic' family of India ami S"uthea." /sla, ,n,lllns rl'1,ltH)1l hlp is 11<) VI Idc~ acccplcJ, . 1)1l,' f',ltlltl' ch,u"Jetcri tic of Au If ncslan language I' the use of r dlllil',IUlH, tall) l)f thc,~ langua,;cs at 0 use inti".:s, a phenomenon which
- 211. tt.1 Ha" ~ 1",,., ,d ~n ~--~~~--------------- ;;::~'"•. n) S'lut On'ltlt) ,," " '" lt.re~ r~m~li!h :hh~ .. ).;.,1,,1. Len.g. ( hadH.: ~ .. ·.."lud ~r.ln ~h of ..[rn- ...lath':: ,.;,. Cu....hi.tk. ",h"l...e: m ~,, " h" d £. h ' , " em"", ""mage are 'l,,)..~n 1 l C ~U ..m. t l)P~. S,)m~3. and l.en~3. A ,hird b{:ln~h" B~ lI....ud~......~er.ll ..n£.uJ.£.e~ .11 A'i!~n:.. ,h.'flCcC't and "","" ~.. r~ . . . . . . . . . ~,...r• ....Ul... 3,....... luare<' Ud T:lnaI~hl. ull another branch 0 Afro- "-,i3tiC Chad" - • . • ... . . .,- _ ., . h.:. cont n man l"lf th~ lang.uage..... o Chad and . 1gena. ~uch a~ Hau~. .:'nh e ~f~ '-'iJ.ti~ angu3g~!'oo. Chadc anguag.!.... i.lI'e tonal. . The tifth and large'l br.:mcb of Afro-A>i3llc lin tern" of number of <pe,kers) $ the .'~nul1.:br.:mcb.. lan~ n) extinct) language, men,i neoi m the Bit'll were ot enUll': I.)ngm. ,ueb a<B3b~ Ionian (al 1-n0I:b .-" nan I.)f Akkadian). lOld) Cmaanlle. ~Ioable_ Cl=ic:li Hebre. and Bibhcal Ar'J.l1ui..:. Biblic:" ll'r. P:lic>tmian) .-rJ.ffi:llC as the language 'PO en 1 p"lestine at the ume ot Je,u,. and -:1, probably us naU e lan~ua!e Classical Hebre b3> not been 'po en :is a nane I~!u;!e (Of '>; ,nilknni3.. although it h:b been n1:llntamed :b a wntlen l:mgu;ge-b_ Heure s..:holars. ,,[00 m Hebre d hraei) i, nl.t dire..:tl~ descended from CI "ICal Het-rew: rather. it 3.> :realed f re-.:re:lled at the beguming f Ihl, C~~ 1 regularizing~, m 3S -{> of Cl:l",ical He re, :md adding t 90 .~"'. ~IOOem Het-re h:b nl~ ha~ ,mmuni~ F.~t f d -ad :"~ . ::till an theT ~ un.: languae hI' are mutual'~ t -lligi 1. arleo!' (If .-r3.bi.: en:ill , ,"th fri -a and. throughc>ul the . ti J.le Ea;t .-1. f the>e are d C.h,,-.ll .r.ili,-. hKh :l:- th hngu ge of th Proph t • 1'1. ' J -, 1.,1' Sl~un.. d l' th - language of the • ran. the 1: .:;;: uti.: I ;ua~" are.:h t'rued b~ a '~'temo ll'I)Il."Ql:I:ult3. n t d ~ , m'UlI ,1 - t an m, tnft n (1. an Ch
- 212. 11 111't I, i I 1,1/111It! ~,,. ,I ~ I' ,111 1 ~ ,11 1.1 II.. Iii '1 I II II l'ff I 111111 1 "JIIIIHI iI··/'{ A111111/, ,'jll·' 11" 11,,,,111,,1 1 1 W"II<' I t , I,,~ 4 t till, ,It Ulf 1111111~ I IlI dl·, P lo,p l,u l~ I " i~'I' III""' '" • '" ,I" I ,111' . ,''"' ,,,, Ii , • ",," , " " '1/1/ / " ~, I'''''H H 11/"11/1 i " / IW , ,." " 111M' ~======= I·'r .- ' ======_
- 213. ,llll3th-- ~ 5.lhlplill Cl-itv111l3 renutJaJ'1 ~ ~lgnqU:3 J'1 ~ ,ou3J1 aa l;oq:;oiW ~ Deeoan B _tay= ~ Ch. han F un! Q.l0 lu<.,IUUI."'"
- 214. 24/ IDellooniendl76 I len! illDhim.' In ilddiuon. !he na/He languages of 'orth Amenca tend to have eJaboT.ue sylem of pcro;on and number marking a.~ well 'J' an fi ., a nOlln 4. as Ie .. Ion syslem hased on ammacy. For In lance. AlgonquIan lang . l 'e Cree do not classify noun~ as masculine. feminine and neuter as ~~~o £u:upean languages such as f ngll h do, but rather dj~tJng ui h betll animate and Inammate nouns llJth anImacy being treated as an eli5Cnti~~ grammatrcaJ concept so that men, pIpes and duck all count as anImate. geisolates l~ua Although ~ingui~l~. ~ave ~ucceede.d in plllC1ng thousand, of the ~ord' languages mto farmlle'>. there are ~t11l many other language thaI cannot be classified. A language that I not Imov.n to be related to any othet I'i~ language is called an i~late. Bao;que. ",hlch IS spoken in northern Spam a~ south-we. tern France. IS ~uch a language. Example~ of other lan!!Ual!e i<;ola~ throughoul the ",orld include Amu (northern Japan). Burusha!eki "Pakistan). Kutcnai (Briti. h Columbia), Gilyak (Siberia). laraskan lCaliformal. and Yukagir (Siberia) Hmcver. in recent years ome lingui,ts have claimed that all language are ultimately related. Advo.:ates of thi po,ition have attempted to t up a f~ large macrofamilic. to ....hich all the languages of the world belong. Should thi' claim tum out to be valid. the Idea of language isolates will have to be ahandoncd (. ee the nexl cellon).
- 215.
- 216. !j -41, It..II ,t I " lilt' I,,. '" III 1/", ,h,'/lI'" " "" 1/" ""1,',,.1 Ih,'l ""!""'I "'" II' ,1''',,1 /""I'''''~''''. _11,,1 ,II, Ih, "11"""""' 1.1I1l'1~ III I.'"~·II·IV'" /l1l1l1d Ihllll,phll'lI II,;' I"dd I,,, ""," """11'11111'" 1111'1111'1 III ,/,",Ii~ "'''~'''''I'''' """'l' 11,1,',,", III Ih," Sf"" I'"" 11,,11,'11"," lI'hl ell/I,'" "''1'1 (Ih",,, III ,,'1111', III Ih"11 1I11f,tlllllll' /1/'"/"ltl I ".,11", "I """ III, '11111,,' elill" h." "1"""'1,,,1 ., 11IIIII"l'I III J", '11' III uuh"I,,,I,. ,,,.I,, ,1/11' • iI", 11,11" "'111"""1 I h;oI.I' "" ""n III hll'I),," I iii l 1IIIIUll Ih.1I ,IPllluJI;ttlhlh'ly 1. thl'lI' .1111 1'111111 • I I I . r .IV" In. '''Hl II m It I I ti llY ,,11I1U'1 IltllIl II/III 1Iy'1I1' , 1.f"IHlhj~t,.( (II r/,,' 1M II II I ~ WI" 1 o 1..:, tit, II llI rlhl . " (1I11In" " (IMtI.1 ... UII III Ii I II tlluh' III lilli-nil II ItHUh II. ~ I I I I II tl~ t I,IIIt lidl I.m 11111'1 hlilldil" n t 1"11 ,HlVII,'!-,,," h.w " ,", 'III' 11111111 I 1 " v II. Y Mt I III II ~ , ,nt) M)f 01 IIlIl-IllI "I H- "I II' 1 f.,h"t- 11 III",' 11I"l-!itII IIc' 11 S"llrl1thtl ,t'J "~ IIilth~' 1 ,II"l l!" loll ,. t lI(tuI~t'lnl LtIlVH.IVI' ' hl 01: t I_ " I 'I l' 1 In 1 1. I"''') J .11 I " .lJ'HIIHHI'I I, IlIt'!'i'·I. I~'HIl)I1II1'"1 III. ty,lqt) 'Y I--t.;tw i)llbla1111"Ihl~)(tll~ hyH (Iltll1~ fu I (lIITlthl'l~ ... ltn hdi.'w It u·I,..,H11loudt·, Il#;U"t~ ()tIki "I.Ih"n.tl III Iu lHllII l-'tlllU'''I 1t11"1 lOlli' A I 111M ,"" I., ,,'1I1II'V, elhh,"~ hy V 1I1l~,1t (Nr.w '{PI!. It;.lllrI1Ul; I'H'NK, I ')7K" I ILlwkiutlo " ,lI1l to On tlltptll il1lona and dl ,lllhlll"I;' I1I1'H~1 tl' " WOld Ullk" '/01",,01,.1 1.11' till'll" Ih ,H 2~ (lJMHr. M, hycl'~ .tLt:' 'lu,~ (iH''tlI1l"I)1Iitll wuut IlIdq l.'Ulh'.lIllIl " J,WI1{IIH1{I' ()~ MI ~ ')I)l), 1"III"tn1 01 SOllf/fh hy 1 ",1.1,-"111' IlII ((tl1h1H~'l" (',lIltlIh)H" Vnl"f." Ily PH· I. ")~I, M (llh",-'1 !"I hut',," A (,'HrI,' '" III, 1.JlIlglitl!o:.·c; 01 tit.' World 'L;t1I~I.t ,'l 01'('1 ,I PUll 1,: SllIllllHd lI"'tl~ty. l»7hL III .",Id$ M'JII" IJUll.!lIfl1,Wl, Cthl:, hy (lImnc l(hilHlt thlwd 'Il1t'r 11 Pr ,.~. It'Hh. Illd tk InUI ,I}hlln~ 1.:11' 1 1 1111'I'ntlI111/ IIlff/1t1ll J.J1tlr.'Hl~I. du(d' j III ~ nh I I ( t.llltnu! ( itttt)II1,~ 'tanh}I" 'IlIver~ly "",,,,1'I7Kl I hI..' dIM. lI~ lUll 01 1BUI'" " t al l ('Ut11Il"'''' ltKl..: t ~1.'1I11I""II" 1.. heu,". (I' };l) 1Ill" ""1111,11" "I III I 1.,11 C llll'I.'l(h"S thl.· dll.~~t "hl'-(.: t ha n.1 lItl 1III1111IIH'I11 tl the hunk ~ H"llllllllell,I,',1 I I,,,, I II ,.,'; llll (), S '"" (lSV I.", 'lI,' .<~, [III'" Oh, 11,,1I1al I .111 lt,t~l' • h) n l)l.lh hilt; .lIll1 (j 1111111. IIII'ltlllllllll,1I Jourtlal oj AIIII'fit WI , II I~ I)' 'IIII"};I) III< ,II ,·u ",,"OI'"I""lh'"ISU MClli '" c·""" 2 I "I,~I'" I I ... _ J t h. '- , tn Phnt h ... UII!,l~l.II, til lun,Ol1ant !)~I 1 • h H 11Illhhllll '1Ill , II I I III 'ul' '( ',tl (" Ja ,IIfII ",nti Stu," , III 11,1"'" IV 11 fill hi I rflmklli. ~, H 1",,'1 t1...c •• l'IIII," I' I 11 1"'" 111/ l 1.1. 1'1' h' 7 (, "'1lI~ K'''IIIc~1 e '" all P u I'll'S)
- 217. 4'. » I. ,~ d'.lhh ~u...hm .",", liltC') l u ' .' ~ . . W "" 'rth c GUlc..) U " " ¢ " m n ,' " :t 1'.'/,IIl,m Pabu bland., I 7 m l) 1.r n U' " '(i
- 218. .. I .. 6, J)lUte (Stluth ilt'.u..'l) p I k ',' J ~ h IJ h m n .t De~('rinc the morphological characteristics c:>f each of th languiJg~s in. rerm!'i ?f t.he ~our-w~y system of claSSif1cationeofOUOljlll ."ieerion 2.2. (lOdh: =znd,ccHive or slatement) Ullll1~d i! iI) Swahili IU- Ii- sOITI- II we pSI read indie 'we read' b) Lan'ian las-u read-I sg/Prs '1 read' las-am read-I pllPrs 'we read' c) Japanese gakusei-wa homer-are-na-i. student-Top praise-Pass-Neg-Prs 'The student is not praised.' rakst-u write-I sglPrs 'r write' ralst-am ~Tile IPIIP" we wrile' 5, Do a morphological analysis of Ihe foUowing data from La! . d 'd 'fi d h h Vlan Af you have segmente and J enlt Ie t e morp emes, describe ho . tCr refleci the implicational universals in section 2.2. (j=[j]) wthe dal~ a) lidotiijs 'pilot (nominative)' b) lidotiiju 'pilot (accusative)' c) lidotiijam ·to the pilot (dative)' d) lidot 'to fly ' e) rakstTtiijs 'writer (nominative)" f) raksutiija 'wriler's (genitive)" g) raksrTt '10 write' Nole the following data from Malagasy. an Austronesian Ian u spoken on Ihc Island of Madagascar. Does Malagasy comply with gage word order tendencies mentioned earlier in section'") 3? all the a) Avy any Amerika izy. - '- . comes Ii-om America he 'He comes from America.' b) cntin ' ny lahiera ny mpiasa. nrings the beer the waiter 'The wailer brings the neer,' l.-) tanuna nay cuuntry our 'our country' 1111 (II, 11 II 11 II,,,,, I Jl It.I(·'>CI 7. To whi~h fa:nihc<.;, do the fouWin 1 . a) GUjtlrnu j) Yuma ~ i.ngu;.t~!, ht!hng'! b) Hakka k) Korean e) Lapp I) Kabardian d) Uzbek 01) Koa'>ti e) Sandawe n} Aramaic f) Huasteean 0) Flathead g) Faroese p) Telugu h) Twi q) Javanese i) Santali r) Navajo 8. Make a list of up to fifteen Ian ct ·ct . ' guages spoKe h f' anees an t ent.fy the language f'l n Y nend, and· . am. y to wh.ch each ~_I acqua.nt· He ong.
- 221. o ,' 'I, .t t.;, l' I' I.t 11 ", "n-'''''4 iii tt' tI." ( (I' It , 11111 Iliull , III 1111,,11111111 1',111 pi ,1111111 I h 1111 I h' Il' II 1111111. "',.111 1114 1 111 tll.d III "II ~I"II'II 11111 I I'h 01 ,"'111 IIhl ,'"11 ' I 1I"d I lillII'll I 1'1111-'1111).'1 ' .'pI'cd l I ), "'~ "'It lilt 1 rlllt'lll .11 lilt" hdd~ I "".d I1(llt· Il' ,11 PI.'I ill III l' '(lI'l'" IHt"'tlll' I " ~'l' AllglIllIl n"" h -1II1""III 1 ..1 ,,· lhilllt1l1 ~ I III'" 'i II "' Oc·d"IIII'I..,1I' VISII'" III"' !-S~ "II' " III 1/1 k'l'. IN "IKIf I 1I11(,,"11t Jill <I.
- 223. 'II h'lUl- "j- wlft'd tcl the nght ear. wh b It po . II ...: ".''lIt.: ltc' [h ' I 'ft ear' Th re are [w 0 ~:ll;on :'Ible to "" . .. t · -. s .Or !hi ' t ... , I[ P th .I} - !ll Ihe brain are not ('omplet~l, '-1lle t/ul " , . . h h . , ero, .. 10 ;If In ' '1 e.:n e:1.:: errusphere and the . :>eQ -IL , , ( - . . th· . earon ••. '"'<l! '... xl' The - c 'clOd I' Ihat aller > nght henu phere ,. "'" S.,~. 1UI - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l'el:eles .""Ie In I Ih ' kft e!IT. Ih. t InIc'mullon ' ~~ lJC !rail'lerred 10 the left h In! ." . rpu '~llo um Ihe bundle 01 fibres that COllneet· th elllisnL U1· ' C . ~ • e to he ""Ie End n.:e ,:,'n,'emmg [~e ('ru~lal role that th~ 'orpus Callos Illi,~ nu 1 "r;un fun 'l1omng come from the stud ot patient' h UII) Pial 00 • l' - • 0 0 ha . " thl' , _un'ic.Jh <'erect ludles that h:1e Ine tio"ted th leh.d p.l . " . : . . ' . ~u e ell ,,~ ,'n .:c)gnJ!l,)1I are reterred !O as spltt braID exne";~ eels OJ ' lll'1 ... - . . . 'f' • uuenrs 'h.. ided Jr;tma[K Iliu tr:ltlOIl- of hat happeo whell the he . . •lIel prt' rrusPhe~ ' .. mmumcale Ith one another '" c It appe!IT from the beha lOur of :plit bram patlenls that ruth hemi-phere d~ .ho some Iangu.1g~ und~rst~di~g. it i. mute~h ~~; m;U ,pili bratO expenmen!:. a pattent I.' bhndtolded and 1lJJe0(. ex.~pk.!1 ke~) b pla.:ed in one hand. When the ke~ i held in : ~ the patient ,"all ea. II~ name II. be'au.·e the nghl hand is direetl) co ' t the left hemisphere. hl('h can .:omputepee.:h output. Howeve nneqed . h d h . r. lhe ke~ L placed I~ the Id~ an . t e p~tIen.t cannot a) what it i,. The n . hemLphe~. whK~ n:('el e. ~n~omlatlon hom the .~eft h~d. knows llbi- there. bUIlt '::In nellher put thl. Into ord. nor Iran ter the mfonnation theelered corpus .:allo. um to the left bram. ' • plit br:un experiment.. ha,e pre:ented ne and imponant knOll about the fu nctioning of the brain. In tenn: o~~ overall in"e...tt :- methodolog). ho ever. the~ are not quite a: e ·Ouc as they seem. In f~ u~ logi(' ofplit brain experiment 1. Identical to the lOgiC employed b~ B r in I 60. In both ca. the re ear.:her endea our. to learn how the noma! ",ork b e anunrng " hleh function are 10,t~· a result of the brain dam In the ~ e of plU bram tudle_. the damage I·urgi.:all) induced. Inthei~~ of Broca" patient. di ea e .:aued an experiment in nature. In the follo1r:; section. e return to the e experiment In nature and examine what th, reeal about language repre.entatilln in the hrai n uffer damage 10 particulJr part tlf thm brau!> ause of uch brain damage Is a stroke (alsQ called __._aIIlar8Cddent). language d licit caused 0) damagctothe: ........ TIle study of aphasia 1 by far the 1110 I Important I __.._. of language in the brain. B ob en Ing and docuffi(nung . ..... ymptoms. neurolingui Is hale the Ile I chatK'( 3. Non-fluent aphasia B~ I 01 ilknlif) ing Ihe major componenls If tan In general. thc amounl anLt 1"" t guag~ In the braut • ' . ' • I ·' n apha'I' d e,hlhll depenus on ho mU ch the L C l tUrbane .L. . . ,'ram " dam •....1 There are man) ·anellcs nl apha ·. I ageLI and "'here ' . la n lhe 1 I < III des-:nhc some 01 the more Imp<>nam t Q I Wing cti C S 'to" 'I ' . h . }pe,. , e 111 . . " SS .~apsy~ o ogNlhuL, ...~~ . "':came "ph He Ialer wrote a ,,.ov~ about he Cn.>rie . 'I, U quenl I . II " . ,., n,e ~mltled R • The to owmg IS an excerpt fromthat book: -COltnllg IlIh pikula. re.::oleci I" ing 10 read the headline, of Ih C'h . . aI I u· . ~ /(." T_L any ,en,e to me at . Idn t haw difticull ~ . '"""" but Ih<} didn t indh·idually Dr in combination didn'l hale ~ "':I.lng; It "a Imph!hat Ih< e 11 L. h b ' meaning 3nd • .. only a tri e ",-11 ered } thai fael. .. " elen Ih)re alll3Z1ng.. "" The ,econd week I r-an 11110 acoUC,!!ue "h ha ,cr, fruslTtltinl! for me to be apha<ic 'i~ce p .0 Pl"'ned to menuon!hat 1 m t... • . - . . . nOrJO lIIai ha.JI',,- [11 ".Ier tolnu myse 1lIonderinu why il lias . ''=I '-.m.n, facile . I l' l h ~ . nul. Illlnkpanorlh< • relall,dy sImp e. I ad lost the ahllil 10 con. . e'Pbnotioo " .hili" 10 engage in self"lalk. In other "~rd" I ~te "ha llh <JIhtt., h3d:d lost Ih< . . - - . • 1M I< Ih< bltm 10 the luture - 10 otT). to antiC ipate orpercelle il al . ' about •. d I . - e"'IIlOIWIIII"on, It too" • great ea 01 etlon 10 keep an ab'lIa·tio . ~... F · 'hth . . ' nm,="," 0« mple In wllh the speec erapt I I I Q uid be"In Q glle ad.t"· I' , · . . B . ' ~-oan ~ . but as I held l In mllld II lIould s,m of fade. and chane"" "ere tha JUld ' em. a simplified ler>ion rather than the "ne 31 the "n"~:d lei If '" endup g":ng • • . . 0 e " ellllCepoon. II " though glYlIlg an abstractionrequm:d '0 much of 101 adde.l lDlellig~nc< th:u half". , through the definitionI would run OUi ofenergy a,ailable10 m eand re~, 10 . ~ concrete answer. ' A consideration of ~!oss·s recolkcuon · lead> 0 some pm ' 3the question about the relation hip between language and thought. I'll pc Ible that the abili~ to think about the future is dependent on language' Doe-; language support abstract thoughI': The type of aphasia that ~!o, · repons in'ol,e, a 01l ture of clerlCt - speaking. listening. reading. and II TIling c'me othe.r. forms of aphasia. howewr. are much more pecific In these morepeclllC Coons. particular skills are 10,1. and olhers remain intac!. The ,tud~' ofthe ~tflC apbasias caD tell us much about th building blocks of language In the Nain. 3 I and 3.2 dis.:u" the til 0 me n Importantpe.:itic aphasia>. • dmot pbasia) results from damIF ,.. , 'on-fluent aphaslll (abo calk ora __ -of.. . . ' I' h "Iltral ,uleu'. Recall tbat an .........-,...· l,f the br,ul1 III tront l) t .:ll ' .. IIIdtbattllebollom....... ffllntcll IoN: IS l"'IKt'mcd ~ ith mc'tor acnV~bIe for tile a1i:-=aI of lht' front31 IoN: BflX'a areaII res~ aoe-ftII:Il""........ 'l'e Fi,'UIT lOA).. lIt surpn IRgly, there ___ 1111•••- 1 - . ~ . he the1I:nII.-,- dfortful pet'.:h produ':lIon ( :..-. ..IIiIlJIIIaI....... of lll)n-t1uent apha.. la I gIob8I.... ~t~_1J compktcl~ mule. Of the WR Important. • ThC'pee.:h of Broca
- 224. II,... . .."h.1I. ' I .1 ",... I.. .11 .,••1. t II ' t t 1" " It 1 III" II ,III I I ' ~111 h If I I " "illi' II", ,,,.!,,I ,1,u lI,alt,I'1 1 If t It 11I1"1I1~ 1+1 1111111 111.11 Ih. 11111' II! III, III ,I' 'ph,j I, j I III I "" 1111 ';10 I Ih.II HIIK ,I II, ,I I lit II I tlllIllIl IIld, lilt III II' Ih, LII 1,1' II 1'1111.. I • 'h,1I d,III1.1t11 ,.1 IIlth I II! I II " Ikllt" ,If III, 11111 I II .. 1111 "it j ','Ihl ill ,.I, III 1<" fIlIlIl1l1 III Iflt IIlh I ",., III ,/I) 11111. 111,11 1111 p,JIII III II II 1111111 ' ., I IIIIIIII ~ ,,",.1 III II ,dld.l "'111",,11) Itt II ""I 1111 ull, IW" I I" 1", I I , " , I ' 11.11 il11I11I. dill/ f I, , fl 1111 1111 ft' 111" 11.11 t 1111 'll d" It. II~'" ,III I Itl 'HII II , . II ' 111111' Ii II ,. fl.utl (hI, ••11111" 111,1/ n", I "" '" ,/ II I I, "11"1, /,"1/ I If" I l.t" 11/ ,'II/',III/f'UII<" I I It 11111, """I, ,II, 1111 'I I I "1 1 /11. I 'nll( Iflltl nunl lilt I I I. II "ItII Itlll 111111. I I I " III ",*" J "l'h ,I' 11 I I I I I III 10" 11 1,1,111' 101 1', ""11'''1'''' ,If'" ( ,11 ,,1111" 10, tI " III I, I 1111111 111 f I II "IIIIIIIlt "" 11''''111 lit ,'111,1 If I III. t I "f filII. 111111 ~ " Id· Ill' I I I" III ' ) (itl, I'ot· tI,I, ." I ," 11" "' "" I" I" ,I II'tI, I "1"111" I I It II , II "·,,It IItHIi "I IltH1.'"I "' I ifill' ';IIlt,ll fll"""' 11"" I '1 . 111 11 1111/ I til III! " 11,lilo '" ~ ",/" II , .1 I, ",.1 ,I ' I'd , ,hi, I", .11' " II~' I, I, " lillil I • F '111'1 ', I" II, /,,11111' Itl tit, ","d Iltil ,It", .I, "''''1, "" ' ,10 I, ,, '" 11111"" " II 'II I I" .IIt"II" Iltol' 1'"'"1 ", I d, I I" , , III" ,It,,,I " ," 1;111' t 'II ' 111.11 lit I fUlIlIl"I1 lit III .,,'.111'"'' '" '"11'"'"1 ,,,", """ "'" IIft).1 III''''' I,~ ( lit! I" """1 , ,," ", II I ' 1111"'"1 1 ,,,"/' III ,It, " "111 11,lilt ,dII " ' II, h ,I 'h, "'10' III ) ""'1 .1 ,"11, """." "II" 110 It I ,,, , (,' 11101 rll III ,'f. 1" 1/,.1 ",,,~.II ,/" ,I tI /,,1 dtll" 11 11 I III. fit 'fir I ""1'1, 'I IJI Iphd II 1111 II Hili 'I " " ,I ,1, 111. III. 'I lip 1hi Itll, 111 111'11 It.. II' H "I' 1111 11", 11· III' ,t. ,~, ., 11, 1111111 " 'I" 1"11, d hy Iii, "' I, ,It, II" 11111 1' , " lillttl, , I II I II ~ 111'.1 'II' 1111'4.1, ." 11 ,I ,II ' jl I IHI d II ,h, 1 III. It , Ii,I • " (1 111, 0'11 .• 1 111 )" 111, 'lUll 1 hi" lit tltM." , ~It I It U HI 'IIt"I"" h " .." "I 'ItI' hI! '" "" II"', Ilw
- 226. 4.2 xiUl'IiOIl deli!:!t at~I "l~T) Ul'Cp I artk'ul~ltilln JI..'th..',f It j.. a pn, e-VClllf I pl.lUning• . . h ....··IJan~1 and wrilinu U.... t-I ," itllglJ;k. .. .. h- .... · tI"l1" 0 ..... . e" e- .... (.;lls lh lit .~~nll.ck~ ......lp ...I:h"';n'o Jislt.'ning. The writing of Werni~kc.at 1110lh.:h dell,'lh In sp".tl..ln!, . . "Iii'· retain good s~'lIin ' up'- lh.i, , xl The t) pIC. , ~~ g and k ....." . tOfl1.wll) ~r~ gl)( .., • h .,'cr like their speaking In L IlUn(j>. ,I..: q .. WUI..'lIlHl Ot: .. • a"cs r ""1)1 Their n[(cn pr .. " , I '0 severely impajred in Wernick ".. ' HUe l_llJ~ R d.. ,.. IprehcnSlon ,.....1 "" .... e Saph ~n ea 109 .tln , _.c> we letters and ords. but cannOt ,il'siil l'~ C:.s. f11:"':-'. r~lIl.·nls ~~:J:;I~~ion £0 be drown is that Wernicke~ilke an}' ·~1~ ot them .-gaw the II I - ill disturbance of language c , aph""iu n.. , h-'· IS a ccnln ompet . It, Broca "i ap d:-ota. .. I age functioning. In such ence ~ I . h' t umJerltes angu - cases - !he ~no"letg<. t ,I . hatevcr impairment the patient has In I:. Of c.nl~, language dIS{Urb3nt.:e. . rcadinO' and writing. Istening ..<tj speaking will be malched III e anu .' d' g and wriling deficits that accompany apha ' Acqu'red d le'a as In addmon to the rea In , ' d " , . Sta.'k I ys XI , h' hthedisruptionofreadtngan wntlllgabllnYisth ~Iere,~ tn d . man}'cases III w Ie ' d d edo~ ' ~, e amman! . , 'II follows damage tn an aroun the angular . ""nant language deficit symptom, ThiS tYPical y's of these types of disabilities has led t gYrusOflht Panetal lobe, An ana }SI ' I > " a sOIll . ' ' boutthenatureofreadtng(at eastmEnghsh) e,~ mterestlllg theortes a ' . ' B ~ e proceed to discuss twO contrastIDg types of acquired d . , e ore b w. h while to rellect on the abilities involved in the YSleia.. It mIght e wort h d fi read'n d U to this point in the chapter you ave rea over Ive thousand . gOt war s. f Ph ds (such as the function words) are very familiar t "ord,. Some 0 t ese wor. . ' h . a You, b bl ecognized them as wholes, But ot ers. such as {/JIll' I and you prOd athYtryou probably read for the first time. How then could y'Qr 8Yru., are war s a , b I' th ou kno how to pronounce them? Many theortsts e leve at readers maintain a .~ f II ' -to-sound rules Ihat enables them to read new words alOud 'l'c set a spe Ing f d' b'l' , ' 'nes rules are important in the development 0 rea 109 a I tty and In the add' .e . ' b I ilion of new words to our readtng voca u my" , , Phonological dyslexia is a type of acqUIred dysleXia 10 which the ' . , II' d I pallent seems to have lost the ablhty to use spe h tng-tO-SOlbln" ru es, PhonOlogical dyslexics can only read words that they ave seen elore, Asked to read a word such as bIll' aloud they either say nothtng or produce a known " . Word that is visually similar to the target (for example, blue or bug). Surface dyslexia is the opposite of phonological dyslexia, SUrface dyslexics seem unable to recogntze words as wholes, Instead they m process all words through a set of spelling-to-sound rules, This is shown ~st the kinds oferrors Ihey make, Surface dyslexics do not have diffiCUlty rcadin~ words such as bat that arc regularly spelled, They read trregularly spellcd words such as yacht however, by applying regular rules and thus producin the incorrect fOfm IjotfU, The most interesting aspect of surface dyslcXics~ reading ability is thatlhey understand what they produce, not whatthcy sec, So, if Ihey read out a word incorrectly, they assign it a meaning that is appropriate to their incorreci pronunciation, For example, if the patient read the word ,11'<'(/1 a., Iswi:U (and not/sweU). when asked whal the word means, they would answer: Ihe Opposile of biller. j,t ules and eS r ' feat~rl '~g forllls under yl Looking at aphasia in term, of hngui....llC th ~ .-- , h b ' ' . Otlry gIve, U on language to t cram. LtngUl"iltc lh",tlry h he . 'i a new n.-f""", .... <1- en t . d" r"'" ,'-We with the structure of language, not with h . U Hi"la), l:~mCt d , k' d' - Ow .... u....cd. in h me listeOlng, spea lng. rca mg. and writmu I 1 C f>n)Cc~~. t· . .. c' n comrm.l th' ' , t) looking at aphaSIa has been in terms of wh' t h .: e tf'.Ulmna Way,! ' I f h " ate patIent Can' d ) The tnvO vemcnl 0 1 corCl1ca hngui~s in lh ' d ~n cannot u() I , ' h fi e stu y of .ph', h minor revo u110n 111 l C lcd. Aphasia rcsearch h 1.1.1a. 'i, ,ca.m.t:d. ~ , ' I' I I erR ave hegun t" th k the defiCit 111 terms 0 t le oss of knowledoc rc . v In ah'lUt , .. presentatton, such. features, phonological rules, and perhaps Ryntact' t . as scman.tic , . IC rec Structur . Th linguists have also found that the Study of aphasia off . es, eorelleal , I d" , ef', an ImpOrtant , I testing theoretlca ISlltICtlons such as the one betw d" arCa Ilr , I f f i ' een envatlOnal Ie and inflectlona su Ixes. In thiS section we will look . su "XC.' , . " at some of the a ' which the mamage of theorellcal linguistics and neurol' " rea.ln , f I Th' [ 'f mgUl',ttcs has be moSI fruit u ' IS rUlt ulness has usually meant a' . " en . , ' f th " n mcrease In the sophIStication 0 e questIOns whIch are asked about aph " I h d · f ' >l>la, t a, aha meant the Iscovery 0 new and often b,zarre aphasic phenomena, . In the area of phonology, we have found that the phonemic parapha ' f h ' II d' ff f SIaS 0 Broca's ap aSlcs usua y t , er rom the target phoneme by only one distinctive feature (recaUsection 3,1, sentence 1): 'with' ~ ('wIn and can therefore be eaSIly descnbed by phonological rules, Observations such as these lead us to believe that phonological features and rules might be good tools to characterize how language is represented and produced, In the area of morphology. the study of aphasia has offered empirical support for the theoretical distinction between inflection and derivation, As we have di cus ed. Broca' aphasics how a sensitivit] to this distinction in their omi ion of affixes in speech, Inflectional afflxe are commonly dropped. but deriyational affixes are usually retained. Perhaps most inter- esting is the tendency of some aphasics to produce underlying fonns of morphemes in reading and repetition. Asked to repeat the word illegal. for example. some aphasic will produce in/ega/. using the underlying fonn of the negative prefix rather than the aIlomorph that should occur before, a base bC"inning with IV, Again. errors such as these pomt to the pOSSlbtllt) that h~nolo;ical processes such as nasal as imilation and the notion of under- p ~ I' '.' b lying f0n11 arc not only an elegant way to repre,ent IIlgUlStlC competence ut arc also rele,ant to the processing of language III the bralll. The study of aphasia abo ~tands to shed light on the nature of semantic representations, Most of the work in this area has concentrated on the many
- 228. 6________~~__~~~~==~~~~~ rn th" ,hJprere ha" (luumed some importanl finding, ~ mere d l'ur undersl3nding of the Iypes of language disturban ~c HERE 'S 'GL AGE? b · well as ou d ce, -,,~"':"Y re,u11 fmm damage 10 the raIn. 3!> • r un "!'.Iandln· '" :L,-,XI3tion be£ een ,pe.:-ific are35 of the braIn and particular f Of !he function,. We ha e ,een thaI Broc3's ;)re3 plays a crucial rol an~. ;u-riculatil'n (If spee....h 3nd in Ihe abilil) 10 cre31e syntactic repre e 10 !he I . I h ' 'en!4.~ "'emlde', ;)re.a pia)" " key ro e man~age c(lmpre c:n. Ion. and the an.. surroundin~ the 3ngular gyrus pia)" a ,peual role m readmg. atq On the "Other h3nd. e have ,een thaI. in an important selll . d fu . '" f th . 'e, no",,_, language u,e inv(I/ es the Inregrale nCUQmn" ~ e entire cone~ -~.., righl-h3nders who are ,trongl) lefl Ialerahzed fQr language 'how ' E'eQ 13n"u3"e deficil in ca,e, (If damage 10. the ngbl heml'phere. Finall, .' 'Ollle e " 'ed b rd t- d' - ' 'InuaJl all f(lnn.- of aph:!.,i3 are accomparu ) WQ - m mg difficultie, .~ obsen ation suggests. th31 the slorage and retneval Qf wo.rd fonn, ~~ diffu,ely repre,ented In the braIn. - be There j". theref(lre. no ,imple :llbWer 10. the que. tiQn: nere is tan E,'en if th~re were. the l:lsk of neurolinguistics w~uld be fa: from do~r !be tnlly Important que,oon concerrung language m the bralO i nQl: beor IS il? bUl: 'har is ir? Indeed. the an, wer to. the firs~ que tiDn rna) have ti re 10 do with the an.W er ro the ,econd que,tlOn. CDn'lder. by analDgy. th uJe of understanding Ihe Briti.h parliamentary sytem: To. 'I hat extent d~ g: knowledge thaI Parliamem i. 10 be fDund in LondDn advance the U d . tanding o.f how Parliament WQrts? n er, Ultimarel), the gQaI of neurolin~uNIc !' to., unde.r.,t~d. in neurolOgical lemlS. "hal 13Ilguage I.'. The field 01 neurollOgUlS)C. IS ,ul! a long W3 fr .being able to 'rc:cify ho" ,ynta is coded i~ brain matter. or even how ; "~~ rs repre ented. 1 e"crthele,s, as Dur dl.'cusslOn Qf agrammalism ha, revealed recent wark by neurolingui,rs ha, re,ulted in importanr ncw pcrspcctl es o~ the nalure of langu ge comperence. --- '1h'~ ..·harh.~r t ... ~ln"·C'.rnl.'d :- 1lh n4.ll, langu e the.:- hum~U broun, I),ehottc nst~n'n ~pr n,~ ,Ill' n Ihal Ihe left hemisphere lllh " h IUd .". aM pllt '-- ~ ~ '" , - ' . C r."u, ea...... "'.-..Il .... (or languag.e pn.'X: e......m~ tn nght -hJ.ndC'd Itd "I~ t'no1.. o( the r -III ~ "I", .,,~d autops~ ,IUd."" computerized a~tdua" ~~,ty blood flo" ,Iud,e, 10 d.,lcnninc Ih" a t""""'.......~ ._. Itav., · " cfl.:;).)onhl"~ ....." .....Il ~. the lett heml~flhere and ...~dn~ annu' -,' t' ,v.t:en panCu ~--"WQIIl • _ " . ~ age tunctl()~ . at area,. at Broca ~ area 1~ pnma.n) r~"'pon...b' .. t • t HOi; ~n I . '1 . " <>, 'Octh ~A· <lUnd Ihal area ,... pnmnn::, respon:-.ibc for lan"u' pr"UUClUn W_.....~ ... ilgC cum h ' -.•~' surrounding the an gula r ~ ro., play, ~n lin na pre en Ion, and the ~ our knowledge C'oncemmg. lanau~~le rcpr'" ,PO _m ~oe in rCading M , f f h · ... e c. cntahon m th" b . " 0 the slud) ° ap as.a - language di,lurb..n '. I . e r.ln "0", f-", . I" ' . . ,"~ re u tlng f d ." bratn. Neu ro mgUlsts, tmmel! tn hoth lin"tI. I'. . TO", 31lage to ,,-_ · h"" " . t:c ~ 1(;' and neuro" ~ UK: exan11ne t t: nlunner m WhlCh hnlui~c co . 'Scen':e.~ carduUv . I . ~. m'Otence " an ~ , danlagc. ~etr goa .h to _llCrca.....e OUf under~'andin~ . e,:ed ~) bnun knowledge" coded m hr,un maler and ho... tho kn e ot 00... Itngui tic fl . " owled",,' d' proce:~e~ 0 - anguage comprehethlon and production. e 1-.; U-..e In he: Canos~mectom'Y i~ a .rare surgical procedure ~ to real. ~ . epllep,,~ It prey enb epllepuc ,eirere, from .preading t '- 'lhh .ere tonns of . . . th ,. . . - 0 uv em"phere It !'I mtere~ung to nOte a.t .. ermcke patienb have di.fftcu . - executing man) type, of sequenced behaviour ,uch '" :; planntng :DId getting. home by bus. or doing a w~h. ~ pure a"mg gr~)Cen~ David Caplan's 1987 book .'~urolin~uisrics:md Ungui>1lc Aphasio/a",: An '",roduc, lioll .s an excellent mtroductlon 10 neurolmgUlSUcs. A more pracncal al'""'lch to aphasia and Its rreaunent" 10 be found m the Rosenbek cl 01. Ix",•.~rltasia; A Clillical Approach. The diSCUSSIon of the PET technique dra"" on Sleen Pinl;.er", 199~ book Th" Lan~uage InslillC! page 301) which is cited belo",. The discussion of :lgramrnatism 3> drawn from the rich litemture that include, M.-L. Kean's ediled olume A~r<11l11Mrism . -e lork: Acadenuc Pre.. 19 '5) and yo,ef Grodzins..,'s challenging propo:.ab in Theorerical PaspeCliles on Lan lUl~t D€ficirs (Cambridge. 21:1$".: , {IT Pre", 19')() ,-11 allemane ~ch to Grod- l.insh·s is "ell represented m David Caplan and.'anc~ HildebrMldt's boo. Diso.-.u" o'-Sy~r.ICriC Comprehension Carnbridge, 2=.: ITPre;,. 10 ), . C.S. 20:'" :J.Uwbiographtcal account of his aphasic experience" 10 be found ill R.-c",-av ,irh.-phasia (Croana.lII.: emen.t~ of UllUm> Pre;.,. IQ- c. Another boo; thai offers an e perienlial perspecl!'" on aphasic disllrban.:e t, H""ord Gardner', 1"'- SI,<l:I.nd lind(. -ew )or . Knopf. l'l':). The 1l13lenall n a -quired d~ Je.!a h drawn from the wlum", Deep Dv,it'XUl and SlIrfaa Dy,·'.lia (see Re-ommended. readin,gl, as ""U Y Zouenu:ul, )1:1(1 [)nl. la: ."ronal. Ce'. n,riH' and lin~U1Snc Aspt'Cls IO,f rd: Pergl1llQn Pre. 1Y, ~.
- 229. l.0 TEMPOR-R'r lINGL'ISrICS Recommendedreading------ Caplan. D. ,q~'" .t'II",J'i'.~UI.,'rip "".1 Lin,l;!uislic Apha.'fip/u.l('. C . ~ Questions bridee l'nih·r.-;it Pn~,... _ . . _ 'lnlbr!(Jg Cap,Jan~D. IllS:-;, 'Thc t"("O~h,:.l~ N~'~ for l.mguage~· In L!,"t:lIiMiCt: 1". ~. c., SU':'r.'Y. (11 . .'. billCd vy F :'e"nte~er. pp. _37-5..:"1, CaOlbrilJ he C'u'ttb L nl e......f) Pn-,.... . . ge: C'arn "iq~" Colrhcart. f ..PJltcr;on. J., and :I..tr.'hall. J.C. eds. 1980. Dt.~t!p D,. { brtQh RoutJedl!c ,.. Kecan Paul. . ~ e.tiu. lo..-, Ja('kenJl"'l'f.- R 1~3. Plilunu ill tltt .Hind. Hemel HempSleiJd Ii -.~. Han C~h:r hear...hc.Jr. . Crtford,h' Palle"on. "E., .fa"hall. lC • .lIlU Coftheart. lf. eds. 1986. SUrf«," '''' Hilbdak. "1: Erlbau1l1 • ~'I Pinker. S. 19Q... Tltt~ ~"gua,I,'c Instinct. London: Allen Lane (The PengU' e~ Ro,enbek. le.. Lap'"nle. 1•.1... and Wertz. R.T. 1989. Aphasia: A CIi"i('~~p,." l. Boston: College-HIli Pre....:--.. . . . . APPl'oqr Seealowirz. S. 1983. nnJ Sides (1} tlte 8mm. EnglelXxl Cliffs. NJ: Prent' h - ~~ 1. What distinguishes the human brain from a non-human b~ 2. In what "a)' ('an the cerebral hemispheres be conside d _ re t0be separate brain," t;o J. What are the re/arne ad antages an~ disadvantages of the . . techniques u,ed [0 1m e,ugate the bratn. ConsIder ethics. COSt' 'lriolls ness. and type of infomlation yielded. . Intrusive. •1. Follow Ing " an unlabelled diagram of the left hemisphere. ChOos ('omm.-nng colours and colour each lobe of the cortex. Use arr e fOUr p.linr to the centrJ.1 ,ulcu,. the lateral fissure. and the ano I Oll,s [0 Finally. Usc a pencri to indicate area, of lesion that would resul~'at gyrus. apha.la. emicke', apha ia. and acquired dysle.~ia. Label the Inl BrOca's e eSIOns. ~ront 5. What do dlchotu.: h"',cni #,?-.r.J,,(, l cerebral hcmi'phercs') c~g Ch le u'" 'b( . ":n . ' '. l1n you th k .~ )U he tntcre~llllg to present dichot' " . n 01 )'pc, r ?Ct;:.a1i/ <tlH " H:a y ~ . () !<obI'''uh tha. .1 hI ltc. 6. Do you thmk It " pl",ihle to lea t "'''''Ill "" sLUdytng braIn-damaged patients";'ho,"" the normal b abOut normal language Compel . hUl Can the "tud rain fuo<.:u:m '-. . ence'? Yof '-'?hasl s. u:y 7. Contrast the dIfferences in beh . a tell I aphasics. What could explain the a~'~ur between fluen . . ' sc dltferences? t and non-f 8. Descnbe the dIfferences between . lent . phonological and 9. Re·read the tntroduction to section:> 'urfac. dY,lexia. tells us about the relationship bet . What do you thInk M ' ween language and OC;,!; ~ account 10. Many researchers have claimed h thoughn syntactic knowledge. Imagine a tt at agrammatism inVolve phonological knowledge. How w~::;'dof aphasia that Involv:: I;,,' of behave? patIents with this t a "', ()f ype of lpha.",
- 230. • I 1 1FTH O O S OF P <; YC H OLINGU ISTI C Rf H Rt H Psycholinguistics: the stud of language processing }' G..m Libben Le::W' "'(,.¥k" ..~ 'th tIJt,.,tu!tYolhlt· IHt'o;tlt· th Ulfl~ J/)(lnlt'JrWJJ.:' ,. b. fior (" ~n~'Ta"'t' in languae(' proce.....slOg almost every day of OUr I' - - - - . I .' r IVe, rnx.~c.,...ing take~ pl~lc(, whc;)'n e ~lfch te eVISJon. ,IMen to (he radio . Ihi ra., :-.ing signboard ~~i.1e dri"il~g. ~"nle a Jet~cr or have ~ c()nvc~sation. U~e~ q (he~(" bngui.lg:t~ aCU"lut:s arc L:amed o~t "Ith great ease and In a corn lJau~ ,1Itx:onscillu. manna. We mighl someume, be aware that we are sear~h;lelely a ''llrd. l'olllpt)sing a sentence. or stratnlng 10 understand someone el ng fOr W' are neler aware of Ihe actual mechanisms and operations in I'"' but pn~ucing and underslanding langu~ge. 10 led In PSlcholinguistics is Ihe study of these language-processing mc~h P"cholin~ulSb slud) how lIord, sentence. and discollrse me'l an,,"", '. ~. . ' . . . .nlng represented aml computed 111 Ihe mind. The} study hOlI complc h . are . . . norlh sentences are composed 111 speech and hoI'. the} are broken dOlIn into t~d consliluenl parts dunng hSIClllng and readlllg. In shon, Psycholingui e" Sis eel 10 understand /tow langllage is dOlle. . This chapter introduces Ihe field of psycholinguistics by lirst dis. . . . .... I eU s'in. some melhods w;ed b) psychohngulsts to pro,,,, anguage rcpresCntatio • processing in Ihe mind. This is followed by a summary of recent rese~ha~d language processing In the domaJlls of phoneucs, phonology. morpholo In and syntax, Fmally. we WIll dlSCUSS how these vanous aspects of linguis~:' processing work together 10 make ~he el'eryday acts of peaking. listenin lC and readmg appear so SImple and effortless. g. As was nOled. language users are not able to introspect on the details f language processing, Just paying attention to what they are doing will n O d I bl .. . 01 pmn e re ia e nlSlghts mto hOI they access words or build sentence Perhaps Ihe reason for this is thaI. in nonnal use. language processing mu~t occur ICC} quidJ). By shielding mental linguistic operati ons from the l'onSCIOUs mind, it is possible that the language-processing system IS mUinlllltlg its ability to operate with speed and efticiency. tn Irlkt hl ~t.·l a lOth,,' Ot II I, "'" le, t Xt t ...UOl·,l1l'CllHI' , uu Il~h 11) the 1 II 1 '1. ,,1,, n I H lI.... H. _ . ~Ug Ie" to n."ml SI C'mty ,od M OPt} l:: t', 1 (IIV ftfO{;: n . ' . • _ u t,,~ h11 I' t:., tnc.lt ' fr",,.nL! ... eye... '' th: )' tnll' . C ,ILtH," tIl- , • v II 1" l r h fJ'liJ., t 1 t 1 :~ lUll~ 'i '1 ( HUn'CO ....n u ')u . ) n,lIn ch 0 rgh' Out 1<'Iht." h I~l",; thai In C )tJJ,( saccnd.es. Like mthl 0 u.... ynur tn"" ,' hi' ~eel' In n 'je dotl)t . ... u prll .,hy h tit 1 I. that h'.... or her eye, an~ mU'inl1 " , "~the un] " ' t;d • . _ e- I.:f) t"':h /ellft ..uh1ct:tI C lmprc....slOn ,... mcorn:u " h .J .(;h'S,ti. lh .. n U"" J n'" uman, 1 .,age Rut h ~onSlnlctt!d to be able to munitur m" 'ny I • ~t:n.'i. lh", ~.e Ie . at . " II mu Ut IO,p" IV. language pn)('cssm g. . om'UK actl'. tle > 1 ....... . I "d" • IClu<,no A substantia au ltlOnn cha~n" t·, h . C e C Ir I e pS~ 'h 1 P resented by .thC fact that mo,, inlu'~In. c l) n~UhtK H! .tH.:he h . eo "~'- prlK:C "lO:J I ' I observable P ) stcal e v ents :-ouch a:-. eye.n,o',. g (l~~ nh In' I • ' yC1 llcm , bU fa ~ . .0 Ie events that cannot be ohservcd dr~cy. R' ". 'et m",o",c~ tl n"'1 . Cc.n.:h lheref ~ language proceSSIng e'ents in lh~ mind ~_~ . t' Ore rcqUlr! that . C . K! 10 erred f beha' 10m'. on~eqllently, a large )un of ph I' .. mm I>h"'''ahte . . ":-'yc () tng.ullC >.. . cerned With Ihe development 0 new ('md oft rc"'arch " C1)n- • en very de, ) uncover how language proce~sing is uccomplished S er technIque., lu ure presented in Ihe following scclions. . orne of the,c Icchmqu Some of the earliest and m OM influential "udies )f I . d h . . . ( anguage pn><:c, c,mTIlIlC I e spontaneous slips of the tongue prod d d' slOg . I' f uCe unng S""e h Spoonensms are S ipS 0 the tongue named after the R d .r- C . everen Wilham A Spooner who was warden of New College, Oxford. between t903 amI t9'4' The Reverend Spooner was famous for producing a great " . . man). oflen humorous, speech errors. Some of hiS more well·known . . k m"ta e~ are provided below. 1) W hat he intended: What he said: 2) What he intended: What he said: 3) What he intended: What he said: ~) What he intended: What he said: 'You have missed all my Ilistor' lecrures'. 'You have hissed all my mysre0· lecrures'. 'Noble sons of roil'. 'Noble rons ofsoil'. 'YOII hal'e wasred Ihe whole reml'. 'You hal'e rasred rhe whole woml·. 'The dear old Queen'. 'The qlleer old dean '. Beoinning in the 1960s. Victoria Fromkin began to study these and other natur:!I) oc-curring slips of the tongue and noted that they can be very , . ,_I' 1" of the manner in which entences are created 111 speech. For ft:t;"uU eo . . _. I as can be seen in the precedin" example •the charactensUc pattern examp e. e
- 232. the mind. 'cill bndl} lh-.;L'u", (ht..~ tO J1IO~1 L'OItIlTIOII of h lexicaJ det'ision lind printinA. I .'~ I)l~p. '''''4 Le%ical decision In the le.ll"al u':":-'-'lOn pilIiJuigm. the c'"pcrimental subject ( . . . . . . . f f·. 111 th, a nallVC spt:akcr oj Engll....h) IS seated In ronl (~ ~l (.;OITIPUtcr sere ~ e~all} apP<'ars III rh~ miJJk of rhe screen and the subject must jULlg .. "n. A "PI•. . d . . I E I··h " a, ,.... "r.' po:-'.<';lble hether or m,l( the wor IS a rea ng IS word by pr. ," "1"" 'ell I. , F' II 2 "Ss'nu ~ ~I labdled '~,' or a bulton labelled 'no (see Igure .). e a b~t . ~ Figure 11.2 A lexical decision experiment. This task is very easy for subjects to carry out. They typically sec and' hundreds of words in a single fifteen-minute lexical decision experimeJn~dge most Icxical decision cxperiments there are two dependent variables th . In . h' k f' . ,at 'S things that arc being measured: thc time t at It ta 'cs or a subject to res ., h b· , . d POnd (response latency) and whether or not t e su ~ect s JU gement is co . . d d 'f ' rrCCt (response accuracy). A response IS JU ge as correct I a subject respo d 'yes' 10 a real word such as glol'e or sadness and 'no' to a non-word such"a~ bIOl'l' or saddillg. Lexical decision experime~ts usually involve .comp~ring subjects' per. i(lfmancc on one SCI of stJlnulJ (e.g., nouns) to theIr performance on another sct of stimuli (e.g., verbs). The key to the importance of the experimenIal paradigm is thaI in order for a subject to respond 'no' to a stimulus Such as him'£' or 'yes' to a rc,t/ word such as glm'e, Ihe su blect's melltallexicon OlUS( he accessed. The 1t;xlcal deCIsion task can therefore be used to Illeasure lhe speed and accuracy with whIch words in the mental lexicon are accessed. It has hcen fuund in many experiments, for example, that suhjects lake ahoul 11<1/1 a second ('iOO milliseconds) to press the 'yes' button for frequently Hsed wtlJdssurh as F"I' out ulmost threetjuurters or a second Itl press Ihe 'yes' 111 ..-",( k tt(lIl for Ie,,' l:omnm1 word" 'Ulh ., • 40' "lI . . <.. It., . fr"(IUcnc" . effect A......ulnltlg hu 01'''''1· "nlhlI, n , L • ~ 1!"'l4.Hl • )t.~1l t. 11l0rl' dltficuh or complex, th,.., hn"hnl> lUl"lHdcq .~ _ l the. IS . d . I ,. "'l~~h~M1 l'fllCenin '> ort-.allllC !O.O t 'i.ll won"" We lOu.:·'v ' la "Ur 11U"nl. 1.1 8. 'h.l urc e - . . J I' ~ J nt.::t:'{ Inti • I "" UKu . ' trC more ca!O.ty and qUlcky "W11;.lh..: ill u.... fI.: () ton (tnt" rt~(U h.f~, • Another way in which the lexle .1.. . ~n Y.I(ln ) . • Uel..:l....'hn la...... c. l"nguuge repre~t!ntat1on and PrtX:c~""lnl "I' .m he u d 0" , ' . h' h · e: -. t) In'e~ ...J.:p ,,~ , "Curacy wIlh W Ie Ub.1CC1S pre... hl! 'nl' I.. gae the """'" ,Ie f ' ) ".loo 0 "'f ,"'"-..., dlU t 'llllulL h has been ound, tor example th.t p r u en.'nl In.o. S . ' • .• • rnnuUnccah. J I.... II as plih, shOW ~lower no rcsponC limes h..m un t: nl}n-Wt1tl.h, ,"ul.:n ch as nlib. Thus ~ub.lects' lexical dc.c,....l)n'- ~, prunouncc_ahc nhn-"Nhh su . .. '-, ...c.ern 0 take hunOaCl1C conSlral1lS of the c.mguagc. h h'l "I ~ { nlo i.tCClUnt h~ P . . . • - • so uCc.n (lund h' Ih'lt sound like real word, (e.g., hlt"l, IJlw('k,) I'''' I a n".n·"""d, e . , ' ....c unger to stimuli thaI arc non-words both VISually and phonologically. 1 rejecI tn'ln s that "spects of phonology arc automatically aCiv','d d . gam In" t<lh u, . hi' I d .. 'c unng Wlrd r" d (allhOugh In t e ex'ca CCISIon task, Ihe subject never h ea 109 a to ?ronnunl.;c, lhe word). The priming paradigm very often involves .the le.xical decision tas" and Can bc conSIdered an extension of It. Recall that In leXical decision task, different categories of ~lIm~h (e.g., concrete vep,us abstract words) are compared in tcrms of subjects response latency and accuracy. Priming experiments typically involve the same procedure a., the lexical decision la,k except that the word to be judged (now callcd the target) is preceded b)' another "imulu (called the prime). ~hal is measured is the extent to which the Prim~ influences the subjects leXical declston performance on the target ,timulus. The priming paradigm IS an excellent techntque for probing how words are related in the mind. One of the first experi.menL~ using his paradigm showed that response time is faster when a target is preceded by a semanticall), related prime (e.g., cat-dog) a. compared to when tt IS preceded by an unrelated rime (e.g., cat-pell). Results of thiS sort lead us to he view that words are p I ted in the mind in tenus of networks. On the basts of evtdence !rom these re a ing experiments, p 'ycholinguists reason that when a word such as car is porn 'ts image i activated in he mind and that activation spread" to oher seen, I . 1 I d d N d ' n the lexical network that are semanllca y re ate e.g., og). ow, wor S 1 • . the mental repreentatJon for d(l~ has already been actIVated through because . , ' . . . . 't '1' 'In a ,~n,e 'warmed up so that ....hen he 'ubJect later sees It the pome, I. . ~ . . . . . th~ screen as the target. respone lime IS faster than It otherwISe would on ~ - ,. IT t hase been. Thi,. is called the pnmmg e ec. • . . th.> priminu paradigm has been used to explore man~ In rccelll ~ e:J.l'. ~ " . . . . .. . . f th > ~>p~>sentation 01 words III the mllld. and researchers huse Peets 0 ~'" ~ . . . .... as· .. ., of rimmg. in addition to he semantic pmmng auvve. e.pon:d man) I) pc. >rPI'Ph hae been found for orthographically related 1: . '.:lmpk. pnnl1ng c CC. . I· h b· . 01 C . / ./ ) "nd phl)nologicall} related ....ord, (e.g.. I~ I, lie), . I'.' <,(llIl 1,1(111( I ,~ I I WOIlS,C,,,,,,. fmnd between word mOh and comple. form' c.g., eg.". th,') an: ai,"). I fi.l' gg."to, that words are rcpresented III the nllnd ill,'<:a/iI'·). 1hiS b t mumg. su c..
- 233. I ..t hpt'l'irrn-nlal IIlt'lhod.: '('nt('n<(' proc('ssing Timt d-r .1dil1~ t p rimfflb ,,' l t..l ... TI " ., .... t. t h'lINt.,lJl , II rhe t'htn':~C. " h,-'l u,eJ 1' pn"KhlCe kle~. l1~c:d thetll in order to c;.tT) f(lPCS acn).:-<~ the rivc:n- o ~OO 400 ()OO '00 0()() "00 -mo 6()() Bar-pre"ing 11me, per "ord fmilbecond, processing mo I. noun and e,rb.;, and relauely I""" time for function ilrd. such as detenruners. C?nJunLUoru.. and prepo"Uon . What is PanIcu3r interesting is ho~, '~hJecL . pau,e at the end of dau..<>e boundaries. !his inere:u'ed proce.s' mg ume "mte.rp~led a" reflecting the e Ira:unount of tune required to integrate precedmg mtormatio~ Inl? a complete lau".,. ru::tnre. Thus the greate t har-pres:mg ume l~ reqUIred lor.'hers. the final noun Ul the ,enlenee_ and the _econd greate,~ ~or leild, "'hieh " the last v.oro 1n the embedded relath e .:i:lU: that modifies Chmese, C[ The Chin 5 [cp"ho us:d to prod ce tir 5 u..<.ed them in orner 10 carry cr . ft'pe' acn: _, the n' rs}
- 234. , III" I, It" I" I '" I "I I it" v"It I ' " /o"Wfi "" II"~ V"" IIit Ilit 1'01""" II, I" " " 11'1... 11.,1>,,1./ 111111111111' III Iltd ') I Ii /. ,. I , , " /
- 235. GIIAC,' I'I/OC. "Nf, ANU "f',j(Jlj " r,( 2. 1 Phon...in .lIla p"onolll~y fill' " ud} ,,, pholll·I,r., and phonology rc~~?ls thai lht! Mlund;-- '- '''fl t'Uilt'C " rlt.'hly , tnlt.'lUn:d 1111 ('1 man) dltk-reiH levels of rc ruclurc. II· <' C , , I 1 . d · preseo I I'hll' i.h i, d" '1l' U" l' d In Chapler, - :lilt .• If} lVlduul segm' tUt/on , f . I cOls c· . dla' ,I('IL'n /l'd 111 1(" Ill'" (It pli.ll.'.c ,lIld l11annc.!r 0 al1lCU ~tlOn Or With P , an he ,I h'I'r;II'r l1 l' 01 phollol<li!,rill Il'allln!" Sequcnces of sounds C:tn beCpeel I~ IIIln ,yll,lh;c 'Huettll!'.', ;ul<l alinpholllc , an alIon can be described in g~ouPtu 'l/,d,',I} III " l,hn,,,'I1I<'.' ,,1111 lI/Iaet' nllnphoncs, How mUch of Ih '. klln'of " , IS Stru . pia) .... a 10k ,n '.:HlI!U+.Igl· pnK'l',...!'t'flr-' . ctur~ II", simple- ;l/l" CI I" Ih i., 'I1I!,.,(lOII IS: 'AII of il!' The mOre c ;II1' W t'1 ;Iud. 0 1 C()U r'l" ab o Ihc.' more accurate answer is that laOIl1Ple'( "/(""'.'''''I>,hO <"ld" I1,',' Ilwl /t'alurc, . phonemcs, and syllable struenguage <'111"II/(' "lItll' ;."'1<'1'" o f Iltt' a) in which we process languag' b,ureall , . I . , c, UI th ' 111'1'1'11 ",..,dIlCI IOII and Pl'I'l'l'pIHl11 " " coml' cx acti vity that invol, al I . I . Ie, Illu c 1110'" Ihan Ill"'" I'hllll,'IIC,llId phollo ogle;1 rcprcscntallons, COl III .l',' h~ Ihis is Iht' cas,', l'IlI1sidel whal mighl Occur when you h "'111<' 11''1': /I" d,.~ !>illh, ,·tll. Ikcaust' Iht' utterancc unfolds in lime ,ear Ine . you Iill III."llI'al fhl' ,<,gml'fIi/N ,111<1 tht'll Ihe Sl'gmcnt I;,/. (In fact, you do not h ' Ih,'", "'CII"'II" ."'1'''1,11''1 hul r,llher yoU create thcm out of a co I' ear - • . • n InUQU "'"l1d"I<'alll.) 1 ""'11. ,Is Ih,',,' ,,'gmt'nts arc Identlhed you have I , a read ""<'<',,cd Ih,' 't'f'I,"CIII;III<111 1<11 th,' "onllh,' In your mcntalleicon. When thY IIP" "'glllcIII ,.1Illl',' up III Ih,' '''UIIJ stream, you already know that II. e . . I I I . Is Ihe I'. gllllllll,!! (II .1 Ilt' 110,,1 aliI OU.I '0 "now thaI thiS word is likely I he , IhUIII Ill<' phllll,'11t' ,111,11) 1,,/),11 /(,110", idelllilies the segl11ents d-n_" 'lod h a , . ., ,n I e u'""'I"'ndlllg 1,'1,',11 CIIII) . (/~ <,"me Ihe Itrsl ":gtllents of Ihe Word h' I 1" lilliI'll, lilt' "11 III II pll!1Il,'tll,', Ihll CllUIJ he Iht.' Iir'l tW<I sCg ll1Cllh 'I" h n I h . . . . . 0 Ie ""1, III/I, hUI "II ,u,' 11(11 h~t'll It, rOIl,"kr thiS I,o"ihl lity h'''' 'lll'' • .., ,C YOUr lk' ,'1"1"11 ' IIIll''1''''IoII1,," "lIlt" ,,'nlClll'l' i, hlasin ' you tow" rds thl' Iltlrd hit Idll,'1t I', '" 1 I I til "'UI IIlIlId 1Jlh d(/~ , , 11111 'llppll,I,lIcd Inllll Ih,s,' .tnll'i<', 1,lnt!u,lgt' pron "ing 1/1 "Ill's Ih, lOt lJ'lJ~ t>llIlf lIlt1,IIlOlllh,1I del ,1,,1' Imull,lIll'ousl).1I m,llI l Ii111ncIII Inel t'/ lIIah Is III r.: 1">(1It It ann' Ih, s nI ll''t' /11< dog "If,Ir(' nil j, 1'l'll"nmng 'illl!>... (JI ANt .IM I • '({H.{"s. phonetic anulYMs to ic"ohne f'lh(lOcm~.... . '''''. ~ these to representation" 10 the mcnt.. llt.t..WhTll htl"ntla.rlt:'; referred 0 a.... bottom-up prOCe' I!Xh.:on. 'I hi"; ..1 :::a, <lnl 1I r _ 'd II h h - "",n!._ But Vol' InUUl,.t't! e ate analyse n. t e P onemc!o. In a ...ent.... _ C U() fUll W' _ ;,tna':1~ b . , cnce hctor. _ au. unhi I it. Rather. we egm mterprelation of . C We begin 0 ~I! na"t cally on the basis of whatever inform il sentence 'KlnlancHU 1)'1 l{) u".<kl''l.tald . <lhon IS' '-I ~ 'j and by the ume we get to the Word bit in lh. l1Val <he th u.... ~ ~Ut)m.h_ b e "'Cntcnce . ()( tW'T it using attorn-up proce~sing but we 'trc . . We aTC nOt ()nl)i ea"",)", to guide phonetic processing and wo~d a so emp()':{mg a el of recO&nln~ . 1 r rccognli.()n "T'..' .' ex.pectutl proceSSing. n normal language use we a . . . l Il caned t t.}o.... and top-down activities. We never pr:c e , ,~ays engaged in both ...~P-d()wn W l ess JU" featu. ",ttom-up syllables, e process anguage for the purp. res, or phone ' , 3 f h' h ose, of unde ' mes, (It In seCllon 0 t IS C apter, we will disc h "landing e""h 'h' . . fi· h ' UgS Ow phonef 0 .. er analYSIS ItS IOtO ot er processes involved in 'peak.in . Icand phonologIcal however. we WIll concentrate On three leveh f r gand I"tening, For no fundamental to phonetic and phonologic~IOrel~gU"llc"truCture thae~ nemes, and syllables, p eSentallon: feature" ph<>- In both linguistics and psycholinguistics the te' ' , I " rm J eah4re lS us. d the most baSIC evel of representation, It is theref al e to refer to bollom-up processing in language. In the proce~re Wt yS assocIated with characteristics of individual phonemes (e.g '+ vSotng1°, sound. It refe" to , , "t- tee l± conttnu I The most stratghtforward eVIdence concerning the role f h f ant,. etc,' from the analysis of sEps of the tongue. Some eJ<.am~:uc f ~atures comes presented in Table l.. s 0 ese sltps are Table 11.1 The role of features in speech errors Intellded a) big and fat b) Is Pat a girl? c) Cedars of Lebanon Actually produced pig and vat 15 bat a curl" Cedars of Lemmanon The errors in T able 11.1 follow a pattern. but that pattern can onl) be understOOd with reference to a s)tem of phonological features. In all three e" am pe' - the errors invohe a phonological feature. 1n example (a) the feature [voice] ha>. t>een exchanged between the words big and fal to create the nell loro, pig and '(II (the phoneme pair Ib-pl and If-·I only differ in the fe3llre [yoieel'- Thi:ame pattern of the exchange of the feature OlCe can he sel'n in t: amrk ,b ) where Pal become, bar and girl become, curl. Fina~ the eIT,)f in Ie) l~ rart.it:ularl~ intriguing becau..e we normally think of fbi and 1 m! as .:,'mrktd) lilf'ferent phoneme's, In facL however, the) are both VOl ed I il.ll't;11 , tl'I" that l nl~ differ 1lI tenus of the feature [± na,alj, ChanglOg be /1 / 1'1 t It fn'11Il-na I) to l +na all create the error Lemmonon l'11t' , • .llllpk offer e'idl'n.:e that language productton m 'e u of
- 236. .0 Phonemes Syllables 'e ha e...("en tf1 ..t.·.~tilln I I [hal Sptxmerisms. sho eViden" , I . J durin" ,enrence plannmg Th Co Of ph4JnC;"'me:-- bt.~ing nllsp ~1I..e ~ . , " . . . e Phone . en , I pl'I)·1 cenlml role In PS) chohngulStic ~ m'e u ,II" n.-prest.'nrUlhJll a :-.(.1 • .... . . '''Odels . nil . u'h I· the cohort model, ThIs model States h' ol,~ Of proce......mg. .~... ...... .' "d b . hearers from be' . t at. . t"I:~~ comprehensIOn. word... dre anal) se ) _. . &,lOnlOg to e In Or: , I' ·h 'n ," hear the word glass. we IIltually constder all th nd, So d exarnp c." c d [I] , e w .t" heuin "llh the ,ound [g]. When the next soun IS recognized h ord'lh' of~ssible words (the cohmt) is reduced.to those words that be~i~ e nUIll~~ Thi, process continues until the cohortOt possIble words ~s reduCCdWllh 1&11 th 'd h t' b'in" recogmzed. EVIdence JIl favour ot the to on ' e or [a I~ t: e . h' h . Coho e... comes from a number of experiments III W IC . It has been fOundn fllOdel be"inninos of words playa more important role III word recognitio that the middle ; end portions, The cohort model has also been su n than the experiments that found that the beginmng-to-end analysis of s~Cnned b) proceeds one phoneme at a [lme. rather than one cluster Or one syll wOrd, . ~. ~~ a Althouoh in the cohort model, the phoneme rather than the syllabi " ' d ' . e seenl be the fundamental unit of auditory war recognHlon, there is othe " to . h re.~ thai the syllable plays an important role III speec perception. In ,encc subjects were presented with disyllabic words (e.g., bullel) and ~ne Study, non-words (e,g,. s/llIer) and were asked to press a button if a Partic IIsyllabic " h Uartar unjt was in the stimulus. The target unllS were elt er syllables (e get b h ' d d .g., let) segments (e,g" I). It was found at, lor wor s an non-words that Sub' Or were significantly faster at IdenllfYlllg syllable targets than at I 'd ' ~ects ' . entlfy" single segment targets, It was conc1~ded that syllable tdentification was f 109 because, m normal audllory analysIs, subjects first break down sti ra.ster syllables and then into individual segments as the situation demands ffiu I Into Another source of evidence on the role of the sylJable in I processing comes from observing subjects' performance on word ga~nguage example: You are given IWO words such as bug and cal. In this game es, For required to blend the words together to make a new word Now wha't YOU are . ' , SOunds better: (bug +, cal = bat) or (bug + cal = bu!)? The dIfference between these two posslbJllIJes IS thai the fir~t one takes the onset of the first syllable an combmes II wllh the rhyme 01 the second syllable (Figure 11,5) Th d 'b'l' d ' ' c olher POSSI I Hy oes not spill the words at a natural point of English ' II b " ' sy a Ie struclUre, As you Il1Ight expect, subjects are much better at creatin W blends that correspond to the syllable structure of their language <md g ~rd such blend" I hen presented with a choice. The fact that English spl!ak' prl : cr s 'h , t h' d'" , ers Iud ,Ul Oflse r jmc tVtSlons eaSicr and more natural suggests (hat (he sound ~"it. ~, " h l1 l1 I~ Ir- 0 N C o N C b 1I g C a l Ii l Ii () N C (I N C h l a CI I~ ONe b a 1 5 Speakers of Engtish find the word blend in a easier and more nal I figure 1· in b because the former Involves breaking Ihe word, al nal ' I ~ra 11",n Ihe WOld~''1( boundaries. < um sy abe-strucure The linguistic study of morphology is the study of word Sir ' . f ' ucturc. It ,cells ~ charactenze the system 0 categones and rules involved' d f ' ',0 . 'Th h" . . m wor ormation and lI1terpretatlon, e psyc ohnguls!lC study of mornholo' I ' d h ' '. glca proce,smg seeks to understan ow thiS word structure plays a rol ' I ' . f " , e m anguagc P rocesslllg. In the ollowmg sections. we Will summarize some ' ~ I' PSYCIIO 10- guistic research that reveals how morphological structures and principl I, 'al I . th . , ~p~ a substantl ro e 1tl e representation of words m the mind and in word recognition. Words such as blackboard. happiness, and watched are made up of two morphemes. In the case of the compound blackboard, both these morphemes m'e roots. In the case of happiness, one morpheme is a root and the other is a derivational suffix, Finan) in the case of watched. one morpheme is a root and the other is an inflectional affiX, The ftrst question we will addre" is whether the iudi, idual morphological components of words playa role in pro('e~sing. . ' . The ans er to thiS queSl10n ,CCtl)'; to be a straightforward yes, For most tnlllttlllorphemic words, individual morphemes are automatically activated dunng Wl)rd recog.nition. One source of evidence for this conclusion comes
- 237. IIH .,.1 "'11 I 1 1/ I II I I I I I I I J I I , , I I '1,,111 1'lfllI lid. " /111111 I. 1'11111 iI I III. III. I,.,~h""." .1 h II 11101111. .1 1111 , ,1111 III 1 II I II II tl
- 238. 1', tINeiUI"Ilfl'''I Tht· 'Hll.1.,nodu't' One C.~f) '"llpk' f"l,."inlht~ :t1r ho ~enr~n,cc!" ~n: Pn>cl"~ , rn)(JU':UllJl ,II1t.l ..'lllllpf'('hcn"'lllll to: mplll) lh.t: ....) 'lCOl of rulc th '0<1 fh '0 . . at· I lincui,h hllk'l.."n~ "'Cllh.'n..°c ,tru..-WR'. .1'" po:">..., lilly ....ugn... i.lre Il l~ - .. t t·· ,,"'1 th "'<I ... (mid hc,.·glll tlh lk'c..'P stnl..-Wr: represcn a ll~n.~ ancJ Cl11pJo ,i.tt 'PI!. .') rran.... t"txm.Hilll1., ttl dl'fIt.' the ",urtac.·e :.tru~ture c~afi.1cteri"lic: y. a ~rt<l~ 1~1I1' p.,~hl)lincUl...tiL C)Xrimt:'l1h examlOed thJS possibility ~f a enlt,: l}f c.''If~rlc . ht'(hl'~ 'l'nh=n..'es with man) transformations lake Ion Y lelin nl:t (h'w ,cn;cncc... with kWl."r [rnnSfomlations. It turned out that .~er to Pr'g, flit' . . d·d d' t ' _. ,'-'Ie n 'lee... tr.uhfonnation.-.; in a _ ...C'n{Cn~e t not pre IC proce.s~tng tun ullll.. ,"" . • d·ft·· b e. Re ""r Of conduded (hal ther~ I... at least ...ome I. erence etween the ruJe~ l s.Ci.lrcbc ....nr--ukers u:-;e [(l generJtc anti compn.:hend semeoce~ and ~L.. hal not 'l' r- . h I' .. kid f' . "'e I"IJI lj" linguists use to charoctenzet elflgUlst~c nowe, ge.o natIve sPeak e thai As H re:-;ufc. ir was necessary to ~ostufate a specIal IllOduie fOr er, r~~'essin.> and another for grammaucal knowledge. The prOce . 'enten .~ . <0 . ' d 'Stng ·,e, is called Ihe syntactic parser. ThIs parser IS un erstood to be th,. m'l(jul I d b t a l ' · C 'Yst e makes use of grammalical knowe ge u so contams special ,ern tho and principles Ihal auide the order in which elements of a prOcedUr"t o . ' . . . SCnte t P rocessed and the manner," whIch syntactic structure tS bUIlt up B nCe at . . . cCau I! parsing abilily is based m part on our grammatIcal know ledge 'e OUr language. il is usually the case.that there IS a close correspondence ~)f oUr senlence parsing and grammaucal structure. However. because the t"cen module has its own sel of princIples. sentences [hat are gra pallng complex are not necessarily difficult [0 parse and sentences wiLhmmaltCilih simple syntaclic structure can be. (See also the discussion of relatllel} computational syntax in Chapter 17, section 3.) parsel in It should be noted that in discussing how processing takes plac h . 1 C • f c, I ct module has a special meaning. t re,ers to a untl 0 processi errn h . . T ng Ihal relatively autonomous from ot er processing Units. he idea of " . d . I . prOcess' modules has been very Important an cOlltroverSI3 In many do . Ing . . ...,. fh . maIn, of human mformallon processmg. 10 get a sense 0 ow processing rna . . . . d I 'd h YInvolv the co-ordmatlOn of separate 010 u es, cons! er w at OCcurs when y e a film. The film director. in order to obtain a variety of effectsOU walch manipulate how the audience will respond by relying on p~~nes to modularity. The director knows that when an aeroplane on the scree~SStng mto a dIve or when a canoe goes over the falb you. the vIewer. will exp .gOe a physical sensation of falling. The director knows that you cannot st~nence from happenjng even though you are aware that you are sitting in a ch P thIS is not moving. Similarly. you will be frightened by the SUdden appear:~~that a monster, even though you know that you are really in no danger. Ail : of effects result from processing modularity. The bottom-up inforrnatio t ~se comes from processing modules cannot be fumed off by the to _nd t at • C • I I" . P Own 1I1100natlOn t wt you are scatc( 111 a stattonary and safe clllema environ ' P h I · ,. d' h . . mCnt d SYJc .0 mgulslIc stu. les ave. IIlvesttgated whether this same son ~f 1 ./lO U anty IS present III syntactIc processing - in other word', h h . . . ", w ct cr s)IHaet/(; parsmg operates 111 an automatic and obligatory manner th' . relatively independent of the activity of other processing systems. ~~ some sentenc~... arc ..extr..()rdi~ar1)' C..hti.:uh l{) arc not very comph.:x. syoaelcay -rl undcr....anu. , b . h ' . 'c....c ....cmt ., ~"tn ~hlU " scntcnct:S ecausc t ey lcad the synt. , . , OCC, "lre ca .t g lh 'J . I . P h ~I.;tc par....~r U tu ~a'h·l'.n wrong ana YS1S. cr aps the most fa ' own the gardc path given in 10): mous ga.ruen path ,entcncnc~;,h to the 1.... the nne. 10) The horse raced past the barn fetl. This sentence is perfectly grammatical h . I f I ·· . U , most 1m 'b The rcason or t 115 tf, lhat, as we read th'" ., ' P()~t e to under l: d . h' h T i l ' e sentence we hu'ld 'an. structurc 111 w IC ,. lOrs. IS thc subject of the se~ ' t up a ')ntactic bam is the maIO VP of the sentence Wh'lI . ence and raced pall " . b h . c we get to the d· Ie surpnsed ecause [ e sentence we have built h. WOr /ell. we "'e . . up as no rOQm f In the correct II1terpretauon for the sentence r 11 . or an eAt... VI' d 1 b . 'J' Istheheadof''- . . and race past t Ie am IS a clause that attaches t h N· Ule maIO VI' . . 0 t e P lite ba ( . I I 8: for exposttory convelllence Illjl is not rep rn SCe F'gure . , . resented here). II b s ~ NP VP? 6~ The horse raced past the bam fell s ------------ NP~ VI' !i~ The horse raced past the barn fell Figure 11.8 A garden path sentence. The garden path effect is shown in a. The correct interpretationis represented In b. The ways in which native speakers mi understand garden path sentences reveals how the parser might work. it eems that we construct syntactic representations from the beginning of the sentence to the end and that our sentence parsers are organized ' 0 that we make a number of assumptions about how a sentence will proceed. This can be seen by considering the garden path sentence in 11): JI) Since Keith always walks a mile seems like a short distance to him. fhi, sentence is not as difficult to process as the one in 10). but you probably noticed yourself ha ing to backtrack after an initial mis-analyis. Your pal'cr
- 239.
- 240. II II " ". 'I~"'f' Il.'t " 'I r, 1/1 I , / ' II."'tlt.)llh.d I I /,1Ilt.. . III J I I t I ( I f • ~h.tI I "i III.U; Ill' I I h, • ~ "/ p.U,.III· 1 J I I 'l'llrl ('11I.tlI(II' I It! tlllllll' ( '011,,'1(11' ''' I 11I1('IPI"I;II((111 . 1~ "'flC''f"f P,Vdk.IHIN:IK mo(#I:~ IIIg or I P ~l hiliIII 'UI lie mod lis pi III I 1111 lIlodel I I pll IIIl d and I (Irl clllnpln In (1l1n Ipl CONCEP'TUALIZER Preverbal me"age fORMULATOR Phonetic plan (internal speech) Par"'<l Speech , SPEECH_ ----. ~ COMPREHE};SO,' _ _I.._~~~~~____ _ - S,{STE.~ ._...... Forms __ . 1 [ tTICULATOR Phonetic 'tnng • Overt peech ----~ Lewl!'s model oi .;.peeCh pn:x1x.uon. figure 11.10 J
- 241. Sw -OW. TI ' n• TIll I' rerre,enled 3.> an arm... [hal feeds back 10 the I1bo 'h Lc,e!r", modd nughr I()()k qutle comple _COI)C~ _---' L u'!'pre cOled in Figure 11.10_ i a great Simplifi!' 1.1 i; cle- >• Ulvue 3.> - ! a lcaho <If _ _IJ ex ur in Ihe mmd dunng an."uage prOCessing "rt. n of I>.h. :-co... L - ,,- _ 'He ''''!_ I'b deratl, of JJ.flgunge proce smg. we more We . lllore '. bout e . -11' - . realiZe I>.e, 01 ho" people do lon~uage I" .~ ID Its infancy. The fun that the ~ ~ . '11 [mecharurns 3.110 a task so complex to be datnentaJ . r,matn . - . rth d - acco ~. -h •.., Thi I' a quesuon o. pon enng the next 'i_ Illplish.:.-. u, e~ . d rh - "''Ie Yo ~_ J 'ru~ "rilino nOll" -. an ave eanng a whispered U <Ire 1_ _.' CD:J e,; ". e_ conl'e _ • , au all I the same ume. !Salton Ile -• . ~~ Pncbolingujstics i the study of language prOCessing_ Th boili b an area of subject maner and a partiCUlar methOd e field is, IJU;<IS • cud' bow people perform the functions of lano"o Ology_ PsvcJ.. • " ~. . ,,-ge CO • ..: and production_They seek w dIscover the nature of the mental lltJlreheni thaI serve the-e functions and the narure of the CognitiVe ~epr~ computation that are employed when we understand and p Od perati~ . - - I r UCel- Since language processmg mvo vescomputations and represe ""l~Et cannot be observed and measured dlIectly. Psycholingu- DtatJOlls . - hill ' . ISis have d_ special expenmentaI tee ques to mvestigate language proc _ utI these techniques. such as lexical decision and Priming. me eSSl!!g. Son.:of . d lin . - asure a . response time an response ~ccura~y to gU! tIc stimUli. Other ~ measure eye ~ovem~~t ~'hile sub~ect" ~e reading silently and ~hni measure electncal actIvI!y m the bram dunng Janguage proces' . el oth.:- - . I Sing Language processmg mvo ves man} processing modules ~t ciahzed for a partIcular language-proceSSIng task and that intera are 'f(. od I · . d Th 1 Ct V.lth",~ m u es m restncte ways. us anguage processing im-olve ___ interplay between bottom-up and top-down processing. We prOCe : c::: features. phonemes. and words all at the same time. We Construe P : . h j . I ' t s,llabe representatIons, morp oogica representations. and yntactic rcpr " _. . d ' CSenla!Jor,; In a spontaneous an automatIc manner. As conscious being "-e - . ~ are a;;p ofthe results of our procesSIng but not of the processing itself. ' 10 general. psycholinguislic studies have revealed that many f-> concepts employed in the analysis of sound structure, word struc~. .: sentence structure also play a role in language processing. An acCOUnt ; language proces ing, however. also requires that we postulate additioo' processing units such as a parser. as well as the non-linguistic compone ~ fIi models of language processing. These language-processing model> art oftaa ~ in flow chart fonn and seek to provide explicit accounts (j . .padicuJar language tasks are accomplished_ :;lI__,..., IIIMy new books on psycholinguistics hal'e appeared. These iDclllde ....u by JOICpIJ Kess (Philadelphia: John Benjamin, 1992). Psycllo/Jl- IIc.IIro-GIeuoo and Nan Bernstein Ratner (Philadelphia: u.m-t ....., Garman. Psycholinguistics (Cambridge: CaaDiIF Ilecommended reading PSYCHOUNGUIS1ICS, lHf STuD Y (Jf lA ..., Umversity Pre,s, 1990>_ All<>Iher e«ell Ps)choJillguisics ediled b) Monon Ann c:; '<lIlru: " Iht 19';4 H 1m)- rmbacber New YOI. Some of the 'slip of the longue' RlaleriallO _ Fromkin', chapler on speech production ( . ,,~non 1 I r Ramer 'olume clled above. Pl -1- 3OCJ) to 1hc ~ The experiment in which bar-presSlnn I -.I dari - . all " iOle, "'ere fOUnd 10 boun es was ongm y reported by E AS. ~~ - f - - . nne (99(» In processmg 0 wntlen teXt by younger and older adull' an anJde Iilltd 0.._ 6&-78) and IS discussed in Anhur WIngfield's ell:; .1 PnchokJgy and A "" < Berko-Gleason and Ramer tex!. pter ~tellC<: proc 1ll1be The discussion of eye-movement data tn Rev h 1_ . K R d S S y_:e olOgubtic,.asbased by . ayner an . ereno. ·Eye-movemen. _ . oolht~ PsYcho/inguislics edited by M_A. Gemsbacl.- 1>. lIn I readmg, In Handbooi: . I k "lOr as we as tn Iht boot and A. Pol atse , The PSYchology of Reading (En lew . . II ~ 1989). g 00d Cliffs. . J Prem.ce Han. The material on event-related POtentials is ~sed and Cyma Van Petten (pp. 83-133) in Handbook of P~';."a;:"anJde b, Marta Ku.a. processmg expenmem Cited in the svlable section' ~ltrrlU:J. Tbt .~. S . U F < Ide . Yo as repClned In an arucIt J- eglll. - rauenJe r, and 1. Mehler 'Phoneme moni . _ dl- . ill . . B - - h ' lDnng, vUable 1Mrntnn_ an elUC acces,s. ill. nus. Journal of Psycholog}. -2: .q:-and ~~ ill R.E_ Remes S amcle On the perception of speeeh' . If Psyc1lOlinguistics. ,m andbooi: of The word-~Iending studies are reponed in aseries ofsrudies conductedtr. RdJea:a TrelIDa, e-g.. The StruCture of spoken syllables: El'idence from llO'el word Cognition 15: 49-74 (] 983). A eros -Iinguistie SIlIdy using afOO:ed<hoice ,=of these word games is reponed in G.E. Wiebe and RL Derv.ing. '; f~ blending rask for testing intra-syUabic break points in English. Korea. _ Taiwanese' . in Twenty-First LACUS Forwn IChapeI HilL _.O!tb Caroiina: LACeS. 1994). The morphological priming eXperiments are summarized lD an article II) WiIIia Marsleu-Wilson. Lorraine Komisar.iev~ Tyler. Rachelle Watser, and u..<lIdIs. 'Morphology and meaning in the Englisb mentallexicoo·. Psyc~ ...... 101(l): 3-33 1199-l). The experiments 00 selectional remictKe Ire rqJOI1I:d • G. Libben' .Are morphological structures computed during wml recogniboa J--.l ofPsycholinguisric Research, ~~ (51: 535-W_ . The section on the processing of gardeo pad! semeoces 15 tIb:a r- ..... Frazier's anicle 'Sentence processing: a tntorial re1ew', iD~"'1'eJjint ance, 1'0/. n. The PSJclwlogy ofReading. edited by M. ~~= Erlbaum. 1987, pp. 559-96). These seuteoce type5;:,." CPU, Caplan's book Language: StruclUre, ProceSSl1llIllfll :llT Press, 199-l)_ . M.)t.'nII":....WIL'!l1l!!! The study of sentence ambiguity is ~ID • ~I.s. Seide~berg, 'Do listeners COIIIpUIe ~ .. Language Parsing, edited by D.R. Dowty• bridge: Cambridge lini'ersity Press, 19115). Berko-Gleason, 1. and RaIDer. Na.......1.~. Harcourt Brace. Garman. Michael. 1990 hJ"'_"~!,!!
- 242. I I 11I11l!11t.1',.1t "III 1 111111,11 , 1',,I1,HII.vIlI >t' hi'" h ' PPlh'd 1I11~. lII' til II '1'11111111' 'th';,! "~I" It11lid hll IIh 1Ijl!llllllh II! I PI'IIII ' • , , ~ UUh 111 kill t' 1'.11'11'1 hlllll 111.1 h'h ,11,h'l hUHl f,j, ' hI11,. I '1.11 Itl,- d'I"'nd,'11l dll.tt'h- III Itl' "'P"IIUh'ltl II hi (II',~ tlll'.,lIlIpl., lit ,I 1'1 Ill!.' ""IIUhl 1 lll,.111 .'.ltlll'k lit II 1.11 ~'I ,110111111' 4. 11111 'Uh Ih.t! , Nil "",',lId"',,,, lind rh.lf H 1'"","",' "PI~I I, ' ~ . 1111 pI', ," "d fl.lJI .1 "'I.'llud .I'h'l HII' ph"'III~lIhlll I" cl p.1I til 111111 ... ' h~lqHII ' 'I' " I II • ~ Ilh' lIl • "h.u dll t)lIlhflk flit' """ ," 'IIIi'd lllll- It l.,tllnJ' 1, , ' ·')IIII,h'h "ii' t,~Jhl III' ,,'11"'1".. 1" h hlllll~ III Ilh' hI4ll1 ,,-, I I h 1l",I,t. 11.11 f 11,1 pI II II' dp II 1'",.,:,·,,111 • diU pllOll1 III' 1'1 d."", 11111 • t,h" ., IIld",1 d... hlP"·' '11111 "I 1111',111"",'11 ,11111111'11111"'1',111. 101 /1 1111' 1',1111.,' h<ll" h,'I'I' "lllhlll" rl Jh'h'lld'hl~n'I' i'I lhlllgcl' IIlid "/lIh' fl ",'.. ull IIt,lI .(h"lldIlU..~ Ip l'lt~ ti l llt.. ! IIIPtlt'1 d tHd ' I'nll' I ' c' I "'d I ',.·L'1I111111· hi i'lld. (ill; plh l lh'III·;.11 (I IlIlh.' "l-PJdlll~' lu Ihl' 1.:,,1t tiltH II 11111111,1 I hI''' 111,111 1'''1'111'1111'' "I ,'.11 h "'llh I" 011 IIIi' """I, llIlIld Ii r, I I ,1" (ht PI'I",.'d h"ftll',1 'h',III'1 ,Pllld hl ,UJt III I Uld hcul h"l'u II" " °M'U' ,I) 'II ,tl ll' III '1'1.11 I. ,',IIIIPlIIl'II,' 7. ""I<' Ih, ',11.1,'11 1',IIh "'III,'I1'~ III ,',11111'1,', /OJ ,'lid 1/ J 01 Ih" 'I l hlPh'1 1'1 111.1,' ,,11,/ 111."" 11'" "Ih,', ,,11.1, ,111.1 I ,'I,' II 1111, IIHi! "'III ' tlll'' 1111 ,'III h 1'1 Ih,'1I1 N,,", hJIt' '1"11, "It'lId~ ,' I" 1..,,11 Ih,' ','II"'lIn', I 111111' "Ih" ,Ih,"d I)" Ih,' .h,," ,'1111,'111" 1/"'1 ',lId"1I 1';11/1 "'111"11"1" III ' dlllil IIh 1,1 I'ld,'"" ' lllllll' Ii, 11/1.11 I' I I'I""''''II~ 'III III "tlld, IIlIldlll. , IIh.dll"'" 1'1 ,,, ""',111" Ih,' 1"11' "', III I " '11'/111' III "'1111' III I I'I"'I"~III' III1,dl'l Ih,,' ,'1111/,1111 ' 1" '1 1111' OJ III rill ,h,ll''' I /',11'111' h" /,,"'11 ,II III snl III 1Ir, ,'IIl1h',1 III "'1111'1101 11111111 III ,I, .,' I", H t 1",1, I lill~ 'h, ""111111 11 PII h UI llllIpt.qhl",h III 'V 111111111 lll'''' 11 U Ii Ihi! III ' "1 .,tllI III. ,III IIIh. hi! Itl 1'llly 1 1 ,UIIII ,I Il ~ HlllIIII",,,, 111 , II 11I111.1I<ld ill 11111,1111111111 I I PI Itin ullll! I
- 243. 12 J JII 'J(PI UJ N(. l ,t (d ( (1 (11 " liO N language acquisition: the emergence of a grammar ---.:,;; ,/ihllllgh It' nl/I/l1I11/l1~ rd"1 1" Ih,' I'IWlllllllCOllll III Iinglll'III' lI"vdop . . . . / I I t' I ' . IlIenl .IS ·1;III).!U;lgl' an/UI'UllIli • I I" l'll, 1"" t II I Ii' prOl-'l'" IS tIl: llIlI"~ 'I ../", J ' ,"I (Il"trm , 11ll' IIIt'(llal '.1"11'111 Ih.lt alhll' PI·llpl,· .111 'I'l·ai.. lIml IIl1lll'rslalid 1I Inllgu;1 'c I h'll' ,/ll' ,II kasl hlli,'a'llll' IIII' hl'lll' l'Il1l,; Ih;1I IiiI.' Ill'Vl'lIIPlIll'/l1 nllinl'lI g • . ' . , ~ Nk ,i..ills IIIUsl 1/1(>1' Ihl' anllll'Ullll1111 ,I grallllllilr. Fil" ..1 mlll'd ill Ch;II'll'r I. 1II,ltlil" lallgll<lgl' lIl'i, di" <lhlt' 1111'1'111"", .1 , ' . ,,~ lUlu 1I111kl 1.111.1 ,III UIIIIIIIII,·" fIllIlIl>,'1 lit 1Ill'l'I 'ClIll·lIl'l·'. Th" 1'1I11 oilly hal''''''IIII, I' dllld"'/I, lh,' h.iI'· ;"·lIlil/l·d.l 'Y'I"III11ll'l'Ildlll'tnl' g l.lIlUllalll'al,uk, Ih I I I I .. I . ' . ,II ,Ill' .11'1' 11"11,' III 11l1' 1',1l" SUtl/, l' 1II1·ntUI1 ZalllUI III a Ii "d i ill"lIhli) ", lurallstlC rhe",1 Proach ~p gn(.)(t lkat of research nn lh~ u~qu"u.H' of tan tU1'" - _ l'ady uth:rancc~. the oruer 1Il whIch the! cmc l ' ~ ~ gc oem,c", on chh.lrcn', . 'h ., . I . , rgc. ,lI1d Ihc '1111.1 I f.;(lllUlll , , ! ...Wuy 0 l ,c~c phcnull'CIH not "nl ' ... II errur, they . ' Y Clnlnbucs ' II l,f tll1..~ language acqu,...llOn pr()cc!~ but ' 0 nrl' '.1 n a C<Crlllln . . . . , "VluCSvaluable 'l . "-_ nuture nlthc mental mcchams.m... mVl.,1vcll ml',n ' . .1 I.: Uc 'hllut the , gU..,llc ucvcun , llvcslgallIs concerned wnh Ihes" prohkms d ' . ,.mem. I,· h ' . ra" on IWO b,,'Ic "- nutura Isu e 0 "'.crVUlHln and Cx.pcnmClll'1111 AI h lnc.uod" . • "I ough bOlh "- provide valuahle I~t ormatlon "houl Ihc nalurc o[ Ihe Ian U'I . , .melHlllh prOl:e~s. Ihey do so 111 dll'lcrcnt ways. g ,ge ae'l"''''''''' III the nutllrulistic approach. II1vesligalOfs ohserv" anA r" ' d ''-1 . . . u ,ellr C.,I dren s sponlaneous verhal behavIOUr. One l}pC o[ naturalistic inve'I' , . . . . . . . , Igallon " the go-called d13ry stud) . 111 which a researcher (o[len a parent) keens ·" '1 . '. I' . . . . . ,. ual V nOles lin tI. chIld '. II1glllstu; progre" ..Ahernall'iely. a researcher may Vi<ll inllivldual children on a regular ba>.1S and record (or videotape ) a sample of Ulll'ral1CCS (perhaps one hour every second week O'er a p.:rillli of rIVe months). In b )th cascs. allenlion " paid 10 Ihe contex.1 in "hlCh Chl<.iren·s speech occun;. the l1) s lhc) are pIa) ing lth. the pictures they are kXlkin~ at. and Ihe likc. In c'l.pcrimcntu slmlies. fl' scarchcrs t) pical) make usc of speciall) <.iesigncd la~k, III e1i<.:ll ingl1isti.... a,ti il~ rdcanl to the pheOllmemm thatthe~ wi,h III ~tl1lh The ....hiIJ·, ~lt)nnan,e b then used to [,'nl1ulatc h~ pothese, abllutthe t) 1',:1'1' gr;1111;li....; ~) skn~ a....quireJ althat poml.tn time. . F1''''1'1111...111. 1"C' ....lr ·h " t) pl,aly noss-' ccllonal III thaI 1 tnvesl~atc' al,1 '·llmp.I1"C' thl' linguIs1ic k'll" k<.lge of dltlcren.t chilure (or gf)UP' 1)1 dII.lll'lI) al ; 1'.1111....uIJr ,1)1111 in Jcdopmcl1l. , t) pICa CI'I."'-'C 'lllnal ,tu,1 mi 'hi im ,1" " ....,'l1llu,·ting .1'lI1g t.: c ~nlcll 1h a I!fl1Up of t"o, ar ollis.
- 244. ,./lIIN," "(,f, 1 PI ""f'lIN, """I hiliIi, ""''''''11 ,111"'1'",,'01 101 I 11111'1 ii' II,.,,,', 1111111'11 "11111'"1111"111 Ikltlhl flll' llltl h,·~lIt (d .11,.''11111' laullI.ILll'. (h' IIUhl 111'1 'l'p.IIIII,' 1111 'I" ' h II,."" fI,'"' '1','1', Ii "'"1101, Ih" 111.11111,111 "' tit" II"dll ""'111 hll~' htVIIIIl-l' 1I11'1~ I,hl., 1'. ,. h "II, uh ftlll",1 t ,Ill c ItlIII'" I' h 11 ,I II ~ h l'I·1t1 'lit '~llil' t t i l It " I tI M"AA.1II IcIHdl/iUIl' I 1 , I 1 J I I}
- 245. J1 lOY liN I ~uen "ngo" II .m.I.ltlII ,ugs"'" Ib I earlv ha p:itlly .ndqxndcn. of !be p.u1Jcuw l3Ogu:r!", 10 Which- b.,,~1i .. In fact. ,,,en deaf cluldren Nbl>Ie. ",.hough !belI an'~ul r"" ~ II()tI1C1>bat J • V1l11('(/ th.>n th3. (Ileanag children iltOr) ~ .. /I". ",.vt""pnwnl." ur,'.·' 8.''''''111/: ,/I<.r=.o In I",quen.:y unnl !be age of aboUI I"el, ..," h tunc Liu/dr.n tart to produce. lire".: fi"t unde,..,,,,,, e Illo",,' O,"""ng m." overlap ,,,th the production at real Words ~ dable ....... " I>e{orc d) Ing ;)ul. By !be ume children ha, c a.:quired filt). Or "',.",."'" f . . "ord, .... hegln to adopt farrly regular pattern, ° pronunciation. Or "<l Lunguagt.· UCtlUI IUon rc~earchen have expended a gOod . ~ Iry 109 to dctcrmine the order in which speech sOunds deal Of . . are orr prouucIl"nand perception. Although Ib,s work has been hlla.'lereu'ln ,IIII,,:ullle, In determlOlOg precISely when a contrast has be IOdered IQ well iLS oy a ,hortage of reliable data from a sufficiently' CbO ~cqU"." ~ . rDad "', languages, some general trend.s seem to exlS!. "'"go Of As a gf(lUp. vowe" are acquired before consonants (by age th SlOpS lend to be acquired before omer consonants. reel. In lerms of place of articulation, labials are acquired first f I some variation, by velars, alveolars, and palata-alveolar.:. ~O"ed. "lib as [fJ} lind [c1iJ are acquired lasl. Otab (Iuch New phonemic contraslS manifest memselves first in WOrd_I '. tion. Thu~, Ihe /p/-Ib/ contrast, for in. rance, will be manI' c nlllal Po,' ,e~ted . ,- such a.s po/hal before lIIop-mob. . In Pair All olher Ihings being equal, a sound (like [s] in English) Ih many different words will be acquired before a sound (li~~ OcCUI in occurs in relalively few words. [3lllhat By age Iwo, the average English-speaking child can produce the' consonanl phonemes lisled in Table 12.2. IIlVentory of Table 12.2 Consonanl invenlory al age two SIOpJ Fricatives alher ----- p b OJ f w --- I d n k g - By age four, this invenlory is considerably larger and includ h I· d ' .,., bl . es t e sou d ",te III ,a c 12.3. SuI/to be acquired at this age are the inte d " n s 101 ' r enta fncat' and ld) and the vOIced palato-alveolar fricative 131. Ives In gellcral. the relative order in which sounds are aequO d d . I . . . Ire unng lh allgnagc acqulslIlolI process rct1ccts their distribution I'll I e Id . , anguagcs or h I'. or '. fhe sounds that are :t<.:quircd carly are generally the . h . t e d , e ' ones t at arc m II Ie) ,(lund rn thc worJl1's languages while the sounds thaI' ,,,' 01 •. I I I . . arc acqUIred lal' llll In le t Ie one" that arc less common across languages. C - ''ubtl' 11... • h tl l1t'h"~ r ""-' 11,.. -:;----" I d n q l~ . S 1 .. I ~---.:.. _ _ _ _ I One freqllenl proce~s In children', 'I" " h . . d " d ccc lOyolvc, Ih' cerlall1 soun S 111 or er to ,implif'· '~ II' hi . c 'Y'lomahc <1'1'1 • J 'J ~ C slrm.:t ., : Illn 1 Table 12.4 - typIcal of the 'p~ech Ill' t. . Ule. n tho ,Ia'a 'h"" I "" ,In<l thr" n n, consonant c listers are reduceu hy ddcIIl ,. ec-Yca....'i<1 <hlldr. g Olle nt tl~'fC e~m:n..... n Tuble 12.4 Reduction of consonant dU"cr, lsI + stop (stralegy: delete (s/) slOP -+ltop] 5m"II -+[moJ desk -+ldek] stop + liquid (strategy: delete liquid) try -+ ltaIJ crumb -+ [gAm] bring -+lbll)] Jricatil'e + liquid (sJrCJle.~y: delete liqUid) frolll -+[fAm] sleep .... [si:p] "CI"ClI + '(>ict'iess stop (.trl1lr~.'" delele )Jus,,/) bump .... [b.'p] tent ..... [det] Another common delelion process in carl} child language involve Ihe elimination of tinal consonants. Initial consonants. in cllntra,I, ar~ Iyplc,llly retattled if thc_' prcct'uc a vov.:!
- 246. 470 () TIMPOk.R,"U~f,11 II( ]) /) d,'g .,dnl I>u lb" I..... 11111' I",,,, ,'lid ,,'" ,,,",,,,,,,, .., 10". I dUlIIIIJt 11'1 fill '111.1111 ,', 11th' ... !rlh lilli', hIIJIJ"lIg II til" lllllllll III' ,II' ' I ~.'I It 1$111 "" 'h ,I 'C) '""',,11 /""""'" 11> ,h,hlh'" ""d 'iI;II " 1/" '''",: '10 (I' / ",," 111.11, """(,, ,.;", ',' "' ~,.",."" ""~I Inul1~f p.rll III III hlll1l,IIII.II h '1 Sub 1/1u Ii"n , 11l."lphpllt'lh' PIOlt"'"'S III l ', lI" 1,I/lVII,I,.". 'II f )Ul III ,111 11111 I If I I . I ' lIll'lIl III I1l1t ll l11hl 11) .111 .tll I lIh,. t 1 ",II.UI tt p . h ' . I 1 1 ;111. '111"",,,,,,,,, ,/< " ,'.I'/<' ,,, ."'1<111.'1<' ( """""" """""/I'h", p" ' ""'1 Ule hlld .1(11'.111 Ulh 'U' / '1'111 fl' .1 h" .III'~ h II l"lllt'Plllll It ("". , ... "'1'.11, III '1I1~ IfI Iud r",JlJinJ,l:. I II.: I t I ,tllllld's ,,1,1 (" nl .11111,,"111.111,'1, IIUdl 11111 I ' tOf .II« P • I ' II I ~It • " nutmlt'. lilt '"II II , I I IIlid (I'".., •• .,u Ofl , I h It0llld' • .Ih t I I', t • II • ( 111"111 ' pi I /II /II .. I " '''1'''' ',III '" " 1""'" ,'S." . '11/1"1;11,." "I a n d "hIP h I 111m 11.1 II~"IIIJ~,'! I' l, llh 1 h r I III I .' ,; • h 'I" ( I " ."", r ""I' ," h I' ( 'hall " ~h""," t nnlll1ll.Jnt •• r) S • I I 'd 0 " ,I d.• " .. I, l "I F f ., dl 'HI, If ts d j 'J W " r • • I 3 1II loll b RI"I(I m 111 11(11'11 '" " 1'1
- 247. .. ;i".~ plur.' , ~ .lu",'h.~Il(' "". {'',...e......l'C·;O ('I thlrJ peN-on ...mgul.;f ..~ 7__~pa~'_I_I<_n_'" __ '_ ~d ______________________________________ -- Thi~ :-.ho,", ~ that frequenc_ b) it:-.elf cannot e'plain he. nlenlal , roer for non-kucal mO'1'heme,. although ' 'hafelati,. clc: 0_ ('p ~ "th ll"I:l) "e ~ t(' pta} to onjuncoon lot other f3(or-... . role " hal. then. delermine, the order 01 acqui,illon of 00<1-10",--' '" he" R h ' '-<U c:ue~""es and hOund morp me-, - e>earc n a "anel'; of angttages 'ugge 'that=en fa '( r :.re lO,ol'ed. 1. Freque.nt occurrence. in ul:e.nonce-rmal position Ouldren a ere"tcr tenden.:y to nOllce ~ rem"mber element> that occur 111. the end of the ~ncrancc th!Ul tho~ found In an_ 0Ihet po non, ~ ',nabid~ Children seem to 'e ge;uer ce' I!Orpheme<, ~;/I'.-" 11lCh.:an coru;ti te _I 1he"own.bnthe P llIaloq'o .uin, -'~. " h<he pnnc;. and /'zJ) are 'Ingle ,=,..-."",,", , A straightfo ~~ord ll1L fun...--oon :imult.:1I)e(lU:5l~ re~ t>inguar). and len:, _ f.. r -hildren to
- 248. 4;'4 (O'TFhlPORAR) LINGUISTICS 3.1 Allornorphicrules been c<.ms,dcriliE j, Indu: ah..'J ,Ul1thk. J1 .9. as before. lT10r h In ordc:r of cnu.'flll' nn', (The ± 't)lTIhuJ In rhe st.'cond COIUlll r> COles. ~ I II b'· · d 11 Illd' itrc I morpheme. , in 4ucstlilll hat,.' h~~ l, '''~ l~ H,; ~In, non ·sylluhic UI , 'CUtc, 1,'111 P 'u.mJ sufi., ttlr c~~lIllrlL·. ,.., n..:a11l:cu a., lsI III · "iOl11c Conte (Jll1()r...l h .,." , _ . . Xls hl! 'P Iii 'It olhers.) I it" 11;, "~I '0 Table U .9 En,'lllr., iJtl~llng dcn~lopl11Cnl Jtorr/It'tnt'. FOClon ~ 2 3 4 6 - m,~ plur.tl -. PO!lcssle - ' the. a past Icnc oed third pefon "iinguJar '. 3u-.;iliaI) Pt' + + + + ± ± + ± ± ± + + :;:-----. + + oj. + + oj. + + oj. + oj. + + As Table 12.9 hdp' ,110. Ihe morpheme, Ihat are acqUir~fi . " . I d h th · '''I " e,hibil Illore 0 1 the propen,,,' JU , I oul me t an ose thaI ern ' ~cnerall ergc al a Y ~M ~ As children', prnducIl c and pcrceplual abilities improve, they 'tan the rule, regulalrng Ihe ,on .01 allomorphlc vanatlOn assOCiated IOfolln" English pluml (M rn 11111<,.11/ III pem, / lz) tnjudge.<) and Ihe pa<1 "' .Ith Ihe .' • ~m hl",d. /d! in I'/;I)"t'll, ltd! rn /IIIIIIt'd). Inrl!ally, even allornorphlc van cUV in . ,lraighlt('T1ard a, Ihe a/all allcmalron tn EngJrsh can cau~c d' fli allon a 1;lJ1guagc /c'U11ers. and II i, not unu.,ual to hear chi ldren aged t' ICUity for proJucc Ullcranec, ,uch a' *a al'''/'' Wo to three "cll-kno n IC'chniljue fortudytng the dev'elopment of Dernle rule-< tn' oh t' pre,cnling children with nonsense wordsmOrphOPhf>. . and a k' them to fonn pluml or past len e forms. If the children have _' Ing producUle rul for al/omorphlc lanallon, they ought to be abl:allered appmpnarc ndID!!' C en 10 "ords thc} hnc ne er heard hefore J to add cpcnm nl. duldrcn "ere on ~ pltlUre of a trange creatur n.a cla IC 'Th, , 8 u .' cond picture as then presented and the Chl~d~:d told. gn 'n the 101/01lng I} pc of qu uon en IoeTe OIl , there' noth r ug There arc t of them 0, Ihere drc 1"0 /(1) cras l~,!.sC" gUlchc!. kashco.;. nllI',C<, 2~ 2, 14 "I,h 1 Thc!oJc rc"u.h" suggest. that the varin.!,," aH ___ al different limes. Part,cularly pn hI ('''''''phs "I Ihe ph . · h 1 f ' 1 Cmatlc ., lh 1f< arc t1L needed In t e ast our ,tems in Tahle 12 ( . e /11/ all""", h qU".,1 produce the correct form (,I the plural hc;c ! Even h"t gralle c';;,ldr:h'~h , perhaps necau,c /1/1 IS the lea'tlrc'" 'n well "vcr hall the c' n 1.,1 (, . . ..,uent "I thc pI I ·~"t,,, led in the m("t restnClIve C(lOtcxt (alter' t 'd ura all""""ph ' a , n cnt; !CC ("h' and 'ICCU~ apler h,'>e<:tll>n I 2). Like inflectional morphem;'::-;n:;;-;';;-I . If· - . d . a a lxes andt be acqUIre 111 a more or les~ fixed orde 1 "mpounding a""" f T. none exnP . rr-ar tQ given ~entence rame, that required the f ,,,nme,,t, childrtrt '" ormation of a ere or made-up rool. For the agentive -er, for exam Ie new W"rd fTm" a real A persof! who nlche.~ I< coiled a A ,. blP , a tYpIcal frame "'oold be · ~ a e 12 II %W formallon proce~se~ were equally ea y for the chlldr~n. ' "ht .n "'(ffd Table 12.11 Percentage correct for made·up roo Construction Pre-$( 1lI",1 ('i< ) f I ,. __------------_-=::.a::.: r ~':.: >::.: (hn"l l%i .1 Idl ~ - 7 ~ hooll%) Agentive -er 63 compound 47 50 W · I 0 30 f6 Adjecuva -) lnstrumental -er Advertnal ./)' i o 3~ I 4~ 21)
- 249. (.'th~ I Hh"I)", I 0,1 ." ~ tutd ,," ~h'" It l IhI' h'h'~I',phll' I,~I' JlilJ,· ,/ud/ IhJ,"SII· 'ltO~ ~I " j 11'1111 '1 JIH "flSH" IltH/,!, "fJi 1 hll1 hu, 11tltll)- push. '" l hi' tuhy I', "III H1~ 111l Ill' l 111 • t I", 11Ir' It!. hlI~ II~ 'K"III' Lhlll~.Il~ WIlli', ' t hll 11' IIII~"I' ' t )uldy's hal' il}ll."11 O."'HI1 "yl'l OIl'hllt .ltl'1l1 twlne ill 'hm lhclne ~'KI"ile.l,"lt ''MI. "'M::d Iltl' thi, L1,)CS n"l ,h,'" Ih,lt chiklrcn hlc.. sYII'lclic '·at>.,n· . " .• - ~ ... C~( C, ma.l'rI.cs ,'I ~ dIll KII I" dcmolbmllc thai Ihcy PO'SC" them. For thi, reason. Iingui,b ;11 ps,h'I"~"IS ,m.' 'pili ~cr hclher I" describe children', utterance. in 1,' 11'" ,f Ihe 'l'IlI;UlI,' relall,'n, Ihal Ihe) e",prc" (as in Table 1:'.3) ,Ir the s~ 1;1,'1,' ,·al,'g.,,!.:s "t .Idull s.'.:ch. 11,' ;1 p '"1,11,, sCI'ral 1lI'I1hs. ,.hmng hi,h Iheir sp.:eeh is limited 10 one· ,111 1" Md "1 ;lCC,. ,'hil,!r.:n bq;in III produce IInger and mNC c,'mplc, ~1 'ltIlI'I,'a slm'IIf':S. S,'m.: rcl'n:s.:ntalle U':fances fnl the fiN part of IhlS I' 'm,,1 1.11,, .
- 250. Tabk 12-15 &be 2H can
- 251. '"u'rsio" U"'lllt',lions , rr 'wclR R U"o< ,11h J 1~ ... .,/ In thlo.' !"'I '~111~ ".I~"'·' ,'I l.ut~II.lf"-· .1,..qtll"'ltl~"'. ,,:hllll,loll qUl',lilll' P 1111..·.111' I." 11'lfl~ u*,"·tlH'11 .lIl 1 Ih,' (Rl'.',tll tl1'l1 . 'I~I'I . -' ,Ill, I -' a 1'tUt Co.'h tal.' dl.' ""hl lllllL'nf.) I lilr)" f'.f". "rh ''tj ftl -. Sl't.'hole",' I ride..' If.lilf~ B.11I g,, '~ -' it t:h.IIr'.' l":t.'n .Ift",', indn ,dUIlI .HIdial) H'rnS appl.'ar in duld laUl ofrt'll it lit'!." pfil fl."" IlHllllh~ ht.'f,lI't.' tht') UlH.kl~n lllt'rs ~1Ii1t.l.t:, Ih· ~ . _ ' , ' lOll 'till, ~I' the- flt.'ginnill!! ,l' Iht' ,(."lIt'IH.'C,' III l'~'s IW qUt'SIlUf1:-.. In .Hh: 'tlh.h ' f" .•IPI~, h a ounc ll4.l 1t'c.lII lI'.lIl~ tht.' ,HI lh~lr) ~Ih Ctlll at ag.' 1 l ) ' " ~. '" ~" II iI( , _ . " , t , q" II illPi hut did lUll II1H.'rt if 111 qllt·... (ttllh Uillt :0.1 I1lllfliiS utel. . ~ Illo I!, ,. .' ,., '. I" • 11th, Anllltl'l.'stwc L'm1(" III duldll::I1" t.:.tr) I~t.: (l 11l:l';IOn In t • _.. . ~I lllih ,. 11'11 qll~..rillll. , j.. l''L'lI1phht'd til I , t', 'Iu llld 7) CtJll hl" l~llll h)(lk ~' Whal .<h,,1/ ,' ,h,,1/ h,l'·? Did you did ,,:.tlllt.· h~lmt" ~l In rhc...I.: St.'IHl'nct:'s~ .(he aulIi~u) 'crt"l lX'~·Ur-. 1 ic~, onl'C to the I, ' .,ubwd (in Ih,' ['<"Illon Ihalll O,:CUP"" atlC'r l",erslOn) and On' ell or Ih . " ' , ) I h ec 10 It e (in Ihl' [,<,,"i(l11 " ,"','UI".'" In ,,','p,lnlL'lurc. I as lx'cn suggested 10 right palwm n:Ol','" .111 <'rror In Ih,' ,11'1'10",11111 or Ihc Illversion Irun 'I' Ihallhi . .1. ' I f .. h' ,, ' . ' S Ilnn'u' , Ihal a "OP} uf Ihe Ill,l,'d au! wI') " c I p" lIlu III liS onginul po '" "On in [:[,<'ril11<'l1lal wllrk ha' shown Ihal Ihis Iype of error is mo S:lIon, ,,'l1ll'nc,' ,uch a' .1'), whirh has a C(llllpie subject P. re hkcy in a 8) ITh,' girl 1111 i, 1'1') Ingl ,hlluld ie,,,c-' •Sh(luJtllthe glrJ who" cr) Ing I houltlleacl Thi'l'fl',unJa!>I) happen' t><:causc Ihe 'U!>jcci NP 'tand, dlrecll h ' .J. 'd Y clwecn h au! "If)' ,'cr ,Iruclllle f".lSlIlIln and Ihe f"."IIHlI1 10 which 'I .. Ie f I " I IS I11llved . ,ur a,',' lruclUrc As ,uc 1. lis compleXity can intalerc wilh Ih' In tlpt'rallllil c Invc"'tln 11';' </U"(lIlIl' 1'1111"1:<: gr.ldually helween Ihe ,I"l" Ilf two 'lnlll J 'I I J . " " , ollr hll ,. II ( ,,·n. Ill' loll"" IIIg !lucc ""'~ arl'lnvolved. 1I1'llIy Sfllj!l' I ('/lIldll'n 1'"l(ltlcl' Il(llh In "" IItlC,lioll' IIlId ,..I ' I ' I IIlIl·'IIOII' , 11<1 1I111 I 11(11 1'0"lhk SlllCl' ull~lh Iry "'rt>s 'I" IIllt v't ' 11/1 II'h J I I." ' ' J '''"'1l1l1 ed I"h,' I (1«' 0 , .... "'ItllI • d Ufl' tI'Il:,llJy II'hll/lind 1I'''''I''.lollo~I.tI h)'./ II I H In, hOWl 5 ,MAN III 11I1110I'Mt Nl '''''''kl .t"lt, u1 "II" . H-I't''', whit II, nth, 1'# IP", 11' r'h'h'C'ly ,, ") 'Il'' thllt" Wh't 1m' 'hwk" ' It,' ,11 "',,"I}:,'l ,-hy 1~' nH' dnn.. ,,' ~t")tl' 1 A1"'II I·,h" ;.". thl'll ... W , Itlll!.' 1".·ql.·nl" 1 '1" riP l~''''1 ·1.1"'1' nn, 11 Illh' nUl 1 wI. lt-"" If'tM,h 1l'V,", '''1 .... Ill) "" .. '"" 1',' liP qm..·...In... {wtth hlVl·I ....~I")' 11 MlIlHHY pHI,:h h:I Imv,n'! ('all" yn1 ttl(. 1'l nn 1 h{It' ,l" Will >''''' IIdp """' 1.. MUl1l11y wl"'ln~ III Rl'hlll· ... V.tll"~"'"h'l'l III 11, qtll·~11nl1.... (no In"'cl'mnl' What I (ltd yC'lclllay" Why KIIIY G11 I 'I,,,"l lip·? Wt~IT I ,tll"ld rUI tl? WItere I ,hllllid 'ker' Why yIlll are "1Ihn 'J Stll~C 3 12) Where did my mitlen g.'l ~ Where ,hould I ,Ic~r·' Why an: you 'milin~'? for ,on1: chlldr.:n. Incr I n III h lI1·,llI"" <lev'" • '"1 .... nl'''' 'hn ut-J..., ae appcanng laler In neg,aletl 1lI n, ~.. . produce lhe e)(l lrucU n, m 12) ," the foil,,,, mg. 13)
- 252.
- 253.
- 254. (..(). Tr~1p()"" 'R)LINGUISTICS a b r L-_I Figure 12,1 The Ifl¥lO'tance 01 ",lienee in the development of adjectives. !;,] The interpretation of sentence structure (advanced) A ' t-d ,'n Chapter 7, the interpretation of se,mences draw< h s no ~ , h- I ' " cav'J information aboul hO~ words are hle~rc Ica J) ,organ,zed to fonn I) on trucrure In thIs section we til bnetly consIder some aspe Phra." " , th I ' Cts or acquisition of two IIlterprel"'c phenomena at re) On Informat' the Th("matic roles IOn abo syntactic structure, Ul In Chapter 7, we saw thaI thematic roles are assigned to panicul 'th th - II ' , at Cd structure) poSItIOns in accordance WI e to Onng generahzatio ns , eep 1-1) A preposition IP) a"igns ih role (location, ouree Or goal) to an 11> complement. A verb IV) asigns its theme role to an, 'P complement (lraditionall - , y~~ Ihe OOjeCIJ, ; I'erb I ') mSlgm ih agent role to lhe subject. Chtldren learnlOg EngJrh are able to associate thematic roles with pan' I , - h - , lcular stnlclural position at:l I1:1) e~r YPOInt In [ e acqUlsJllOn prOCes , By the time theIr 31crage utterance length 1. !~O onh, the) are able to re -pond COrr ' " , ectl) .tbout 75 per ('l'nl o~ Ihe lI~cbl0thcompr;_h,enth'lon te,rs IIldv0 thhl ng imple active , ntenl'C' such as I)). m hi e lrue.. , e agent an e car is the theme_ 15) fbe truck oumped Ihe car, Hocl cr. 'luldren find it much harder 10 interpret pa'Slve cntcnces corrcctl), I'h:, peclJII) true for p ( e ntence uch a the one III 16 "hleh cllnt.un no manuc cI about which 'P I agent amI hich one;; them ( lite th.1l11 m JU! t 8l much sen for the car to bump the truck a II d. forthctrudtobumpthc:aT u hsentence aresaHJto!lc'recr iblc',) 16j Ib ar bumped b th trud; O minalsand pro" rtflexives Tuble 12,20 GroUp - - ____ .!:t'_r_l>'·tltQJ(t' (.orr,.", Nursery school (around age 3-4) 21) ~ _~ ___~ __ Kindergarten (around age4-S) Grade I (around age 5-6) 3~ 4~ Grade 2 (around age 6--7) (-,3 Grade 3 (around age 7-8) 88 Why should this be so? Thematic rotc a ' - - - "'"tgnmcnt' . complicated by the fact thai the NP bearing h In P""lVe 'tructu,"" ' ' h'l th t e theme r I subiect positIon W lee agent (marked by th " () e OCcurs tn the ' J e prep<>"tJo b the verb_ . n Y) 'ppea" af"" J7) Passive sentence: Active ~entence : The car wru, bumped by the truck Theme Agent The !ruck bumped the car. Agent Theme Thus passive sentences are almo't mirror images of the' , ' , Ir actIve C{)UntPn> in that the agent occurs after the verb and the theme before 't th -,yan~ - 'fi tI th I ra Cr than Vice versa, Sigru Ican y, e most common error made by child ' 'T> ' , ' ren I§ 10 as.ume that the first, ,r m pru,~lve sentence is the agent and the '>eCond. ~ the theme This suggests that they tend to overgeneralizethe thematic role pattem found in actIve sentences. thereby • temaucally emng on p~ive pauem As the data in :rable 12.2? how, children begin to apply thl' trategy randomly arou":d sIX, ;uggesung that the, are tarting to realize that 1l is Il()t always appropnate, A ~ ear or ~ later, theu cor~s tan to me dramaucally, indicaung that they recogmze the >penal propertle~ asSOCiated ith thematic role assignment in the pas-i~ e COll>truction In Chapter I. ""e "" that a re e i~e pronoun lh,m.sel , herse~, aDd on) must haw a 'higher' i e • c-coll1lIlatlding) antecedent In the nurumal clause contaimng it, Thu ,luntulf u er to Gar) in the following ntence I _ . '1 id th t [ G nsl}, . reer 10 to t1
- 255. 6 Of TLR'"N NT~Of t N(,U~(.f I ,,', >,. 1..' h,tH' 'l'~11 Iha( ,,'hrldll'll i.ll'IUJr" II In the I'n' l III ... ''''"' • , , ' " 1~ l' h I • >,,', 0I11CI1Pd pi '~·H·I.Jf )'lII' , Iltk II ' Il-"I, r.lrll11,oI' t i.'1(" .ut 'U.I I . . , . ' . • ""y f}1 " k' ,," ,>, I.', III 1i",:11 dllldll..:11 ,1l,llIlIl ,IIIOU phOI1"'I", C'h" , ( QUr-ITION uC',,·IIII.' " _ I ' I , l" J l) I I,,tlldllo.' lull"_ 111 IIII h, IlIhlll: lltll,;ull iu eXI'I, :(lIHtl, I11PI P h..'lIh."'. ,1Ih .. • , .lil l / ' , I I'M" 'IHHI' (hal Iplfn. oUlllIH.' '(l/lll.' (,)1 Ihe t~h:l()r , II., II)t Ihl>' u() t 11 . l ''''' I I I .It III ..) , .. ' Ih ' l,"lh..'!HlIU" ~ll1d 11Il.','" 11.11 11I..11.l' up (h...• gr- tl II) hel l'hildn.'u l'Ul'1 l .. , • 1l1l1 .lr Il l 11 ~~ ~ b,/ 1he role of iflllt,llion and correclion 1 Ill'" '''"~, " ,1' 1.1..11 l",hl'W" Ih,,1 d,,'dl~l1 killl1 lill1guil!(" h , 'I I Ih' ,,,,','dl 01 Ih'''l' amulld Ihcm ,"'" 11<" ,' ~lIn Ih.1/ 1/11 1 III,PI_ 11111 .1 In!! l I ~ ... ''.In, J , , 11 "'1 "II,'T'llln'll Ill',' 1'roduce" hy dlll<",'n do nOI ,'1"'''1 ,,,' b.: (ru~. 'IIKl' r.. • - , ' " )' rc~c I t "'IIII I 'n 'Idull ',ll','ch,.r1111.11 10'111. ,,'~h ." 10"11 111 1 IlIhle '(rue urc'l ( . ' 'J . . , , , 'Iu, "nlClUre,' '11I'h ,I' WIII'I/i, 11/1 ,'!llIIlIIg .lfl' on'/{ll" 1'''I/lIpks III /l'nlern "I'lit II ' ,,, "IIIId 11I1"lIJ"C 1' nolcd 1'.11 IlCI, lIdl IIl1l'r"'l sIh~ ;tn' UI1I'I c , '~", '..,' " l'l'~ "I chi/drl'lI's Jlll'/11l'l., 10 IOllllnlall' !,"'I11I11.1IIl.t!llIk", '1111 1111 InlI1U""n (II 1 , <=;1 II(tJI( 'I"'t'ch , rh" 1111""111111'<' 01 '1111/1 1111'" 10 lal1l.!lI.lgc al'q'"'1llon " pl.Jl'['" ' ,,,. , , In Ilinh dOllhl n} Ihl' ""'I Ihal dlll<hclI lUI' IYPIl'"lIy unahiJ: 10 Ililltatc ,'rUellll", I I Ihey haw nol vcl "'allll'd, h,r 1I,,',nKe, a dlll<l whn h,IS nllt yet ""'1 111" h,lt Inversjnn rll'" 101 II'/i qUl',IiIlIl' II III,nlllll1,' ,e/Hl'lleC 20,,) hy "rn<illl'lll c:'lh, , g rlh} ,I, iI Whal C,III ,1111 sec',' (lIIod,.1l Whal you ~'all scc'/ (c/iild illlllal/(II/ 1 I' mdm!" like Ihese suggl'" Ihat dlllur,'11 n:l Oil th"11 l'un'Cllt "1'11111 11' o ' ./tlcal nile" 10 pmce,s thc 'pcl'ch Ih,' hl'ar and that th,'y lire there/ml' nOI ""I • I It e tn illlitaic ,enICIl,'C,' l'acll} a, Illl'} .Ire I'rodlll','d hy <lUUlh, Thi" " not to sa Ihal 1IIIIIilll(111 plays no role III Jallguagl' "'itrlllll!!, While lIIall} dll/dren raid} ilileillpi 10 repl'aIUItl'rllIlCl'S, sOll1e lallgllitge kill'lle" I 'CCIIl 10 lt1ukt, sdectlw lise of IIIlIlal/OIl, rhey IInn,lIe lIew Words (,~ consuuctioll, Ihey hal',' a/rl'ady 1c,IIIIed alld lepeal Ilovel ":onslnlelioll l 'h " COIIl,IIn word, a/reudy f:l/l/iliar 10 litClII, rhus, lhcy might ilililatc Ihe ne: IO/d ,'oil/III/It'/' III a III/llih",. SlIh'I'..:1 wrh oh;eel patlern (MlCit as Ih,d"' hOI/gill a "(lII/III/Jr',,), ,'iilllrimly, Iht) IIlIghl inlitale;, /lCW Sinlelliit such al Ih~ ,,""Ill' il it l'olliailled 1:lIIl/lta,. wmds (f)addv H'l/. ('ollt'd hy M IIIIIII/ I), BUI Ihc) ould not illi/tall' a SI'IIlcII<'e II hos..: slru,'tUle a/lu vocilhul.l,.y IVI"e hllih IIell 10 thl'III, Slich ,,"'e<'lnl' 1IIIIIilium SlIggl'S!., Ihat l'hildren do IWI blindl) 2/J Cill/": Nnhnuy d Oll " ""e Ille MOllwl': No, slIY 'Nohndy likes Ille.' ('111/" : Nohody don'llike me, I1'('/1lIt1gt' is rt'/1lltlft't! ('ig '" l im l'.', I Aloll,," ': Nil, now lislen em 'flllly' s"y 'N' I, I I k ' ' ()I I N l . . ,. ) u{ y 1 C me ' (/1l1t1: " ")Olly linI11" K I" me, II ",me slIhlle rOnll 0 Cllrrccilon oceurs wh ' ' I , , I', ' en ,It ulLs r"""al a 'h'I'" 1I11l'ntll":C, nla~ lIlg illJ"slmcnls 1 0 its form and/or conlent, > " C,u . 22) Chil": MOlh"I': Chil": Molher: Child: MOlher : Child: Molh{'/': Daddy hl!rl!, Yes, Daddy is hl!re, Boy chasing dog, YI!S, the hoy is chasing thl! dog, Ilim go, Yes, he is going, The dog is harling, Yes, he is barling at the litty, II study of upper-middle-class families in the United States suggesh lhat l110thers or two year-old children ex.hihil a slightly greater tel(!cncy tll revise lIngral111llaticaluilcrances than gramll1aticalutlerances ('26 per cent vs I~ per cent), (No sll..:h tende ncy wa, found in response 10 the speech of older ..:hildrcn,) IloWCVl'r, no mothers revised all ungrammatical uttcram:cs pm- duc.:ci b th..:ir ..:hildrl'n and even grammati.:aluttcran~e" were often revtsed (the foulth nlmplc in 22)), The mothers' responses therdore apparently do nol pmvidc language Icarne r~ with rellahle information about whether theu uttl'lanCCS an~ cll formed,
- 256. rht- rok of;Mull <'It '. .'~I ill' ,'Ill
- 257. ,I , I 'II r', I11"'llf' h 1,'11t " 'PIIIII,' <1,' ,'1"1'11,,'111 ,11<1" I" ' '''" I" Ih" 'I','e 'h I ,n- 'k~Hh ,," h 't. 1, l'1f,'1I~.t· .h"'1I'II"" nth- ' " I,,; 0' l"h~'f • - ' 1.;1 ,t lnl 1t ~ 1"" hll" 111,111 ,, Ill<' 1'''~IIII" '~III, nI"" "II I I I 1I'I't, I, "" ' " ,rell ~tll 1' 11111 m'IIIIII,' I.IIIf'.II,I~" ','" 11t'1I111t' .11,'" ,,,,"11 I I I ' ",' ,I , ' " , 'I "e , bee ClI,l I' I 'III, 11 ,~",,, Ih,ll 111,1,' 1 "III,'lltlll ' ,lh""1 IIIl' hlllllI ' I I P q tll, I "I III ' 1 t ' ,,' l 1 Hll l ~t ~.UP' It h' t.'qH . ' ... ,,'1, Illlll,'II11,11 Il'" ,lllIulI' h")!lIi'l, I' Ihll d"l-I 'I " .. ' , " , ',II, ,,"tilIh 1"1" ' I,lwh'd '' ,II lit ' 1'1'" ,1 ,',,,' "'''~' ,lilt! Ik, h,1I II,' "'111' 11 Ih " • - ' . • .. I ~ gl~tnm'r 11 III' hIII'1I1 1.111 'U,I!!,' he"~ Ih"I,'hll" 1-,,, h'" 111,., 1'1 In I ~ . . ' .... l~ 't ~ n 111' 1111 ' 1111'' Ih,' ,II,' ,1"'1111' 11 """'1" I" I '1 1 "I II • • !"'I • - • ,I.: . .... nt~~tt~ ,',II,' ' , I II' , , , ,lId II ,,,) ,Id.t hel ' 11 ~ ntk, "f ,I C '1'.1 "WI 11 ,'1'1111' 1,11.','( 1'11.1 '" I' 1'. S) '1 ' ,,'I 1 '''''''n,"llcg."riC altI I'rinell'''' ,',' IIItl11 hI ,Ill hU.I) .m '.I~ " nul-,', 1' PI "".1 Gr.IlI,1r 'G). tiN 11 '11,1 ',I I" L'h.ll' 'I
- 258. 494 (ONTfMPOR-R lINLlJISlIC't PrincipleA (advanced) Tuble J2..13 The- Hlrd order par.llllctcr !ilipu/aff" b' l '6 XP ~ x, Complement Rt.Ulllill~ npficJII.· XP ~ X Complement (he<.ld-InH·i~ XP -4 Complement X (head'final) . · · · d l I - - - - - of year~. il:-, popularity in IIngUI"itICS. IS ue. ,arge Y,to the lheories ( Chums!..). " linguist althe Massachusetts In,tHute 01 TechnOlogy. ) NU• Ill basic claim is [hal Ihe grammars for human language arc 100 • Chonlky' b . f Ih I J " cOIllPle ' anslracl 10 be learned on [he aSls 0 e ype 0 expenence to wh', ' und . . . T I 'eli eh I have access. Therefore. he argues. SlgOi .can componenls M 1, •"ren ' . tho ·[·d Ie gr. musl be inborn. To .lIustrale IS. we mus. cons. er a relalivel "'Ill'r example involving Ihe notion of c-command Illlrotluced in Chapte;7cO~Ple~ 3.3). (secl,on As you rna) recall. c-command is defined as follows. 24) NP. c-commands NPb if the first category above p. comains Ph. The c-command relation plays a crucial role III the statement of p. . . . f fl . . nnc'Ple A which restricts the IOterpretalJon 0 re e;'tIve pronouns (10 English . . . . pronoun endlOg In seifor .Ie/res). S 25) Principle A: A rctlexive pronoun must have an antecedent lhal c-commands il. Principle A is responsible for the fact that himself in Figure 12.2 tak . b h b Th . es the boy', falher as Its antecedent. Ul not I e oy. at IS, the sentence lllU be taken 10 mean thai the father of the boy is the pe~son who was hun.S~As menuoned m Chapter 7. a po"essor NP can occur 10 the specifier pos' . . . n~ wlthm a larger 1'<p.) s ------r--- PI Infl VP /"'... I ~ L'~2 N rhe /1(.)', l:lIhcr Pitst V NP, IL hurt him<;clf fi);ure 1~:1. Ther t1eJ(J~pronountJkcslhe~«lfTlfn.I(KJir'!;"".oI .IS.lI.II·, (·,1"11. In figure 12.2. Ihere I only one category ahove the NP IIII' hOI 'f /1I[1t r nantel) JIIee thl cal gory contaln~ the r ,tI, XI pronoun. PI e cornmand him" /J accordlllg to our" finlllon nd C.1I1 tit relm' r,,· as II ant dent 11 ceofiLm c 1111 PrincIple III • In I nOI IrU III lilt ,. oS critiCal I there a I d 1 perio . 'IN{.UA(,I A( qlJlI..,11H)N 1111 'MI~rJlt'f I II ,.,., I ''"''''MoM,.,.,( (NP;!) ~mcc the lir...t cutcgmy uhnve It IN) .,.. 'llcxlYC, Thl" mctHl'i that NP .Oncs nl I' l h whu h tkM,:: 1( I rt: 1 (.; Cl)nlln' 1 1 C"tlltth ._ r ye as its antecedent, dn, Ie rCn~IlIlC tUiIt ~ .. . . -~ There urc two major rC~'i()n tOl nche"", I. ' hi" , f ,~ , lal Prtn~ A. fir""t. the nollon () c-cnmmand 1 qUite an lnill t I~ '; t. 'm, he Inborn Ihal we would expect young th.ldr·1 III d. n,l Ihe Iy'l! ',I (lIOt 4, cntcnccs,. SIOCC we. also k.now thul.nn one Il~~~)h"er Imply hy h IO'uno P' h ~ h h' ,Cdt C thC'm ·,ht eo h, 't makes sense to t 10"" tall 1"0 nOlion " 1n)(. . )ut C tl'mrnanA • d h 'Jm .lOo ,'tere{l.l 'I. to he discoverc or taug t. Ire lJ1)C.'i nl, ha..-c Second. the c-command c<lmponcm 01 I'nnt.pl.' . t b c" cern, I.. '-- . Thu, there appear 0 e no anguagc, In whith Ihe c uw. .'" UIl"., I /rim.I'elf can reler 10 the boy rather Ihan the hoy', I.th. < alenl III Lllyl"h . ' 122 1·1'· . . a er In "fUelu,, h the one In F.gure .. 1e un.versality 01 this re tr .t CK Ut .. d h . Ie Hm would he I 'f it were innate an ence part !) the inborn lin . I. .~p alOell I . gUi be .nowlcdue f· 1 human bemgs, ~ I> • The claim that children arc born with ahstract 1m. . I d h I gu"tlc IInnell'l IS controver~.a . an researe on a Icrnallve, Continues H, . . " I . ' )wevc" the hYl<lIh eslS that the grammar .s gencucd y tructured I an CAciltn d . . I· '. I ' . g an .ntngumo development 0 mgul tiCS. t I~ one of the many areas In the ~ Id [I C h · h I. h .e ) anguagc acquisition were Important rea"t roughs remam to be made One of the most intriguing is~ue inthe study of language ac;-:-on-;--tlld:, with the posslbllll), that nonnal hngu,slIc development IS p< slhle only It children are ex.posed to language dunng a partIcular lime [rame or uitical period. Evidence for the e)l~'tence of such a penod .!)mes [rllm Ihe tully of individuals who do notell.pencnce language dunng Ihe early partofthcirllv~. One such individual I the much discu sed Genie, wh<l wa Itept m a maU room with virtuall) DO opponuntt} to hear human speech from around age tWO to age thirteen. fter many year<; of therapy and care, Genies non- linguistic cognitive functi~mng ,":'US de.scnbed a 'rclaucly normal' and her lexical and cmanllC blhu 3! goo<1. In tenn of ynw and morphol y. hlmever, man~ p tile rem:uned. as cldenced in the f Uov.mg mple uttcrance. pre'-Cntcd III Table 12.24 ~Ie"nmg 'Buy pplesaucc at the ~ '>The man has amotor.yde . '1"'''aII1 togo nde m!.l. f tar I ba'c a full mach • • a !to ~wup
- 259. 496 (IN'fMf'OR;RY (I(It TIC ~.. ", ---------- I ':' nf (en..," 'or athmg 'lll!...,rdeN.. ?ly 'Clam. must In"- --. - lntC' • 'h -"a~UIlll)_ h,hr~ tr.' 'he... The llhe~ " Kh mu Ometnne be eft. in pace for a l'tnod. 0( C I mtcrtcra llh the pru,lucnn of pcech IOUnd!i.. m o nll • ,- N ()h, 'OU y h1 child t.s BLqumng. Hnh ,mcncan Engi.sh.
- 260.
- 261. I 1>' , I ,I) , I ,) ,I) ,) 'I 1 ~/.",ulln, hl1II1 " 11 1. " ~'"~ 1'",1" "nl" I,,,,h II 1" :-.hlllll1l' ,,',], Rllnllln , , , ,'h I I ,I, I "II nUll, I ""'1,1"1,, 1,I.h 'IIh, 1'1111""m ,,1 'lI,nk 1h,f'" 1111'1 , I" ., .11 " , , '1 "h'I'.. , ' tI.' ml I hll ,,, ' 1 hl lll" HI ""' ,,, " 'h" nh ",.111 ph , " t ,I "HUH.' " hl'! .' Ih'1 hl 'h' '" " ,' hll ' 1m ",) h, ,', bnv ,, dl: II II) 11,11 ' "" h"l /) hi lh "1 .,' Ifl) ',"HUh ' "''''i ,Ih Ih' "'" 'H , 1) ,l,, '''HI.. "h' h" 1, ""1 III, II. .H QlI1'1 pl ~ ~ I' "l lit' , .m "" f 11 ,II,HIl'1 ,111 " ,' I 1,1"";1 ,', ',1"', "III Ih,' 11 IWI , 1 nt m uh" """ ,'I' HII' ," I ,'II I ,I "I I,ll 11 ,,,11 "1,,, , 00" ;11 11.,",' 1' ,I k, 1',"011. 1111' ,'11' ,11"11" " , 1 nh""" I) I I'" " ,hk '1 "VII'" 1', h', ,,1.11'1 hl'l" " 1' • ' ,n 1,: ;)l'~ q hr ~ '" !,' '" 1 ),'1 , ',,H, ,",, ", w "Ih' ,h ' " " " 1....', 1' c d',{'n' 'III' 1,1""'1' 111,'"'''''''' 'I'll' 1'1111'',1 ,11;1'",,, " 1,, ' , 11, ,,' ~";I' V, ,I « :) 111',1111" ,11'11 mll' UIII''', h) 1'11 11111 1111 ' halhlh, ,') W,' ';lh',1 ' 11mll' ",:"1" , ,I) I h:lll.. ,,1 II" ';'111' 111",,' 1""..'1", ,') 1,1",,' .."", ', n I'" 1,.',1 "" 111 ,,'I WII''' '11 "' I, ,II' ':1< II<' h,,',1 III Ill~t, ,) I IllIlI ',I III 111' ,11,'1 II) I ,,,k,1 "1,1 ,'kl,II,lI' II 11:1' Ihllh ,I '<IllI ',I II", 1'",1 I,'''' "l,,,'h~m~') I"" ,I" ,II,..nlI" 'I II) h,ll 1,lh ,, ,11'11," ill Ih') " ' ,'I'll 11,11 'h' h,, k'I~'<1 Ihe, P 1I1h'" I' : 111 , ' I ill I h;1I " lit' ,' i,l 'Ill' ' 11,11 ,h~ h,l' ,1,<1111«1 III~ '<lI~ "I nllUI I Ih ,',II' ',I, , '1" 2, I h,' flllhl 1 ' , 'tlII'tI' " H'I ' IIIII'ld II ,I ,lIlh ,I ,« 1"'" ,0, ahalt ,II h;I' lhi, I' ,',11 ,I" h) lnt. h,ll Ih , ,,"1',I"
- 262. '" kllli , hili ,'IIh" ""' III 'f1h
- 263. 1.1 1 THE STUDY Of SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION h"nthe tield of second language acquisition) 0"" lanDer t .. . SLA F uers v . eo ..... productivel" appIJed to . or example ... I, ao ous • that can l>C J , we "no lind' h ' acquirintT their first language (L I) have grammars th W that .10 woarc" . tbd" . atar and that their utterances are not JUS a llTUtalJons of the adul e '11 e~ second language learners too are develOPing a t target. 1 s., . . lik gra", S1 tl'C even if it is not native e. ·"mar ,L 'e systema "'&t ~ I the case of first language acquisition, we may ascrib b n h"een child and adult grammars to either cognitive Or biol o e.the differen e,w d I . glcalilh_ re . the child. In the case of secon anguage learnmg by adult """aturh_ m ·th . . s, how J cannot say that the learners are el er cogmt:Jvely Or biologic /j . eVer,We R ther they are subject to an influence that is absent fay IllUnature a , . If Le' rom the h' . s'tuatioO" the first language Jtse. t us diagram the situation ~ CIld' s I . as 101/0WS: Ll lnterlanguage Grammar .. L2 figure 13.1 Influences on an Interlanguage Grammar. This diagram illustrates the fact that second language learn .. ~~ systematic mterJanguage (lL) grammar - so-called because it is . 11 a h dl dh Jnuenced by both the first and t e secon anguage an as features of each. Therole of the first One of the most easily recognizable traits of a second language learn ' ...... . th . b . bl er s speech tS at It _ears a certam resem anc~ to the first language. Thus. someone whose fIrst language tS French IS likely to sound different fro someone whose first language is Gennan when they both speak Enolis: Consider in this regard the fOllowing typical pronunciation of the En~lish word hUl'e by speakers of French and Gennan. English target French jpeaker German speaker have /hrev) [rev) [hccfJ ...... 1:1.2 Phonological transfer. The form produced by the French speakers rellects the fact that French laeb !be pboneme /hi while the pronunciation associated with Gcrman ,peakm can be traced to the fact that Gennan includes a rule of Syllable Fmal 0IIeIrueat Devoicing (which changes the Ivl to a [fl). The tcml transfer is 10 deecribe the process wherehy a feature or rule ffllrn a leamer's fil'l ~··Irl CInied over to the IL grammar. Other examples can be seen In I. SECOND LANG UAGr A(ffiJtSITIf) Table 13.1 More phonological transfers 505 L1 L2 Example COmment Spanish English [espeak Espanish. Spanish does not allow ;:--- Consonant sequences word-initially. English French tty] (you) -4 [tu] English does not have the from rOunded VOwel[YI. The Engli h speaker subSlitutes the [uIsound. Quebec English Over dere. The [ill SOund is reptaced by [dl. French European English Over zere. The [ill SOund is replaced by [zi. French English Spanish [para] 'for' -4 [para] As English does not have the tapped [r] as an allophone ofIr/. [r] is substituted. !!---------:T=h-:e--::fj-:rr---s-:t-:lan=gu=a=g=e-;i::-s~n~o:t~th:e~Onl=Y-;i:nfl~u:e::n:::ce:-o::n:-;;:th-:e-::in=te=r:'an-:g=u:-:-a=ge:-gr=am=m=ar. The role of the L2 since some properties of the IL can be traced to aspects of the L2. In the ca<;e of a German speaker who is learning English, for example, the LL grammar will contain some features of both Gennan and English. Consider in Figure 13.3 how a German speaker learning Canadian English might pronounce the word eyes. Figure 13.3 Targetfonn hUll Result ofFinal Obstruenr Del'oicing [als] Resulr ofCanadian Vowel Raising [AIS] h 'OI'Cl by aGerman-speaqIeamet One possible pronunciation of the EngrlS' eyes . th rule of Syllable Fioa1 0IIIIIMDl Here. the learner first applies e . lau} to [lIS) ButdIe __ . d f om German). changmg . ...:. ~ .. De'oicing (translerre r f the ••roet Jangua&e -10 .... ~ . d' e knowledge 0 -" '--l..' ...... also has acqUire som . . which stateS tbat [II) _ _ rule of Canadian Vowel RaiSing. lbaDbtoIPfIiCl....ut.. . . . . the same syllable. ... •• vOIceless con onant In. . e the input fooD fI1I/ Final Ohstruent IX'olclng Rul •anadiaD RaiIiDI- 1'IIiI consonaJ1l ([sj) which tnggthee~":_of.iIW' £ .....?'''':' . bout ........w sho us something a ') of hoth the Ll and the L_.
- 264. Of, J 'If'l R '''' lINL.1 I" 1It ... , I Tlu f1t1rUtl' of .1n fnf.'t,.lngudgt..' 't(,~lIl1h.'1 'f1Il'lflh..'l.h.lh~ ,'lIllIl"', , "r I 'It'l I I t IIIllC 11'111 /C, II, ," :'.kdlllf1l It'" I}( ""/, ','mnll ;----.- tI' ( Ifl'I", --.......... 1,1 I"~h 1 1 / r,mc I Jc clllp,nt'lllal rile" 1I,.lIl1lll<lI, Ih'II, I 1111111 IIU',f h I I1lh Ihe I I ,,".1 Ih, I '. Ih""'h Ih,' I fl'l ,,111'11 ul 1111111 Ill' "dq 'lid "II 1111 1111 I,' '"11" 's /,',,1 "I "'1.111 P""'u""" ,'1' Ih,'l 11111,111" d I ,IIIl'" h.'lt I,," '11'1111>, III hllih 11,111,1," lid d'Icr.'plll 111.11 lrror, ,'1 0111 k.lln I , hlll ''''I, It"l1 h Ihl' ,IIII,II"d II UlIHI~ fh -Ita' I ' clnh.Hlil',"n (f.: 111Hn~ pl '~'III1t' ) 1h' ( illwo h l' ,hptl1ll , 1'.11 11lll'IH (MI'.I"I1! IpaI111lfll" } Sh< 'rllll' , F ~., fllll... h, th,.t I r.l h. .I ,-bl'" It'lta 11 ny ·t}l.h....h Ih-c n', mIn. ttl "'('I 11n"'-,I Ih:..n ,llId "'.11 'If In 'ht {C.lln Ith<i h ,~t"cm('ll 1l.l~t'1 In h~ '~l"dl" 1 h 'lft'I" h h p.",: It' m.lm telh h..·nl·'W.lthn) StlIlW'ln·. r':!. 1'110: ,'0n I1hl po 11 ilrC.' ,"1.
- 265. ,I uu ,HI Ih, I "l', f' ..t t ' h,'ph, '1'''''1 ".t1 , -h."I~n" 1'1 ' It,_ ltlll ~h'lh: ' • un ....th)t~1 3~lhh..·", ') art' I. Wben y 11 '1.,,,un1<' W~ ,,',1 be ",1..", lale agam thIS <<n"'g' What a hamc,. .I) )lkm· 1nl..' ng.i.Hn! D~mm1l. I,-r tn he cl"'ln'n)lnt~i.l''c" ':.)1TPC~nt 'I!cond Ian. I 1 )f. , • . • ~uage earners. 1'<' ..hk tl pnldu.:e .md c,'mprchend " "anety of "",ial dialect. need 10 'h Ilu:anino l,f an utt~nmce i... not awa ~ directl" rel1~'I-• . C e o . . • • _ " <U In Its un""" 'IUI: F,l[ c'ampc. "hen ltllenng the 'emence Hu", Ou ~tnl;· .) . ' ". ...... . ' _ . ntr cOl'lSidertd ",·f...-,it>,wl iI..lp., a 'peaker ~ould have m mind a ariel) of Wended I nIno' He might mean '1 can t help ' ou. bUI mabe 'Orne.", el., ld' I1U",'n ,:..' . ... '_ _.- . _ UXl. ~cou ·think ) Olt are a lrul) d"lurbed indIVIdual: gel help' "The ""ak-r' ,l[ " . I' . -. . r- _ tnleu >du,ing an Ulleran," " re erred 10 as illocutionary force. U1ocu,,,,---. In pn , , th b . l . w....., ' nt'l<'n.::e, ill 'n, rete!" to e a I It) to c mprehend a speacer', in~n' _:. 1.,:('1111t - • _ _ '-, QUU "'uee a 'anet' 01 ')ntacuc struCture to Com'e, a particular m'_ 0 pro" - " ~.., In . U ' ein:um"tance, (e.g.. .-re yo" cold.. Could I close th, "indO 1ft..... ,,100 . . d 'Th' '., thin ' "J rrh i. til.. Win 01 vpt'n. I, 1>. too. b ,orne g that =Qnd lan'''''''e (>II ..,. • I th --" di' e-., e~ need to a;:qwre. ee a ° e e",uer >CUS:ilon in Chap!er' '«lion learn ..' . .U , . . odel - fi' In sum. 'omrnuru 'auve competence IS a m or pro Clenc~ that allQ , . to measure "econd language knowledge and abili~. to COIUruet oDd us "e proficien" t . b. and to de;;leo balanced second Iangua"e ~ languae - . ,,_nt "o;ll of L2 rese:m::h ' -n IlnpcH~' '" J - . . C",ed_ an rert (ingul:;Q':- _ . ' n ' One f the .::h " tt1l3t h.") ~ • .• • I ' anl . i' th t It b qUlte th " II 5) 1~ in'! Ii tto" ere
- 266. l ;:ol 'me'[ ;,.}
- 267. J whi<:h i..wdlfonned in Greek hUI not Eng!' , cluster Ipt '. I!Jade in the word Irelico/!!.er (also from G'Sh, I;oweve hange was ' . . reck) .' t, Q C • d 'th th~ phonological pallern or English. Since' 0 'lit, complre WI II alt~; ·t' )1' th'lf has n:ccived a lot of attention in SLA One 'lues f ( ' . • reSe nds are harder to acquIre In a second language h ' arC his some SOU . h O t an oLh "'hClh , . ,ds an: simpler than Of ers. r perhaps sam ets p ""I some SOUl . • . • . • e sOUnd . . eth . " r spc'lkers of a certam language to acquire Wo Id . 'YM-. 'I!JI easier o. , . . . . U II be <Ills , spe"kef' to acquire English or Vietnamese') As' cas'I. are Japanese . u • • • • m'gh . <r fo h .• ar' not ,imple ISSlIes. We cannot talk abollt the c' t be e~n.... r ~ I esc to ' h, . , h' ,ISC Or d" .-<qeq . languages, but we may .Ive somet II1g to SHY about' '. IfnCuII ' enlJre . h h ' . ' Ind'Vld YOf When linguists try to deal Wit t e notions of ease or sim Ii . ualsound f· Ihe notion markedness. Structures that are simpl' p Clty.they",,1 usc 0 . ' c and! .....e In in human language arc said to be unmarked Wh::--=, Or eSPeti II comm< . , Ie slru a) complex or Ie,s common arc "lid to be marked. So W ' . Ctures ~ areound Ihat is found in relatively fev. of the World's la~g e rn'ghl SaY'L as . . ' . ' uages (e "41 ked while a sound that occurs III many of lhe World's la .g., [01 ' mar . nguages( 1 ~~mark~ ~~ Markedness is commonly a~proached from the perspectiVe f Iypology, which is concerned W Ilh the comparati vc stUdy of sirn~1 language differences among languages. As nOled In Chapler 9 re ilniJes and .. . . I ' · ' searchers h discovered certain ImpilcatlOna ulllversals of thc form 'if a la ale . I ' j' I nguage h il will also have y'. For examp e, I a anguage has nasal vowels e ~x, then il will also have oral vowels (c,g., raj). Crucial 10 thc und (.g..,[al), . . . h C h h' ' . erstandlno f irnplicational ulliversais IS I e ,act t at t e ImplicatIOn is unidirect' .0 . 10nai Th a language that has oral vowels does not necessanly have nasal v I' u . . , 11 '1 kd h -. Owe s.,% allows us 10 Identity a as ess mar'c t an [aJ, In aCCordance 'th J' . WI the following genera Ilatlon. 6) x i more marked than y if the presence ofx implies thc presence of . bUI ' ., nOi VIC' versa, It iJ interesting 10 ask whether IL grammars ohey such implication~ uaivenal and whether this can tell us something ahout the question ofea~ _diftiadly of learning, IIInldl_ Dllrerential Hypothesis investigates second languagt .1). . . .1IiaD by comparing the relative markednes ()f structures in the LI ali! ".lIberthe earlier example 01 Syllahle final Obstruent DeVOICJII/ explain why a word like hunt' 'dog' is pronOllllCCd with German IpCakers learning English typically transfer yUlhlt a.voiI:iq iato their IL (produclOg Ihlrt) for [hied) 'bid lid ..... between ItI and Idl at the enda of...... - 1__- diet die principle underlying tbi pllea I•• to make con thII 'Jf* LI ot data we dill ... S(UJNIJ lANG UAGE ACQUISITIOf,j French makes a contrast between [II, d . not, as Figure 13.7 indicates. an 131 In places where English doea English [SV l31 Initial .!:!ure [Sl' *f31' ~ant,(UIl' ~ens ([31) Song 'peQple' Medial a~ure ([Il) , a~ure ([31) ~!!£her (UI)' bou~er ([31) to fill up' '10 budge' ~a£h~ (Ul) I a~e ([31) axe 'age' Final leash ([Ill 'Iie~e ([3]) figure 13.7 The (J1![3J contrast inEnglish and french. If it were invariably difficult for second languag I f . . e earners to make contradstffisthall are I not ound lIl od thelr Ll. we would expect English speakers to have I ICU ty earmng 10 pr uce [31 at the beginning of words. But they don't. English speakers seem able to learn to pronounce French wonts like jaune 'yellow' andjeudi 'Thursday' without trouble. The n otion of markedness can be used to explain why Gennan speakers have dIfficulty maklllg a new contrast ID English, while English speaken don't have difficult} making a new contrast in French. The typological situation is as follow~: • There are languages thai have a VOicing contrasl initially, medially... finally (e.g.. English). • There are language. that have a voicing contrast initially .. ......, but not finall~ (e.g.. German). • There are language. thai have avoicing contrast initiaIly.bltllll..... or tinall) (e.g.. ardiman). The~e generalization~ allow us 10 fonnulale die I'uIIoIriII ...... uniet'aL ;) rhc prc,clKe of a ,oicing contrast in filial poIidIa••"I'1 Ol~ine Cl1l11r.lSt in medial position. wIIidla_ oi.-ing ,',lI1tra,,1 in initial position. We' l an repre ent!hi univenalllllliicllllr·'" 'J initial < medial <filial C 8
- 268. " I !'t l'. ....,,:'Ot, ..1' ) ', a n ,'I l' 4 ~ (l r . 1 _'t~p 5 o 1 I , 1 n t
- 271. l2 morpholog IS, 0 en, uh)cct. > null ,uhjec[, Therefore. null ,Uh)CCLs "ould !>e thoughI of a, mo", marked .:-onsL'quemh. more dIfficult 10 acqUIre. The ~farkedne" Differential Ii~ and. esi. predlch thell ,rruclU"'S that are more marked Iypologicall) "iII- difficull in LA !>eC~IU. e they are more marked. The SuI:>. el PrincIple Qu other hand. predicts thaI stru,tures thaI are more m.:rrked " ill no; on tht difficult, !>ecau,e there will !>e clear eidence that the LI >Cltmg leu - . . - . "ron Although onl} the • uh. el Prin.:tple >eerns to make the .0rrecI prediction' the case of the null suhjech. funher research t. nece.-aI) m order to see "hi~ approa.:h I. !>ener ahle to handle a Ider range of data. h The slud~ ofsecond language morpholog) ha> a -lightl) different flao~ the ,IUd) of eIther L2 phonolog} or ,ynta't. L::> phonology has been Studied for 3 lonf time. though the anal) c. have changed to reflect change In linguistic theor:- L2 ) nlax b a much) ounger field. and mu~h of it ha; heen mfoIllled hy current hngUlstlc theor:-' By contr:l: t. L2 morphology ha;. been studied 1ll0I'l' or Ie. . in a theoretical acuum. In the I970s. a number of ' tudie, collc(te-d data on the 3"curac~ of second language learnel'> on a varietv of mOlph me.. Thi. resl"Mch dre on prc1ou, . lUdic. In lhe field of fir langu4fc .:-quI'ltlOn that had attcmpted to dl"terrninc Ihe order of acqul ilion f morphLml" In LId ,elormcnt. The deelopmental -.equence in Table 114 " Ii und "ahh·l~.-$ l"lt-,c-'opm"n1dl Irdcr lot lust lane It, I. -,"~ rh~ r~,~nl panl.:'ph... alII Plural -. ; rre~u'ar pa...., ~ 5. b 7 Table 3.5 De elopmental order for <.econd lang uage .u.:qU ltJon 1- -iug 2. Copula />e 3 Articles -l. Au-..iliary />e 5. Plural -" 6. Irregul:rr pasl 7_ Regular pasl 3rd person -s 9. pos.sess.iYe -s There are man)' imilaritie. but there are al;o some .'ff . • Ul erences For 'xarnple. note that 3uub3r) and copula be are acquired at arelao . t : . ' . 1: ) earher point 111 L:' than 10 L l. and that the po.sessl'.-e morpheme -'s i; acquired1= in L2 than in Ll. To anempt to e't~lain these panerns, we need to 100 - aIi e more clo el) at the . ~ct= h:u unplement mflectional morpholon' In the ynu" secnon we ,,;} maL m English. main verb, do ~ raIse to Infl. Howeyer. F igure 13.11 on the next page show that the ernb< doe, ru.<.e to Infl if no mod:U i present (:.ee se' tion ~.: ill Chapter =) 191 b. • -0 modal i: present. the aU'lliary ero move, from IIl>lde the 'p to Inf!. He i, yp probabl_ t eating]. • 1 A Illl 1" pre cnt. the u tli~ ero doe: not ran. H' .hl u,d ,y p probabl) be e t111£l· *He h e yp prob ~. te •
- 272. , 'f ,r{'11:, II (,l"" rll .. s I' I IlIrI 1' I be J Figurt' 'J. ll R.lf"'I~/lt'tl)lntl Children ~h.., ·qUln: ht' a... a nl:1i~ verb heron! they acquir.c he as un auxil'. So. children ,lIlf1 by prmlucmg sentellces th~t arc "mpler 'n th "'cy verb . H . I . at thee. . onl) " copula (Iio~lIlg) ,·erb. (e.g.. ,. IS .l/lIlgr') belore they J ""v, ...enlence.... [hal include an auxrlHiry plus a malll verh (e.g.. He h ' , prOUUCe eM h'Ork ' i.l~ sho'''''n in Figure 13. J2. '1IIg) II S (= InIlP) N~P i r()p LJ hU~gry b S (= InIlP) NP~p ~ I u" ll v~ I is I P He Working figure 13.12 a. Sentence with copula verb be. b Sentence with auxiliary verb be I . verb. PlIS 1lk1., Structure 13.I~b has an extra level of complexity in that it has a c verb phrase (one VP within anolher). Adults. on the other hand. appeomplex able to use bOlh Ihe simple copula and auxiliary verbs quite early on. ~rhtohbe th· d'ff' . b f ' et er IS I erence IS ecause 0 the adult s greater ability to handle Com I . . . I . . P eXily m gcnera cognttlve terms or because children's linguistic syste . . . . ~m maturing remams a conlroverstal and unresolved issue. In addition,~lOle Ihat children acquire t~e three -s morphemes inlhe order plural, posseSSIve, limd person In theIr Jlr5t Janguage. Phonetical I h " I 1 Jrph h h I · · y, I esc 1 ( emes ave I e same rca Izallon, so we can't say that the order r'fl h J' . . . eech p .0110 ogleal complexllY. The order mIght be explained by Boting thai plural IS a ~~rd-Ievel phenomenon (e.g.. dogs), possessive (as we saw in Chapler 4, se~llolI ~.3) Isa p~rase-kvcl phenomenon (e.g., [lite kill/< oj 1:Il!lllllldj: /tOI.lt, not itlle klllR} s oj tllgllllld horse J, and third person marking involve, 13. 13 FigUre v thin.... T 1he (,'He( 1 of ("ornp('xity on th(' ort('r ()f th,' milt ) ( I 111"" , ,II qUir .itIC)1hy (~''''n In contrast, adults acquire th" plural "tt, .. I . d I h' ~ n e C.1f Y hut thc Ihe PosseSSive an t 1e I ,rd person 'U'lrk',n" .' n scen, til ·ct"· th . . . .. b qUIte late .. ,c IJ) involvJllg processIng. (When C()J1ccntratmu on . perhaps I."r rea"'m, h " geltmg Ihe w, d not always have I e proccssll1ll capacIty to pr()(.1 " If '"ght, We do . I Uce well-formed h' h structures.) IntereslJIlg y, the adults do not seem t ~ d' 'I', tr-leve . F' 13 13 ' () 1m mterphra' I ogy (like Igurc . c) more d,fficult than phr' . I sa morphol. 13. 13b). This may be because the adults have a~;:adm(Jrphology (ike hgure - . - I d h Yacqulfed thc . for their hrsl anguage an t at grammar mOst likely h ..... h grammar I h I . I h as ,,,1 phrasc-Iev"I' d interphrasa morp ooglca p enomena. In COnltaet h'ld . - an ., . c , ren have 10 • hierarchical Slructure of a grammar for the tiN lime . d Id ~et up ,an cou conce V· bl be building the structure from the bOllom up (word, -; h" I a y h . P ra~cs -; ,cmcnce,) In summary, we note l at the order of acquisition data are ',nt . . . '. l . . . ngumg mhlllh first and second angu.age acquisition, even thouoh we awa't . I' . f f " , a conc USlve explanation 0 the acts. So far, we've looked at some of the characteri,tics of an IL grammar. Now let'S tum to a variely of fact?r, that can influence econd language acquisition. It is clear that there IS much more variation in Ihe gramma" of people earning second. languagc~ than in the grammars of people learning first languages. Th" bnngs us to the question of what factor, might help to account for that .mattOn. J.I - - - - o;~. ;e ohiou, ay, that language learners VaT)' is in their age. People Age start learning second languages al different points in their lives. Could the age llf l)JSl't of 1.2 leaJ11JJ1g cau,c ditlerent le,cis of linal proftclency~
- 274. .: ) "c.: ...tl"T...'l.l~ 3,3 Thr good language learnl"r The qu ,tion qui! bJl f f mdii dual ariaoon 1D ;.e' ondl:Ingll:V g~~ dine 'the. Jd Ian. 1eamcr !teou 0 uod r the ea ~ = --has ~...M 1bo: e karner On r ,bel f'''~_-:::---..! - tIu s t:BILD- 1 3 . for he most pan. lilt a L2 ! peop lI1' eman mp
- 275. , .. (IIII I~ 'e II IIl ~ "lllw' 'lJod I;HI~'lIa~.(, 1(';lIl1t- , ',.",.. I , ,.. I ". "vel I ',ulla! "'HIJIIII~ "tty" eJi po"i'l v · I J "II t « ~III IIIII I( "n' 1/,/I/O;llII ru till' Il'jtlJ1l1l~ ,;.,J,.. V "hill 2 fI,' .,11 • "rl" / I I 11111 11111 uiligomp UPI"(J,u:h to Ih,' 1sarver h I ,I ., "l:, • > I ll'vlIhj.tt SUIt! " ,x'"lC"I'lo C1flf"l/)j ~ 11.1 WdUtlL.tI kllow 1II"w ahou~ how 10 '<KU,I" Jalll!UitVl' Y"'1h 6 /1 II.II~ 'W~ 0' l'XptOf'"ll'nla'HHI ilml "'illlllln,,! WJlIt II . . , ,I / . / . II oh,ell / .. I III 'Ifill'" JllIo al1 un t;ICl ~ySICIII and Il'VJ~JJI II' IJI dl'" I I It' Jle .... j C' )! 11 ", "YMt."'J '''C ''II'" P'II"l'S Idy. I () I ttlll""ft'flJly ean.:llIIlJ! lor IJjCjIJ}Jrt~. 7 /, W"/III • 10 P"llll'" H. I ",,1111111 10 iI"'1C Iht' JHIlI',wge Jtl feal ("OIJllJlllll lca riOIl. /1· " «./1 III11ni/CIIllllluhdilYand "ril't:f" "'II~"IVlly 10 /f II 'I .1" I !llIugl' /tl /,. "'" 10 dev"'"p l/w/argc l language '''on all" mll'e '" ,. 11,< ., . - I a l.jeJl'lf· I ~y''''111 all" ,s "hk I" learn 10 Ihlnk III " ••1t te/ore,,-, ~ By (OCW,In); 011 ,uch clwracteriMics, Ihe learlling Ir<lle' , to accounl for dlllen:I1Ct·~ Itl L2 proficiency ,by refcrnng [(~ih~P:~C)~Ch ~I individuals uy 10 acqlJ/rc flew knowledge. Some pcop/c have , a~ In Wh,l , to suggesl Ihal Ihl~ Iypt: 01 research wIll make it P()~sihlc 10 I" ')!. hClne (J I;It" " Cae nOI language lealllcrs Ihe Icamlllg strategIes ncccssary to he gOod ,-"()'glx~ learner... ngUo" This hI in"... U~ 10 Ihc 1lI1eresting questioll of .SCl:ol1d langu' I " . , age ea ' cla.sroll/llS and Ihe dkct liIal IIlslrUCIHJlI has on L2 Icarnin, I. , rnlnh possihle to leach S01lJ('IHIC a second languagc" Or call teachers:'im i'rcall) an envirol1llll'/ll III winch seco1ld langu<tgc leaf/un!! can t;lkc placc~ ~~rcalt now to the re~e;lIch Ihal has looked "pecJllcally at L2 c1assrooJns, IUIli II has been flippantly s<I1(1 Ihal pel)ple have hcen successlllily acqulnn! second languages lor thou~al/(js 01 yeal S, hut when t"aeher'> get involved. Ilk 1UCCC8S rale plummets, 'I his COIIIIIJ(:1l1 i prohahly /IIOfe a reOCellll" I)r people' unfO!1Unale e1(periellcc ill t:eltaill types III lall luage daS~flHmlrlhal ' may have been dull or even physit:ally thrl'atelling, depending on thc cenlUf)I diu it I a lalement ahoul general peda logic utility, "owever, the lai.! that lanauage classrooms call he hcltercd environments ~htre ....iII CaD be Jiven the oppo!1unity 10 learn and praclise without oonr ~:j.....no abe penalties for failure lhal can he imposed oUlside the c1l1ilroom. ioiPIIII••_ .. lC.knowleda at thiS pOInllhal lhere ,s r ally no ucb thillll! """,,---1Iapq cI sroorn In realily, all c1allsroomaJIICdilJaatI went people in th rn. Nev rthel ,Ibm are ~ are three r levanl c/IanICIeriIIICI III a W WI.n to xpJo : • • Inoclified Inplll tflodi! wd inll'rat:Iil)1I focLls on fl)flTI , In Chapter 12, it wa~ nl,ttd Ihat acllllt~ III, II' II'I~ Ih.,1 Ihey lalk to lither adults, JUI as the 1rJ:ut"I ~II children In !he &anIe " h ., ( IrC{.te,1 hi chlld~e L __ simplifying C araCll;flSllcs, ,«, ~peech din"ta'I,t n 'IGtaIIia , - ~ ~ a "')n n~tlve ","oL_ hI; slTnphtlcd chl.nparl;d 10 the ~PCtth dip"I'1 ' ~ lendilo , ~ t, at nallve peoL_ ce,rnrnurllcat/vl; SlIlIatllJ.ns Whcl~lI:r cI almo Wllh hid ........ In aD '" ~t I nr an ad It, naliY(; ..peaker I)r a. nallve sru'aktr - we """n II, c,. U aIIIJII. . , 1'- ."'" I na..,: a rapid Ihe level 01 prc,ftclcncy IIr hackgrtJund knl)wlcdge II th I ~ RleQtof , ) e Ilener and 0.1..... the input Hccllrdlngly. __ '[he input aimed al non nalive sp.;aktts is referred to as ~ 'I he suh~et hI thi, spt!l;ch Ihal takes place In cia: Sfl~'m "oreiper .... I nownaa ..... talk Teacher talk tends nc)tlo he as evenly matched to the pr fi of ' Ik' f ' I) IClency die Ii ,tener a~ foreIgner la I, e,r the ~Implc rcas"n that teachers are addrc<;sing a class rather Ihan an tndividuaL A a result, Jme leamen USUIIIy find the modified 'pt!ech 100 hard or IiJl) easy, 1lIIY 1 he pedagogic goal ot teacher talk IS cry lal c1C"4r. make ure the ~ know what IS being talk~ ahlJUI hy providing comprtbead,le ..... Pcrhaps surprISingly, lhl /tlca has generaled an extraordinary amouat CfI confllcl In the field of SLA research, AllhcJugh il ~m to be useful to provide learners with comprehensihle input, IcU<.:hcf mUM guard agawt IImp1ifyita toO much, whi<:h mIght give thl! appc~ancc of patroruzing the Ieamen or talking 10 lh m as II they were MUr/d rather than on the way to bccomiIi bilingual 4.2 ., -: ractio;;- Second language e1as rooms also differ from the OUIIideworld..... Modlfted mte kind ot intern tions that gl) "n there, However, the diffallltC ..... maml) on of degree, not qualuy. InSIde aclassroom. die......, In the follo1i in' kHld of trategles: • 11ltc llllrr hensulncheckl;e.g,Doyotl-I'JfIIIII1011 • • tlll pnllllptlllg; e.g., Who knows w!:7-. • t'.tPH: c'pan ion; e,g, Student. Me _,......,.,. Teacber. y."
- 276. ~ 0 T£'),~"" It l..l ''fll. So ~. Focus on form --- - Th~ ~,.i:r,,:';-c"'lic l)f Ih' "'Cl)I~~ I:"guugc c1,,~sroo~~ _ 1 • t',·u, on fllnll- The:' t~nl1 flll:US on foml encOI"p Iset) Rd ..... 111'''"'1 '" l . -L" ass~'" L. '.. Ih 11 r 'oJ tl' .)o('~ur Ifl most - classrooms' 'In' ' tJio d" '~rl! pr~h..'lh".:' • .: _ _ " . struq" l'it langu.Ii:" .1JlJ c,pli'::l1 correctIOn, Ion ahoUlln'l -, - ")n' IUl,'ua"e cla,,"s pre 'enl the studen" - _ ~ _ l),1 ,c... l U • :: :: . 1-... ... With IOtl)mlal1l1l1 ,,[x)ut the langu".ge -, nO~Ing. for example, th '?rne SOn •_, -,nJ "I"eles' J_cntal fricatives or that 'French ha ,al Englis. ,01 ,"lh.l."U ...... .. d - " s nasal. II 'I.it InsUU cuon of th" type 1 deSign" to Imp,?ve the fonn (or aCCUt SO".",' d I ' - L' In all likelihood, other actlVltleS that happe' aCS) ot' ' ,Ill en' _, , n 10 th . the t '-'u s on "ising the srudent a chance to Improve tluenc e Clas,_ "-I l~ _ =, _, Y Or '11 s("'lolinguistJ( slulls, " P3nICUIar Error correction is also deSigned to unprove the fonn of th . d' I e Stud ' R e"ardle s ot the methodology use 10 most c asses today, the ' enl S L , = ' Th' , re IS so - n fonn and some error correcuon, e IOterestlllg research rne fOcI!, o _ ' be h qUe' whether either of these pracuces can s own to have a positiVe effe Ilion i, leamer, Do students who get corrected do better than students wh Ct on the be 'h"" d ' o don't' The question rna} not as stratg "on ar as It appears R ' , fi I ' emernbe it has frequently been argued 10 rst anguage acquisition r that I - I 'nf research attempts at error correction are re auve y I requent and don't _ th.1 children's grammars, Could it be different for adult second languareall l } atTet! 'd''''' 'th d ge earn The teaming environment IS lUerent 10 at a ult learners (unl'k eI;' , , Ie~w ' are usually exposed to afatr amount of error correction, But does tha: rent a differenceo Not surpnsmgly, thIS questIOn IS dlfficuh to an rnake , Swer S studies has'e argued that second language learners who receive 'Ome correct develop at about the same pace as those who do not. Other studies ha Ion certain increases in accuracy as the result of correction, ve sho"n These results may not be as contradictory as tbey seem, though, The where correction seems to be most useful mvolve the lexicon, When area" tries to learn the relevant properties of a lexical item, they ben:~~~ne feedback, However, feedback concerning certain structural phenome l rom < _ F t h ' na mav not be as ef,ectl,'e, or example. e prevIOusly mentioned study of F ' speakers learning about the lack of verb movement in English (see srench ~,~) found that while there were short-term improvements in the subje ~ctl~n were explicitlv taught the relevant facts, there were no significant lon c w 0 _ '_ g·term effects, When the subjects were tested a year later, they were found t h d h ' ' ' a ave reverte to t elr pre-rnstrucuonal performance, This doesn't necessarily mean either that students should not be corrected or that there should be no focus on form in the second language classr [f a balance is struck between classroom activities that focus on form~;d those that foc~s on meaningful communication. then Ihere is certainly no eSldence that teedback causes any trouble, Indeed. to the contrary. there is eldence that students rn classes that focus primarily on communication but a110 rnclude some instruction on form are significantly more accurate than ,tu1ents who are exposedonly to instruction that focusc, on communication, n urn. adult students usually expect error correction, and teachers are uCCl1,tnmCUlO provllhnu " , h - ~. ,,i.lUln 1 h ttli-otrucllon t at hx:uc I' - t ilt tn - ,.., Minority language fIlaintenance programmes . . Ion" ( ,a I pracUCc). error corr~l:tt()n d(.' Inn nt, h n'l d.:'1tlcQ, activities that focus nn both""fl t t.l'l.."ln hi L"U .~)nun'1 for e nt 'rt'1 to Uln • ,. , n) ha, l1t", WIth greater accuracy nu I uene). Ihc IT Il.nd In .tl ~lIul ud~n It::1d ""-'h to ......." We will conclude this chaplc ' -- , r wllh a d education programme: m1nOr't I t.US.!l.1"n o{ t . ' Y anuua I :Wu t~1p ImmerSIOn programme" Both a 'd _" ge mamtcnan' .- 01 h,IInou" .. rc c~gned I.:C prtl C ~ there are Important difference< I' _ to P'"UUCCh- ~'aml1t. and " S' ,', rench Irn IIngualth I and Similar pam h immersion fO" tntr:lOn pnlgramm " dtc:n.'nut children from a majority lan.ua~ g(~lmrne, lo the United oc In C'anada_ (F 0 oC r.nol"h) he' "late, language rench or Spani,h), As ~ -, 'mg lmme'>ed In' In'"I,. America, they are in no danger of I Engh'h~'lI!aking child. a ITInO'"~ dominant in the culture The'lr S't o'lOg theu fiN langu.g~C~ In, <>l1h . uatOn 1 C "'nee 1 children who speak a minority langua elSe early different from 1m" , who are submersed in the majority Ig (e,g" Cree, Gree"- 0' (0 at 0 , ' anguage (E r h . ..'o.n) and children m some danger of losing th' ~ _ ng I'), ot only ar ,~.- elr .ust Ian _ e t,~ approach can have strongly negative c guage, me "n;.·o" onsequences h - '"'1m For these reasons, it should be empha' d on t eu future "'00..'-1 " size that e -f ng, benefits of IInmersmg Engish-speakin h'ld ven I we argue for .". - gClrenmF h UK: does not follow that we should submers ak renc c1a.w'Xlm. it English classrooms, e spe ers of other language, In Let us look in more detail at some of th ' , W b' " e Issues ,urroundin b-- educauon, e egm WIth mmority language mai t g Imguat n enance programme>, Minority language maintenance programmes which ar at k , ' I a , . . ' e so nO'n as hentage angua",e programmes or LI mamtenance proaTam 'h "•. . e" mes, a"e ~n mtroduced around the world to try to address the fact that ml-no -ty , " , n anguage children often have difficulty In majority language schools, Even with separate classe of instruction. they tend to have more than their ,hare of problems later in school (including a higher than expected drop-out rate), One reason for this become evident when one thinks of what these children face, Up to the age of five. they are exposed to a language at home (say, Bengali or Greek), Then at age five. they are put into an English-,peaking Chool in a class of primarily native English speakers, Typically, they do not undef"tand eyefthing that the teacher is saying. and do not have the oppanunit) to de'~lop the basic cognitive skills necessary for functioning in ,ehool.These children may thu. suffer a setback from which they will nev'er recover, This poor beginning can lead to minoriry languag~ students under- achieving and being placed In classes which are not deSigned for ,tudents intending to PUL ue post-secondary education, which 0 tum canlead to an ('arh e.it from the educational system, To II) to change thiS recumng ~ 'j n~mber of bilinaual education programme, have been set up In places :, , Canada Finland and the United State" In all of these programmes- Dntam, .
- 277. II II II Ill"t .tll 11111 I I II' I III'" I,HI II" I "Iii ~ 11</1111.1 I" l/. I , lilld,. II'" III UII I I t, 11111111" I ,. I 1111 HI' I t J I I III. ). UI ,,1 III 1/ • ,. I 'I, I I I III 11,"1'11 1~ , l i t III t '1,1" I ' JI,. iii jIll/II ',IIIt!"'I~" I ,II II II Ill',' '1111'1<1111 I , 'Y 'Ii, 'II III 1111.11 01 11 III , "I 'I I ' '.,' '" ,d I'lltlloHy I 101/ ,. I II I 'I II I I I I I i'lI I '.ifI Ihll.' II ,'")l It II~ 11I1~1I1t!. I "'," tl 111111 II lit It 'h. I 1111.""11 III iii' 1111,.', , '/1 lilt, II ,II l.j III llItlhllili III. I Ptq~1I11111111 III '/III 111111 , fillid , I ' 1111110 ~ III,I~' t ,./ I. 'Ipl Ih. II)IlIlh II" 1I1.j'I'I lilt 110111 Ilill '1 I WI M 11i~ II II~I' I, I. 1t111l"tll~ 11111111 1.11" I I III .IIIII'" I ,.11 I 1111 '" ~ 'II I I I fU. Itlil Iv ~"q Ild~1 III I IIJlII'1I 1111'" "'11'11, '1'" 1,lId" II • I II} , I ' I I I .. h~, II ' II IItd ,III I 'IJII. ,I Ii'" I I 1111111 11111 'II 11 II ,11,1 f .01,1' I ,11""1 >1'1( , I " I '" .11 qllll' JlIII II I. tli Y III f ",d,.,'II II 1111111 I Ii II II I II till Y - I I I III/Ill II ,1111 ,111'"11 Ij ,dlJ to. 11111'" II IIlp."" .' lilt I 1111111 1110 HI I I I 1111 " ill1~1 I,ll 'I I '/ 1 "IIllIpll.d I dll' 11111111 1""I"dlllliit "llhh I ., I 11111111/ I II I I II lilt II 1 IIIII! I I II ,I 1111 'I IIltilin 1111'11,11 I I Hlld I I I 1i1'ltq .II,hdllj'lIl!IIIn ' I I I I "II, I , II II 1111 I IHlIIIII .1 t I d III IlIlhlllll II ,I II 'HI ,,' 1"'"1111 I 'III I I "lllilIy I I II 1111 til I,ll 1111 III , I Itlll' I II >"' II "I Illtl"I III !Ill III 1111. /11111 II I III~ I, I ''HI' I IlllI III,d,-'1 ,llId U III I II III III II 11, III 11th Ihlll hy I lit "'Ii plllil " I I " I I,,· I , II I'"III,II Y I IIlit I IIill II I" I 'ttIlIIHH III H 'II 1" If,. I I I I,ll I I I / I IlIi1.l11 I ~ / 1/ " " 1/' " ,,~,' ,,,01 "' I I" , 'I" t ,,, """",,11" I I ,. , Ulil/lll lIIJ II. I VIt,I 11I~1t h /' ,~, , 11111 lil'I1I1 I ,I"II'IIIHII,.I1 H' III Ilth.ll 1111 Iftl " "I 01 1111 'III 111., /llt. 1I1 I II~ I llld , 0, II 1111 1111 111/111" 1111 II.' III I I I • I !lUll! 1111111 lildl til 1111 IlId.," ,lIllIlId, I t IIld lilt 1t.1t III I (u hillt ht Ip 1111:,111111 I 'ii till Ilid "II IIIl1l1d· I HHht IIIl /I 1'.111 1I1~ tlld 'I ttltip.11t IIh (.It I ,II " 'Ii, 'I'
- 279.
- 280. der rhe: franIl(HlaliIJ" problem to rClleh Ihe C I con I , Yeven publte Iran p"narwn ' . If, h;tv•• "-0 have your own hcJUoe (J"r"de Ihe .CtIY re'll c"'c• •' JJred a ., JIl have ro Jrafr lrom any hank (J( you d"IXl'>C in Y I!re~, It, y( , . h hUr Ut Il'itl bou..: bcroCTJC ynur r<"""."on Wit I.he: year. and· ~"""I h 4f>i'>I h <oul)le UI.,,,, ••• house value. alrh(Jug It r. expcn."ve furtherm III r", 'tn..... •,," h h d d fire It "0 Iff: 'ttlIt "JIaI for rhe "wner even rh(Jug e eer cd 10 rcor rh. 'luld he. II'lit C uncl(.lU • ~r':c! r~ -..: . ~~ ~ Moreles Ihe frienshlp hcelween rhc pcr,on in In' I, "" IIItr conracl wrlh ea"h (Jlher and maybe can mccI Ihe';: ~~ fUll i, cl,~ ' rllher ktnd of acltvJfre1 be.long 10 Ihe ,uhurh JifeMYlc'" "c:, dlling ".rr~ar. I . h I ' . .d((lt .. Hul rn an(Jlher (iJJcglh C) ,I, ou d be d,fficull II" rL • CJ~I>!} f· h "c i>Clml .. Jived III Ihe suburb II> move rom t hrg cily bee· u ,. e whl, h hal"" bul Ihey Cilll fin amon,t a greal number of t~1 <;c Ihey h~Yt Ir ~Vtl"I~ ng~ Ih· I h J ~I,_. II Ihe: dry. Olhcrwr'>C durrng Ihe la~1 15 years Ihe "u~inc • I cy u~ ~ "'- !> aCI,y' ~ Ir, ,. -"" around Ihe LIly qUIckly III Ihc I:UHIPC al~o Ihc ~upc I/L~ h", rl~ ''4 e I h . h ' rmarkel ""vek facrurc and 0 on otlercr I C JO 0pP',rtunrty 10 Ih ce>rllpa ~ aglomeraljc," III Ihat way il was crealed CJlnc apartmcnl C pehplc ','UI""~' , . I ~ "acal .", the Ie for me I don I even care W lere I have 10 Ii ve but I ' nt 10 lhe c '"' II w,II ,,"'. Ily. cfluld be Ihc Ics~ expen, lve a~ we tran portalion t '""rVe ·"c· h d (j reach "It "'- be wrc thaI I'd I,ke to Irve OUISI c the do ntown my jll/) I>u! I;:" 3. Given what you know aho~t impJl.atlOnal universals d w()uld he calcr for an Lng" h <peaker to acquire f .' . r) y()U t1unk r -I ' I ' Ii r: rench II" I Q (e.g., ganl ga. g "ve ) Of or rrench speakers to .. . ala V"et vowels" acquire f:ng!ilh (~aj 4. What explanatwlI would you gIve for a native 'peak produced thc I:nghsh scntenc.:e f drink !requ(mll. cofJ, er ;'f hench 1'1) explain Ihe faci that when the arne ~peaker prr,ducese~t: ~: c'JUld)«J frequently late, illl> grammatIcal' Do any "ther f:.ngli~h L tenee H, 0 this? verl}S i>ehave iJkt J. Which of the following c.ntences would yr)u cla~sify Cle .• _..I ' p<mtlveeVIA___ iIIIU which a~ negatIve eVidence for the learner'! '''''rq: .) Non native ~peaker (N ')): He ludy a ",1. Nabve speaker (NS,- He IItir/i,:f" ",1, b) S: What kmd of tXXJks do yflu lIke III read' My lenes. (. JII(.( IICC) word~. de) yc,u thlOk that 'orne others'! Do you think it can '-_ r pe1,ple are more hkely to ,......,,__ 'J<; eversed'I He".,'1 _ ... 8. Acquiring a 'K:Cond language Involve . language, and helOg ahle te, de brJh knr".,ing 1OnleIhiac.. think that kne)wlcdge and ~r.iIIJ l.olTletlllng with the Ian",__ Do .. . are rel'*d~ C ..--,...,.. between accur&:y and t1uency'! . an you ICe any IraIfe..aIr 9. Why dr) YfJU think that non·native ak risk of leaving the cducati'm 5Y'tern~. er~ flf E.ngIi'" would be 1IIIIre. t <In lIaliIe peak.en1 10. Re<,pond tflthe follelWrng ~latement: It'~ the !OChlllJI 'YMem'~ ieJb th make !ur I.' E r h Th __..." t ,,,,t nrlfHlatrve t_~_ ngl~. eY"~l'.ngh~hin("'lert',be~leto ...--nofEAeJilh.. them to succeed. If we encourage them u, IUCUd In tbH COWIIry We_ ghetUJC<; WIll femn and they'll never learn En .~ their ov.<n Ianpaac. da English, then obvrou,ly they need u) be e~~ .And II "'e "'ant Ibem10. . It knowing h'Jw to peak ancllher language u~~gish. What 1DOd. Engli'h, Engli hand rncJCc I:.ngr h. I!I b...... What /bey '*'II •
- 281. 1 language in socialConteXts '( utdII. Southcr/.lI1d .mdHaf1cL<; f...1t.l1nb<l I '"It t 1f1r~k' (. liN''> don( ck1->t.'tult'nt It'·; I.JIt,,,,'ill,;t""tt/lllJt1., d (,../ ''Ic YI ( _. - . O/''c'1J( "ffr'I/ I ., l("tlk' ~I'!.., ,. llft'lfr~lltt~j/ld Th., c'haplc'r Ircals iI aricly of social. COrHc!Xh rn.wh.ch one can "'anll n , Ihe lise of language and Ihe .mpaci of cXlra-lrngUISI.e laclo" on lan' . 'bolh . I .. . I' , "th h gU,tg~ "- "p'c" range frol11 reglona vnnal.on rn .lnguagc roug sodal v. '. '''~ ( .. . " . Itn'UIt) language 10 sludies 01 language usc In Interacllon. The uSes or I. nIn ""l~llined rcncellhe real world. UUerancl's an~ givcn in Ihclr nalltral r;~,;gIJJgt arc nol ediled or censored wilh respeci to conlc!nt or chOIce 01 VOC<rbuill and reading of Ihis chapler should creale an awareness IhtHIhe realily or lan~'). A in social conlexls is nOI one of proper speech versus all other sPC~l'h ~1J'lgt asCI of complementary speech varieties lhat are used by Illemhcrs otIII speech community. In promoting this awareness, the chapter also (f. Ihe . . , . .. ' . h. . ISCUSC analylJcal Icchmques and theoretIcal assumptIons t at undcrlte thc . ~Q exallllllcd. ---------------------- fUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS The subdiscipline of linguistics that treats Ihe SOCial aspects of language ' called sociolinguistics. In this chapter, this label will be u~ed to refer to all; research about language in social contexts. Such research ranges from the very limited and localized context of a single conversation to studies of language use by whole populalions. Given these qUlle diverse areas 01 research interest, it might be assumed that many sociolinguists do nOI share the same fundamental concepts or goals. This is 10 some extent true. Despite Ihe fact that there are a number of ways of approaching the study of language in social context, there are neverlheless cerlain terms and concepts that are colllmon to most of them The locus of all soclollngUltK investigation is the speech community. A speech commllnJly can he as small as a town, village, or even a cluh or as large as a ItallOn or a grollp of naliOlll, The impOl1anl characleristics of a speech cornlllllillty are Ihat 1/ 1IIl'lllhcr share a particular language (or variety of a language) as well it the nom" (or ruks) ji)r the appropriate usc of their language in social cOlllc.I, and that 11ll' Speech variclI!!, Rc 'Iollal vall ·lt~ Regl ter~ () 1J1>a1t~~1 I)ther lltual hJrtllal Cl:hnl~aI Slmpllhed lIha
- 282. Social dIfferentiation 0-language, ill it broadest se e. refer f) bet!.een ~ariaUOIJ n language use and a speaker'!; member wciaJgrou 2.2 Other way of stud jog social 'ariation Social net ork itWsis
- 283. mtaactJ n )of II peakerwltj lntaprel hngUIStic ' and den lUes of rdatl.),;hip t W"lduaJ lIrllllJ<JIl III JI)YlIlJ She demuy of a nel"'OIt 15 ,ela d II) !lie POIClIllal j .. •~".. member of thc nel",,,rk and call IX! eilhel cJ,~~0, tQ _ ••""'""t I f '"11)'1 pc 0' laJ oe('" 01;; WI I consl I {J t. ...erytJllc: in evcr" , . . J~~p • person phn' wm' role (Jr,~kllll net"'I" ....hl~h Iyp In lot .. ~L'~ of the rughe 1 and lowest SES IImuP • clIen a K'dly t.~ar._ Y'"~- f'eat ,,__. --'1., nn' are on lJ<!akt'~ '/lICj arc Ihus as ()(;Ial.,d wilh laflu, "QI t>f "" '" - k I .,Uag" lliaj IDee peakCl~ In uch a nc(wt,r - oWing 10 1 II! fa<;t Ibal II the alne relallvely Jrmlted M.:I of peoplemallulllher ••1d:;; IlUtlilq '-t relauonshlp remfor(;c each olher'~ pcA;:(.h habil~. ('I.> ~Jent lid: among the high C;l;'s gr()ups relOft)rce eJlher a landard ~~ 'lll 1J(f"IrI " ith high blatU>. (,Joseknll nelwork!; amllOg Juw SI~S grouj) ar 7 1 et] Qr standard pcech varielles. e UCI (Qr ~ Social netwllrkl. have been likened 10 a (,hinel;(! f~n (as III f wludl each group i hoth beparate hut at the arne lime e)(lllbl~g:e 14.2) other groups and all groups converge 110 the pcrf>(Jll at Ice', Cl1ap". , . . h f" '1 II"" lh nature and frequency of mteracllons III t e anlJ y grc)UP will dlf~ f ~ f h ler 'rJlllI~ among fellow workers. JIlemher~ 0 t e ba~e $p<,n~ team. neighbour - like. In 3 sense, buch btudles can /end weIght 10 the notion that y, : and the those we talk too. more cspe<:ially where those interaClanls are an:c~" L network_ IlIieknn eighbourhood IiKurp 14.2 SOt 1.11 fll'twI"h. I igulc 14.3 hows a portion of a c1o~cklllt network inve ligated hy Lt ley Mtlroy in the working-class Chmard area 01 Bclfa~l. 'I his network had a 1(1) pn ccnl dcn ity index; that is to £ay. everyhody in the network of the n; alchel's oflglnal contact (John R.) knew cvcryhlKly else and talked 10 tllem Jrc<juuJlly. Jolin R hiJII'>Clf lived III a ncighhounn ' hlod; of flat but In lalJlily lived in tht; t'lonard He introduccd Le ley MIlroy to hi, fnend lanlD Convery who C IllllJlcdiatc and extended Jarnrly and Ir IClllh aI-o licd In tilt CJ<lnanJ lind IIld up wllh each other olten A ,.-...rnnof (k.onardnetWIX~"'" figure t4.3 1"'"--- '.., Principal components analysis
- 284. J ,f If tIf ,111/, ",.11 1I""llf I"lfl. " N,," ....,.,1. ,,1 1t',IIII"",'i, I f, ,'"tI ft
- 285. , , ,II t II,I) t,) ;~ !l' .Intl Ih 1.11~'"·1 t, 11,1 "lld~1 " " ' ~ 'ml 'I', III 'h 1,1 • ":1. l n tI ' 'lh'1 h,ml r,Il>!' I ':1. , • •
- 286.
- 287. Tall.ing .lhout OIl1tn .1Ild OWIl In L L TI Oth r dllh.ort"JlCl' hc:leCn mt.·n·~ and ",omen'" Ian ,f'V"JlklOtt I l.wch ClHtlmumllC' arc ,cc!n 10 women', m gUage in t "_ " '-- _ orC! c polit~n~'s formulus Tn~n.' are a num,,,,r at Way in h. r"<ju~L l Il1l11an,h) can be ill/ligated III Engl~"h Instead of "mply"" a'~h ""J...,''It "f '(h',n t/" w",'/"II"I' we mIght say Pleuse opel! Ihe hUrd )' ng l<lS I .,' • . , 0 ," • pIt (1[" ('pen thl" u"IIuloH' . Could .O~I open the l.'lIJdoh·')' , ,' "'lild opn,illg th,' "'/IIdtl"'~', 'D~) yolt fit~d /I slUffy ill here", and ,~oUld ~o~ "'" III It'" dirt'd ;1" 01 mal..IIlg Lhe requesLthan the slraighlf on, ~ ~ ~nd II i, "'aimed: w(luld more likely be e~,ploYed by womc~fI>.ard illlPcrili~ SImilarly. ,,,me sllId":,,uggesl Ihal women use more verbal dl' m~n. These an! words ,uch as perhaps or mavbe (a, in ~~- hedges h. ,r. '/ I'd .) h' • COuld 1.'<II S:O 10 lireel't' II('XI SIIIII/IlL r .lor OUI zo I G.' S W Ich are Ie , Pt'''/rq ~lmVe"alioIlS Lhan ullerances wilhoUL hedges (e,g" e .,hoUI;' a"Cl1ie p. ",',t ,/I/I/11ler for our /lOlidtll's), (See also seclion 5,3,) go In Gr. In , d ~ Finally. II has been nOLed that men len ~o use more vemacular to slandard fonns, Men, lend to altach ~Slllve v~lue L O non-slanda.s op~ Their use is scen as havong on-group co~ert prestige (as 0PIJO· d ard fOnn Idd ' d ' 'CLOth" P~'sllgc of sLandard fomls), n ee , on a stu ) on o rwich I 'L eOen ". ' , . ' Was fo mcn onen claimed 10 use more non-standard fonns than the)· a und!hat " ' _' , CtuaIl) d' Normally men also usc bad language ~onsld"rably more tha . Id UIe, 'I I .. I d d n lIornen helon,!! to Ihe same SOCIa C ass, n ee , among some men iL ' . ho . I " IS cOns d lIIacho _ rather than plaon vu gar - to spice one s utterances ' . I erect maximally taboo four leiter words like shit.fllck, and CUIIf, nehl) 11th What do the Lhree phenomena lhat we have considered have' . , III COrn Wh) docs women's usage differ from that of men? The answer see. 1110n? , ' · h ' · d ' d ' mStohave do with savon!! fnce (I.e.. ' OVlrIg respecl an consI eraLlon for olh) 10 less frequent u,e of politeness formulas, reluctance LO use hed ers ,Men's , , ' I d ' ' I ' ges and th predileclIon lor the vemacu ar (~ IrI parttcu ar bad language') has e artrihutcd to the fact that In the SOCial construcllon of masculinit" be'l ,been J' ng tOugh' _ and hence inconsiderate of the face-protection needs ofthe addressee_ ' , d' B ' h ' f f ' IsofLen conslderc a·lllue, ycontrasl. on t e constructIOn 0 emmi nity the 0 " S . h I' " ... h' f beh' PPOSHels the case, n. IrI t e mguIstlc "c aVIOur 0 women. aVlQur that is con 'd _ ' SI ernte and proteels the lace (,fthe ,Iddressee IS preferred, Since 1' arc discussing gender-.variable usage here we must elnph ' . , aSlze thai all of the aoo'c ays of phrasmg a request are availanle to all speake~ nUt are not ,'qually selcl'tcd ny male and female speakers, An important fa t ' that :llkets the u,,: (If politeness formulas. hedges, und n()n-stan~ o~ emacular forms is the degn:e ()I formality of the ,itual lon, The more fnmarl . , q the sItuatIon the mure likely are ,speakers of either gender tn lise slandard lilrTns, h,'dges, und politene" formula,s, Thl n1("t uhvluus ay In hkh gender difkrl'Il""s Itb Icspe(i tll,lll'fcr"lI! arc manikstld lI1!'ngli his grall1matu:al gender Ihe lIsl'uf hI ·lish pronoun, Is ll1struct I.' III this n:g;lrd, We do nnl e11lplo) h,', for Inst'll1n" to rl'ln "nl to iliaI s. In ,standard English, It Is preSLI ined .IS a 'l'tll'rIC thud rn "n slllgular pronoun hen tht' gender 01 the I 'kr"l1l is llnkn,, n HI 111'1,'';1l1t Thu"', . C might (n..:nunter " a.si.~mlU 11( /(l(/d"?· eien ,t ~~ b • women, Howeser, n"wada ~ni~ Did ""'" hear ul1erJ.nce, ,uch a, the f- 11111 lurall) af rtt~ -.... . . u a.....na • /II/() their ~"" h,,"d.' ( ''''ned h ." 0 Of) e"" b l'tt.:b ~ 'II'/J' d()11 I 't' ~() 1001<'finl erJl (artntt YO< lIh ~ ~ """ a lele,.,On talk·,ho.... h'h), I ..~r and ee haz ,..~!l 'i lilt "'" . d Ii ' nl"" ~ ""'It .... (gender-In. e lOne) Ih"y, hl'h nl~, ... ,_ c .... 'O' .... , ,. E· C """,d •'14" .... t'-- prc,cnptl'"'''t ngl"h and ",h"'h d • lfead I ..- , C enOl' n It()n - - of unspecIfied lor po,,hl m,xed C 1UIlnddinll 011":---- h · . h . • 2ender r • nUm"- ", ...... of I IS ,on, t e pronoun"'k and h' rOr ltaI.. '''<f alllltli~ of a ,ng.l.e gender ho,c gend' . " are rc ."edf~ ,"'boIII1tr lih._. cr h ....no, "I rt.le~ :~....~ EnglISh nouns. thOUGh not n, e10 1IId........ " ~ 0 enl) rnar- .-- tho,e 10 Latm, Ru"ian, or man) h cd for llfanunan women and men, Genera.11 in En lother language,. do d' Lal &t1'Iltt I,L. - g" no .' I lliIgu,... "'" are at once both m:bcuhne and. .' un rekmn~ to >n ~ , ~enenc thu th ,c~n <lC fireman, untIl comparative' recentI ' . e trad'bonal I ~ , f ' - )'''''ereu",<!'''''L tnn,flO_·_ those pro e. Slon,. There OCcaI'n II .~"" for~ •...... or . . . "na arc f ..~nand ......... occupation, (lIlalla~ae,-" .I,u/,>lr' ,- , ema. f,'<m, for ,L.. ·''''>In ed lS', 1I,lre" "ro: nante. ... have evoh to co.nnote more than ' h .. , P"fle '.' IlSh....... ..... '" , ' ]U,t e gend ~ ..... occupation, •• an) obse1'.er- feel th th. er 01 the pr3Ui" at c"';md . " !Itt of tht women ,0 labelled. A oman II ho ac"· - tmllar form., _ ,.,' " L In hIm, po. dI •"Wl1t as an actor m an mte1'.I(, not as an <leI". h. Inte ) Id<nllflt! ~I! her someone who :I! enou, about the cO"t··e"ad that a<'lo, <:aulolt! f ra . ....h.lc acl .1' or The fonn ·nidl! hal been under (on>ld'rabl' , ..." l.d lO, , f ,C C'I.'Oltln In th respect to Its re erence, The pe1'.·a>i'ene, I· ",' cfIXentpa>l"'t!h , . , " 1 moUc-reiere ' . !!enencallY (3!> 111 cllill mlul!, P0.OIWIl "nd 1 nba ,>nn, u.'>Cd - . , Q ,useUIlI of fa ) h· . many obsenel", ho have felt hat 'u(h Ian n 01. d. tIUltd guage not onh !'en value but abo perp<:tuate, and reInforce, then1 Thi . tet t!l ,. , . , '~~hm~ move to ehnunate genenc masculine t nn, from th I U '"" 11 • ' e angu~c In man instances, the ,uffl, -1111111 has been chan,'cd to "'nd'r n ~I ~ , . . e e' c, cu..Pf' on 0Ibet morpholo~cal rrocc,-;e, hay e reulted in the creatIon 01' f - , . llC'ollI1ru1 l'0snlltlll bec(1111e, J. die: arna, a jirem,m )e:omc, a jiff ji~1u '. and a dltlin'WIl be :'1.1111 'l .-lWlrp r'OIl ,)r charr) The IUII'Ulnof Ian hc..'ame the MI(St'UlII vfCil i1t~ati(l1l Ch~Ulg.e, ha' 011 " C"111e a~'ut In the use of pwn,'uu , In many , reg.l13li 1n , la', ,mil Ihe like hl e neen 0: nIl n to eliminate iii '!irnl1lI101} mas 'lhn' I"tln" I '"J,lcing them ith f,lf11s such as IW. Itt Of the gtnda. ncllral ,ing.uIJr ,/1(, R"I'I,ICcm 'nl 01 " 1'1 I1llUll' ilh gender-neutral nn , and a [ I/O lII1jllSl 1l-I til th ' u,c ,11' thirll- 'r OIll'rtlnoun' (,'nwbute. of CI'ur;t, l"lht~ ,)" ,I k s t>I, ,,:d l,mgu,l£c, Jwcalc' of the le (ill u; sed earlCf bit 1,l11g11,lge dl " 1 t J11crd~ mi~'r let) but tathel mould! II would pomI: Im1h'' ,til 11,1t' ide r 1l£lllg examrl of Ism Wll1l.'1ltJfsboIlld I"f, tl11 'd, l)cli:rcllloll Us" ,,f langua b) I men {the ry ~ l)1ll111,,, ,'r h d" , for c. lmplcl uld be uW lantcd l1lI'ft of. , ..I ' t of men will IOIIJ(n tn ~ Ileal lx'h, Wl[, . n lu.... tre m n
- 288. 2,5 Euphemism .ang D3 gc would t>I'I" died ou!. FOl", in 11us vie", a., long a e I, the) reJDforL'c the ,rarn, quo and lea,e women as a rru:: So: Illeq CFor further C;31Dpk of the unequal tTeaunent of WOrn glnatl/~ , ~ 6 '--I "n and ."" b. cODle~ofum,ersi!) ,lang - ,ee,~ecuon -, '''' ov.,) ~n _..'>tip Of our , ImporWll though II IS for the reawns oullined ' Illlb" reform m It :f.s DOl suffiClenl 10 guarantee equality, It is in;,bov" l"-tl that th~ are manY languages thai appear rea'onabl" n 1ruCllv. ~ ~._ Afri hi J on"e' I(, Ban!u languages of SU?-Saharan c~ w ch make no gram>liM, - e!;.,note dl ' u'n'[JOlL' on the hasts of sex and which have relatively f' lllahtoJ 1Itc , L , ,eV" get,,,- leXICal ilems - hut ,w hJCh. nonethdess. are used lD sOCielie ;tndtr'bl--q man" deeplv JO !!Tamed sexIst amrudes, FenllTIlsts recog " hleb h· ~ J " " ' I f ' ntle th ...."1'" ellmmating seXISt language IS on y a part 0 a WIder programm e [<It, , and ,ucial reform leading to a more Just dIstribution e of Poli1Ut.u tIl lXlW le_! opronunioes, et ,"Id Euphemism i tbe avoidance of words Vl.hich rna) be se~ 'rb' Ii en ~s 0'" obscene or ,omehow dlstu 109 to steners or reader<; It "en!.. , ' ' ' ems hi ·e eupbemized are srud to be tabooed, The word taboo was bo ch •• , ' rro....ed r -e Tongan laJlguage and, ID il'. most general ,ense. refers to a proh'b' rorn the " 'th ' I I ILion use of mention of. or asSOClatJon WI partlcu ar objects. actio on the As origmally u,sed in Polynesia. taboo had religiou conno~:il~~Spers"IIS socJOlm....uistlcs II now denotes aJly prohibmon on the use Ofp"N • bUt, In , c , ' -dcularl items, Taboo and eupheDllsm are thus two faces of the same COlO, e~lcal In tbe English-language speech commumty. the most obvlo not reltglou.. but have to do with bodil) functions. body part.. us d tabOo ; are , . an death addition. there IS a notlceable tendency for governments I ' In " 0 reSOD euphemism to mask otherwIse unpleasant concepts or to conceal' , 10 their poli"} Table ]4 6 contams a' ariety of types of euphemism, ,,~!CI' uf neen employed in tbe past or are currenCy ill use, h have Illble J4.(" [uphcmLtm pm'Ule parts mm loc pc.""I"Te cpld leet hudget pee 11 I wn plIll It pa ilW, • w at' cowardlcc _hear pl 6 rd or I'!{m ESlOn vugma. cum etc • Slang b a label that i frequentl - usages of nearly an) one in th YUl<ed to den!)te ceM ..- . " e 6?eel;h c •-.u mfurtna 1D Engh h ill the ffild--elgbteenth OmlllU!llty 1he term or iIIl4 vocabulary u~ed by any I.e! 01 r ccntury, used In refe:at. 1!St.~ language of a low and vul pe n, of a luw or d' reJlutab l(; ~pt;la Dictionary), oVl.adav It },ar£ type (acco dmg 0 .>._ 0 It chariICer , . ~ Otten appl ed ''I'; rd En adolescents or othe v.hu are pe' I to aspe~1s of .>.~ g h celved as h~"C,_ "'" 1art"""., the language, r-=.wg fIOtH'tandard v""""e 51 . anell of ang eXlst.s aloogliide Jargo WId ar members of a cia of """"h Yo gOt Ueattd below m=011 ~ 1 , , ...~ anetles of hllllled ~ I" commumty Eac of1hese last t....o menulned' , usage m Ihe bpee;b f -,,' Vanelle wb-" h o an occupauvwu Qr 6OC1al "r,)up f: • ower C l1racto:n~Uc ber f ak t>'- Th COil llIed tl) i1 C num 0 pe 'cr; and t cure to outs'd Sl umparatlVey mal and subject to rapid e e l Q[t WI~~ rea:~v.'ueltmaYbeneetm& numbers of speake Par"'M' hl? mlJlt !amil1l1r Wl;qt 'th ~ 0 ever are en much SUClaied '0.1 roe and bl! u;ed In """"" of .....~n aoobc' f ol.ldant~ Willi oIher
- 289. It q "lJH" II I , I II' If I""'" T. '/" Ill' Xli"" 11,,1"!1Punl ,Ju",rnf" 'UiIl' KIIIIIIII Jxrm "'lIk~""r ,/1,.1.,1 1"'lrr hUlTlcnuy m.l/cll 1Mf'P,1 have m' ,Ie III' k II 1I.lrd n",n ......hu nC'Irr filII lftw"rd fcllow g.II1Jl ml mhc"-II "flMmed (omh.ll we.lro" w("uf",tI trike with a weapon ha.I.,rt! very /I,,,hy ,,,,t, IIOJ .. hi""dhlc c.lr)th("~ Lunmng pnJj(c or rJl~(ln cdJ 'H:ry clo;c m,IIe f"cnu' gllrgcHIJ guy' half ASl'In ref","' 'umcenlrate nn' -In"" , 1.'1 PrucC,I;C" of word f"rmitIJC J11 In ll( I 1 ~ llIug ~/rI"g ,lnmwK ~'rlllnr !Icky 'uwl'''' 1!lLk 'g"rgcl'u girl' ru.Jleh rmllch °It gild 'nrrd' ge ~ .. (b'rk La Ilnl 'all right' ~d'ual IrA 'g.r t" Ivtdlly J ud "'~' WCIIHI f, k b"lc "'Dlllllg fl-c h kc III i1ddJllllll I') tIl BI", k I-"gll h ff,.f,,~w J'fMfI . ""plIl." hl," dCJJvU1um IV {ICflVillllm I hie,,,I,",, lhrp'''g :11 umj'tny tC"nrxl',nrhllg '.1 f,'l II ~7 ~IKCln ,lIal.., .,, ~ h. ,"mp<otall h/.g.g vU<ltll'~", hlllllrm:1 Iwan a lUI ! ... r ,I , '" It. 'f
- 290. 8 ,II" ..) ,I ,t 11 n. ~lItl "1 ..Ihl /"11 . , 1 hili" til I'll hili III .1.1 , 111,,1 1'111 1> 11·1. 1"··,,,,1 .' "'II~ . " III 1111 ,. I .11 " '~ 1 ht. 14 I ~ '~II, ,"""1,11 l' , 1·1 111111111' h, ,Ii "I
- 291. /"" " ....,.11 ~IIII II /1111111 Ih 111., I '" II '" tudwnl gJlIIIPo; fr w,ltC fn' which the developer'" only rC'1 • lie ted . .I po h ;!HJ ""m the u,,-cr JJ humf'town' P'I)nlcntl' h""'IWlH II .'WiltC y,hil.h ((mlaln a me age tatlOg toe de hope! .1 wlilll1ake Ihe I cr happy' vcl"Ptr 111"1'11 H, plodlll I f nftwarc nr h,m.iwafl.!) announced I "' In adv' Ih"lIlIl1l't artllH'C. whll'h may never take plate' 11~~or ",IllJl JIll h"rrllHI hralll ; human OCtnf' ..."dl lJ' IJr(lgr'llllln1ru' HI'( ('III gil '" Iii HI Ihl' IlIlp<1tl<tlll'l alld rnpulanty 01 the {III('1/1 'I h' 111;1" 11<'11 hv 1111 ,'xl'lf1~1fl11 111 Ih ' growlh 01 (rhcI 'PI"C rclUlt'd lurg l .I~ been h on, 0'11' II "" I. INIh'" "I;!IIII)! 1IIIIlI'WI yd;IY, 1101l lel: ntt:allill1guo.lgc, Not onl d c nl h Y IJlna ..111'11 I.. """111, Illl""'! 1l1ll'I'IHS til c computer bulls UC ("mw/ t ny o Cont' 'I "III 1,.,;11 tIIdlll 1;11.1111 <11 III ""'" •• letter to (lUI I1cwsparu'r we ' a, • '" • .1 1) g 11,1111/111": "'"111 /,,,""11'1,1 1I~l' II"",,/( or Nl'I{'(I{J1' to ec wh' 0 . I " . at nev., • 1I11"hlllll llO'III, sh"I'"II' 'I1r nhll;lll/lIla ollel IlIg~ arc avallahlc at van ' ous lIe "II lilt 1I",1d II,,{,' lid, 1,Ihk 14.14, nn Ihe I1c't pagc, lists some or the ,,111'1 1';1<.' I,ll 'IIlIlh,11 lIa' <'III1'I,'d tl1l' 1<llIguagc Ilh IlIIk hl'l' "'II (III," 1.111'1"1 ',' .lIId (,,"''s 1l11'mhnshl(l (II a partlcularcth; '11111 I', ,'"IPh' 1' 1,' 1 III sc. h '101, nl11 all ,'Ihlm: group, cxhlhlt Ihc same .I,' 'I'" 111111,111111'11,111,,' .,llh"lIlan!)lIa '1'1""111 'cnel<lllnn 10 'CI1CrallOl1, Elhntc ""-I"J.d, ""'" 'I ,ch I III Irill'S a''''l'ialt:d "llh 'I"liil<:cthllic~rnup',ni'l III I 1''' Illlln 1I1.1ndlll' I,ll "'!il" .IS .III 'I't' a BI.I'I, 1'l1glt'h (, kllld 1 In h,h),'"lh",'n,'h.lIId, Ill.! 1"".IlIl,s"lIth ,IIic-a"rltalHiin c"I'l'a;Ind nhh' Ih'ti' 1,111 'II I ','S 11111,1,111'.1 I" rn'it,h) I'll till' nlh,'1. III a (IIIll!,1 I h.,UIIIIIIIIIIII III, , 1,11,,'/1,', ,It,' III "'1I11)1.1I11'l/1 llh Ih,II~"'1 standard , f .,nl '1111 II '11.1 ' ,"'" I ('I" III Ult,n 11ll"c ,'Ihni.: ,lIll'li<: 'U (Ulllh It) Ih "" 11.111 ' 111111.11. "f Ih. d,'lIllllJIII1.1lI '11'1 ,,', chen language maintenance, language shift, and language death email Inlernet (net) m;ullng h!' t1loderator neliquetle nelwork World Wide Web (WWWorW3) Broad) 'pea!.ing, when languagc~ come in onacl one oillucc Ibm l1li) happen: thcre may occur {cJIIxauge Irwinlfmlnte.luIIglUl8f hift OIlangIICI~r d,,(/III, in ca'c' llf language maintenance, the languag CCH:AI In a11111) ,tattlc relationship, ilh speakers of the Ie influenllal language II8MIIIIIIII h~)ld on to II and til pa" it on 10 their children, TIll 1 1!IO'I1 el~ ~ if the "pea!..:rs ish to a,sen then separate dcnlly ,fOlIMallCC. tile! ,tfl)tw.h lu.: maintaining their Iangua e for cultural or rei llOIK ItaIOIl The ~hanc,,' of angua e m:uIllen:uKe are enhanCed If he II • "ur. tannal pee h commUnll) and belong 10 tal I~) n ad~anlage If th nollllC IJntXnU - hi: dcwt , .k- e That t>c ti fi ....llh ut bandorullg u,,"u
- 292. English multilingualism l rh" Like moslolhcr countrk in the world looay. England I. mululino 'I ' th ' f I ' , ..ua .'!'hI I as :hown in a report dxumenllng e eXlt!n~ 0 mu llhngllalism in ch ' enlilled Lint:III,llic .l /uuHllIer III England ~ hlCh IS as commissioned b)0011 Department of EJucatlon and ~ PUt>~1 hed ~n 19 ~, The report demonlra~ Ihar In man} ma,l([ clues ,thae ,are "Jgm~cant mmont} cOrnmunilies uSln more than (lne language In theIr CI CI} da} 11 es, ormally. In such g , d " Id corn· munllies, while English IS use lD lonna e ucauon scltmgs and in de I' . h' h J'f' h ' alngs with the state s bureaucratic mac me, orne J C,' opplng. recreational d . ' I an cuhural actillics are carried out m commumty anguagcs ueh as Greek GUJerati, CanH'ncse. Turkish or JamaIcan Creole ' Table I·U5. which shows the main languages reported in five Local Edu.:alion Authorillc (LEA) gives a good indication of the C'tcm of multilingual! rn in England It al 0 how that thc distribution of minari" languages is ICry unclcn In anyone area a handful of' important 1111nOllt; language, may aCCllunt for 01 er 5 per cent 01 the total Ilurnncr of Illlnom; language speaker ,TIle dl trinutlOn of the diflercnt languages reflcds pattern' (If ell/emcnt b) irnmigwllts, mo t 01 whom came to the UK alter World War II. 'l)pll'llJl). inunigmllt I /lded til ,ttle ill .Ircas w h~ re ignilll';lIlt numncr of other members of thell cthlllc grllup were alrc.ldy 11 111', Thl IS to be ,pcctt:d m~c earh r immigrant <':lJuld otTer n w alll ;lls a '''t.II1CC 11th ho~ 109 dOd pro Id lh 111 Ith eIahorate upport network 3 R[GIO OIIl[l( t 11 , 110 (, I If ,,.. Url.d'"rd ( 1) T('Il. Tl'"). 'It ...20 pup," n::tln.h:u It.mgut,.,gc olher lhan Engh...h . hnmc (2l Tul.., no. 1 Ilknlllwbly d,shm:l anguil 'co., (oP<>rIC O 131 The m,,,' Irequem) reponed poken language or language grouplll!ls a.< a 'he of ()tu the neare'! whole numher 81 41 Van]ah. 53 Van]ah, ~9 (I L .' ,. ' '1'tC. 34 Pan"'" " ,ruu 1'1 (il~ra, III Turk.sh 15 ~.~ "-iobi I Gu)er.1I II rldu , c It.han 14 IJIdo 11 I"" ••' 9 l'nlu Bengal, ,HIIIIII 3 (j IS ~ Pu'hlu } lahan Uleta" b GU)etII, 12 n.. , 2 lahan b ChI..... 4 C Iilh~n 3 lIen",1I ~ F ""'"', , ... ~ f<n<h· Pofuh 1 TIIIub Poll h I V,,1i h _ ba.ed German 1 ~ Hliloi I Chm~ I Creole 4 HllIfl 1 '-d Chine I Cr.olts* I Bengah 3 Creole' I C C"'Qle ' I r Idu ~ FrttICh I ~ ; Ubaman I Pan]>ill ~ am.... 1 Span! h 2 llaliln 1 ChIl",5t ~ IIiIIdi I French FmdI (4) Toa1of ) , 91 - - -
- 293. , I' "'II/lndalll from ~Pl'''''l'rs i/) " V'lr'l I I' ,1t"')~/' , ...' , C' Y of' lJia II I' , 'cll Wl'/l' rl'l'ord<.'d by hlllld on WOI'kshl! 't " , WlIy~ (' Pc'c'IS () '/"l 'I I ' S )/l/nt ' ~M ' a', ' II '1/1'''ysis, 'Tilday dw eeto og)Sls lise ~()I)ll/' 'I' <.:rvi~h', ~)nUII ,,'elC( ", • s )1." 11 ~S 'I ) "I I~ , .. ' CiS' lIlI<:r;UIl'CS 011 lapc, Ihus knelill" "I''' '<.:(1i)lt~r".'IIQlh,,' "(lnl 'I'l.l~ " "" al",1' 'lew 'n I'll , M' , ) di:dcClologlsts lISC l 'OlllPlilcrs for 4LJ' ,IICCllrlle Slin I ,,"rk .III , ' " , lIl1tll lll iy, Ytll ,I I/I/illinll 01 11,,:11 d,lld, , , "nllly ,lbClt "",lI,' 'k of c1iakc;Wlogl.sls may he published ill Ill" I' ~IS Ut I he WO/, " , , , , " A ' , , ~ 1lI'II1 ' 'k' tIL' 101'111 01 <I "I.lkel dlld,S, 1 dldleel lIlias ConI' ' III ' l11i1y 1,1 (1 , '" J' " .tIllS 111 h I 1 1't I'cUIOI",1 van,lllOn 1/1 a <InguHgc, I he~e nl'I11 ' IIIi III Ihal cx II I '" , 1 /' , S 111 '1 'I 'll'll"lcll'rizc a parllell "I' grollp () SPl!lIkers 01' Ih"y , YPi) I;, lipS whlc I l , " , ~ 1111(1,' 'lilu " 1I ) show 1(.'H/lifes which ,~eparate OIl(' group or ' I)" k J, Inr ill'l tlil "CU,'"I( , ' J" 14 ' " 'lll's/" "nile 1'1 ' '()/l1Iwln-gl'lIcnited IllUP 1/1 ' Ig ure .4 IS dl!signed t() 'h IOItIIlIIQlhC' Ie l t' I I" I ' ~ llW' C ' I (I v(v"lbulilry hetween J'UJlcnp 10nc IS ling vi ll 'I"", ' S IIllil'l" ,r" III S Hln: ~, • ''''~'' lnllI' , •"lie I lJ. IICl' thlls dl'1l10I1SIJ'allllg Ihe probahl· gcognillhi ' I '~IlICC"I"' , ~J1( ,-r,I, , , , , ' ell lln' "'dUa ,~t:ltkrs of Ihl! Mal'll/me Villages, gills of Ihe I + ~ :~~(~ -t h"'fII ~I sJ Prance un nn >::---. 100 kin Oialeft ,mel at n~nl I fN',II,,( I IN ' SII( 11/ < (1~1!XI In many pariS 01 lhl' w"",, dHlk'el III) . .. " 'I 'k I I , nlll h,wc lk .. h<:, d '1IIlIIIve y Illal 1.( ly 1~"~,1Il",,, ('Ih, ill ">llndane wh'"h 'I'h I'll" " 'r, wlnl ~ .. cuntinlillm, - , I I <:rcIIIIIIIIIII 1)1 <ll'Il" ' ' "tie IIh nVC5 I~ a d 1al - - ' I' (l(';'l II1'rl:' • -...a l("l vels 111 on' t Ircel""l aw"y I!'Ol1llh" 'I 'I ,1, l'''''lul~"v I" ~ " , ' III In~ PI)InI S 1 'n", InflY he 111111111.: all( nlhers qllile llg. hlllh'" ' , 'line I)llhe difference I ' I I 'tc " nl) (,VI I on the l1Iap W lie 1 can l' l11arkql as Ihe "Ill 'Cllrc 1)1 a ',"~Ic place ' h I' "P<lIl1ll)l 'I or 'I1olher. II I 'llst:lne ' Irav"'I',1 " ">no I)n, t lal"ci and the: tart ' , h " ' ,CIII("ph Ihe nl' , ends or IhL' ,1uul'nl!y 11l1lY c d"t"lI;t lal1!()tI.. '. ' ",llC', allh. extrrl1l: " " , r,C, , The Slu<ll"m we rlav", lust Ie'eriOnl is II I . 'I h ' . Hln, In man" P' I I the Roma nce "mil y, I 're I~ " W~~I ")nl" I' , 1 an, 0 ',urope, In ' "I CC lImiln, Th varieties nr IirCllch, Catalall, fipal11h, Pnrtll ", IlInl <illgh standard It r ~u~~~, ,m<l Italnll 'r languages, spetl llrs 0 <lny lWI) nl thes~ langu' " 'a e separate difficulty ill lInd 'rstanding ctlch olh~r lo,alg~l" lin hOI<,',cr arcus have no ' W " e,l (1,1 Clt, SlIllllarly w ' n.:engt1l1,e a eSl (, 'I'nJal1 lC C0l1tll11l111 , As one II" 'I I ,C can 'A " ,IVe, rom nne villaoe <11 lown 10 the nexl III uslnfl, Ihlotlgh GClm<lIlY and I I II II, ~ ,' , , II" I( ,md, Iulrly 'mall dilTcrenccs thai uO 11<)1 Il1Ipede IlIUlual Inldholhill'ty' 'h d ' • .tie "serve In neigh houring plac!!s alonglhe rollie BUI oy Ihe lime Ime "ct, I 'I h • ' • " rom, ',IY, nm. ruc~ in Austna 10 Rotlcrdal11 10 tlw Nelherlands, the CUII1Ulilllvc Oltlerenc ~ an: quil~ conslderahc' DUlCh uno AlIslnan (Jel1l1an are delinilcly hCPlIrlIte languagcs, Movlllg norlh 111 ElIl'<)pe, We find anolher ",ntrnuum he Scandinavian languagc wlllinuulil, Some of Ihe h)rms nelllw arc Swrdlsh and ()hns arc Norwc!'l<ln, HUI cl)I1lparisOIl (lilhe VerSions 111 the senlcnc doe not t:Il<lblc U~ to lell which " whi~h, The I1rsl two are ca.'~ilied at. 'Swedi8h' and the It"t (wn ,IS 'Norwegian', The dasstlication i, linguistically arbitrary, it IS Inolivaleu b) polltl,,,1 :1111 eu!tur,11 <:!lnsillcrauoos, :;) (I. n, cl thcnHl thCIl!:;l Ij'I11:J Itt 'lin;'! t hll111 hURJU mt,) S) 1111;:U ~m Cl gum:uh guusabumt h.lr IU In!;) ';1 ll1~k,~1 S;1m cl gum:uh gnlle nJ hclr Fl' Ik::t ,,) my:t ,~m el gum: It p.nJ hUI t i,::l ;1 f11y~'~ ',1m el gum:ult gnabeial h.l c I Hoi I) Ilu,h a, an old goose leg
- 294.
- 295. TlIfJIrJ4.19 -------------------------------------------------- . ~ariation ;, t3e1le Table14.21 Regulanz.ed refk:u t possessn e prolWllll as ~ m ""If ~~r-.elf her>elf our",,1 e5 3) l WCIIt toMelrose. t rr1:hie ifshe wall.,..... taDlianc.- .I"~ after die Qn":'I':.:1~ •rn&ItUC - - -
- 296. Di((c'rcn( (', dmong ,I(«'nl~ ("IIlm;>1 Itltult,,,/ /. I"~, e /I/u", ' fille' I"'illill 1 /1/,'III,r, l h l l. llr l , /' /<...1 /1 /.",<1 !tortl /,'/IIIg /11/'"" ' Ollllt' /,l/"hlo /n/."d, '1IIilh,I, ' /,)/1111,10 /IJ /'"1I1o !lIIl,"/}' 1.'lluIoIIU rfJu,v.nr • IIY.III ' I.l/oIllI'g I1I,IIII'f' " '"II,"/!' Mml o( Ih" va",,"OIi ,orlltlllg !,,'oY"'ph,t.oI ViII "'I,,", "'IIIII~ rhiH iI""'Il/I'd /JI lei nil, 01 iI(,I"'1l1 tI" dll k"'I1('(" "t~ """"ally' . "" t.II, I ' ',I I, ('1/ ·11 "" ' 1, Jlholll"o~'y Iililin I HI/1 !,""I11J1.11 or VOl",,, .IIY. Ie ~iI" ollhe w t~ 1,/ eI,i""('1 O"i/ll1t'eI III III" liI" pillil!'n,ph """IY/lI~,, 1 ) I 0""11) Till /'/II11I1>loPIC;oI elllk"'I1"," /iol/ 111111 " fI 11111h" 1 ,,/ IIli'lI>1 .. , I / / I I ~." , '"',,' 1111'" ,11iI1,,/rIIl>IWillr/ VI,,"110" I' ill I II' rVI' 0 I W It',oIlIi,II" I II.. r II I, illI, I I>111"":III1l' plllllll'JI'" III dllft-Ielll "n'il' 1-01/ "XlIlllP"', II,.. V llwc l 'P'""h III(/V ;1/111 /.;11011' /II,. rt·,,/J/l·r/ hy Ihl' (hJlhlholl~" k ll a lld 1,0 I II( ~i;: ~'J(o/ hke 1111>111111111111,111" /1'1 Hlld /1,1 III S.ol",11 EIlj!li',h 1,lkl'WI1 Ih,' 'III by I/o" • V llw,'l III 1', rca/lIl'd a' li~1 III Ihr 1,IIId 01 ,lIalllSlleillll I{J> WI!' hl'ill , '/JII/ I " k I 1>11 Ih" filiI IIl'W'Ci"''', 11I1i /JI old la',hiolll" I{ 'po, 1:11, 01I'X,illllpk. hy "/'f" 'I, I I I " C " 111 1 ''x Pllh/Il' ,chuI>l/,uy' 11/ '"I1"'W Jal 1I~' "'I', alld I, Vl'ly tlow II/ II I 't, al'I> I,,' (/rphiliolljlllt'd alld hl' ICHlllrd ;/ It 'I,) 'I h,' ralSl'" II I VII '1"llIliI) u..cd 111 Al!',iI"I", Ncw Zealalld, ;IOd SOlllh I/i ka fl y UIIlIi 'I1 , W ' I~ ill~, f • II 1I',nh,o 1:1lj!/illlcl,llIe '''"1''plulIIl''II'' 1 H'aIJ/"" hy laJ a lowl'l 111,,1/ VIIwei III A/lII"IIIIIII~ ICilIl/iJliollaJ ddklclI~c IlliIy III vol Vt' l:()Il'On;lIl1 ~ ;" well good. ,~illIll'l,' olllll~ is plOvld,'" hy /II IJsually III Hllli"h E""", h ',I, I. I" A , r ,II. ('0 wllIl'lI IIII' body ,01 IIIL' 101l)!,II' h;t a f",,,y high hlll'~ pmlllOIl) '1t'l1l1 " 1 I' ' 1 lC IJrr ,,(.'IIIII"lalll (a, III J"lkJ)ltlA '" III WOI" lilia/ pOSIII"" (a' "llhdllil'll ' I 'Ckill I' (ill willth Ihe hody 1,1 Ilil 1()1l~'II" I"" a ,wh,'r hl~'" /'"111 P"' illl";;"i' lound d,,'whl'/I' By ('oll'la,', clill~ I i, all"'111 /nllll /I " h 1:1I1(1"h alld '" 11I"le 'I kill /. IS 1",;m/1I1 a/l,'lIVIIOIIIJIUl/s, 1lIllhelllll'"', III '''IIIl' ~a,(" al'l:l'nh/cllill,'us ""'Y havl "dln"1I1 phllnt, 10glCiil IIIV,'I1I,,, I"', (JII,' ,";oI,'cl lllay 1'0'1·.... II 1'''''11'' 11/(' Ihill " 1101 IOIl"d 1/1 '''"II' 1IIIIl'I "ialt'" /'111 l'XililipiL 'il'lllll',h (all" [l1I'''lhly Im h) 1'lIpll, h hi! Iii vdll Ilirallv,' phll""I1/(' Ix/. as III 11m.! !til" wll/dl t'1I1111i",1" Will! AI iI In Iink/ (o('k 'I I", phOIllIIl" I, 11111 J'IlIII" t I" will " ::>illlll:llly. Ihl' "h'''"'I1)( 1111 i, a""'11I 1",,,, IIII' [1"(" hili 111'", fll'llplc IIIllie Mill/mid, .11111 IIH' "ollh 01 I'll ,1;"111 (,Lml- 1.1.2 I). hu IIdl peak"I , llie vllwel 10 I l'OIll! 1'",,,1"0 /{l'/1I1 4 M,XIII IAN(,JA(,I' 'lu"h' 14,24
- 298. English '~Iay') i~used 10 indieal~' an <ll"lioll currently taking place' ()) ai nil kl'a hu ~Iei hanl insai de;! / Illl caR' whll ~Iay hunl inside thlTl' '/ dOIl'tcart' ho hUllling inlhl"re.· Pidgins arc seen as structurally dl'licienl 111 many re~pecis ad' , . . h' - n lOad'nu as inpultOl'hridrell aequll'lng I elr hrsl langll~lge , Children arc th ,-' ale k I ·· I L. • us said 10" thrown hal' ' on Ilelr lllnall' anguage IIloprogram to provide a b' " ,< ~ I 'I'h' d " aSIC structure lor the creo e. IS pro lICl'S a generalilln of speakers of a languag' h' h ... . , I' I cw Ichean serve as I e "aSIS for lIrl H~r genl'l'allOlls of' learners and C'II! r ' • . . ' , or IIlSlanec undergo the sorts 01 fl' 'Ical changes IIlellllolled ahove in which il ' .. . may COme tore mble the onglllal hlghl'l' .'tatus language more, Amoaa the English-based l'rl'O!cS of the world is Capl' York Cr~llc (CY(I, m the northern tip ofAustralia opposite Papua-Nl'w Guinea. Theda13 dIis c:reoJ in Tables 14.25 to 14,27 will hl'lp to iIIustmte the factihal 'mply d fonned or bastardized languages but. in fact. haIr .....rClilll'llCterisltics of th ir own that arc not shared with the tandard. --- --- Table 14.25 Singular pronouns in Cape York Creole 1st person ai, mi 2nd person yu 3rd per!.on 1. im Differences from Standard English include the fact that in Ibc tbinlpaa there is no three-way gender di tinction and that all of tbese pI'OIIOImI ca serve as a subject. Only mi, yu. and im. however. can serve as objeda. 'I1iI is reminiscent of the Standard English pronouosillt andhim. wlicb.,.... a~ non-subject' (a~ object of a verb or following a piepoaitloa). "._ IiiIl'erenee between the CYC pronominal systan aod tbal ofs.dIId..... lies in the non-singular fonns. CYC exhibi~ two IIOHIlS t dual ~lIld plural. The fonns for second aod tinl penoa .. I..L~b . Table tUb Dual. ~nd person Dual. 3rd person Plur.ll. 2nd person Plural, 3rd person
- 299. l)Hal. ,.,,.'111,1 l' r'ltlraLml'iu'" (' (1. It' ';I)' II' B 1/111/ ',J II, If. A j, ,,1 il~ th,( Ih~ I" of th' . '11 111" h b. c. tH)lC. ~ Ut I g') (//1. , i, '.1 tn~ thaI and (' III "" h " lit nOI a If" "I~' '" H alld C·,. J, 1.11;') /I d. " "I) IIIg thaI all Ihf'c If I . I tlcIl1111 II "I) , In H "IIII/un " ,1" /nO' '''''' III d.., lillI/iiI/II of I.m ! hth 11/. • 111t.unl 11 s rh "~ 11,11,'11' x""111<: Ill,) "u 'rele Ul the Cl:'nle lof. . . ,)Il'" 1'r Ih' f,)Il, h'g IIU tll)U'. whICh mi!!hll ':l!U uru"tN~ • c01 (I m, ~Id Ie ..ettUl& and lip. ICCID- m I lUlt.tuQlial. lub.... •
- 301. II ..as arpropnate·boC'er. wben ultercd --'c,.,.....,,'-e boIb undcrslOod .. b.1t that r..-ferred 10 1 c I . onvolu om--orrected I a/ COOSI IC'OI"lth n mfOrma'ly I"d 10) 'fn ~I ~ rea/l} 1001; Ii e a zhlub.' ~ n.!be IDlerprelau n of the preCIse reference I itrotted to :b ...- 'nten.e" unered. Also. the u-.e of an ethn' the Con,_ " - . -', ~ ~ -~ (_=£.~ u.:be or coarse person to" Idd'~h) "gnal an g 1e1ltt. III ~ •. 'nformat,~ ~ 111 ~ "TIt thou bae mis man to my wedded husband Lexical, morphological. and 'ynractic archaisllb ign;,1 thi nrualized regi rer. (5y n[;lcllcally II may be an Open yes-no qu Ii fOr!naJ a 'yes' 3DSer i expecred.) on. 12) Pellagra IS charncrenzed. by cutaneous, mucous membrane C. gastrointestinal symplOffiS. ~ This quotation from a medical handbook illustrates featur·s f register (in the wrillen chan~eI) by its fully formcd entence.lob a ~ explicitness. use of me passIve, and the presence of medical J~O~~ of eumple of a techmcal regIster. l) 13) 'Mangled by the nightmare-made-flesh from Mangere.· This appeared as a spons page headline in The G~lUrdilit/ new paper ~ after the serru-final match m Cape Town between Eng~and.and :-;c" lea~ All Blacks to me. 1995 Rugby World Cup. ThIs headlme IS elliptIcal In f as is cu,tomary m the tyle of newspaper headllDe~. But it is appro onn. f . ' d '11 pnatc to the written channel 0 communIcatIOn an I ustrdtes the imporlance of bar knowledge in the interpreting of elliptical utterances. A rugby fan WOlJ~ knov- that the captIOn refers to the defeat of England (45-29) which v- a large measure due to the All Black.1. phenomenal player. Jonah Lomu. ~ lD .fangere (a suburb of Auckland).I 14) 'Time to go bye-bye.' The minimal syntax and choice of lexical items characterize this utterance as D.ne which mi~ht he directed by a parent to a child. It is an example of a Imphtie~ register called baby wlk (termed /tI01herell.' in Chapter 12). Bab) tal IS wlde~prcad. perhaps even universal. in speech communities in the world. In Engli~h. il IS specitically characterized by ih limited lexicon. Imple yntllX, and relalm:ly wide pitch. In these respects it is most similar to the registers we use to peak to a pet or a lover and is thus both non-thn:at~ntng Table H.29 Type, of addre leons In English Tenn Ersl name (8' ) Tille + last name tTL. ') Title alone (T) La,l name (t.: 'j Kin term;, (KT*) .a1one or wllh F); or L·. as appropriate. Chris' rTInc~y' •.Uf5e1 StDlth' Granny' Addre term' can be u. ed re Iprocall) or non-re..,p!O<..n). In tb£ fiN en. e. speakers addre each other with he -;arne l')pe of term IP.' orTI.N This is a ~ign of symmetrical ocial relation,hlp mvohi hboIh parna ba'IC the same statue (friend... colleague. and a onJ. In the of OOII-~ usage, there i an a,ymmetrical relationship. one in vobicll the diffcmIce m po~er and tatu betw~en ~artlclpanls i, mar'loo. Thus. one prnoo• 11K F, " and the other TL Thl' I t)plcalof dQ.."tor-pauenl or ttadIet~ rdation hip. awidllldll:D In Engli~h, and other language a, well. It i ~ pos.stbIe 10 1lia term, altogether when parti ipant are un.'illt which~ =ia.:--: I called no-naming In the c -.e of EngI~ ~ .. i
- 304.
- 305. It tdJltdlnAlbert l"manIHlu"'",1I10" I'MI,..... I lJIIXMUCOfIlPOlK"'I 0 l'IJ Kf (, aud II In Plral"", I,,, tI"I".' Ill' I',. 'Jbe.......". (rom VeIl Hymn. amde M.",••j I" If.. .., ~Ih. h... --....... f -11,1.,... olIn 'n ..,.......-~I f~ · w f)ur,..,wnJ In f)~xw IIII(IIUIII J 11,,- 1:.11t",) 1'1 tlf'}ll UI 1 .._ ..,..aaJ J J (,umperl and I) Ilyme•• PI' l~ 71 ( .,.! ~:h.r '4 ( ,;:: tdJ~ by1972 ) 1bc oe<.lJun on n:gl leT I In pucd paTtI.II"~ if',11 """ , Will""" ocwl rmlnllC (l...ondo" h!warrl Am',f,! I Y hy "'. " .. 1~ltI,a ~ a d Iv. I • '17~)" r. I • H)",d ·olem:Jn. e. orArnx wr/h f.af/Ji A'.~I • regrn:::_ I,Mn uf / ,anguagp fIJe rn W"rk rOn/"X/I (He'If"U M '4J(" J Mill,' ~,. C{)fUURra Ko' 'J - d (JIJh ttj" undcrlyw TCC fur Ihe !>eCIl<Jn on a drc'S lerm, " Ihe: .'" 'Je (" "'PI, An ,,'bert GIIm:,", ~Ihe pmnour or p"w~r and "',lfd"", • Ttlcf" fry ,,"':"" I'", =~ by 'lbo A Sebe,,". pp. 253 7(, (( am!)ridge. Ma~.:~'I}/}I. 'nj:~,,,,, dl u 100 of /:ngJl h terms oj addre.s al.,,) draw, 'm Laune H. u •JI,,,,, I'" ~"'lt En II It Owng!!. Pr· 14/ 5 ILondon. Longman, 1'1<)41. The dl'<; c:r I ~~~I~ :'JJ'I af~~· addr team afC tak.en Jr<Jm Angka!) f'alak'>rnkul' U ~J'", "'.j ""Iro. """ S k IJ I., 5 W'lfk 1 t· I s:ud, of PmnllmlfJtll SlrtllPXl IfJ po .!'n anX",ok 7htl; (lJi~r.e .' s,,,",I, . f, rtaJHm' I phi/Ill TeD. 1972) 'rl'tr l:ndc:rlylllg the ~ tJ"ns on text and dlM:IJlJrr.e I~ .f/Lh"el St }I( A I I Tlte 5o(/ollfJXUlJlll Antl(YJlJofNtI/uruI IAnf{uaJlP(() f . UbI)... " no ~J - . L. L ~ c}r(j' f:J lk~ IY8J). fJll>CU 1011 of d/!>Course mar"er I oar.cd <m IJel><"ah S<:.;. "'lllj~..'" uL-rr (Carnbndge: C'arn!)ndge UmverJ;lIy Pre • I~lS71 'I Iffrlll, I),,, frlorA(' 'fall da d . reatnlle 1 !4tt devICes I den"cd from M,A Yo, ' I Y an I{uqalya flll'''n ( . L " Of 1.1 " "76 . (h II'll, (Loodon Longman, h J). 'n In f." rh'-lion 4 wali liUggc ted by dat.llD Wham Oltll", I, I v-- J OilY A" / (London Longman. IY83). nl"~l~ Allan. Keith. and Humdge. Kate 19')1 l~uph""lIlm and IJ h Yip i'It!' 1 1t! Oxford Univcr ity Prc~~. 1)11'4 Qwnbel's. J.K and 'Ifudg'" Pet!."!' 1981). lJiall'uol0f{Y ( arnbrrdge ( . Umvenlty Press. ·ill, IJr Coa/eJ. Jenmfer. 1'1<)3 WrJtnPn, M l'n and {.ongul/f{e 2nd edn J.Amrj'm:J"Rl FuoId. Ralph. 19M. 1111' SOl w!rngulIJir J "fSo{IP/Y. ()1(flJTd: Hladwell 81nan. PaIoId. Ralph. I'M). the Sot IfJlingul IIC r (Ifl .onf,{uage, (Jxf< JTd: Hlacb, II 11'..... Ruth. 1991. 7a/king (in/der, A (iulde /0 N fJtJ1o.111 (ommuni< ,e . - . . ,UlfJn It;! CowCJad; Pitman s.mJle-Troike, Muriel I1J89 Thl' /;Jhtlflf,{raplly "f ( oltJmunit ali(m ' AliI I "" • n rr"'II<//IJIo 2adeda Oxford: 8Jad(wcll. .... 011 your knowledge of your pcech wrnrnunity. design alunpk .....IIioIlDlUre (along the lines of the sarnple in 'Iable 14.17) teiting i({ ........ Jaical ilenu. If you live in a rural community, you Dllgll imiJar to !bOlle in the table, If you live in a CIty, loot i({ ""-_..for type ofbuildings or houses, treets. paVementt.die 8Dd pavements, and 10 on. 01eadeavour (forexample, fanDlJll, COIIII*'- ••- by IlllllIeCODdIry IOW'CCI or by _ .... .......die uaique of JIIIIII. 3, I IIId IWI, I ~ngh "~pc' r Will) Detemllne wltat I,·Al:al'lerrl gr al lir t fIIeal I,f the day (IIM""I c hr 'd'" 'I n&l b) rnl .'I",y mea ( eel-.day I C) maIO eventng roeal wee day ) d) hght even,")! meal (weekday) e) large. fr)rroalmeal (wee rod) f) mid-mr,rntng I,r mid·day fir r ' g) meal midway thr<JUj1h an eve neat (wee~, h) late aftem'J<m qUIck mtal rung or f C"ntra~t their term, with Y'JUr JL . • -"ItS anyone ha tor any <me I)t the'>e nl,j< >o'/ Under h;,t e 1IIOrt.. _ ... different term;" )Id they vlJlunteer . W ~1Ild1j0lll1lo 1IIey __ elicited'i In what way dr, yllUr fir:,~Y < IIlC:a 1IaIIIQ.... __ . I ' . . Ingi provide ~_~ _ reglona .I)r situallonal dltterelltratlCJrt "fl"nguage~ -,_" 4. English exhibits comiderable 'IIarialllJl) (from speak.er to !>JX:l1ker In the .me regi/Jll. and ~ 10 ..... indIVIduals) WIth rel,pecl to the pr<mundauon ofell .. die .... with lhe letters f)() !n lhe fl)lowing I.:U of "'ork~ ..... group<; and determine which vl)wel you USe. If JIOIIiIIe. - ... pro~unciation with that < }f a peaker of anOO!er v :--,.. whIch group(s) does the pnmunciauQII appear-:'. ..... (uniform)'! In which i the lew.t I1IIiformuy 1CCa' Aa-:' correlatIOn'> belween variations in pronunciaaioa ofoo....I. . . .~;..~, the regional origin of speaker.? a pool. f(Jol, m{JCxi. loop. boon, doom, looie b) good. fOOl. b<xJk C) hoof, mol', 1>oot. room. coop. hoop d) blood. f1{JC.xi S. Carefully examine how your localllCW1piipaO'" language wllh re peel lO maum of ..... ,.. gcnder-bia..c,ed or of gender-DeUlnl .... lhe cO'erage of ports and note to _ _ language used i biased or DOt 6. c · c!ully examllle how yOIII' IDcII language with respect to hla~d or of race-neuIIIl ......~ covel"'dge of i IUCI of ... and note to what Of not.
- 306. h 'I 'ci,ill~ anu sidillg, You could also invest' sUe' . ' . 'k I , I,' , Igatc k h 'me' /tJ in words IJ 'e IOte ,At':/lls. lilt'e I t"e re I' pont: , erler, let, I ~ l?UtiO 8 Group' of people el'en a~ small as one's ramiI eI8'8elo~Qr,~ . /' , ! Ir 'S hie'h set them oft from other groups, Y can Sk '.(ft.) "~ e.1 l t . , , • and p , "ate I' , /'u'llitl, ConSIder your own family s sociolect rovlde I~. ' '01.. h'h bl' andp' all],uI" )Iher features W IC you e leve to be uni OInt Ou casu "< or I h C 'I 'I ' qUe, C I an Ie", 'milM ilems from t e ,rum y SOCIO ects of two Oth Ontrast YIcr .' " , er StUd theSe IC~ 9 L st ,tnd classify (both semantIcally and morphol' ents, "'itij . I • , oglcall 'ords from your communIty as you can. Do all g 'Yl as '" " ' h I h roups t' "'an a particular community or sc 00 s are the same s 0 adole, YSlatJ 'OVS ofspeaking differ? How are they alike? lang? /-foh,SCents'! II"J' '~ d I~ I, h h 0 the- 10 In early Modem Eng IS , t ere were two funct' , It • 7'1 IOnlng pronouns: thou and ye, l'IOU was used by SOcial SU e ' second (including parents to chIldren) and ye was Used p flors to ' Person ' T.Z h b by th lOren addressing the supenor, IOU as een lost fro e in~ , Ors (' h " m gener I enor, IanO'uage, Only ye In t e lorm you) has surv' a uSe' In '" , h' h IVed In In 0 discussion of address terms In t IS C apter, what ha ' view Ur s caused th' or the 11. Describe, with examples. some phonological, morpholo' ISChange? and lexical differences between Standard English glcal, sYnt ' f Qda ~ dialect. You should use some 0 the reference item I' non-Stan". C s Isted ab "<ltd Sources, oVe und Ct 12, Choose a conte~porary English-Ia~guage play Or fi lm, Tr ' examine some dialogue, If no pubhshed version is av 'I ansCnbe and ' d d' h d' al able f consult. List an IScbuss t e d ISCourse markers Used in the dialog Or You to out how they may e use to achieve temporal sequ ' Ue, P Oint '1 f th dd encIn~ of related. IllVO vement 0 e a ressee or audience 0 ' b, eVen~ , f' T ' r Interject' speaker's own POlllt 0 VIew, ry to compare this fictional d' 109the real-life conversations, Show how the play or film resembl~:logueWith resemble naturaJJy occurring talk. or fads to 13. Consult with a speaker of another language regarding coh ' , 'h' h 1 U . t" eSlve deVice III tS or er anguage, slllg re erence Items listed above u d S S . , n er ourc try 10 determllle some types of such deVIces used in that langu es 't- 11 ' h f' , age, Look speci Ica y lor t e two types 0 reference mentioned ell' , b ' , A 11 f' h h'b' , , IPSIS and su stJtUllOn, re a 0 t ese ex I Ited I~ th.e other language? Do the' appear to work III much the same way as In EnglIsh? What other device; does your consultant suggest you consider" ' TYPES 0 F WRlTtNG I.t Writing and angu - age Michael Dobrovolsky and W'//' IlamO/G d ra y Outside ofa dog, a book is man's best friend' inside of a dog, it's 100 dark to read, ' ,.. Croucho Speaking and Writing are different in both " , ongln and ' use language IS as old as humankind and tl practice, Our abllity to ' ' , re eCls bIoi ' modification that has ocCurred in the e I ' oglcal and Coonitive .. , vo Uhonary b' . e Wnting, the symbohc representation of Ian , lStory ot Our ~pecie, a comparatively recent cultural developmentu~gem storable graphIC form.is five thousand years and only in cenain pansavlfnghoccurred v.ithin the past .. 0 t e world I The between speech and wntmg comes into sh.rru>r foc b' conlra.t " - r- us w en we conSIder that spoken language IS acqUIred without specific formal' 'tru ' , ' InS Clion. whereas wntlng must be taught and learned through deliberate effon Th ' , , ere are entire groups of people III the world today,.as well as individuals in every literate SOCiety, who are unable to wnte, WhIle spoken language come, natural! to be, "d Y human rng, wntlllg oes not. As different a, they are. speech and writing, hare one major characteristic. iu t aspoken language shows an, arbitrary li~ between sound and IJIeIIIIIII. the mou. ,ymbols and techruques used In WIlnen language show • arbitr:lf link between ,ymbol and sound.All ~tingcan ~ groupedIIIDtw ba~i.: t'res..:alled logographic and phonographic.depending081beIrit:IIIiIta of IingUlsll': r~presentation they use, • f' Greek I~ 'wold')'"11), The teon logographK: rom "'11~ _ ..... 111 whi.:h symbols represent rnorphemesorewa logographic writing logograms
- 307. h.. ,folK ...,rlfjng figUlt'I~, 1 ,f4l1 ft., 11'''( (,I HI ,(, IIU I l
- 308. , l l ...TI " I ~ I" 1 ~ f{ ( .In.a..han built .a k1)l; _.abm uot ,'IIdq. ~ , 02 ","'/l-"; 11(',10( .. tJ'i'('o, ,..n d cd ,,,,. ~ ~ ~ .. .!~ , ~ hwft" n l.1:.t aU :<- 1 J " h< ~ J... tt I'J' ""lok n hOrW' "" h tK'lIl' tunu'"'I.a~t .' '6 Iht'InJun Un Sm ' 1';1.1 ,.. ~- "" ~ IIood Tht"ht".l(l" fh dr, ""nN 1l()o1f nthl"watn ~ D.l t mio! I Ufrl14 (," tor 'IlIlr1Wlg' , ""
- 309.
- 310. , I~ 11 Ir rY-V-A
- 311. Iph.lbel ",0. 1 ,~t ~~ ~ ~ l: :; - AA A 8 8 ..... 1 r Lorn"", B Delta C fj 6 l.p>iJ0<' 0 0 ~ E ~ E ~ 1 F I I G 8 H fto e H ® e rta I , I (J) ' "'- L ""' """ M '1 ~ 0 1.' ___ 0 l tbtf t - Ed" I 1 iIt~(/pm n , n ~ J ~ P R ~~riting ) r: J s ... T V X X .n y z p. 115A I(I AI:J , If I I
- 313.
- 314. t <t 4 t J I #~ U if -p l' r) j) ~ 7. k -it ~ A -z ') . T :1 7- ';J -r T . . -r .::? / 1 H I t: 7 '" ~ H /j l ~ 7 b ~ 1 }~ r
- 316. .. - - -"'-~I- m31 'f ,-"ihz:lIjon, developed On the -' ~ - nurn,~f l , , ""lien -n -;) :Ullne more ll13n e'ghleell writing " can en.. ' ~f·);llI < - , }Slellls ....1In....' --A AnlOll>! them mo~e 01 the ~f:l) ans of the Vu have ~lI. L • lH-"~. ~. - _ _ ,caLan .. - In I'<llh ., cern, e Lan see the evoluuon of' and the Me , 1 , - , -" did PICIOl!h_ A.».' .utl p-lk nec,,- 1m SIgnS, JU-,>I as the EgyPtian hi :'""'IlS "".~ N !l ' - - eroglYPhi ":"" b.... m - "nOlI -'..' c-s 1]Jl('~ ~I un .yml'<ll, are called glyphs. Some were . ," lid read,. I ~,mm,)_ BUI me "nang y lems re e on other II<~ ..., "'"" _l .,. l e d ' -> Oflb ,-'~ I{ Th: ret->u principle as emp oy - omeumes onl) PartiaJJ, e '&!Is _ o(the _I!:n fOf a -moking bundle ofpine, f ! 1aa3l, to }, as in the~" U.t" - 'uJd be ' feprese ,.~ prep"-j{ion [3,', ~!ayan ~gns c~ combmed fOf their !ltthe Iocai,~ :uooe III fonn ot yUab,c wnnn~. Glyphs that mh YUabt'I '.,..l!!r.lP/uC repre:.emanon are aJ 0 tound, c "lltin. ~~: ., mJ lord pa ) -na jP"QIi" lord PacaJ hield ca .a firure 15.23 -orne ,-meri~ loriting ~_[erns do Dor date back [0 a di-uuJI an. . the lonizauon of. 'onh America b)i Europeam. a nUmber of ~_.-.~ (be/oped to pronde natie people with a : nn of wrinen co~ crt In one eU,-kilon case. the Cherokee leader Sikayi ("~uoia) de . U ( h . F' 1- , "'-'! 11.<et! ! -~ C ~~np[ On ID 19ure )._-) ot fT!')re than eight}" Ymbols, _ don the ,hape ofEngh h letter. and others newly invented, 'a e 51mbol a.uE' S}mbo alu Symbol alue Symbol " a a R '" ? I Of e Ie T Y gl .J iii f' IT H 1m {) A .. 6 3 o go 110 10 (» 11 J r M ~ !be (:, .i, -<- t t> 0, Ii .. , " pi, ~ V pi > po, po < Jill n .ti, .tl .ti ) to, to c ta r M, el 'I et CD, eD CI P IU, III 'I U d to, kO - III r iii, a(. 1 t ." ., • <r M, Ill. ... lit IJ 110, 110 & • r' 4..c., 4-<- H ; 40, U .. ~ f/i., yl. L., !ll .t rIO, ,. .. II Finals I P , ~ - C , k .. 4 »• .,•• • • , Fi ure 15.•5 _ern Cree syIabary .A nipl leaf ~ f~we 15.26 TlTee~n leslemCMe
- 317.
- 318. Gt)lSTf( ~ AllY LIN, WI 'II conSldcr the nature and hi<t . we , "ry, I ."""....... In Ihis ,cellOn, , scction 5.3 to examine the relalil}n~h) l:n~1ih or words. We will then usc. Ip I",t",..:. orthography. , ~" wriling and readJIIg. I· 101 ahout l' llg" h ')lthO!!"I"hy "ll. ' sed COIOP a I , , • 'I I,ll II <J. • enll}, exprcs 'rc/ali"",hlp lCl",ceIJ SYIIJ'I) S aIJ" Ph"", I '" A'"'"", ,>" ,,~ ,,,"''' wd' ,,,"w,,""""p".' ,,' ""<. "'"'' nol csla I 1 15 1 !JIIS soJ1le enls, Tah l' ,.- segm wilh I'ngl"h ""h"'1 Iphy lI"f)hlc!'ln~ TlIhw /5.2 SlJme I r 111"'1,1" Prflhln n 111 Ihln~ iIll dllll/lil IIIPII! h It·, ,rC!!<J s.lxophollc /1.." exile 1Ir.'1 fIll I d) hot Inl, hone /~()/. !loe'WII! lu I III J1.!le. IQQp, '2.J!p. chew sue, to. t!,!!, shl!!:, sl!'.l!lh ~ poem h} RlI..harl/ Krogh vividly illUstrates rthograph~ dl'parts from the principle of one vmbol) Table 15.3 s)mbo/ Nump Srgme1!l( , ash "'1 iI: eth (0, and II) " thorn [Oland [0 l> "'yn ('" p
- 319.
- 320. moo Akhougb the n:preselllro a; immediatel.prec 3} football ,pOOnbill landfill carn. mem marT) Jet!) beaut_ un...el re-el recall Carrl-ed mem-I~ marTi-age jelli-e" beauti-ful The exi lence of CODention and Engli,~ o~ogrnph) i- mu h I!l()re ~ It - mtncactes can be undet<; ood .md ~ IJ1lcrure of the lingui tic -_ em
- 321.
- 322. ItY II G'ST/S ".".."....c:JtI" -::::.------::::::::: .....unT ot the deelopmem of ::-8 -:---- fir. ~__-""n '" - . aOd r .. "'•.".-- found In }cR. ...n. Gelb. and DcFmnclS (al/. 0 the, ". VSIrtn ate . 1/ d C'ted he,1 ~f"ld' • "Uabatt rna" not e~lst ""a~ ~~e to the a~thor· iatle bl.l),1'hc:' ", port oflbe l W-rrslty 01 • orthem Bnu,h Columb'a (pc"oo. Ot"m by p 11<_",~ Poser ani" ma" hac onglO3ted 10 record keeping W-th I com01l! _rf'f~ ~ i«lI thal .. n ~ -. bel Th C II . ' Clay •. k O'c,. • tunandr-8~o;era' tCHed 0",). e 10 0'-'"108 figures "' en,. ~klQ} • 1- J I' ~ 15.ID. 15./3. 15.26. 15.29; from Ale,a"de rc adaPledr "lak.n,lf.; 15 10 .' 0 • v. . 0 r M . r<b.. r,~ C l -alJon (e.. Yor/(; McGra.. ·Hdl. 1972). 15. lb· f "'h ac ...... j~'" of ,. I. . rth C . ' rOIl}~ . '. h c OeFr:lI1clS (see tu er re,erences 10 ongins of th "<:h"",''''' k 15 2••rom ? 180 15 16 (168 . e", fig Odt'lle "'" 761.15. Ip 21. 15.L (p. ). . p. ). 15.25 (p. 127 ure'tbe, "" P rhc l D1ve",'Y of Haw"" Press; from M.W. Greeo. 'Earl I. COpy" «nj II b! .• ~Io") 15.9 (p. -15); from Samp,on (ciled below) 15 Y CUOC,fOf!n.ghtt: ") J (_rrCU ,~ ' . De I f h . .11 ' f . 'n <. <, 'The In,enllon and ve opment ate Alphabet" . 'oil} F . ...,~ Cros 59 d 15 17 . • 'n Sen '.nk "'" J5 1- (p. 891. Figure, '. . an '. are copynght () 19H9 h OCr felted . 1,••, o.--ka Pre "nd repnnred by permIsSIon. The POn pict Y the Un htr..., . ellloL:l . _ C '1 Fi . ograrn~ . . lter ... rle v of the Bntl h Sport.> ouncl. 'gure 15.5 " coune . 10 F'gU, 'II) ~ou ~mcallon In titute. Exclusive licensee, 1982 and i, d 'Y of the !iii,e IS ~'" =beJIn the ..ork. Semanlograph.l. original cOP;'right C ~n~ed froll} t~Y"'br,~ R Ference to Arabic "riting IS from lame, A. Bellamy :Th' . li, . 1949 'Y1lJb..", • DeF . . . • C Arab' Senner (cneU bela,, ) l ohn ranclS (Ln"ersuy of Ii . IC AIPiIab.r (lnlver irv of ToromolYoTl< Un"er Ity). aDd Brian King ~~a",. ~ Columbiai all prOided in I~htful .lnd helplul comment~ (e~lVerJty or ~ Chinese "riung). so many, ID tact. that "e were not. able to makc~'a"y 'tga,d ill here. Their "e" are not neee sanly those refle<.:ted to [he cha 'Ie of all of Chinese "TIting I derived from DeFr~clS (cited bdo,,) a~ p~ The d,eu, t!tt.i; df ' J ' I~ .able 15 l'ltItt Figure 15.IS wa adopte rom .rom eny onnan. Chinese (Carnbrid ..1(P.lfn t Universit} Press. 1988); ChIDese c.h.... "'lIc.tCf'; "ere prOvided b gc. Calll~ presentation of Japanese "ritIDg ill. owes to [)eFrancis. a, weI/as~n ZllJqlu. 1'h. 1M wnguage, of Japan (Cambndge. Cambndge lJnive",1 p M. Sh,I... Fi I Y ro. I"'~......' biragana and Ica(akana chart (!guTe 5.19) arc adapted from Len' ''''I); lbe JaptlMJt' Toda) (Tokyo. Japan Charles E. Tuttle. 1971) and reprinted Wahh', ktQd 0( Ihe pubb.sber example of Japanese wnt!~g were prO ided b K 0 by Ptnn • dilalssJOll of Cherokee 1!ontmg. see aUve American Writ; aztoe Kanno. R~ d S u. ·-th ( <Is ng SYltem • b Walter m C. Ferguson an n= e ,. Languaf{e in the U S:A. ' Y'l. Cambridge Umverslty Pre } Presentauon of the Cree yl/abary I~ ~ (Cambrtd.. ~ Nlhiva..artfUIhlkbun: A Standard Onhograplry for the err:: r'ilID [) (SMtMoon Saskatchewan Indtan Cultural CoUege 1977) The lAn2~, ...... African wntJng } terns draw on PIerre AleJlandre AnaC,CflIJnr n( , ntmdu{,r I...,,u and Languoge In Afnca (London Heineman 1972) Th IIJrJ ItJ . f ' . e example-. l( ....1adiaD p!CtDna/ scnpl are rom John Mar hall. MfJhenjoolJam and L_ 4aI.....(lGodon. 1931) !,'" /fIIkJ ".ke atdie hi lory of Eng" h pellmg I b cd on A HlI/o'V nf&. DO Sa.g (Manche leT Manehe leT UDlvcr Uy Press 1974) 1beg daQ - hID P J4J of Carney (CIIed below) The Amencan repon 011. IftIllfOea rbouaand databa<;e I hy PR Hanna. JS Hanna. RE 1IIIIIIII1. PIIDrrnM-Graphnne Corr" poflli"flu tU Cw /0 - _..... DC US [)qlenrnent of Health Educabon IIId nib IeIISIUve to fIIOIJIboIoaica ~ a. below o.a011 hildmJ abilily 10.... _ _ICllllil from LY. Ubermu. rqJOIted .. GIla.. (}tItstions W~I' (c'ted below). John Sc".eo I'<t'" and helpfully hn the entire cha r .r~ nf t Dnor..L PIt, .r.... I_~ ~--------- -~~ carney: E. 1994. A Su,w>y ofLnx/jlh ~ CummlOgs. D.W 19RR. A"", P"/,"~ I, k· U' '''an hi 1Iid<""t.-... Hop 'os OIVerily Pre". •... IIh ~""U ,;-:""'It DeFrancis. John. 19~9 Villh/ ~ ", ~ Honolulu: Un,ve, Ily of H ': r"'h. rJ,.. IJ" ~ ~ ........ I 1 1963 .a all h~ r,.~ (Jr.-_ __ Gelb. . . . A Sluciy of W",,"X ( -..... of __ Gibson. E. and LeVin. H. 1'175 Th "'~iKC'. .jill•...., .•_ Press. . , "1)("',&,.,'1 R '" ~..... Gleitman. L. and Ro/in. P. 1'177 'The 'Odin~ c-..w; between orthc,graphi" and the tn""u,. and act...., ...... '-' Reading. Edited by A. Reher ~UTe o!lanCU;-"'~I: ___ Erlbaum. and () Sc:art;..~ar"""",., -=- len",n. H. 1970. Silln. Sym/x,/ and s.: lIP 5 "".,.. ..... -_.. Unwin. "PI r, UII'Ion. traa& Samp<;on. G 19115. Wntl/ll( SY"tml: A I.ln ~ o....~. Schmandt-Be....rat Den,<,e. 1911'1 'T KII/JlJc/lllmdoc..... ~ tokens: In The OrigIn, "f W"'on.": PT<cunon of ~ .......... 'eb.. UniVeNt;, ,r..ebr", aPr OdittdbyWIol 'I-...:: ....... ~ Se WM ed 9 • ---",n-4Z, . nner. ...• . I 1I~. Th. OrigJlIJ . ebra,ka Pres~. of IVfIIIJt~ u...... Ma.: Wallace. Relt 19fs9 'The ongill! nd <ltv Origins ofWriting E!hted by W M. ~~ of dIt '- ~ oL 'ebr31 ka Press. PI' 121 36.u......_~_...... 1. Suppose you are the user of a . already represent concrete objeas ~::, ~ ~~.Itji~. pictographic _ 'lTIbol of _our Yaan. .., these mho to represent !he foUowac_ a) hunt f) oak - b cold g) bred C) f h et d):bite angry e) trength weabca 2.
- 323. lth hm ",~', l" , • III 1.1 11111' " 1.111 " lk"~1
- 324. :-3lJ ......~en[ communicationi ,...,1 and aI : u"'d '-- . , mol<i-. In :-[': mamm ,. ChelllJcal, uy ~ ~ -, r (01" ,omm"ru.arn e ptUpO. 'are called ph" "Sed h) . ' -, , reprodu.oth e re.wme. through !he reI retnolles ... mo...m ' -= .......... 3 f,> of the", molecu]", need 10 be ea..., Of a nI... t , all: vm} d _-,. """nted h.. r_"" I1nn~ zig-ag UP1fl 10,," ~"" Its i>Olenlial Uj a 'llaIt f.... t I> ,:;m - urine-ru..-ed pberemone as an identificati~- Dog <iIld ' 1)1"" and tD3J1 non-human pnmale hale '''''''-a11l1art lo _ (>. lbe!r t m •, . -.-..1 J~ IOC • rurr<'''' ~ ~ Li hI Probsbl~ the mO'1 ,,:ell-I~"n l~~U~r in _'Drth ~ tir:ih <JC hghming bUfde· TIll•.ma r ~dlngl _e uses ligbl f1as":~-IlC:a II . em' 10 '.;nal jc I n~l~: .ex_ an ()Calton_ Different s .~ In tn :1' h;) e d,iferenl :md di ungw hmg IIghl pattem _ Pecies Of ~ - '" Cenain ·pecles of eel: in the Amazon Rler "'•. _ £hctticr. . ·al- b f I - """In Coo... """"Ik'e and temron . I~ ~ mean 0 e eclncaJ irn~.J -....,n Jr ,--- 'mal 'fi ""'5es fr: ncre Eachpecre:. '''tho. atfa !"'-' IC freqU~ ran" at v rr3ll'lIllrung frequen',e._ like ;.e 0 mUlO and lele>; ion . , ' • 0 erJ.ap. do lQ. Colour The .:-oJour (or colour pattern of I?any anirnal pIa>· an _ n theJr denufi;:-auon b) member' of therr Own pecie> 'ft:' "''''_~ li e 1 .. / 4 !hi _...,., """" The::t .han:e coJour,requent ~ anu colounng i Il.>ed ~ :e · lhat in IUde temtonaJ detence and maUng readines_ _ or a P ture TIll 1':1 common rorrunnru~~e deice among animaIs for eump e, Ioer the fr nt pan of _ err OO<le and eXlend their ~ ; ,,:nen the) are p 3}fuJ The_ 10,,: er theIr hole bod'e o !be Yound ": ~ Pastu :anon I found in both human ben ill ~-
- 325. If'" til ,H 'pl.lllt , It,I' In", d 1'lIl1k, wll"""Vl 1((",1 w",1", II'ft'II I
- 326. Ibe me ..Igetrtlt1ure moo Ie gns g .~ :Iffil = r.aJ bcr:rr ~16. rnrv .me
- 327. fljcurt' Ib. ,~ Dlscrt'tt'signs ,I / • II ' .,," Illl' I.ll ,.11 "'P"·";UI1S.I, h, .111d ( of Ilw 1111C "'inOll' 1-!"u l i OM - " . _ '_ . ~,-14~1(' rn k I ",,1.. nil I t'(lIltinUllJ11 t'XP/(·!sstng It-',":..•1, h.1 Ill'UIILll f1e", b 011 E : ' y . '.p /lI..rflH·l·P' . ' . I . I,.;, ,e>., r~. , ., If ......1.'.. t·,.tlt'flll' 1t'<1'. L1C 1 t.....xpn.·sslon gr<.ld(s into 111 presses s~ L.""'q It'lt ,Ill( I C' l - I / (' next TI 1I&l1t • I , . I ."lIt.'..... nmlul{'S 111.1 gra( t....( 1ll.1nnl'r. . 1ehal'd Illt'I,.I)("II(( 'I~on /),,,"I,'Il' s'~II' (Fi~url' 16.6) nrc tfislinguished frOl11elch olhcrb ,) ddTal'nl'l's. There IS no gradual Iransllion rro Ycatego,.; ("ll'IHI'S' 111 one' «Cal nt'!. rhl' wortls of 11lIIllan language are good examples or d', Sign 10 th, Thl'fl' i, 'lll illll'l'llletiialL' stage ht:IWL','1l Ihe ~'ords SlOp and Iscrete Sig nl ' , "I'l Ilnl which call he "pressed hy olhl'!' dlscrele Words go In EngliSh ,ll ' • h f" .• ' - Or COmb' t·11"'·lb ,u,'h as 'slarl 10 go . T l' llgllal ulspluys of Watches' Inationl ,1 ... . , - <Ired' , lId/. "nel' Ihl') pmgn:ss Imlll olle "~lI1l1te ('~r ,'veil second) 10 Ih. ",crete ", 'r'llhli,,,, Traffic lighls. I(lO, are d,SL'rl'!l' sIgns; ther.: is no de next with Jl(l f' , . gra Ual sh'" fWIll grl'en Itl yelio IV red. . Ifllng, ~ ISl11pl ~~ ....., ~ ..-~~ ~ ~4 ~ ,~ ~ e /g;)ul .1 /, c ,.... 16.6 StHllt' ,h, 'I'l" ,,~''', " dl~it,lfli']l( d"pi.1V; /" Ir,ltli( fig"h. 11 three tyPt'~ <l[ si 'ns - i,'/llIi('. illd<, lcull.l 'IIII'I/llIIlIIic', <lIIlI,I''/II!lo/ic C~n be gflldcd or disl·rt'tl'. , photllgraph is inlllil' and di~rrl'll" blll a thr~atcning anin 's gflldual harin' of its fangs is il'ollll' and !'Ialk'd r-.l11rs~ c,x1c I~ ymboli and discrete, hUI a slowI) dlllllllin" Ii Iht that ~lgl1als lht' beginnmg alhealricaJ perfonnanCt' i~ S) IIlholil' ,lilt! gra,kt! S~ mp(tllllatk ~ign 111, m be eli rei (the tnillil' light a 'aill) PI grallt'd (till' l'l) ing or a child (lr the b1USlllllJl. bl for a discrcll' si '11 to ht' intl'rnall) '1,llIt'lI, ,11.1 l'wn tll ,hp Figure 16.7 Cry (voiced expiration) Audible intake of breath Time Cry r e • III • • • • • • • s o b The graded contimrum from sobbing t05Crearmgtheheitla!he~ancI blackened area, representsthe a~bility of the~and!hewidlhals_ both sob and scream are dl~crete Signs. el'ertthougheachpiesm!he. ,tthet' tremt: ends (11' the continuum.1hcninodifticIItJ 1 au .... ~~)nd a~ one or thl! other. although it is difficult110 ...-.,___1.. hccomes a 'scream', Thus we can say tbal '...... dis.::ret~' s mplomalic sign', but each of lila .......,•• gr'ldati)n~ oerlap. The same is true of ... l'OtlUllunicallon,
- 328. ,"--_-----;-----:---':/. C'wi.rs watches... the.V}lIs, reaCI. Theirg ... 7"11 "Il" /At'.> T' ene" A ...of ~-'-21 <',", I '1'lh<'1II whullO do, ",ey don 'r Ihink about' ' and hOh ..,IR'- t'/u'!lte t B 1/ ''l' o io t','r .. Zookeeper en Beck (on golden r' "es Q (8IIIIIIUIIkaf n " , Ian l'IJllar; "" , ," communication, Il IS clatmed, shows lillie b' nIllon'- Most amm, , t t' d h ar lira' 'e• • I' "'I)" icomc and symp oma IC an ence nOI del'b rlness I, ") co Ix are-t:: . .. ' rt F I erat . tl$ , ' ,t nor symbohc In liSsIgn repe ory, Or eXampl ' e Or c 'ai' m IIIt<n , f d " e, If a ons' " ," C'"" in the presence 0 anger, It IS assumed rnon,- clOUS a certalll ' .I " t i b I' , Ihal lh 'ey, 'ously signalling ItS ear y voca IZll1g, but is nOI d' e 100 give, sponlanc . h d Th ' e"be nke ther roup members of t e anger, e vocaltzation is int ralely11 yis o h g nembers ofa troop for theIr Own benefil erpreted a allllng by at ert " f ' I ' ' nd u' I t' Ilows from thIS vtew 0 amma communIcation th Sed I 0 ' I ' althe Inicative syslems by anima s was 111 the past ass acqUisil' comtm ' R h ' umed I ' Ion 'd f learning and expenence, at er, It was claimed h 0 be I Of deVOl 0 , 'h ' I allhe 'ltgel h strictly limited by genetrc 111 entance, and in this se ,sYsle~ y rat er , , , f h' I nSe rad '''sar h language the acquISitIOn 0 w IC 1 requires ev ICaliyu I' e uman " , ~posure nIk Stem, This limitation certrunly appears to be true in so 10 a Illa! e sy, , I d' h e m e Ca ure ' d in isolation anima s as Iverse as t e lOX, the elepha ses, 'Wh raise . , f nt seal th en certain monkeys develop, the ~1I ran~e of vocalizations t i' eCat, and cies However, as we will see III sectIOn 4 of this chapte h YP Cal of th ' spe " , r, t e Situ ' elr be more complex than this" , ahoncan It is further claimed that animal commul1lcation is neith ' b r d l' er consc' deliberate, II is not Widely e leve , or example, that a mOnke 10USnOr situation and then delIberately chooses to warn group memb Yassesses a " ' f ' ers of da se/ecting a sign from a repertoire 0 meaningful SOund Symbol ' nger by t· I b d' s at Its dl For this reason, the term S Imu us- oun IS also Used to d ' sposaI, " " f I' d h ' escnbe ' communicatron, sInce rl IS 0 ten c alme t at al1lmal cOmmu' ,anl/nal , , ' d b t ' IlIcahon 0 I occurs when rl IS tnggedre y exposur,e 0 a beertaln stimulus Or for ce~Y specific ends, AnImals 0 not commul1icate a out anything but th In now As the philosopher Bertrand Russell once noted 'No e here and ' ' k ' 11 ,'matter h eloquently a dog may bar , It cannot te you that Its parents w ow honest, ' ere POOr but With respect to stnrcturc, animal communication is said to show ~ , dh b' f eWtraces ofdiscrete structunng heyon teo VIOUS act that one group of sym t ' graded signals may sound very different from another, Whining in ~ omalic, , I d'/'j' /' b k' b ogs, for example, IS clear y I erent rom ar lng, u( both arc assumed to be symptomatic, and (he two may grade into each other. Combining' d "fd' ' / ' h ,In ~mblDlDg 0 Iscre(e Utl/ts () stnH;(UJ'C suc as phonemes, morphemes' d . h " / ' h ' I ' an wonfIllS not c aracteflstlc 0 t e way anIma s communicate, Dogs do not combine whines and barks to producc novel mcssages, 'Dais doe not mean that animal communication consists of r,ltldlltn .lOCloaal outbursts. Nor does it mean that animal cOllllllunil'ation doc, nil! 1II'IIctUre. Animal communicalion is !loth complex and organi/cd 1M1llll1ia..~ pressure has guaranteed that animal ~ommunication is oplimail) cbc survival requirements of eal'h species, The eleclrical ..... ofAmazonian eels is an excellent means of communication Dislance OirKtlon ~NIf.AI in muddy waters, The dange h' (()f.f.jNIf ' 'd 1 r W "tie AIIO!; galago IS I ea for nocturnal " of a'rnall '3S ' S th A ' eOllllllu ' ,Iree d frogs III ou" menca eomm, nlCation' . "'ell' 'd 1 f ' unleate b In A. 109 Pri legs, I ea or sendll1g message ' ' YStiCk' ""n". I~ Illatelike.~. , S,n Ih d' Ing ou ~"t S ... do not try new combll1ations of I e '111 and ,t heir I ' Illall iilll< original message, any more th eg Ill()Velllen.~ol'y iunol:"'llg and C()1n..':; "I ' I ' an the I -, In .', tit' ''''''flI order to signa someth,ng it h.., eCCtric I order to JUngle£tn.. b " ..s never ee ree C()rne u ,-~ tion appears to e hmlted in the conveYed c. "rnbine, I P"'I!h an ' , I messag ' ""Inr fp~1Ie ' But IS amma communicatio ' e, II can e, Ani""I' IlCItl; in k ' nSo Ve", ' conYe ..'" C()"'_ , Recent wor on ammal commu' ,'J unlikehu Y, .....unlta- I, " nlcallonh rnan >. human mgUlstlc communicatio Th as Often r ~,guagein l! among severalkinds ofanimals a~'d e ne~t 'tCtio~U'ednn it, re~,r.sPtct.? compareitWith~ eXatnine corn IO~hIPto umanIan.., mUfUcation ••age, I have no doubl Ihat some will aftempI I ' bees as the resulls of reflexes and' ,0 explain' Ih ha h InSllncls e perfo,,""_. to assume I I suc perfectioll and fI ,::' for my p "'-ICes of ,''- withoul some kind of mental P'oc eXlb,ltry in beha~n, I fllld il difflclAll .' esses g , lor ca ,. bees 0111 8 on in lhe n "" reac"-d ' small "-ads of the ...August Kro ' gil, SClenlific A__ , """'""an Forager bees display a remarkable sy t s em of co"'- ' a food source to other bees in their h' uUuunlcating the I~.~. , , lVe, Whe' '''''''UJII of dIscovered, the forager flies back to the h' n a lOOd SOUtte baa "--- ' b ~ , lVe and conun ' ....... about It Y r-uomung special movements (W ' lilUcales infOl1llalion before other members of the hive, The dane' hich h~ call ~) , t' , !figconveysInfn..-~. -~"'II locauon of the.OO<I ource, Ill> qUality, and its distancefu;..~abouttllc ..~, Distance i-conveyed by one of three different dances ~ till or floor of the hive orne, pecies have only twadilfeRlldltll:a.:' WII :>e :3.1d to have a,dlfferent 'dialect'. In doing tbeQIId-'_ -.. repeatedl~, ThL Illdlcate, a food source wiIbin file _. The ,ickle dance mdicates afood source fromrc:::~:::::~=l 1m " 1t lS perfofl11ed b) the bee dancing a agging dance lIldicates di lance funbu ........ the h<:e ag, it. abdomen as it moves _ ....t.~". Ib ,tarting point. repeatl' the waggiaa ........IWII. c') de then hegins again.
- 329. 1 ly Jthe dan 'j; and !h~ A JC Jood til 'UJce I o f {"lot
- 330. l " rnentl lunhcrlroUppUJl II g 'n IIC lntc'pt h ,,'p"n breedmg npcnrn~fll, Ihe ""e~ Ih I ."I.I('n "f In a n'" ..r.1 h ' )(yr~ _ nrnum' ·tJ(lCl ltalun p= nl pe.. orm('u I" 'klc <Ian c • phy • to dJdf per cenl of Ih" IIIlle, Inc hce Ih.n )"-.,.10 'fItI - - ---f!3l di [3IICC ustnan parenl performed Ihc '!)Ulld <13 a phy ........_--=r to dJdf 9 nM' cenl 01 Ihe lime; Ihcy d,d n'lI I n"<· II, '1Jcl .. ~ --"'"'- cfLSL1DCe '-' - '''", 'he -.: ~ d.lnCC pallcm used In a pec ,ftc " "UilIlllO "PPe 1C~1t at aIL 111<: ""...nl along" 'Ih other mOre uh'"m g. aT If, ~ cenatO ....-- . nel,< I fIOIII a D.1llI h phy JOlogl I Augu I Krugh made lhe r., Ia I ..bt'D the ofthr ~/On, he ' truck :tIthe W,d 'Iyacc P1r~1 '!lent ----...I lithe bCgiJIIUlll ~. e'theTthe result of o rne kind "I Clm<J I llOtu., -- ~'iOUI'''- h h hec I ' "'''In "".- .><1. m IIncti,e Muc 3. n c,lrn('d ,nce lhen & I" III iJkIclined"of mformation Impartw hy gcncll(; Iran fer It ~ ~ quanu~ a faJr degree of cen alnly Ihit! I/,e ( 11m I' '."" 10 5UU' f ~ and other e{juaJly rc marl;ahle m~ ~ Ild «'Olc::!l""",ed bdIa'')OVT °callV predeterminw and, unllt e human Ian I In at) p . =~~10the mature sy'>lcm m o,dcrlo he IICqU/f d ~ ;. ~ -ery ~ - ~;$-_---- ------------reaJure lhal con (1mllJl! hIm PlI IM H mUll/I.'. I tr.1 JJ D C Iu-ft,lIu..-mg J(lUnd uhr; uhr, "hr, Uh, , HII , k" ~r,;nd{}ur. I I ...ah.. ...ah .. Jake f'agc (110 hIS Arna/!/IJ I- Ill)
- 331. II .....- - 10 Tune m ~nds • II mil -,---- - ---- -- --... y------ . l . ,,-. Inn
- 333. (I",t " III n·~p"II" "h,~"I" I • ,Ill '1',.1 IYII') Sp,'1 'I I I ,I "IIIIIIIIIII"",IIIIII.lIIII1I1/-, Ihl' lIH1l1y V'lllt'I'I" I1/'N, 1 1< , III I' , " , LW1I11U ( 'I • 'I'" II'" ',I" Ip, Ihls lh"l'l 'I II OVl'llIl1plrl,cd l'll't , )luW nrl ,. ,>11M , I ' , ' 1I1 ~ r~ 1l d ... 'I,d",,, 1'1<'" IS 1'11111.111 )' " S} 1I11'1(1111'lIll· .YSll'lll L I ~Ll W. HIP'" It "'t • ' • , • , . , - . 1I1I 0lll' th! 'lilt I "I 11111111>'1 "I " ~ II' 'Ih lII(1fl gl,ltI,111Il1l 01111(111" Ihl'l I ,II 'hilI< I ,111:' " < 11, 11.111 l/ <,'"111111111 '1I111HI pI 1",,""I1,lns, 11: Ihe (II ' sllllh 111 Ih,' 1l111111l'1 11;Il"''1Il' (IItll'"('1 I'1II1t1/11/) , l' Il , " . I ' I I ' " ' <I ')()lIlh A I• ' l'I,'scllls ,I ",SI'11I "'11 III ll I I 11Ilili hilSll' p'llll'l I 'lito IIII"~" ' 1) I I'll ' Ifll'll' ".<,..d IIII<'I.I('II"IIS, 1I1,'llItflng l'Olllad a!'Onllll'l'll"( ',Ir" UStd III I, ' " ' 111I1l~" I I ' "It'I'IIII', 'l' 11011 ,">ltloI, f. ,lIItI ,ilalill giving, rhC~I' '11" I ,nrilg. II , '" , ' I ,II/uhllll, I '1'llIllIll't! h ('(1I1<,Llllllg (1hSI'''''III(11 WII 1 pt'I'lrn~'I'lphil: anul ' . al: III '," ' , I' , , YSlS,lb, IlIl' 1,11'1'" ,II" ,d(1 gil' II 1(1 ~hl 'l>l,1 1/.11'."11, 'Ill h ilS 1'/'(1(1, 1'(1I/ft', •Lrtp. II'h/.,t/,', illltf l'IIIA I hI'S(' h'I'Il' l'allt'llI ,lit' tI~'S('llhl'l1 us gl,"lillg 1111;;:"'1. 1"ft,'1 II I' '1ISI1l'lillll1l'd Ihill Iftl'), OITIIi III ('11111 hi 11.111(1I1S. Thl'l' is 11 ,clIch ' , (J eVIl/clI" hl>'t'1't'1 Ill'll Illl'SI' 1t" 'I>llIhIlIilIIlHIS 1111:"11 .1Ilylhlltg 110vel WlWI1111 IC, " " " , I'Y lIteur rhl' CI1I1I1I1II1I,"'illll1l1 ,~" 'rll1' 01 1110111) IIH'l1h'ys .IPlll'ilI' 11 hI' '" " , , ' , , " I I' I 'I I ..Cllt'hCitll, t!t-I"111I1lIl'd, II1IS h;1S h'llt ,I,I'1S1" ') I,lsing nl'wholl1s 111 " I,' . 1(1.lllIn Howell'l, Ihi 'I 1II'II1l'I11 "11111111 b' ItIddr 1111 all II11l11!..l'ys, "01 SOme 11t()l1k~ " '"pUI fn>11I Ihl' ,ld,,11 '1'1,'111 dpP",IIS III bl' 'L'qUII,'d TIll' sludy of 011 y, l' 'l11all mOllk,'' I"" 11 ,,,,'sll'd Ih,11 IIpl .", II11111"C) '(ll,1I1/,111011 art: 'YIlII'11 1 1 C> , llililC lind Ih.11 '1',"11'11'" .'l1d kall1l1l' ,;111 pia) a lOll' 111 tl1l' ueqUlslIion of Ih~ communicalin' svsI'III, The f!lIsl 'rirall ('ITI III(111"' « 'I'/('''/,illt''('/I ,l/'lltiP/'.) is said 10 hnvc three dlslin,'liH' ,lIld ,lIhlllal l'alls Ilial allllllUIJI:l' 111l' PIl'Sl'IJel' of l'ilhcr .,1 , nukes, Of la, ,,' 111.1111111"" p(lsill ' a 111,,"11. TI1l'w ralls (11' IIssol'iatcd WIth dlfti renl /'CSPllflSl'S hy III,' IIHIII",' '.I, WIII'II (hL'Y Ill'al IlIl' l'aV'" ('all, Ihl' monJt look up or rUII inlo 1111' hushl'S, TltL' SI1i1kl' call lilllSl'S tlll'lll In h~l~ wn at th ground IIl'al' Ihelll, I'hl' IIlallllll,ll alalill "l'l'S Ihl'l1l 11111 up 1IIIIIIhl' limb high r ill II Irl'l' illhLY arl' :t!rl'ad ' ill 11I1l' findin,s, whkh ppcar 10 h.IVl' hlTIi wl'll I'Sl,lhlishl'd hy l"IIt'n ••1IIi1oll th w re lir I rL'portl'd ill jtJh7, slIg'l'sl Ihal Illil "II 1 lnctl 011 rnplornalil' SI 'lUlls 10 ,OIlUlHllli,':I' or iow' In oth r monkeys, It i clilillll'd r:l111l'1 Ihal IIIl' wrl'l'l Ilu lion Ilnd lhen ChOUSl' II sperifi,' call with ,I announ' th d nger, furth 'rmol", 'uch cull is a Gibbons and ordngutans "'~I , VII,'ull/alll'" s' ~''' ''I('ll''"1'''1 I ""'10 I( II 'Ill I I ~I i'Pllllti lIPPlllPllIlll'l y III Ill' " 'II Y""k, I I 111 I C,.lh, Vi • wllh lhl'''IS'' VI'S. litIS 11Ik"11 I, '1"'"1 II , I '~t'III', ""c· , nl I lllH! 01 Ohl~~I' In Ihl' WIll '", I U~~t I ·'<tly..... Ither __ . tn( iUt . I'til ~Jr ._-:...,.,. 'lIh,IIlIl YSt1t1 ntlsltll pUIIII"C' I ,lhlllYh'1 nlll~t,C'1 Inllbtru...: ' , ,11 1111 ' 1I1~lh '"Ilyr ___ lIn Ihl: Ill'xl PIl~C), t nllllilill II I It I' <If I ," 111111 l1(:""I'- Th~ vt:lvt:1 may IIIlI Ill' , 'nlCOllQnl '•• Y 11111 . I' I " 111 ISl'hl I h... ~(lddll ),' OUIl( ." SOUlIt t111~ " 'CI !;"" I .-It III I I I · I 111,1 IS CI I "'1:1.1 ' Ihn:e I' WIle 1 lIll' used WI'''II I ' ICI ilSi", I & Mr~l 'crre'l 'VIII I ....ty II hllv,' ht:cl1 tward inlh!! prektl1C' 1 11;,1 lltl;lh>r~' Ivellin., nl ~""I(O ,hlllll lhal l11onk"ys hllve Ih~ II IIlIgc hillis, S dPhlllliILh,.ndl' tall . . c CII 'I1I III "0 WIIQlw~' ,lIlegl"I!!S Wllh vocali'/alrlllls liVe t"pOll I~ill"n locb . . , " I Y h", U1'P<lt ,~, The acqulsll'ol1 01 lhese Si"I' I ' , ~ Mlll;ue... •.. I· , ' . 0 "s ,1111"/1" ....r~uat IlPPl'UI to ( lSI Inglilsh innalely , • Vtrvel, I , . ,lOllIng h . Inlele hiIds, but Ihcy also glvl' Ih" '" ,I IIl,"I'!:'St I ling Inr~nl "_. , ' e,,~, C L'I' " Iflam ·~.tIl ' kopald call wh'l IIIher ICIl'''1 1' when nlh"l h mal" Ill ••• "na 111' , ltd ' ~... helween leopmtls and les, 11, atnnlal, "P"" bpPru IIId .~_ . , " ngcr"lIs, I~'" Adul ... (i1l1gcn'lIs llmls (as well as h"twe' , 1lIi1,nnlal'l d ~ dlllnvul ~ . . , en 'nak, , ' ,n ta I • 'Il Ihls ablht,Y Inust be perfected 11111 h e ilndslItksl 0 d e IIId Ie lIg e~"" ' n 1 I cl Ihill a mlXlurc Il l' innal~ ClIl11pon' I .~nenlC. This II"' altncdlltat " , cn S and I.. ,~e aliln !lU cOl11lT1l1l11CaliOn systems arc nutllr'llly' . earning il lYPI"1 I&nb 'a'4ullcd, ca IIf he "ay SltIct: the hlJ;ht:r primat!!s al!! close gen"I~1 I . ,Ie Ie atwe< I'h 10 cxpect tlclr vocal Cl1l11l11l1ntc'llioll tIl 0 UIlIan ,II is n..._. , . . , ' resemble th f '--.. surp,n~tngly, t:ommul1lcat()n an,OIl<' Ihe hi"h' ' at I humans. I!..o.._ . t' .• t' 0 er pnmale~ doe ~":''''''''''' il1lhcntl()l1 (I , ulScr~tc vllcal "gnqhul could he intc not 11UW1IIIcb hU111an words, ~athcr, the COl11l11l1nl('iltinn ystcm~ lIf:as ~ up of groups ot graded 0l:,11 sIgns, antllla 1Ie_ Gibbl111S disrla~ i inlcrcsttng. ronn of vocal interactioaDowta ...... Oul'ltin~, tht: l11tCl','hange 01 calls In a paIIemecI ~ ..... l1ll'lllbt:rs l,fa peCII:S, is 1'(1110 amllngcenainbinla,. __ PlIl'lting is, hOWe'I, atYPICal of primate ~ IWl11im)ids, onl) gIbbons pcrfonn it. Recent playt.:k........... dm'lling anltln ' glhhntls scrvc~ to maintain dOL'S hi rtisong ('I:l' scetinn 4,1), Playback. Ii tl'nit1I ill ,',HISI: il to approach the _ .....___ p'lssihl~' ith till' i~ltcnt of dri~ina the dUl'tlll1 ' f1l11 )ltlll agroup ICIIiItIIJ Rl'l'' 'l1lllln ,It indivld DOl 1£ 1IIt'I1S, llnltl>l' 'ihhl.lns, whi b Ii thl'l1lsdws (e c pt for mo_"4~" 1(lud ails s r
- 334. T£ POR ,, UNlaW;fles ~--~-=---- ~~ _~~~~~~-=::==::B:,a=C=k~-C~he~s~te~d~s~n:a~ke:=ea~g;'e~________~ M . Amcan hawk eagle artlal ea91. ~ Ea91eala"" Snake alarm ........1IIII1MI1IIIriIeys speCifIC predatur " "~"t individuals who prOdUce th «(ll.l. v elll, I-j' , ~1 (; sumably to confront the intrud Igh-rank .., h er wh' Ing "'_ areaS where t ey hear the call f' . lIe Ie,,,. ""'Ie..~ . . " 0 hi"- ~-rank' ,."''''''''- words, mdexes, which Stand - ...'-ranbn '11& bbl_ - ..... tall 'd ' In fOr lh . gIllltl- -':"""1:$ 1I~, JlIt- orangutans must I entlfy and e Indivd -,., 'It'Ie --, ""ay fr a.e each (If I Ual ani • tal" art 11 <lin the'le Cal,;~ 'lvti lllhtr ""'Oft act •ar. Chimpanzees vocalize with a IIlgonlhtnt nUlllbe types have been reported, So r of grad.~ Ch' me of Ih ..... Call referents, Imps typically hoot , ee alJle;u- s. A IlIan in dense forest), HOoting is also to Ignal IOCali! to ~hc,,,, ",r.iS IIttn , used' 'n (a no. --1I:f "'-'r. about somethlOg, Another typical In greeling or-"'nd that ~"IC and is given in the presence of a f vOCail'/.alion 1 k"'hench,rnp ar "'ell has led to the claim that trans~' avourite fOOd ",..no"'n iI. rllU....e~':I~ , ,.,ISSlon of ' "",ree A. 6" .....In plays a role 10 the acquisition of certa' '~gQ, frornone' rece.u.t>.penmc: on tradition, See section 7.1,) tn Slgn arnongC~tnera1!ontothe Iltx~ P<mlet<;. (For 'IlOre Especially among highly SOCialized S . izatlOns all show a gTeat deal of van . !lecie>. non.hultan . vocalizations fonn part of a coru.te:o n .There "every 1Ild~ VOCal_ including gesture, posture, gaze (eve _Ion of ~tdllndant com"",~~Ibtir f hi h be ' - POIntJng) and the ---''''UIQIJ~t atI$ all 0 1 w, h C f must ,m~rpreted by other ~oc., me:~ 1011 of alfttt, comp eXh;' 0 CO~,urucauon sy tems amen -P ,''''-'m, The cbvious level of mental aCUvlty devoted to C0lllInu ' gtheo;e anllTlals ugg tbaa!be ,Despite the high degree,of intellige:~~~~lSquue~ arnmals demon trate, there b ve~ little eiden<:e for ~_ between wund and ~arung among~, ben more l3!b!ttary ltlalioasli,. e'idence of recombmmg vanou sectJons of a ~!ben: 110 me 'age .'otbmg that parallel the phonemi or lIleSsage.1O fona _ tion of human lan",lla",e ha" been di ered in ~ ~ :-tems of non·huma.n primate, . . - It i poible that the la ' of paralIe v..ith human iapisIic CI i- tion in, 'I ' I l~ related to our on may be .. III .. _ ci" 'ial :: iU I _~ n Th ~~ grOhuPS or family llllllitypallcidl'.. , _ g nIl. 11l1" to luvu·n envlJoonXd 1IIy lilt __ ....... J ' 1'f III 'lit f ) other mode of CQIJ!!!!!W!bnr .... _ _ _ _ llit ~dl lh'irn ,TIU d notmean.~ ..___.... o lp ) tl~abilitia~ ....... ~ nunum. lion '0 I human laapIIt. 1a m ,11eft h ml pbere devnop..af __._ hnglll li lit!) number ~ ~::=:=; h tt mpt I d tennine the CIW.Il•
- 336. JIN(,I!,.,'H ., ONTfMP()/( /() u o DA""ll' 6 II/Then fllurr 16, 14 . S'lnh IC'lrIllng aspc'clS of human language Or w. Bul W.I' , " . ' . .. . , .' , ,IS shc 1'.'// I'IIIS who nr.: laughl 'lilli/,ll Skill, Pcrlollll lhelll as IV /1 ,to), tnjf)(.~( till. , . , C as . ' .. 1'1 ,'/ft 'Itll /() Ir'lI1s/alc.: Ihc.:111 11110 human language, They 'I ' urah hUI 11/]( I ul c , . , • PPI'O<lch h '. l' IIIC)'111~ phsllCsymnols around I" ohtalll.l rew<Jrtl 'Is 'I t C nc'relS" II eo' . . . " , . , " , PJ~Zlc h' . '''''''II'l/y 'lssm:lalcO ",th langu.tgc. It h.ls heen suggeSted tl I ,It I' 1101 1Il"l .,." , . , . . • lUt S' , ". 1 'r/clf/lIin" 11ll' s"me 1.1110 01 puuk slllvlllg anti l10t tlCI110 I ' , <I:,lh W,IS /, ." '. " .,", I sli U lIlI hUl1lan like IInl1ul,ll( 'lIp,lulIes, , , g '/'1 ,., slUOICS haw Il'd 10 a r,'surgl'nee 01 IIlleresl in hUlna ' ' Ic s, '. " , , n- ,11I11I1'1 1 ' 1llIlIil'allOn, / ,<tlll!lIagl' IIstng oog~, ,'ats, pigs, anti evcn turtles hllV b ' ,01111 ' . , , .... '.' 'h' e cell reporlc'dlclflhousands 01 years, / h' ,"'I~IS of I1IU~, Of, ~hc eurr~111 critiCismof '/1 /'Ihl's,' nr1l'nlll"lw, rests on the pCI fOlll1.1rlle 01 a horse In Gel'ln' ,I 0 . ,Illy <It the' lum of 11m ""III1I1Y ------ Wilt''' //1/0' Il'illl IIII' ClIl, 11'110/.1 In 1/1' llilllll/' C 'tll /.1 //01 p/ayillg wilh iIIC'.' Ie Michl'! dc Montaignc, J..'s, I'aY,I' In II}04, a IkJllI1 school karll,'1 IIdllll'd Wilhellll von Oslen c:laimcd tn Possess a hilI'S thai ,howl'd ,'vld,'lIn' of II hUllIan lil." eapal'lly 10 Ihink, lIis horse, lever Hans (tit'!' /..II/XI' 1/111/. J, could supposedly eakulale and l'onvl'Y messages hy lapping ClIlI tlut1lhel s or IUllIlhc'll'd /t'IIl'ls of Ih" alphahel wilh a front hoof or hy noudin - his h,'ad, perim lIIatioll hy a Sl'l'plil'al SCIl'lIllSl, (hklu !'Iun -. Sl,l'v,'nlually shllIl'd lev r Hans was nol so IIllldl a l'll',III,~ Ilull""1 11 ill'arcful OhM'1 Il'I. Thl' perc IV d cu s Ihal indicalcd Ih,lI h,' had pc'IfClI t1Il'd ,'ol/l'rll , Fill aa;pJe.• van t nIOvolUlu.trily lIloHd IllS head l'1 sll -1111) Ill'n ,ll'llrtl'l'1 bid n reached ThiS 1Il0VCIIl,'1l1 ,IS llulsld,' Ihl' 1IC1lt11ill,WI""l'lual Ituman obs rv rs (I ss Ihall Inc lIlillllllll ll' l, hUI Ihl' hOI" h,ld _._•••"." wIth th ~orrell anscl. hen OhM'I,'" did /lol ~nll ~Naon, or wh n (I v r 1I.lIls a hhndloldlll, hI I.uled hI "NI",,,, "'M"'I Clever Ilans's pcrfclI'Il1ance rc ' I . ) f "I ' tI ' su tculn hetween tralncr an anImalthtll depenu IIl d"",'Il 'ven by Ihe trainer.The ClcYer Ii. SOnthoanlll' I"t, a tYIlt 01 I g tl'~cssage, which ncctl "Ill inY()ly:n~ Ph .cn()IlCn)~'IS'.lnierprtt'nt~ .. Th h' hi tI conCl(} lin tJ.c II __ humans. e Ig Y cvelnpcd per U, CI)IlIlU' "C1I[tlon... . cCPtual ,b'I' nltali ,-__" ammon to many anlll1als, Many . ' a IIty dISPI' "n <>n lilt II1II.. c gorilias Ihat lise sign language a,,~CICntlSt' believe7h"0 by ('eo;tt 11_ fII ' h' pen()rll h at chllTt '_ demonstrating nOl 111&morelhan thcel' , lIt Or lan& .~ l1li The position is explai"etl a., foil CYerliansPhonllll uage'hke _ . I h ' llWS , liull' . en"n. _~ their anllna e arges to succeed. Th' d. an IralOtr w' . h b ' 1 eStrt' ant Vtf) 'letions, whle can e sel7.ed O n hy Ih . 1 tralllated ' ITttJtb 1111 ~bililies: it is lhese CllCS lhal detennin,chanlllal lIuc to it,'~tlllnvnllltllary , ' h'" etc anlll' I' -cen ltrr-,~, example o f I IS IS pOinted O lll in Wash ' . a S?en'Ill'tTt. _ ...... d tI " oc S SlDnln ,. anee I. 1"",-, h'ls been recor e. on film (FirSI Sigll f W0 g0 k~k~ IN ~ ' ...... Ih ';S interchange shows that the. hUlnu.no uhoe). A carcfui e.:~.~~"'lIicb . " repeatedl h '-"'IliIiot!... signcd and thcn pomts rapidly al the. cup P b Y Ollis OUt the ob"'" '" , I h h ' , ro ably nl . J'o" III~ mtenltona on t e ulllan span, lne oj this clti Some so-called lingllistic aClivily l11ay be h' n& til the Clevcr Hans effect. Some report, of c e. l c result of fact~ other "'- ' 'd, ' .. , , . r alive lgnlO h _ WTI'R fllRD, an.: ISmlssed as reflex slgninglh I 'h g, uc WIIIale ' ' h . a s 0, no Inl . comhinaltons on I c pan of the chtl11p, Report f h . enllonoff~ of IV It (she oceasionally produces the opposile',~)g~ l~~~;"a (oko ~ as I I' for D()W~) are also COIlidered to be exag done TeqlleSled, SQCh " , " h . gcr,llc or 'Imnl. wi...... thinking h) [<:scarc ers, "'Y J ~....... Some rC(l<ms of Iingllislic behaviOUr are attribuI'd I . • . ' " , c 0 tnacCtJrate IX . . syslemaltC ohscrvtng, (I"or cxample,tfWashoe answered 'W!V.T'SllIAT'. am nllun sign, the answer. 1 as constdered correct) Other att-nbUled III t)croptt~nisllc In,lerprelation of .ign , (Koko I : - : intcnlionall) produce rh) mmg sIgns - Ihllse ihalillt very SUllillrtollle_ a. kcd for or e ~clcd) In ,hon, those ho do not Vlew~.... ,md "mhol llul1Ipulati,'n as IinguI'licaly relevanl laimlhlllbia..... I~ m(~rc impl) ~ pbined . ansing from tnightfOlTllll,.... ..... 'i. II n nl ,)r fHlm tire. ag~, and not a reIIectioa Ii. . . J , , t n L ,on rc car(hcr t1l'I~d, tranung IWO plgeoIIS tolllla.....,.. , n t Jl 1l"1 mean Ihallh~ ltird know thertllesef_rIIOI _ .4 Ilwl , , . litm, lhtKrral _,Pl' ~batt
- 337. OIl> -I" H f0 1 ttl 11 1 t t t1 I ...
- 340. tJrrt. t/tlIr II1lTIUIIIB an'uage't. 8cIr.; ;ft linnt lppunmd IinuIId n song <IIIIa: ~ 1l! an prtJIIIIIrI _ fIIIIIIII:IlIIl
- 341. 11, 1.'1 Ih.1lIh.,. ~,. th,lII ,'lit '" 'h"II' Ih,'
- 343. I I nlput~ tionllingui tic J , . "It !hat /un.;Jn ~ "hose contac .. I ''''' yt"'*'s.,~' /0 Alit,.. ",'lllnpuh..'r i,luh.l h", ell) '~I1IL'I"" like th. /)
- 344. 1 o Tf t}'(~ ~'I' ll""-llil "tit.., ", hI" i... on.!alllzcu around ~lIbtit.'lds of linguistics th. I hi' I." ~IP c.: r. .. • • . • . d h ' at are d' 'h' 11'" III IhIS D<.l<.l~: phonellCs un P onology. morph I " cuRsed ,II 4,.lrh(.'r I.. .IJ t . . . 0 ogy . (., rhcfl.' is also i.1 ~eCllon on computaltonal lexic I • sYntUl> IIlU ..;,-'m.w II... . I' h h 0 ogy a '. ' 'U1'I/ ,js. The tirst part 0 lee apler shows how ea h I1d IC~I (lr l.."llrpU.'. .. - - . . • . . . e li . ~ Itl - US ...U 'I' the basJs for ..t l OllljJlIlllllo lla/ ling Uistic Ilg lfls1 ; ",/ll", " L. .. 'h ' , . ' . sUbtield C ., 'rt 01 the chapler S o's some ways 10 whiCh th . l1re "'CClHlu p..l eSe v.. L 'I 'II',S an.. ~omhjned to create computer systems that use Ian anous ~Ul·~).s L . guage. COMPUTATIONAL PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY --~-------------------- t. , 1M talking machine: ~h synthesis AI Ihe 1939 World's Fair in New York, a device called a VOc d displayed. The machine. developed by scientists at Bell Lab0 er was . b d ' d Oratones reconstructed the human vOIce y pro ucrng a Soun SOurce which ' . ~~ modified by a set of filters. The values for the fi llers were derived fro n analysis of human speech. The vocoder system consisted of a Sour~ the random noise [or unvoiced sound. an OSCillator to give V OiCing a e of ' . , , Way t control resonance. and some sWitches to control Ihe energy level. Th's 0 . . " Ch I was10 simulate the vowel sounds and fncatrves (see apter 2 ). Then ther . , e Were controls for the sto~ consonants Ip. b/. It. d/. and Ik. g/. An amplifier Ihen converted the modlfted source slg~al Into sound that resembled the hurna speech it was originally modelled after. n The vocoder was nicknamed the Talking Machine. It was a crude de . ' . vIce. but il demonstrated that good sp:ech synthesIs could Indeed be achieved given the righl values for the major frequencies. and the right methods i concatenating and modifYing adjacent values. Early systems used differeo] technology from that used today. but the principles remain the same. The gO:1 is to replicate the wave forms that correctly reflect those of human speech in order to produce speech which. at the very least. will be intelligible and aesthetically pleasing and, in the ultimate. could not be distinguished from the speech of a human being. Chapter 2 gave a summary of articulatory phonetics, that is, how sounds are made when humans speak. Chapter 3 covered some aspects of sound systems. Speech recognition and speech synthesis rely on a detailed knowledge of acoustic phonetics as well as articulatory phonetics. although there are correlations between the acoustic and articulatory propertics of sounds. Acoustic phonetics is the study of the structure of the wave forms that CODititute speech. As explained in Chapter 2. the lungs push a stream of air CbrouBh the trachea. The airstream is modilied first at the glottis and then hy ..roo,ue and lips. SIda IOUDd can be broken down fiaure 17.1. The figure into its fundamental wavc forms, as shows a spectrographic analysis or 1500 1000 500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 ]500 1000 500 msec 0 ( i 200 300 40 500 (I I • 1 -- ' i :~ Hz Figure 17.1 A spectrogram of the words heed. hid. head. had. hod, h.Mm1nxt_*d , pe.:trogram of the words heed. hid. head.1tad.1tod. ........._ ..... as spoken by a British speaker. The diagrams give a.... the duration of the utterance on the IIorilaiaI ... frequencies in the wave form on the verticallllL n. formants. show up because they have IIIIR _.,• • 'ote the different locations ofthe fon_...... the different vowel.. The ound IbJ . across the spectrum because fbi isa,,_._ constriction l:ee Chapter 2). 11Ie __!! resembling fU/.l or tatic. The Ifr 'voice bar' resulting from.....,
- 347. , 1I C;l'5T1 ' . arc pn1p'"t:tl, If the base form is found' d n3,e lomlS bl S . f 10 the b ;U1 Ihen the 'Hlrd is anal)'za e, . uccess ul analyses ro' uSe'fo d,ctJ,m!lf), h I'mal structure of the words as well asP vIde info "" alltlU{ I C Jfl t : . & " . What rtna uon ldu :ed b) the rule. or a gl'en affix Such eVer 0 h . , ~lrnIJlI,m " pn L , as pan t er '" L h 'nl ,,'manlic ch:mges (e,g.. -ess is + fe~: ' of Sn.._ 'han"e In en: " I "ullIne) c"<:Ch L ~, • > abstrJCI, Luunale, slngu ar, plural). Most f . Or oth IDforma.u"n~ II<L;::~nsrrainl> on affix ordering such as describe ad these sYSte'::~ a.n: en...l£l h . . 10 th .•~ h 1 0 0" lntlectional affIxes occur outsIde derivation I e chaPt on mllrr 0 ~.' . aI affix !h a affi er be some derivauon es a( OCcur Outside oth xes, and Ih~re ma~ . er derivutio atlJes, " , 'bl' nul To diIl'",enI lypeS of d,cuonanes are passI e WIth th~ stetnrnin b d and stem based. A word-based system has a dletio g methOd' word ase Il . h I nary with ' I' F r word generation, a mput to morp 0 ogieal rules m Wards on), dO rds and all output will be well-formed words For U st be Well forme 0 • Th ' WOrd . I posed bases will be words. e word-based system has analYsis aI pro I h' proved ' vel'''' useful for projects that use arge mac me-readable dietionarje to be dictionaries list words not stems, A machme-readable diction s, Stnce d ' ('onary that appears m computer form. such as that availabl ,ary IS a lC I M h' dabl d' , e In spell' h kers or thesauruses. ac me-rea e IctLOnaries hav d ,Ing c ec ' d !h ._& ' , e efinlti pronunciations, etymologIes, an 0 er huormanon, not JUSt the s . ons, synonyms. (See section 4 for more on machine-readable dictio Jlelhng Or stem-based dictionary is somewhat more complex to build, since n th anes.) The , f d ere are on-line dictionanes 0 wor stems. no Table 17, I presents an example of the type of analyses given b based stemming system. To analyse conceptuailze as an infirtiti Ya Ward. I b I d . ve Verb (V form(inf)), firs! conceptua m,ust e ana yse as an adjective (Ad' , would be done by a rule statmg that the suffix -IU can attach to~~eThIS adjectives to create verbs, Conceptual can be analysed as an ad' ,naln concept can first be analysed as a singular noun (N num(sg» This ~ectlve if done by a rule for -ual stating that the suffix -ual can attach ;0 ce...o~OUld be . , C ' d ' h d' . ''-<Un nOUns 10 create adJectives, oncept IS store m t e !cltonary as a Singular no this lexicaJ lookup serves as the finaJ step of the analysis, The analys uhn, so , I essOWn here actually result from recursIve ca Is to the morphological rules E h bas conditions that restrict its operation. In this example, the _ual'ru~c rule b ' I Th d' , estates that the base mUaJst l e a sd mgu ,ar n(obun, f e con, !l!on for the -ize rule is that the base IS norm y an a Jectlve ut c , terronze, hospitalize where m' h I dh ' l ' eac case the base, name y terror an OSplta , IS a noun). Since each conditi ' al ,. 'bl Th d on IS met. an an ySIS IS POSSI e, e wor conceptualize is deemed a well-form d ~~R~ e 'IldIIe 17.1 Input word: conceptualize Nttdysis Pari ofspeech Features CIWCIpt N num(sg) -till Adj -lie V [orm(in/) lA.llrJ How would the 'Y'tem "'~ltl~, analyses in Table 17, 20f th analyse. 111 .'" e WOrd "re c b .. Previous example, In this e ' conCepI "l11p!e. f ~. N ' h . xampl "0/,,,,.' tlfln' verbs, otlce t at When -at ' e, the , "0,,, (, change, If no spelling rule. IOns atlaches ta"m. 'o"lm' ~th'th" h-~ '- o were W' con, "!at,. ""<II ,_ would be allowed by the sy ntten th ·epI""lj. 'G 10 ~.~ .. .d f th Mem F' 'en the ,~, !her -ulllIIj" the outSI e 0 e noun, For the ' Inally, the "'ord'ro. t"~ .. of speech, but only in the nu ~Iural sUffix. Plurallltul.""PliI4Il" '" Observe that these examp~ r feature of t~' there is nt, ~h' ~ atlac~ dictionary entry, in this casees Illustrate a : "'ord ["Jill 3ngeIn lilt ill /" COncepI ord'b Ingul", I'In and conceplua lZQtLOns are well-fa ' and the Co a.sed ~te "I p~ rrned Words f IllPlex "'<lrd Ill, llrllb ... , a English ro"" ... Table 17,2 Input Word: concept I'. , ,P1"<Ili" _-:-:-----__-=:::u~a~lz.atlons Analysis concept -ual -ize -ation -s Adj V N N How would this system differ 'f' . 11lweret morpheme -cep! rrught be listed '1 sem-bilSedoFor th ' n a Stem d' . IS et>__ other words ill English such Ictlonary due to' -"I"<, lite . ' ' a s recept' ' lis ........... ' percep!LOn, Smce -ceive and .c IOn, cOnCeption . ,.•......., III , . , ept are rei ted . ' lIIeePlIO!!, relauonshlp rrught also be given in th a m a regular atII e stem di ti lIIay ilia related by rule. Consider again conce t ['_ c, onary,orthewOtds~ in Table 17,3, p ua lea/IOns, anaYleddown1aa~ Table 17.3 Input word: conceptualizations Analysis Pan ofspeech Features con -cept :-'l num(sg) -ual Adj -ize V form(iBf) -ation N num(sg) -s N ~) In this example, the prefix COft- atI.aI:bes ID", earlier that a word-based morphology .,....._ .... a~ its lexicon, but no uch conveuiaM:c .._~'" order for stem-based morphology ..III stems is required. (More on lexlCology later in thi cbapler.)
- 348. " liN 'II " Nllh' ( " 'IIIPPII" 111 St llH ( 'I, Ie .I' ,IfIlI ..IIII.1I f 11'1"t",1 '111.1111 III' I ~I 'H' lIuf ~IIII.H·" rqH t·...t·Jll.llhJJl , IIH~ l. 'olllp.ll n l II' III~' II 'Il~'.'il l I ' , , , ' I I ' Illd II rult' ~~""IIII'lIlh'cllllll fI' ".II" II.I",cllI'I" :-;11111' 1'111 , 11", '11 1 (" WOllld I" h " I'f Ih,' "',"'111 ,' ,'olllci '011"'1>111111 h' IIIl' 111 1,11'(' Ill"",,, 1111 11" I (' -.itlo ~ , ' . ' ''l1lll1l1n .ht' /Ilk, It,ll'" ,111''01111 ,"'II 110" III,,"' 'h,,' "OIlIP,IIl I" l'ill 'lilt! " llIl iI~(' "11111 fIlOVt' hOlll klllll' I/, hl. '0 II h<'II,1""', 1",1111 , oll l'sp'I/ItI('IIl'(' Is IIIi1d", lite Ililt, rn,I'<" ,10lljl, (1111' "I 1111 , I,I III II'cI " 1"11 'III 01 IllI s 11I"ll1l1d " IItIlI, SlIlt'c Ih" pnll: duft, 1110"', "0'" 1"', 1 11 '1 '101, If ,h ,'111.,1, I), ,,' 11"1'1, IIot' "" I, lhlll PI'lple prt~' "~o,,,, SIIII l' 1'<'01'1,' 111,11 ,lI,d fl' 1111' /1 ' 11 h ho," ""Ilu " "hi (I ' I ~ ,.. "" II,' be,mn",' 01 .h,' Ilofll "h" ,II" h"'o' ,'II,,' ('/ld),,, s ,1"111 Ih", III(''''IHII IIII', lit" dl IIlllllllt.V 1111·111 h ,111.1( 111 II II l1lth'l 011'(,"01111;1111'" hlllh" IIIItH I'. ' inl'L' Ih tWlllev<,1 s ",'IIII'IIIU"" S " 0 '" 1,'11 10" ·hl 101 111111 I'hlllll~'"'ill llll'dy,,, it can he liS.I ,'CV"'Sl'" ,1I1t1 111111 110 11 "0'" " ·hl III 1.-1 1 III, 1III1IphIlI IlV i(';11 lion Th ,,11111111 V ,h.mh,"'k 01 Ih,' 10 1 1'1, 1 ~ySI" 1I1 I, Ihlll 1111''1 11 11('' iallzed stelll d,rlrollllv, "'''lIpl''h' , ,11 II'~I II"II III 1111 111(' ' 1('1I1s so Ihlll III affl u ~h without h 'SIIII'lio", h ll t ,lIl1plt-, iI tlll'IlIlIlllI Y wOllld laclud ',prlll 11/"(/0' '1111/.'/1111, /lhlllll, ("' /lIllI , ,11111 "1'"1) tho,n p,ohknl ~llIl'I II h'lIlb 10 II(' 11 011 n nol Ii t 'd '11 I d'~III>II;1I " I'h,' IOld s nol IIppcUf in WChSll" 's S"I'I'lIlh N"II i tandant re lcrCllll' work III i1II,'rk,11l Wtllill lUll N N N N / Id"ll'd IllllhlclII '1I1C' 1111' I : t1 OVC[t' htt I / ,I> III ''''111 illI '111i1ly" III I ' II 1111",11, rul . . , (" y, ll'll' I , • alpl~ ,",,,1,,01,1 IIIC,I11 II1 ' 10 'Illy11I1l' 1'1Vi h filii 1 analY Ied 'filii. II '"IItI'lne i1~aln', .. " (111). 'J'uhh'17,1. 1111'111WIll" le" lIy iI/ltI/',I/,1 ,,' .illy IIId not "1It1i1n! I
- 349. TIONA' ""rUT NT" "OW I,orn 1"0S"lII ee, 0,,,, was Ih. ,"1"111 ,,,,01 'l "I''',','U''I1lPIs 10 h"li" wO'~'~'! 'YSlen" 10 h ," ,,,,,,, " "II"'f ..,," I Ih,'sc 'Y'I,'''IS, , uch 'IS '''ach,,, , U t , ..,'"" IlHtIl H • Some (l I " "'I • " I Itlllil' . I ",,'U"!!C , ' ''''''''S'''l II, SCll,,," I" " '"h"r h 1/,,' , ",II" , 1,'''lS, ,"~ , I , pl. • IIId g llll I " III~J ~'S I ' I' lillUlll~ts 10 lI Sc I Ie I,,' O ll1P lI k r .,' Ih'l . I 111.'"'' I Ih.'Oh..' fl ... r . ,Ill. I IIt ll ' ,IIHI, .I . Ih" p.ul 0 I ' H, i, "'k"Hllly " OnSl stel11. tn II", " 11I~ ·1 /",,,' , H' 1 n ol,1I Ill' , , ' " I ' . I' ,Ill 11'11 d p.1I I . 1 "0 U..l l'O<"'Ug c s In.: I 11 /'1 Was HOI 'UI"" 1",1" , , '"cy 111 , " " 11" dl'ltIn n .. ' CII tn d IlL. II.: . I ' ,n. h.'stln g HlH..I nn IOllH:lllSNlI~s11 ..~, , , " f' , I H' I 'u 'J " I '" ,.dlll • , " lIl sll'.l{ ( I I 0' 1 )I,lI.: lh.',lI SYSI...' 111 S I'Ihou ld tn~c " l". l • '11h.I" " II hUI ( l " S . 1.. . ,I'h... III I ... ,' JelL-a ,. 1IIIIuliislu: Ihl'OI l'lll' lltlis shOU ld PU)' Ih,' f'" " ,",, , hi, ,111< '" II J.III~II.I}-l • I ' ll'I', ,II " IS' !! : I I' hl'l'lIlh ' ,'(ISC II, ' ,'cCnl 'esearch 11,,111', 1111" 0' I 11 0 ,11k"" , 1111' I, "'''''' ,I1h,,", In p',Il'IIl"" 1''' 'I ",'" 11Il'lId, llIp ' "' Ith.'III1Clfl I Ih, ' '''I d 1.111 ) IIU' , "thOll!, 1 nil p.1P,lIIg.. . - , II "'lI hi Iuil's Inh, SUhN lruelllres ' "In h,' .111,1 ' I I "'III"II"CS I . 1111,111,1"", "nl NO on, as ShOwn ·eI H1 ' '1 _' I)C'I'o.IIH1,. ( 'I '111<" 'i , h,I' I ', b l,h' Il" ", I " ' I'll SI'I w ill hL' ah'" 10 hreak lip 1. II I...C.... l / 1-', ,111 ,lI. , . ,I, 'I' """" I' ' , , , ,1<'111" •U I, , "rUl1l1n ur ":111 hc VIewed as ,"'II~. 7 ( in ,'n .1 I I U~llIrl". I ,.. , ' " 1 ""IIIl' I ,I>, " 1111<' li S ' " h' , 1,1,', L 111 hc nl dllkrclll Sh:lpcs III ... ' "" ' ,,,, , , ( he's, r " , , I O'·':tIlI7,' .1" I /"1l' , 1,111 '11.1£ ' I 's '1I1J'Sl'r 's lite 111:tchlne O r UIII " I , IiIII , (' " I l'Il'I'I" , " , , .. II ' '<" 0/ ru,," , 11 1I'1lI ,hlll'.r n I', , fl, lI "'I L'(III hav~ d,lf crelll 1< I ' I: '1, I ' ' 11ll' III' , , ",",''',, , I ' ' ' I,ll' I... "1'1' I "' I '1 hl1 lhe IUles lor senlcnce 01 '1l·~pnl1'l I le i C; ';,; 10 U <'ngllll' Ih", I' " ,I '" ' ,ul,', ( ',II' ,11.11,' '11" /0' ,II s r I , 17,7 rlSurc I ~cc you '" • In the 1111rll[
- 350. ,."., . ( Ul~ 'lin•/. I , If I , , 'IPII tl' lllllll." , litH ,I .1)111 III tilt' JUIILI" /I / .,.,"'" .' 1Ij.!" I{ (, II ,; '/11 I(' """." N "' NI' "'1111'"11/ " ' "' h" II IIlh'" II f 'pn pi I I ' • hlU~!hl I , / )11""'111(' '' II 'i'IIIIIII.II I II pHI' 01 n HHd DI "" . hi ii, 1111 (aWIl 1 11' 1 I . 'lol ill "- IIH , _ f'h~lIl1.II "1 1 ,!I' .IY' 1,111 ... lIh tlu, 1111. ' 110 1 I1I'h) , I " tl l II p.1f II , Iltlh.' /I' I / /, 1,1 fI' "'/,,111.1 " n", IIIII} ",''' '" Ih, "1, I , 11"1,,, '" 1111 ,,," • II ) lor l' , ,7 H U"II, NP dlld P till' IIPII !t'IIIItIl; IIIIUd" .., I, h""" ,II I"lIft I I' '"11 ' /' Jop ~'HII'.I/"'": III ~f"h'I"I.J/I',IIII'IlttlfJI' II 'II '1,"1<' III ,'''''' ",111 N"" " ,111 "1111 ,"11'I'"d 1I"'lIlh, VI' ' II , , 1 1'.", In'l tIII.- nil , "/,, .",' ,hlll" '" I'I~'III" II} Ihl1l1 'h N " .I """ "'11 11 111"', II h 1 /III" ,.,''',,",''.'', "'" Ill' I ,,,I,' /" ,11'1" ,,,"1" h" Ih' VI' 1111" "iiI" ,ut./( I III 1111' "'IIh II,',' h.II' ,,,,,'11 1111' "rllIl'l. lit 'II 111 Nt' 1,,,,.1 hilI'' h"1'1i P ","'" h. 111'1 1111" N I hi' 1"'1"'" """'11111, S 11111" 1111 lilli'" I'p.III'"," HIUkl 1/,/,11. ,1111' 1111111 ,1111111' 1' 11',1' '~"III' '" WII,"', III ') 111'1."11 1111111' '''"1 PUII'''"I11 111."1'/1 Ihl' 1111'"1 '111,'111'" ( 111/ ',/II" 'lh, "" IIII' dlll ill 1"""'1 UIII f I /n/""I"',,, ,Ia,II .1 I""I'",,'d "," 1111,' " ,.""",' 1111/11 I'ln'1I 0111 rw,s s s s ~ I I InI1 VP NI' //11/ VI' NI' I"" VI' I 1 N PSi N 1'" V NI' nil VI'" Jl.ln~"," , 17, 111 II~,"I Hnl h 1111 UI) I h1'. ', 'I '.1,1, hy1 'pl.( Hip I 1 , 'I~W IIY'II"I''WI , lWt"" N,,",' 01' Ih,' lull,s ill ,I) 111'''111111 I, I I It '111111 . V IIlId I' 11' 111( kl '() l'nll1hil~ II 11 11"""" III .. , 111,"(, NI' ., ,",,1 V ' " 1IIIIId III'.II sl, (ll'hll e, '" SI",W,,', I" III', I""" ''''>ne "'-_ 11 'I~II ' I ,"",, ...."" '1,"11/111 ' III II Sl'nl" lIn' Is hlI11 11111 h " 7 II 11,, , "lIelltt ..... " " ~''1l ' Ihnhn .... " 11,, '111 ' "1111 Ih I' 'n'1lilllll i1()(k "11/11 Ih' /11"11<1,'" 1'''llh hu~ Ullallhe " ,11"1Is 11lI' way hllllll!1I 11'11111, 1 '1" .. , 1 1 "11111'11 S",,,1"1 IliIlnlollllt ... ,I" ('111'11. , 111111 kIt IIII' d owlI ,Ippmlll'l1, hlllihis IS II 1'11111 .. II' 1I11l1( '" U I "'nat. nWI'1 "ill "'11' la'e) """ 1111 Ni' 1 )'" N V l' N ( 'll'Iy Sill Ill Ih" Ipl.l ', ,hoI'. l'hilll.lllSI. a, .,J
- 351. S II1CJ(l' Ih.HIIII I .J ,. "'~ CI.' wo,d" :1't "" I()WIl il1 . a "' nee' I I "111' 1 '~'ICilll" 11M" till" "iel of well I, ( 11,1,1',. 'he ~ " r )t1hc(j , , , (Jr1hcr rno ," c • 'II hp", 1 H'U 'JuHI~,rh lilt" vex:uhuJw)' V 'w, I "'flltlt•. '" 71 I" h ' 'y )( 'I -t, tI nrcn .",' lUll'" ur 1111111111..- I '" I' tWcau"lc 01 r.. .1 11111l: I ' I r"C I nloJY _ ( " C(.: II' 'tl( I" ,tH.' n u. , IIltllr.tI liln~UII!'t". ( laple.'r ~ (,:0111'11"", . ",, H 'It. ' t I pn'pcrlY tJ • - _ '.1 til" . 'i' rw,,,,,CI II ) II 'l'I",e.'flOII 01 a Imll<. fllIl11rn.·( of recUr,- t:U'''ih" ,-. uk I. - Ive tl I fJI r~~urA'VC r I ' Ill'",lI.JIII 11" 1I11,"lIc lIumb(" of well furlll" l 'e., re;lllt I'C~ , ,." (,:.1 I ,( 'itt ll .. ml.mgWJb • ,It'lIleli um~I"1 01 voeuhu :try from !he ;"1 _ Ig-.. / t 1I"",I11/! (' , 'N r,) ,,, I ,e " I ' 111,·",:,' ;/1 b'gl,,", II) and 9) arc n", ' 'Vh,,< 7) Hia cll1u'lII , M. 7) " du/d ,", , " . /IIIC Ii) " hdd , III'" a, 'I) • /."., " ,htIC " ('/11 lei h I)) ;~ /101 in Ihl! liwgll:',f.W j , /ill blg/;sh " "ou/d A/I",,"g , '" II '1 / . L. I' , . / f <;/"1111,11, glvc" ,I 1',1/" ( "," VO<:,IIJU ,lry, limgu.lgc ~ OJ j{)) I'crdio utI /iJpa'CJ UlIllIrJO. I"~I " ,IJ{)I~ " elil/d 'f'h r' IIITf) 'If ,,/ /'/1"1,,11 would !l've i, "otreel dcscripllllfl "I 7) nUL c g ,J, ' e , , • not H) , " () lil(' oilwi halfll II", I!,arntfl~' 01 Spanish Wou ld "I/ow hOlh 7) J{ y). rt . " J ' and v) L I I II) Thl' "0,,1 01 ifn fftlp/ct1ll'flll'( grwrll1l:1I IS l'Xa(;tJy the ' ' IJU flO , " ' , . I ' sUme, A 1 lementlltilln" ~trflp/y a 1"""'It:" sySlCIff, f he grammar rW/, n mp J ' CS are f ' "ramified 11110 a t:ompull'l, ar" IriC t:ompfJlcr pnlgram Ihcn deCfCle 'I P '.. I I ' , S I Ihe SIring i~ pcrmitll:d jn Iht' I"flguagc, I : 1(' st(f~lg " pcr mf/led f/ Ihen has Ihe laNk 0/ giving the ,Cfltl'flCC Iht' clllret"l, ,.~( Ilpllll", Natural languifges (as opp"'cd to l'(lfriputCf languages) ;111: highly CIHnplcx /KJ dH,cCJvcrifl£ Ihe l'lI/rel'l !pilm",,,, I", lJ l:lI verr lallgulJge IS an eXlrcmel' difficullla,k, 'Ihe cOIIJpl(:xl'y "'.)(1suhllely (,/ nalural languages conllfllfe ,;' presenl a challcnge 10 Ifflgflf ~I~, / hef(: afe rn."ny t:OfnpClllIg Ih{'(lIies 01 whal die 'correcl' grall/Illar 01 natwal la"guage~ will he like, f:vcn the gramlnar Ilif En,li,h, a very wc1l ~tudicd natural lallguagc, I~ 1101 at all well undCrSI(lClCl, One illue Ihal a1l thcories ,lWei' upon, howcver, l ~ Ilrat a gr:lIl1lJ1af ~h{)uld have cettain properties, (.mlll/nars ~hould give II ClJI rCt'1 CkSt:ffptiClII flI IIw Wowin,: The trin,H ofa lanj!uaj!c /, The ICnIcIUre corresponding '0 III' Mllngs ill/. called weak .~n~rlltlvc ,·apadly. I'ropetty II I~ ~1"Il'd slrfJnN (Generative hr' docs not fIICllll 'neale' hilI ralh"f 176 on pa,e 676 shOWN an illlalysi~ III whll:h th~ Iffll t"'O ",onl, IIII' an(I/"(;y(,, arc Ih'O''11 I t, by S 'I he verb phr"'e (VI') , '" 1 '"h."""U, I ... • , fl·l.( r,l 1('11 ... cd" (V). lolowed hy "n('"n I. Ittl hy" 'II(!. ~r 1 ~pp). These ~hree cl>n~I'tue"I:;:;~~: I, '" 1"I~~'~"'rr~ , on, <t......... What iI ad,1Ierenl grammar "'cr~'"""'I"'I"ly ,tl "1 ~ pr ~~ 'n ,l ,ence'! ('''n~ider the strUtl 10, cl;'''n" ""'n~t<1 ~lt." ....' se . Ure In I • tI'ft, "1 u...'v ~~__ dill erc nl c la,m, ahoul the WUtt '~urc 1'1 'Itft t """- h ure (,I I> ' 2"1 lIttut-- ",ord~ ~lays I e ,same. 1 ~c Ircc '0 h , ".rllt'l<;t 0" "'al t f,. "'- One is yp' , whIch dUmlmlles tho. V ,Ure 1112 h. ..11 the iIM'~.. , h ' ~ precht· I .., 1'11,,1. ....... 1Iri.. 'entence. exceplI e suh,ect an,l II "C ',I 1", ~.I t' ,""'1lI ' ' n ) 'h ' "lilt " 'tIb_ . the rnain verb and lhe dirCCll1h,CC; (. "ther""110 IIt:t (tvtfoJh .~4It '"igure 17 , 12 dillers in str<>n" ~'Ih".v.r"rnr"~r .....h'lhd<l!l.'n''''1IIt I " general! oell'r'I"~ Fi"ure 17,n. Ilowever, hlllh "r'''n , Vt tapatly I' , '''~ the ""~'l1li} '" , . h'" e' rn,,,~ rn' h "nl, II.· -.....c capac Ity ~lncc t ey ,,11th have Ihe' ~I' ,y ~Vt th. ·It IJarn_. III . ha ' a",IlyII I ' ' ""n,t -''',", f (.l silo!' In the c n~<n~ mom. I, c'>!;nht lilt weak _.'" llt,,~ " lit. -'~"'~t S P",y., "'II /1 NP Infl A Pst Dcl N The player VI" / V VI> / N' /' PI> I Det N I / P I 10 I NP / Oet lhe L_. 'ID '''''' die didi....... 7 12 Diffl 'f('Il<CIO "IK'f 1M!G1paal contra W1thfig!.e11.6 figure 1 . I;kolsyntax and I!fIIoInllcs
- 352. Nl/fUra' 'anguag~ pMf'iIflon //I lit.- 1111Ilh.' d~.' 1111 .1 ..lId~, J I' ,lIb..tilllh.'d Ipi lUI. otdd tltl' 'l.'111 ~ It I d,'h.',,-'Hf 1.:1) " , (Ill'.' hI...' I..'Ill' '1 .. If" III hllllll"d ~llICtII" llf"nr.h. II... .. J UI 'fh.' h)ld hi' ,11, 1111.1 .."d... "lflh,'" ",rcHl' .1",UIllt.' Ih.lt a '1yntu~li(' ;ll1aly~is Pl'l't.:cdcs a sc ' , / ... 'tIl.IIIII.,....hould h.' apphl'd (0 the output or synt" • 1~1~UHic on IIIl/lh,1I III I . I 'I 'I I" ./' . , ,ICIlc 'I C, , . / . 1"Utll1 nl Ill' t:.lr It:s 1.llls OIl'lHlI HJI1,-l1 111 l I 'I ' ~ 11lys. , hi' I' t II Ilt - ' , l (C S wi' I.!s. ,I IIlh) fII~ll1) l'H11pUWII0l1uJ SYSICI11s. SOIl Ic..! sy,' 11Ch 1'1 IIld1rp"I.Hc.:l.. , , I I ' / . SlClllS ..' S I "'111'1111 i~ illl,tly,," "lilt 111 lallti, Olhc',. SY'I 'Pc,1'01' .. 111.11.:(11,.' 4H1l.. I . . ' . . . ' ,1 eltls it , III • • 1" 11111 if as ,I M',.:ond·s't"p dt.'!"Ivallvc Iro.n Sl'l11:tlllic' ~Hhllc th , 111.U.'H•• l • ,,-Inalyses. c I 'r 'I ,,:nlen<'e a spc:lke, firSI !nusl deo:itlc on goal, phn Ih ' uA.... ,. ".anara.'onl l(l U, t.: • " _ I _. . - . ~ c Illlurn . ...-. ..-"~ ~., . I"Iu<kd 'mil Iho:n c"prc'ss 11al In/Orln",llIlI,l In <t. 'c'lIlelle' I' 1uhnn In P.' If l • '- . _ . l: () his . I ' " The l·u,,'wI.!!C go:ncrallOn rro.h"','111 IS ollc'n, v,cwed 'Is II ' nl. hcr, ..lI1gUtlbl . .. t:' _ . _ .. - lC rev I ""I"U'I"~ analysIS proh"'nl, hUI Ihls IS nOI "CCUI,lIc' III Ihc S' erSe Of fIt' '- C" .. C" . _ . • . ' • , ' ...111~ W'ly 'elll'lil,ion of spcc'dl, dlscussc'd In sl'cllnn 6, IS 111 nn way Sinlply Ih' .', , Ihe !!/' ""ceil ,c'CO"lIIl1on Cnlflill prohlems 'Ire Iht' salllt' hUI 1l1'llIy 'I CICVerse o ~,... t=' _ . _ . '- r-: no( I.angwlgl' gCllc,alHIII has hl'cn -"ll' undnlrn/! ol.c'nlilpulalional Irn " , Till' rc'ason I()I Ihis nwy hc Ihal II IS a 11101"<; dllllclIll n'l'a 10 workgU'Sllcs, "III!!uagc una/Y'ls 1'0' language analysIS, 11ll' irngul;,1 i, glvcll a SCI ::~, Ihun (,'" s/rill"s 0/ Ihe /wI"";rgl'l w"h ~hlc'h 10 work. hl(" lall"II'I'" dUla .... ' ,e-' . .~" 0- 'e-C geller'u' Ihe: lin!!u"sl I"IS Ide:as ,lIld plan, Ihal Ill'l'd 10 hc tllll1l'd 11110 I ' lOll, hi '" 'Inguugc A lan"u'l!!c gl'ncralor 'IIU'I he a t' 10 ll1a~c' ul'l'ISlons aholll Ihe en 11 ' I:' ' . . , . I cnl Ill' Ih' /cxt aholll Issues 01 dlsl'ou, St' SIlIlCllll"c" and ahout l'Ohl'S/on nr th' " c , I ' I Scnlence and pamgral'hs. In cOlllrasl, a languagc' ana y'cr Illlghl hc illvokcd I ,s I'· ' I I I oll1,lke Proposah ahoul ( ,s<,ourst' an( l"I In1l',111, 'ui I Ic' 1';1, ll1alenal UI' h ' ~w~ guesses aft' h...l'd IS ;r/rt';rdy IhC't', h1l Ihl' 1,111 '"agt' gl'lIl'r;rlor, only, " " , ' I 'f' ,conccPls and ideas afl' ;rv:ulahk 10 W'" 1 wll J, ( WItTS 01 words (lexlc'iI It' ) , . . ., ' (illS ~lId synlaelll' stfudllr~s iI/"t' pa,l 01 dt'USlOIIS 10 hl' 1Il.lIk III hlltldlll~ a Inl. As wilh synlat'lil' illI.dYSl'!"S, Iht'lt' iI!"~ IWIl ilpplllilrht's 10 gellcrat/()n: lop down and ,00110111 UJl. III Ihl' lop dowII appma,l'h, 111,'1 a vt'ly high ft-vd IlUClure of the: Ollipullnils (It'I"IIIUIIl'd, .dollg. wllh Vl'ly ;rhst l'II'II'VIJ"" ' , 0 (", SIOIIS of meaning and gOIl/. TIIl'JI IOWl'1 1l'Vl'ls all' IiiII''' ill 11I0!'II'S,slvt'ly, SUIlSl'" dona /lie detennined, lind t'xalllp/,'s III Iht' vnlls wilh 1111'11 slIlllc"'1s IIlId ab If any, are propoSl"!. This IS rdllll''', ullitl Iht' pll' IlIIal slagt' whl'lI Item /lie chos n from III' dit'lillnary, Wht'n III 'l'IIII'II""s han' 1l"c'l *I11IIIl1li upon, and wh n all lexiral Ill'IIIS have 11('('11 illSl'lll'd, Ih"I" IS a . . . . .111 ro ' moolh' and ProV"!l' 10.,., In'eI cohelCllt't' III IIIl' Ic'I , lh,s ure that pronoun .Ift'uscd nllll'l'll , 101 exampll', and Ih,iI ''hc' Iex,con IS jusl on' link I 111""111 11110,,01 am coheSIve lClll ror 'Y '''lh'"1 I lin lnli ' I lSI" lhnl yolO have tielel'll1ined 'III I I e, YIII S"I "S "Will,. , lilt crl" ' III 'cd I IIInll e oul how 1(llmnsl"le Ill' d ,1I1~ 111"'1 ~II,II, "" I ntilt,,, <" lIll ell I~" I ,,' pi ~Inl 'I IHlIgu"ge, your gencralion "" Ylllp 1l1e" , p"" 'IT" "n n" ' , '"slelll I ',I~C 1111 .11,11 I Ill( whal veIl" 10 pick lind how 1 )' I. WI I hnve I I II ('ITk n"'<1tr I Ie, lh' "'Cl' 'lll">1 ~ vcd" , Csunicrs I I (nlllll" UI w"" I' I tl Ilh ; III 'I Suppose you wanl 10 CXpr" , I Ir,,, 1 >","" -ss l"w r, , '(11),1 ... Illighl IISl' lho; vel h ('1(/(lS", /(/(1(1 ' :11 lillie IS """'lit I ' , ,I" IS s'II1 gOlligb placc' Vc',), t IS Inlransitive, so il hk" til he a IIn~ h' YITI Yl1I11 hi 1,'1111 (/1~1I11/('l/f h 're rcl'o;rs tn "I"' 'Cs jll,l line IIr" p, (e 1l"dlqle • ,{,,,, , . ... ,1111Illal1c' ,unWnt ,~ ...... III talk, ahllut lerln,ls, you 111:"(11 I , " I '~J1Clld"nl . th'IUhl "'" - II ( l'Scr h ' Snl . etl (""- "if /III IS Iransillve: it lakes lw I' thc actinn " ,1,·"n.ll, '", , ) argUlll' Ill( m·. ,'''' "'ant insll"lllllcl1lal. a phrase Ihtlllcls wh' cnl, /(11" 011 I~"l U(! lhe II) I I '· ,lllhc sun . '0 nh," 'erb sl'l1ll'II<.'C ,n t lIS case, 1,;1 can I' k' Je~1 hll "'II/I . U~" "'Ilit t " ,I e Ihr~' "l'ln" L iIlI 011'(' takes a su 'Iee, nhlecl 'Ind'111" c ar~tllllelll< I "," "!llr'I " . , ' , , ulrCct lin " ." 'Inall · • n ht' "XPIC,SSl'd itS a subWCI, IIh'lcCI' I. JC~I, anulIII", Ih " ), a,ttIt "I.e I ' ' "III, , reel " r.: ar~u illt'rnallvo; y, ~I'(' can under"n wh' I Plenl, Indic'n"d h IrO<lll,CIn . " . . . a IS c'llI ' I ) '. I ,.. in whICh case Ibo; IndlrCCI "blecl I .' c, al1le M,,,, , a In H, . '(I~ ,IPlle'l ' menl a I prc~l'd '<.I by Ibe preposition 10. ' ,rs nexi In the 'erh' In 4) andllV.ll /3) Ilc gave a Slick 10 Ihe dn', I·J) lie gave tht.: <.log a stick, ortcn il'l"hs 111 ~cr rlos" m,'anlll's l'lk, " If , .. . , l ul ercnt numben or '1IllI In ,II Ikrcnl liller, I-or ' .1111I,k "11" "'10 Oil -.- , , '" '.. 1 l1lCan donGIt 1M........ dlll'S nlll !len1Hllhl' ,1111" ,1lC[).lil1ns as '1',,, , - 15) IIt' dnn,lll'" a sld, III Ih,' do " 1(» I k d"lIal,,1 Ih' Clll ' ,I slll"..,
- 353. II 111'1111, "11, I I I , "11111 '1' 'I ,I'I''n" 1'11' I I ,. 1 t II~I"" ' " ' N ,HI ; I''1 1" lb l 18 ) I ,I. 11k.! hl111 h' '" I ) '( l) 11 '1 11.1.1 ',I hl1l1 h' '"
- 356.
- 357. ~-I CAller I George Ihome' 'I ored An r 'Ie n:qlllre th I an er be In'~ hkh ~101 Ie the m na' rnn~iple d rode mto th Ull t
- 358.
- 359. FiKure 17..m M.!<W1e If '" IIOf' !nne Trans1:ttl n Sy'ltem Illls was the thmkmg ofc mputer lent t! nd turned (Jut 10 be f..II" more difficult than VICed th . hUIII.1II tr.lIISlalOf makl!.~ fma. dcCUl<1I1 H The e eph~nt Iq:t
- 360. t..5 • h Snthesis peec
- 361. ,l " ,I, J, - ------ knl,'P,lf~ , r ' , ,111"mia: 5. J. hat /..111<1, III pfl't>kJll 1111 'ht ,I ",mputer h,I1: IIh Ih.:s" senlences') 3) Su' "',ught I ,tt ,ll'l'k' 1Il,1plullls. ' b) It .Is ,11,11", ,111I1ll I h"t",', ,) uSOIn Nk,'.! in klldtl'n d) 'USllII bak<d in tl1l' un ) usan bak~, , ' 111"11"," ill ,n l'l n ,,,...- . ". 1t . US 1 tn ug,h c:'Xal, nhhnugh ('nll ' l y" u ~ing. ben'f'! lhll "~I . I t tliffL'l'cnt, structures might a ' 1:1 . . syntacti fnllln Ing :l1nhlguous sentence,'! C Shc saw Ihe man nh a telescot>., 'I) .. t'~ ' ' ) Watch dogs hark, ~) Broad.:.t't pnlgrams like 60 1inute:, d) 'fcn ri.:kshaw were reponed stolen b, th , e Delhi po" Th ' tk of a word that ha' many differ- . Ice 11 " , ent mean . , "'I.'st, Then gl".c mloml::ttlon ah.)U that . lng" ' lich a k._, 11111 G' I ord liMn" h vum; or '1' 1110 17,4 Ie:n ea. IoOene ' I') ' "I ecate,'o ' . ,el: .. . .. . . u each jl , "ne In following e .•l1upl" ha o~c en. e for the nOun .u: 01 'jlee-h. Ihe ,enses for the " rl:> pan 01 peech, pan 0 jleech, and to m llt/: Bank u) port (!(.P' t eh: , un b) ,'/1St' nllllll t r 1 St'/l/olltk rc 'rri rion, : n r Pnm/Ill i rlOn' l) 'rol
- 362. Glossary UI.llj,"-.JlIVC.: ulH all'x oll tI/lf ""J,-"d' '-I JlICHWY c) "-"ilt IUJII' ell ,.m",/I" Ih..."kl /'rtlllUII' 1I111t111 . .,' 11'" Illill e) ( lilt'" tlml H/' J. n U11I:Y HI ,h,' 10t'a l h.au(.'ia fI (I ,'" stu- ".11110. " Ie.' I ,) }.ttlm, IlllI'lIion;t1 '1ll~'UI""l.:" appJU.'H11t1J1..... J low Ie.. 01 ,:urJl '. I / / ClI 'l Ihn" - ,'''''''1' I ' '/lI'oIl1y ,,/ '" '" 1'<""1'/" Wllh /lhy 6. ("v", "11/" oW '" • ""'a' these 1ty'f('rrl~ ",.",." d"u J J , , / 1/1<" W"rld Wid,' WeI> h", """'~"'d II", , I 1111""1/1('1 ,1111 I W"Y Th e ",,- ,,/ II<' Illh,' ''''''''X' 0 I(" I'''''' "'P 11'/""''''';0" / " , 11,/0"""'11'" , '0"1 pt'uplc'* iltl , ...., ~It'llro"" "''",'(' lill" II" " C 111/'""""11"1 W,," ld h,",p y"" 1 0 I I an. . ,. , 'S wile,,' ., 111< 1",/11",,, "" I I ' Nl'I I,,,, .,'xlIIllpl,'. II y,," a,,' 'OOklll l , , D. ' UfJlJJIf Iii , III 'II YOur way, .' , ," "!lH I wl/,n/(}J , JI wou ( Idp III ytHlJ "1(."" 'h I ,,,hlltll' . , , C W/OllllallOJ f • ' 'l1l'qIJlvall'l1t ,., 1IfIIOIIl'.'. III 1/111' AliI! II<" III III knllw a I ,., /1'1"111',1< ;lIl1hlgUlly WI 11111 ylll! III 'ea"'111 . L'S W Jc..:J l r- I1g h 1.i'llhl<·""" I '/IIII IlIIl/y I "rex 11111", , 111 look 1111' /111 "!fides II ' I 'dUHJ (" l'( ( • . Ii /IIr III oml. oil wdl /11111 11I1Ie/,·, Oil lIV,'" anu 111I"llcial ,h,' wllld "("'~ . Y inslilll/""'" I '1",,;1 cs ,h,,1 "oliid 'Ih' YOLI 1I'"lllem,,! l~xpl"ill Wilt' wou ') .HIl 1 I" I What 3r~ ~ '"h 'Ilhe Illohll'llil • ,,,"l "OW YOll l"" u '" Ve II , /ur caeh ,'X1ll1l1' ' •
- 363. IIIh,,I, r'I'I""1I1 111'1 I'1IIIId Ih' "1'1 'I '~Ih. ' ll , '111'111 1111"1 ",11"111111' I'lt ' I''' -'" III" 11I,'lI th,' 111,',111111' ,'I 1"1111""'111", 111'" " /' 11 lI"',f 1" 11I,',lIl 'III' ~I. ,II, ,'111111111") '11111' ,"h' II hh'h illl th - 111 lllldl.11I 1,111 '11,1' " " ''1'1 1111 11.1 I '~III1" klll ,hI", ) It,ll b ','II 1'1,1,'",1, ,1"-"ldlll' 111111' 11'1'" II' ,III I' "ltli,'1 III
- 364. l ' ) (~nt' ",I' Ill1t.uilHl that lin"'~ '" / (Iwtntiun l - . . l'glll('llh utclSt"Jf",t.·nf~ , ' I Ulllll IIlh..':-" ilh hlll~'" ,'r h.'ann .... ~~ .1'" 'n·,ll.' l!t.'l!llr tlhll ,,~nt.·s '-" the specifi. . . i n u,rh hll1l.'IH. L ... • .'1' 01 a '~..L -u,d... . ,I.' r,.t 11/1..'). . •. . • 'U lc.." ." tn " • tlMt L.·h.lra.:tt:I1 J'.':-; ~ol1nd, J.rtlculalt'u bel' .... d'l • I fl.·.HUI . ltnd th ~ fI,a( 1 til the ,,'r.lI ,..•1 It) . . e J J.ltal f(" 'tal! ) rh' p..l.rt llf the.: tong.ue that I~ hindlllOM b " Bad. (of the ton!!Ul' e Ut stIli lies 111 d14.' Jlhlurh. _I unt i.... nlade with the tongue positioned in U 11$'" lone! .. ll:t.:, ,iu! vowel soundS in hoot and hoard). lC bac~ h roll' 1111 (c,!,· ' h - llt t L'l' .. l.., . orJ f~lnnalioT1 pn)cess I at creat!s a new Backforlll"twf I ' uPf,oscd alfix from another word in the hugll' Qrd by Ill" J ~~I III ; - . . I ' ) ~ dgc (e rcllHl c. ft .rlhfllllCh tJ1C remO'3 of -·or . .g., d 't • line trll l11 t ( I ( .. dd d I ' f' " , . I hlch 3n alth is a e (e.g.. ·"0.... " Ihe base for tl B se Th~ ronn " . h I't' I . Ie ani .., " li-.-" Ihe hase tor te a " .,', 1IlIll''''''l'1Ii'~d) x nb(",l..s,I11(,./(/1 .. . 1 ..... .., I A'" I' landl thaI shos the least 1111 lICIICC IrolH the "t' B 'iled lIe" < - . . , 1 .. ,lnd'I_' a..' . hldl il arose. (S,,<, al"o ....ero eel 'lIIl Mesoleel) •'U laJ1cuagc fnlnJ - . . "0- h' - . . . ' - S ,. inn)" Ill!! hoth lips «.~.. t < 111';[ sound 01 hOlle,,) BiJahials . Ollnus - . , . . ' ' . , , I ' ,,,,nil or C"I1lI1lUllIt) Ilh a mastel ) 01 two languages Bdmgua ," f'" . . ' b' . S .. I ~ •. , lrphol(1"ic31 ciass of I'a sma emltle anguage c1l'lra t . Bin'an ," fll' ~ . 1 -. " C cnZed , 1'cuhr sequence 01 skeleta POSlIllllIS Oil whIch Ihe ' tn a PaJ I • . . 1 . ,ICIlIal - . '111 and l"Id segments are mappe( (e,g._ CCYCY repr . cnn",". -/'()Itlpielcd action ' 111 Arabic), (S" .. also TempJntie 1110 e', CIIIS 'P'ISI tens" l rp 10'. ~v,) " h h' Blade (of the ton~uc) The arca ot the tonglleJlIs( e IIld the tip, Blend A word thai i,s aeated from pans of two already e.isting items (e,g" brullch limn h,.t'lI~fc/.l"r and lllll< II), Blissvmbolics A COlllcmpOraf) delelopmenl of plc/ngraphic wntin h us~s a Ilumncr of n:combinabk symbols repn:sentlllg basic unf,s( ~~ meaning, primaril) u,cd for non·speaking indil iduals. Body (of the ton~ue) The main ma" of the tongue, Borrowing source of languagt: change that involves adopting aspects of one languagc inlo anolher. Bound morpheme A lIlorpheme thaI must be atwched to another element (e,g.. the pasl/ense marker -I'd), Bounded foot A unil of metrical rcpresentatlOn that consIsts 0(" a stressed yllable and no more /han one unstressed syllabIc, Boustropbedon The praclice of reversing Ihe direL·tioll of writing til the end ofeach line. Iypical of llIany old writing systcms, ..... apJuts.Ia A non fluc,nl aphasia in whid~ Ihc " pcl't:h is wry halling, IlleR are numerous phonemiC errors. and there IS a 1;lc~ of Inlonation. ..-..... The area of the leti frontal lobc that plays an Illlpl1llanl rok' ta....production. 1=::::.~~ynl8ctic notion Ihat is involved in pnlnoun intl'rprl'laliou .. : NP. c·commands NPh if Ihl' Ilrsll';t(L')!my ahoV<' NP, ........IDIIIIIi.~ioll. short bursts of sOllnd (I simpk palll'rt)s 01 lllltCS. tpi 'aH us ~l as w' , 'r Silce "h S ~ l"IH1V " (·I",,,~I"C . C , ,',. MIIt~r, '"lh"I~" (""'usc "1110rphoogtct C'II ~~ , 1) f' • ' . . ' • 'II-tl," I al.~ ownt s gl,Hllmatll.:,,1 lie , t 1.1 . 11 ' l~n'l ,t I ,t 1 ' lIhl ' 'I "xl.- cOltfal" )l: ween 1(' tnd Irm)· 'lhr~ l1hlt " It II -rl I . q Ilh ""'11 ("uSC It, ~".. Ie 1C requ .• l~q . llt Ith._ , " , . 1<I1Olt I , an,,·"11 .. 1~ 111 a p,,,1l10n to whIch " . I 1.lt.v • I II" ~, ' f <ase C'ln .. . of) N' I tt • Cntllphorte re erenee The II ' ne aSSI"I' In. I • ~ . .. • ,e 01 n • •dhe l. 'til" dll~(,OUI Sl:. NOI10U J tile t' :s.I.:u " nth'll • ~ I ccntra' SU cus 1 he sulcus tit • '.'.1 I " I I I• ' lIt eXI' _ , II an h III the atenl lSsure [llso cull , nus Irllll l. r I.ltt I I d tl ed the I". I I~~ Cerehra } 00 ow stUdy A "slIre 01 II "~III 'It I ' h tecltl ""lal"· 'e'"h III Ih~ 1'all1 t at uscs 1I rud ' II'1Ue I) ~III f.lcr... ' . ~)-~QtQ ~ I)h'l! .~'Q mLlch blood IS gOll1g to puni, I' j1I! U C leq I 1111& III , T <II ,r " "1 r tIl nr ,., nil" Cerebra cortex he grl!y W' I. '" sol Ihe II "''''""1 I ""II. nn"cd lall Ill. I of (he hr:.tlll and IS the seat of, , ,11.ISS Ihal ' Q hot... I . b cognllV. f ' It, Ilk. Cerchnll lcmlsp eres The I-I 't ' e lInCltllnll I .1 'ap II, , d' e < lIld noh h 1~ Ir lilt b) the longllll Illal fissure, e t alves nf J ' the Cer,I.. Ccrchro·' uscu ar accl.dcnt S " ·""(n Th ee "trQlle 'lC~tI Characters e lIll1ts of Clint ' . f CIllXlra", C whIch consIst 0 two pans a ph ,'] hlne,. l. f . oneltc dete' "n"ngr. h Class I group 0 Sound, that ,h, fln1nalhe d P , III<lII nI d ' are, Cen' an a......... '" v(ll.ed sOlin s), Uln ~h"ncic .__ d prnlO!rtl Class no e A abel thaI repreSCnt . ttl all h I 1 d ' S each [cal hic:rarc Y (a so ca C slmpl) a nod ) ure grlUpln . • A dt- e , ~Inthtl Clippln~ wor ormatIOn prllCCs tho . ~ . . .11 'onne dectmg one or more. yllablcs (e .' (t' ns a lIlIY"lIab - , . '".. pro rom 11 t' ,I<; "'<q"" Clitic A phonologIcally dcficlcnt " I d'I I . 'II. eS.(rl. "j n r - I"e lor I·... ' that mu~t be attached to 'omc word be . . m I I C It in J 'f.!-. cause II cann I - Clo ed~llable A yllable 11th ac~1dae be " IlCcurlnllOlilioa. co-articulation E len ion Ilf anIl:U.•tln·g~, Ith syllable Inc_ , u .) "e lure, uled. -·or... one sound to adJ (em ounlh, Inbe~ Co-operathe Principle. the The general )e h' I , ' I ' ran: mil, &uitIeIiIeIIo-a.. under Ie C)11 er, at10na mteracltons: Make your CltIlI ..... t~) the (01 'r ,til n , bIIIiIIa _ ..... Cod" ~C) Th • ,I 'mcnts that "'110 the nucleus in be lrfl 111 '14 ' ml), Co~natc (lId ,If dllfcrenl anguag thai ba~ _ ...." l.'l'llHm'I'~ tltl.'C, hown b) sy temalic pboocIitCIIIIlllli•• l~h h alh r ,Illd (i 'rman hler). Cll'nitiH dCHI~)pment The emergence ,) that mak up !be u__ •__
- 365. r M )~'" ttN.tf lll .. t 'gil" SIl.lll~~ll·"" II,..-d h} I ., 1l"Ulh..'P., IIh. ( O 'NnnlU.dt"l.lti41f1 ~t.nl t "n~lII'lh. .' kllllkdg.' lu ~Hy .hlll th~tt they arc Ih~ 1I("'I..,,·n ..:y V'1 J~l ku • , " '. p.;,.lphl.I,III!!) . . . -Itt tt) ~ (ll1U1HIIII ~h. I ) 'h'lIt'l' ....pt:alo..l·r' 1IIllk'r(Ylllg I-..nuwl. I .. &a,n t' ....,111, l ' , . . , , c ( . gc t)f Cc,,.IIt1unl,· ,((.'111 .lIId IIll" mUIlI' lur Ih..' ..lpplOplltlll' 'iOl',u.cultUI'i.ll the 1111 ,til,,,, '" .. ' .. If II ,pt.'l',.:h ~1(lIalJl)Il"", Usc of ' 111 p.llt,.. , .. f " I " I ' 1.11 ·u.. ... J III~U;I':t' fi.'Uc..' un.~, I ny ll'W." lIlIg methud ('Unlnu"JU,'l.ftl • , ...il11l l'lI1pha"iIJ'IIIg. (ullelional Jungu'lgc in II thai is 1111 'lI tH' III l r" , .. • lC 'Hl' nU1I1I1l 1... ' " • ll1l1tHllllCilll,C 1.:ullIpell.'nCl', ~ Cl11PL nllu.' ~Il.l ) II • .. .. It' .HI.II . t,truc..',iun I fit..' n.!'(.;onslrtJCtwll 01 prupcrtics I' ... 11th .." n'(O' - _. . 0 a p' ( (,",,»Ir "I 'tll llilarisllll of lis dcs,,:entlant language!';, ,lrCllt I 'tllc,,' rhtdll~ I,.. , . ' • ;Ill~ '.. 1('II(lfh('njn~ I he- JnCI'CI1lClll III the uuration of . , ....n"'tun .. " , " I vow (OIJ1,.- _ • I f HillS dl'lc..'tctl or rl!a I/C( as a non -sy llahlc glide ci It '11 It.' 1Ic..' I~ 1 ) ( ' "k ' ' l o f U '(' - SCllll'nee I -c cnnstruc..:1I011 that is l!ll1bcd~, 'd ' (' plt'ntt'n' (II " - C With' lint , 'I f' (l' !!" Ih(/I hi,' ,'(/r//(/el/""'11 ,'1"/"11 ill J,'",,, lo/d M III .1 1.lf!!l'f .... lllll tJ l. . • . Uf)' tit(lf It . /1" htlll ht't'll ,11.1, II). . __ /,1" , nil' d"IIIl'1l1 or ckrlll'lIb lor __ hId, a head is sunc'lI' ' (~onlp't'nl~n _. _ - l.. ' . • cgol"lIcd h' 'h I",)ld" IIllornlaltOn ""Olll l'nlllles and localion ' ' , 'Ind Il t' h i s Whos " ,,' IIllll lied hy Ihe meanIng 0 t e lcad (c,g.. lit" book' I ,C l'I.sl(.'nl.c.. I . , . III 'JOUnl I L ,') ("",,/.'(I Hil'cd object ,) " I, tIt' (IIU 1' • • • I nttln distributIOn Varran" 01 a phonclllL' thar never ( ItRtp ,'nt,' " ' , ' " ' OCCUr i Ihl' "tIllt' phOllelll' l'mlntIlJlll'lll 'Ill' III COlllpklllclllary dlslnnution, n ComplclllcntiZt'r (C) A tUlleliollal category that lakc~ an S COlnpl~tncnt li)rm",!! a ('P (l'IlInpkmcntlh'r phrasl') (l',g , Wil,'liIl'r In {I'olld,,/, "'he/he; (,N//II /ttl,1 ":Ii). (' pIt'X word A word thai eonlalilS two tit morc l1111rphc11I, , ( ~ , ~ c~ l/t,'ori:,', 111/1'/11,,/01'//11'111), ' ComlHlOt'nlitllllnalysis The rl'presl'nlaUOll of a wo,d's intension in Icr ofsrnalkr sl'lItalltie eOlltpOIll'lIts ealled katures, tns Compound levd The IllL'lril:aI le'cl 011 whidl Ihe stress patterning of c'ornp<)unds IS r,'pll'sl'lIted, _ , Compounding nil' l'!1Illh!lIalltlll l~t Ieslcal categories (N, V, A, or P) to foml a largl'r WOld (e,g..im' + OIglllt'), Computatlonsllinguislics The Il'lm lefers either 10 Ihe usc of comput" , 1/, I I" crs as a tIK)' to uJltkr.,!a,JIt IntI' elll~ent , IIlg k U""L , theories or to working computer systt'I1IS whK 1require IngulstK' now edge, Computerized Axisl Tomography A technique for ohserving the living brain thaI uses a narrow hearn 01 X rays to n,'ale hrall! linages which take the form ofa serit's of I'>rain slit:es (also ealled ('')' sl'llOning), Coaeordauc:e This shows which words IK'CUI In thl.! lleighhourhood of cenaiD other words in a l'Ilrpus, The sel of inllecll.!d lilfillS assol'latl'd WIth a wrh (also called pend.lam), ~'1,-A."."'. A functional calegory that joins together two or more ....._oftbe sam Iype, limning a nlordinate stnlctull' (l'g.. Wid 111 CI .,), of associalions Ihal u word's itS<' call l'vok,' (l'.g" ,·vi"U>" C~"I:CS sunil <aYti ant I)ellotuhon ,) Ol~ 11111 1,1'1 t ' I ' II, , ,,~ (' .t1scrVII Ive ..n~""~1! A ' IIIIW h- I I ' hlllg , '''tl close to t 'osc- ot the proto ,. IHVe W tt t il t' ""gll' III," I "to: I ( "ollsonun (c c ton 1 ph _IRc 1)111"1 h . IS• , r I()I ' - I"'Clte ; , , 'qj "",,;IIlHl 0 '"./'/il1s), P'Il;C" Ih" t 1;'Yl:< conso""nt wcukenln!!, 1 ,II tillte, !~" I procc ' lhl hct ween vowc s. aCCording t tOi't (1"4" ('onsonuntal I. major <:h' ,') Ilhc C<llc (II Wtak"", ;( , It ~ ' b c. ss c'l thn( :111 wilh a major 0 slrllction in II ' ' ,rc Ih:(l 'h' )"i1"till "'''<hI C onsonuntal stren!!,lh T~n IC I vIlcal IratI t oratt!'/.,I!tll~lh ~~I~ Ih.... rC,UV - oil.( coosonanlal strength, c PlaCCl1), lUll., It S CIIIIII , '><I~ consonunts ,ollnds produced h .1 cII",.,,,, tract Ihat arc (normally) usc I Ypartillliy lIT "111 h,,;( >I_ I ' (ut the" llllali" ""'~ or cot a), pcnphcr" I' Il1h,tru II ' I. 1 l Ihc tltll~ lho: Conste atlOn complex of co' ylhlhlt (i "ltal channcls, tnnlulllcalivc m(..', "Ihe.~ 't t 0 'ItS lIn., Consh uen ne or more Word, h ""rall"o , I ' TI st atoc' • '"d'lI lite app e tn Ie Clpple Jell {Jill I CUr tOIClht ' ettnt , ' (J "e /1 r aa SubstitutIOn test, and MovemA t , n(Jr), (See II 'Ynlatl,c II , dG' ~ntest ) II(lC nU(t Constrlctc, lottiS ([CG) A la n :, ll4ltdlnalloQ ~ made WIth the glottis clOsed (in r? ~eal fealure lhal h '-. Continuant A manner feature thantg'hlsh, Only,p), C araccnl~ ~"", I f ' 11 canct!' '"" ncar Y rcc air ow through thl! (l ' I " nIt!, 'Ilund , ra caVIty' "made ' liqUids, ,vowe". fnc't Wllhllttor S a%~~ Continuants ounds that arl! produ' ,. ' ,. 1"<11, IIId h CCu WIth a ' lhe mout , COntlnutu, ,'rt1 .1 tw~ Contour tones Moving pilches On a ' I &II , .. ' SlOg C eg dlttcrcnccs, ment thaI sig1la Contradiction relationship hetween " Il'teaniu& , h f sentences wh ' sentence reqUire: t e alsily of another sentence' , Cl1!ln the IIIIh 0{ Ole contradicts RlI'I1lcmd IS a bCldldor), (c,g" Rlrlllolld is IIIIIrrW Contralateral The conlml of the right side of h ,... the hra1l1 :lnll icc c~a, t e "VII)' by be lek.... Contrust c~mcnarc~ld to contrast when their disttnglll h l~'nl' tth dillerent meanings fromeach~ ..... III Ihe )['ll, sip no ~il'l. (e.a., Com ersntiunal implicature Infonnation that is ~ I'll,,' I'llt Is nOI _.:tlhlll said, • •,. Conn'rsion t Ird fonllatilln proce that )nl tt) ,I nt' " nt~KI.: calcglll) (a1 called........... t ) tl'llll lIur t' (. », COl.lrdinah: Structure Constraint, tilt th.11 d t" 1111 .111'1 n clement tobe ....IlI•• (, tlordinatt' tructure phrase dill ,.11 "Irk ofthc. ametypeW1tb ....... "" 1/ mel that l oman),
- 366. /lAP u( R'ttiN ,lI" If( C; . • tlw ..he pllra...c structure ruJe Ihal states the ' (~ ",rdinatwn HuItt .. " .. ." )0 X" '" Con X". COln p O" « JJI1IU.' ,UlH.W rl , , , I~ flOllt)' lIl"l)(Hl • t _,I u,cd 10 determine II u group 0 1 rd' .ion ft'st L I' d words . (,'N) .OH , • II lP i.lI101hcr group 0 wor s with a COnju .' IS a l,,"l'.liIUL'1I1 P 'lllllln~ ne tlOn sUch .1' (/~Id()~ I'I'. "he operation thaI groups together two or more catc , . ("<H,cdm"lwn ,ttl the heip of a conjunction (e.g.. M ary al/ I rOlles of Ihl~ ...11 Ill.' I~ fX , (, I Ie whi'e !III!"." ). " .• {-aWre.: thal characterizes sounds made. with the I Coronal p 'ltl, ~ It I sOIl. ongue tip · 1>1 ,<.Ie ra"c<.l (c.!!.. l . (I', ,., .., of wntlen or spoken maten al gathcrcd to 'h Corpus A (NY h d get er ~ . .. ... . Iy'" Nowndays. sue ala arc normally stored i'l Or Jmgw....tIL ,tn.1 . ... -. . Illachine fl." luahk form on a compute.. .. ~ , II ' m The "'und/e or nerve fibres that serves as th Corpu., ca osu h . h . C 111" . . ....tween Ihc cerebral emosp eres. allow,ng the t a'n cnnOt.'dIOn IJt; Wo he ' h ' ,. to communicale with one another. 111,_ sp ereS • I b d h • b' ry morpheme A margrna , oun morp cme lhat only 0 (ran ~ r . I CClirs . "sin!!ie word in a language(e.g., crall rn camlt',.,.y). . 'n Creativity The chameter/sllC of human language that allows novelt innovalion in response to new Ihoughts. e~p~nences, and situations. Yand Creole A language Ihat Originated as a pi gin and has become CStabr . us a first language in a speech community. Ished Cricoid cartilage The ring-shaped cartilage in the larynx on which the thYf(lid carli/age resls. , . Critical Period Hypothesis The claJin that the penod of child devcl . . .' d t· I ° Pl11ent las(ing up 10 pu"'erly tS lhe OplllllUm PI!IIO or anguagc acquisition' a Ihal Ihe capacily 10 karn language with ease wanes. ' fter CT scanning Set' Computerized Axial Tomogr aphy, Cuneiform Writing lhat was inilialed in tht! f.ourth millennium Be' a d . n W as produced hy presslllg a wedge-shaped stylus Into soft clay tablets. CV tier Sl't' Phonological skeleton. Cycle Each applicalion ofa mle on a particular level of representation Cyrillic alphabet An alphahet thai cOlllhineu adaptatio ns of Glag~r . letlers with Greck <Jnd Hehrcw ch<Jrac:tels, evol ving inlo Ihe alphabets t~~~ are used to reprcscnl some 01 the languages "poken in the former S . . . OVlet Umon and III Ihe Ba/kan.s. Deaft'rj~t.Ion A lype of segmenl,tl Simplification which turns affricales IJIto fncallvcs oy eltllllllaltng the Slop portlOll 01 Ihe aflricale (e.g., Id I becoming (31). :I a..lIIon See Nominal paradigm ~ A Iype of <Jl'ljuin:d dyslexi~ in which Ihl' pallcnl produces • MlI'd that I relaled 10 Ihe word hl' or shc ts ash'd 10 read (c.)! prodUCing wIleD eel 10 read mother) 1be truClure gcnemted hy Ihe phr.tse Slllll'ltll'l' rub in ."l1liwidJ tile ubcalCgorizalion propertic.:s of 111l' he.lds, TIle eakening of a geminatl' l'onsIlllanl 10 a non geminalc _1~I-.(aJ becoming (I/), Dc~cncr..tc .ruot Ametrical I ~---~~~~~~~~~"'''''::::::::: "ini mal loot. {)Ot tha. t IAfj D~..rec word (Deg) A rUnct,· <In'''I,"I "nl '~~ .. . d' ''''al y. • '" prepOSlt,on or an a jCctivt: (e. , CUtcgIJry I ' • "";uj . 1 10use ) g., q~lIe In hal ItI> ""'~It.! DeicticS Forms whose Use and q~II(. "r'd~·' Ihe lltt ~ speaker andlor addressee w' h,nterprelat •v'ry In 'tlot.~ , ' 1t 1n • 1(0 Qt. (-ry 1 it. there). a Panicul. ·lltnn'ln 'Q, ,"- Delayed release Amanner feat .r settin( lelht I,,,,.,,, consonants. Ure that eha . .g., Ih""..'" 'I! lilt A racter ''«' , "- Deletion process that rel11 'I.e, all . ,./ '. lVes a -nn (e.g.. the pronunclatton ofji"th . .egment f <mlYall . r A J' .,as ftf romc ~ Deoasahza IOn common sub : . S ). Crtaln ph . tion that involves the repl' !o.tltullon prOce' (Inet'C:(lnlt ( acement" In eh'l ~ counterpart e.g., come is pron of a n' I d lanu . Th oUnced k ..sal SI- .ua~e, DenotatIOn e set of entities to W ' "b). ."'P by a ""qUi i called its referents or extensio hlch a WOrd nQn-n~1 S d · . n). orexp . Dentals ,oun s made With the t resslQn f D erivation A process that fonn lngue plaCed a.ain re er, (al<] . th s a WOrd . " 'torn distinct. from al of its ba.se th With am. earthe,"_, f h I rOUgh th eanln. ' -1. form atIOn 0 e per (N) from help (V e addition of· and/or Ci1lt Derived (phonology) Resulting fro ))h' . an affiX (e.•~':Y_ d 1 · mteap' ."UIC to un er ymg representations. p Icallon of h 't' A h '. ponolo' Descnp Ive c araetemltc of lin . . g(:all1l~ I· .. b" gUtsttc re human mgUlstlc a l!tty and knowled search that seek preference to another. (See also Pr""~ ~e,.not to preSCribe S to descnbe . f t Ch '. ........nptwe ) one ly,l_ . DeSign ea ures araeten slIc<; of h ' ~.., In compare animal communication S~ste uman language that •• , (D ] ms wah hu we UStd I) DeterOlmer et) A functional catego h man language. ( I h ) ry t at se!"les ,._ noun c.g.. G, lie. I e. e , ill> UII: sptclfi , . ti ( R ltIa{a DeterOllD1S c parser efep, to a par'~ Ih.' . . a1' th . ~r at ts obI ed origmal an ~ I. at 1 Propo-.ed and· . ro' Ig to ~ck I) ..... ' f ' 1.0tdden tl..._"': when nc In onnau n ~ d ubt on Ih . . 0 -ilnck _ Parser.) e tmtla! analysis. (Set .. Dewlopmental error. Error that cur in L Ian k arlllng, that re ult fmm the manner In which ~.u tl1l' 'h. lIl, m { ~ I ( ;" d u1 fromov~eneraIizaiaa Dr, l'lllpml'nt.l Th ta e f Imgwstic ~ rd.ll i, '1) III , oro Ian u 'e learners. 1I 111 ti n In ~hicb a SOUIIIl I ~d eg,lbtl. t p preceding it d t phonenc mool t
- 367. , '<'1If ,)'r rill' knglh of . If I.tli..· (1'1.>111 a - • II of I'r,' lOll.' one (e.g.. Irell, fealurc Ihal j, ,Ihl hI Iglldl. dlllcrCllcl' 111 llll'anin , .11111111"'acs plus or minu ,alul' (e.g. Ihl' fluilire 1 oicelill Ihl' l>rd~ hOdy of Ihe • ,.•• 1l.'tl1hc r l" or a ~pcdc~. .......-- In II " '1 '1 1 • 1''111 'pros.,,,) " al"", nt ~~n " ~r"~Q J)Y~I • 'I)CCc1 0 1 Broca's aph'I'I <Ice 111111'1' '1Itt" Ilt.: . • . " C!, hln . .lIi<' "chtle a"achcu tIl II ',1,.,,,, gIl,' .," (S,'" ,,/.w> ' 1tic.) Ie cn" III" " " " " ' . , It , . ~.'I!' , ,"cl'"l.-ie compound, "II "It,.. I' ,,( .• ' 1 - c(1111Pl'l I ~ I. ' 1'nulish) luCll1I les the gene,· I 111,," .&., '.~ • ,I chss II,~ r ''''tr.. onl helongs (c.g" k"'I/t'c/1'1I11 ' III li0 .• '~hl"'I" _ d ) , IS a Iy '1 Ih~ I '''''''''- ,,"I"P"U," . , I'c 11 "I'll "'<allill l "'~ , d"plwrlC rl'lerence The Us' r 1111. IS.. &, <l ~ ~ I~" . ( 1 II .I: II a p Q '0 b , tlK dSC{)lIr"~ ,t so ca cd textu I rOIlO1 I . ..~ ""'" A I · 1 l'~re..., lrel' ~ 1':"tIlilnl'''~ " '"re :Ill()~ h~twcen sen;~n~~. 0'11) a""ul · 'nll'I":l Ilcu:ss.lnly Implies tl ' CIICcs In" ~ ... SC '1 h . 11: lruth 'I' V,hlc• .. I ,,,I)(/I/(Ient<tl s t ~ s~nlcncl! , ". ~'anolh' 1 Ihe 'ft. ' • <,,(1111.11' ;, . 0, te. "111 f r tVil'l)lUllent The phOnl!lic conlCl( .' "la""leel) .•.. ShQ"". Q ~ •: Ipellthesis A . process thai insen; till lihich a"~und .. 'I 11 - . • f. . a Scg'l)e ' l'ICcU ( •." .. Ihe l1el tllm 0 a schwa in l ' nl Inlo a . 1. " <: 'f l " ' " 11: pronun ,.." llartlcUI 'atlve 1t: C,lt: assOCiated with I qUIIQn If at tn~~ I'X~tll'll of a n intransitive verh) t lc SUhjcct O" 'I l lralh~... lIS__;:""IIl , . . . ansltj -""":t). < ' uphemism - term thai is Used 10 ". Ve v~ ~ ,,, . . ., " a)ld an -. 'IS 01 fens" t: (t: .g .. lour SOli Itas leI' eXpression •• •. . , . ere. Re/l II ulat ilia llf }il/l/' .1'(1" /.1 I't"")' FIIICk; Pt'r.lpir, instead era fllll1inR diffic ~ be __ "'xdusivc A person Contra. t 111 'om' I. of sWear), lllliel~ r" . he C angua ..ldn' SSl' l' IS to excluded In th,' t"1l1 ges that inn....... • u _ erprclut . ~.___ _ 1110111hc111l', (Sct' also Inclm.he) Ion ollhe fint _ Exoccntric compound . comPOunt.! wh ' . . ~-.. ,. . I' . osc meantn .1-. thc llll'.U1l1lg 0 It. part. (e.g.. rt'dllt'ck sinc " &"'Jt:lIlIIltfN,•. to..... I h . cttsnotahn... ' - _ E~perimcnta approac An approach 10 inves' . 'JI"'~~ which lescarchen. mak' u e ofpe 'ialh d . l1gal1ng tbiId ......1~.1 I . eSlgtled Iaska10oIW.. aClint;. re c ant to a pant~ular phenomenon. _ Extension The. ~ of enllttc 10 which a WOld Of call1'J '(>; denotahon I r referents . ""11""'_ Extrumetrical s~ Habl ~ liable thai. falls <MIIsidt die ruk~ . Fact' Fa,-·. ~ 11". I 1_ la;,. d behaviour lIIIINaiIa r 'put,lti,)1 , k!l1Il.. ' 'dlblht., and the like, wille..... i,)m.l, "th 'I Ft'lltnn: ~pholt'tk) "I)lIlbm,ltll 11 l I hI 'h m FUltun.' hit'rnn.'h~ hi 1 'til' I '.1 'h ,(her. •'e tun.',
- 368. I tJ -",f '...,' ,ul,,:u' l,r Ih • ,-'.'1 -bl.tl .',11 h." l ( c' ""(I Nul. I I 111l11ll'tth hf.. f1l1'1 ,1 "uh r .UII..I pl",'ht ".'d h....1 II ,I ) " It, . h.' hll I ,I n- rhl·· 1'111'.1"'--' 11.:11" 11 (1..', ' •• Itl N"ll1. 1~1I(' d/hl " II It II•• I I '11,,'0.1111 111 bill r.II" '/" C/), 11":'1 rtlt"'l1h I~ . I h IIIUhln,ll1 P' ." III 11.' •• dl...·lH.d "I th I n ,,, I " ...·l ,II' I) 'lfl'C'" h' .1 l1.ll' tl·h",lfttlllll.IIH ) 111 (hl' .'1 'top, u,:tnr . 1. InlIUlh"ltl ot " ,' nunu.;Ull' J I ., I'h" 'l,h,I"" Ih.1f ,,'.'ur... lh.' tt) . .ltuag..' (1 P lit... I' tl '"I "h,,·," 1 1 ' , Il Ih~ I 1M ' l -hUhf Ih,,' ,,',.:1111.11 ...uku'. t."U tll1~ III t lh..'nt 'Pl'cl'h hUt , dl , . -1"1 l' ,'I ',ll1llll1 ' ••llId I1hllllhlnn!! 1.1I1~lI"!-!C pnllu'" ~~i.l "fln":IIII"',, "'.) .:hnll {al,o II 1,t'II ' 4U" lIJ'hu,w " I " " .. HII" ," If ..I ('Hi th.1I j, h.h,,"'d nil 'l) • .. tlk to"~ nu' ('s.:.' ... ,II I _ ,1 Inenn • . I 1/ 'I' .1Ih.l til ':" litH 1I_'1I.1 ~ ,tn'"l .' .1 f..'lIlSI,.'tnu, n _ I ~?l hl,hln..l n. - 1 I I ll,.'I'111 .1 I t Ih' llid tlll lilt.' 1',11 ( pI tit: " ......·a"".·r ("",!-!.. hOlllbltl'u" I' .~u fU,' II " I I I ) ,,( I "lCtn n'JI1.1J".',IIUhll",lllhllph.'llh,·:o.. 1,1m .Itlt. '111):(''', g I I'. '1 ., '1,"'11,'11 ,,-.IIIl·pn·,,·nl.III,'" th"I" h<·I.,,, Ilk' Ill' II .'Nttl~"· ,I. . ~ , l ..'..'1 . t" 1'1t· 1 I • "I 'I'<:cd, 111,11 I' 1 1'1<'''" "ddl'l.·"<·d t ' .",)n".,:nt'r tl" . , _ ' " n "il'C) I /'111"'1 d •.II.I,'I,·n/c,d h' s"d. 1'1"p,'r1I<" ", '"llpk' '" 1111 anO'rU.l ' " ' , , ' I II i Olu nru, m,' ",,,-,' ,','1111111'" ,,<,•• 1>,,1.11) 11,'111' I.' "":-1 ,', 1,'II,'h,'!' Inlk ) or • t 1'11' l,nll,'II"" ,',,",',·I1I1.III,II1S 01 hal1d, "I "Ik'r~ III fomu," , , 1 I " a 'I....·~d II I (n 111,,'111.1''' III ,I ",.:1" lIC 1 ~I" 11 II, 1',·<'II".lr .•udl'or ,,'u, " " , '1uaIH '( I::"~ I Spt~·fn)gr:utl .) ,.., iSi/iIBI/II" If Ih,' illl,·rI.IIl~ II.I~'· ~I,IIlUllar g,'ls slIId. ill " 1'111. alld , Il'l'nlIIII.lIlIlg I" Ih,' gl.llIlII•.11 "I 1Ill' I,ll' '<,I 1.1Il!(lIa~,' it I' "lid tn ~::~~ hl~"lr l"""' , ,..R't' form 11 dClll,'1I1 Ihal ,'an I'C,'lIt ill 1",1,11(111 ,llId"'r "l1'I' !"'-'HIIlII '''Ih /'1:,'/'<'" "'IIl'I~h"('lIrlltg 1'I.-l1k·nls " 11" ,'utiI' 'I} flcd ,,'R't'mOrpht'ml' lIlorph '~t'. Ih.II,',111 h,'.1 "I'd'" II,,'I!' ('..~..J"(/r. FR't' , srlslioll ""lind, ,Ill' III tn'c ,111,1111'11 1ll'11 Ih,' dll 1101.:onll"1 '- s1. C~Ul ,l<.'1.·ur in id,·tHIl'.lll'hlll1l'lll· l'l1 11'<'111111'11". ,md .11" I'h"Ill'tll'ailv '1I1111' " • d~ Frkation rhl' 'H·.Ih'nll1g ('1.1 "III' I~' Ilnc.HIY<' (l' g .. 11I1 hl"''1Il1I1g lOll, Frkathes C,"I"I1;1I1I ' pn'du<'l'd II lilt ,I e','lltlt1tI'U' ,urnll Ihmll'l h ' g 1 I ~ moulh.•1<Y"lIll'anlcd Il ,ICllnllllll<'I" ,tlldtblt: IUllSC (e' g .. In.lJll, Fricdonless rontinulIllt " ppro.irUlIllt Froat vowel ll'l Iltal IS lIIadl' llh 11ll' "'I1~lIe' 1'lSllll1cd tn Ill ' I' , c mnt of~ oral Cal'll) (''.g. Ih,' (lIl'! ,,'und, III I, al,lIId ",,'), ......... Iobt' Thl' "'Ix' Ill' IIll' t>r,lil1 Iltal lic, 111 1'IllIlIIlr,hl' e'Clllral sUkw; and In which Bn":lI's .lft';l is 10C.H,·d, common suo"iIUIIt'11 1'I'c'l'" in chIld Ian 'ua 'I' a"qlli'llinlllh ' l , , ,I ,.101 the moving 101' .Ird 01 .1 "'lIl(j', pl;I:' nl ,lIllclllalion (l',g,. ci'I'''''I' pnIDOIIDCCd It i;l />. ..1I1.....~catioD morphologic-al pHle'l'" Ihal dupli"al," Ih,'el1ll1' lnl ,anak 'child'!lInaAalluA ·,.Iritlus l'IlIllhl'll'), Word., . uc'h a, dl'll'rlnilll'ls and ,'olljulleitolls Ihal aI',' of BnlC8' aphllsic's, n:sulting ill Idc'graphlc' 'Iwl'eh, approach 10 synt,ll'Iil' .111,11 si, Ihal all,'mph Itl ...ItI,.1C1icpbeDom na in tenus ofthl'ir eOllllllullil'ali l' fUIl,'linn r'I.l1I1" , lui '~, it. I'nm f) 'I.) 1hein
- 369. ( a ...(.~nh:n...'t.~(h.1t !'oope;.tlcn-. judge to be Ik-al Iltc' '1,11lI' , • a !>Os,ib G.......... 13I~U,ICc' e . nr~ ,,fd:k.:Jr ~~... C'lh. ~J'(S lh;.lt .t.n: e.pre~sed as atThe ':-1ft'(! n·"''tP· f . 1>, . . s Or n G......Rllltk -' ~ (ht' ",-"t.'lh..'t."pt (.1 0 l.gallon ~lS e"press d on_ k.h.3r ."'3t(.'~~'I1"·'" (L~.' .e by the aU lliM) , ...'Ii' 'PUI':)~'n"'I.'lun( , hitt... that h)ok place belVeen Prot , ' m', , ..." The .' O-Indo.. GrtIII· J 1"'n'(l'.....(J -n113111('. . Eun '3Il .lll h" Ih -' "'C'rebmll2'oI1t:''' IS folded ~.)Ul {singular: ' • Th<: In.'''' (.1 K grus) <;,-n ' , II h.I(l.oIl': ,<,ripl used 10 repres,:m . orean. the sy~,bo" H......' llte, r'd I 'p"""nl thc' s~ lIables of tndl Idual morphe S Of "bi,,-h an" !!f'lI~xThr~ ...~,~eJ dement of a metrical fool. llles. n--o of.. rootl < d h' h h I ~ ( . I Thc' H,rd aroun IC a p rasa category is bu', Hdd (ofa pb...., I I (e.g., : .. A. P . rdl The nlL'rpheme that detennine.' the category of th . Hdd (of .. '''' . . e entire e"" ern'" 111 gn.·t·/~/7 ). . . ,,,lrd(.:" 'lIal>le ith a rh' me com:umng a long yowel 0 H n' ,'.blb'e .'" " ' h ' ~ . r a sho n, '. d I> a( lea'( <'Ile consonant. as 1'.0 moras and is s'd n <,"<,1 fc,II<,,<" ~ " hI ) al (0 be be:!'" (,-, ,1/'s,1 S~ liable."elg. . . . .. , --.i ...... -n E!!pua.n plctona1 writing . ~ stem. hlch later d HJE'._·~ ...,ICS ' ~'. , e'el_ lJX"d tnh);I mi'eJ nung ~~. (enl. . K';" A d"1"31 feature thaI ch3r.lctenze' ·ound. produced with the tongUe bod, mised. . ' . u ...... -e1 '"m d thaI IS made WIth the lOngue r:used (e." the a __ '0" .'" ".. VOWel , JUnd' in b, ,II nd '!.!..It'). . . . . Hingana The lapane"" ,~Jlal>at! thaI IS used m conjunctIon with katakan and kanji to "rile Japane"" . .. " . a lfistoricaIlinguistics The ImgUl. tiC di"clphne that IS concerned with th description and the e'planation ,)f language change, e u ..........rases lueran,-e. produced b~ chIldren III hlCh one word ex ...-..- . Id L., . , ' ed' . ' pres, the t) pe of meanmg that ' ou l"'Pi~'~()(Jat . with an enttre entence m adult pen-h (e.g., up u. cd to mean ' c" me up ). B_gplIon" The nUaUl)!1 m hich a ,ingle foml ha. two or more enu' I . ~ Ib' I " , re~ distinct meaning (e.g.. (' /I a. o....la orgamzauon: club 'a blu~t treapOII'), 1IJpe.0H IKtion . ouree of languag change that occurs hen a peaker wbo i attemptmg to peak another language or d:ale..:t overgeneralizes JIII1icuIarrules. A bounded. right-headed metncal foot (e,g.. ('ol/c( I). A 'gn thaI bears ome re emblance to it. referent (e.g.. a ofa woman on a hroom door). medIod of leaching a econd language to children in I hich IR....". most of their course and. hool actlitie, 11 the larget uni ersal of langua 'C "htdl pe ·Itic. that ...., uupb the presence of nother (hut I1<lt 1<'<' in me language (uch a rec), (){'C u ..•• ~ , . .USivc A perSOn Conlrasl . In ..~ l... "C . lb' In SIl ..,. ' ., . ddr<:ssee IS 0 e mcluded . . Ille I. 'Il,,,,,,,, <I,'Oll)heme. (See also EXClus l . • n the intc:rngU~g" I' . ~'-. I ' T ' eI ' p "1~1I "~l ' " corporatIOn he combinati . . "n nil' In<l.<::,,_ 10 d b on III "C r, ."" 1"- fonn a compoun vcr . a "'Ord ( 11 lIh......... , I ' A' u'u, II . -, "'" ~ (nde"lca sIgn . 19n that fulfils . ~ ~ ~ n ~ I' p,call) by beIng a panial sampl It, fUnclIon b nunl "'iiha d'irect negative evidence Th e of it (e.. "~ ><lInt . ~t!t II> 10 r" . e assu ~., Ule Ir Ing .... in the Inglllstlc envIronment mPtion tho at"III t I..,. ttl c.idence.) are Ungrarn~ at nOn'llct <Ii <Iiilltal) " In th '..alIcal uttln . nti" An a I~ at OCCurs Within . <See g Irt..... J...IFL (InflectIOn) The node th a base. also ~;;.~ 1" d d' at ap"" "'""'t structure tree an ommates te ...~ar, dir 'person and number); the const nse as Veil as ~~~I~ Under S . INFL . 1tuents f Uler In a ·t"reement. IS often abbre .. 0 11-.l'l.. .. eIi:>al infl . ~ •=- T h ' 'oilated t I l""e t:tllllt Inflection e modification of a '>.Or .0 . Pan in 'ub [I.e, suhclass to whIch It belongs (e d S form to Indic Jt:t_ tII suhclass). .g.. the ·s in boo~te the ~.._,. I struOlcntal motivation The d . Iltarks U;;.~ n f ... e Ire to h Il1ItaI language or Ull Hanan reason . h _ ac ieve T . - , ' . ' .ue as Job proficle"", Integratlye motivation The desire promOtion "') III a ..... . d to aclu' - .. language In or er to Panicipate . ee Pm" . . In the .. IlClenC'· cornmumty. SOCIal life of . III a ne.. Intension An expre ion' inherent ~ . the ~ . al 'Ii " . nse theco InteractIOn SOCIO DguIStiCS Soc' Ii ' . . lIcept> that ' .th th I 10 ni!Ul>ll IteV1lkes concerned WI e anguage used in " . c re>ean:h ,1.__ . • .J>eech SItu . "I4l IS -..'" Intercostals The muscles betv.een th ·b. allons. -, - en,thath pre-sure neee-sat: tor -peech prodUction. e p t() lllaintain lilt • Interdentals Sounds made ith the tongue ' [8], [0]). . ~ p ed~eeulllt_t.&.. Interfaces The ~ a~ - 10 hi h componen' of phonolog~ and ~, -uta:· re rehted I ea hother. a ~ Interference t T fer, Interlanguag "M;mn,~ at .1 p.liti 'ulJ.r '0 Intermll r c nlru 'Ii n l)tl th nal. i· 'f 1l1Ofph4.)prtO Internltti nil Ph n tic 'ril m Ih' Ul d f 1 n. H PI h ",...,...""'" rd m run rb that In that"'-...111
- 370. "Irl" &y.... C.l1... fit ... 'nl (h.lt dvt.·~ not pt.·rmit cxtfm:tion of a compone Island 1.:t.)lI~Utu.~ hr:.l'l.' lillo' D,I1'e ami Pam). n1 Part l'" C' I CllllrJ.O.IIt; r "I Jhlec( map [0 represent bOllndarie b c:.~ .9.' LIut.' Jr..l n lHl ~ • S Ctwe e lSOft'os' . n JI.llc....·ts .. h' ( IS nol known (0 be related to any oth . . I ml!uagL r .1 . Cr hVin ,,,.,I..,t' '. B'. <l"C Kutcn,,')' . g lancua!!~ (t:'.,g:.. .), L' ll''''U'laCS vhose words tYPically consist of • I uug-es d e 4:: ) (M only 0 ',olatinll "~ll. ", c'lilcd analylic languages e.g., andann). ne tn(lrphctn< (al. 'culiar to some field (also called oee • """oulal) p" Upatiolla) JaJ'jlon socioleell. . As 'mptotn of severe cases of Wernicke's aphasia in . JaJ'jlonaphas'" ..,> Pry few real words of the language. wh'ch " 'h conlalnS ,e Ch' h thc 'p"Cc . word for the mese c aracters used t Kanji The Japanese 0 Write Japanese. J ' ese syllabary that is used in conjunction With h' K takana The ap.lO . ,ragana aand kanji (0 ~Tile Japanese. K See RadIcal. . d ' e,- I ~ alUre that charactenzes soun s articulated With Labial A pace e one Or both lips. d' ade with closure or near closure of the lips (e Labials Soun, m .g., the . "a1 sounds ofeall, !zan and !flail). . IflIt] 1 Sounds involving the lower hp and upper teeth (e g h Labiodenta s . ) . " t e . "a1 nds ofj;reedom and )!./Iltage . ~h rou ' h ' d . I' Sounds made with t e tongue raIse near the velum and th LablOve ars d d t the same time (e.g., the initial sound of wOllnd) e lips wun e a ' . . I d . h th bl d - . . al A laminal sound ISartlClI ate WIt e a e of the tongue. Lanlln h' Th I th·· th . '1 . b'oprogram hypot eSls e lypO eSls at Slml anties am Langus,ge e'nect linguistic universals both in terms of first langu ong creo es r ' d . age . 't'on and with respect to processes an structures which are innat acqulS] I ' . e. La age Contact A source oflanguage chang.e that IOvolves the speakers f ngu . 'hh k f 0 one language frequently interactlOg Wit t e s~c.a 'ers 0 another language. Laryngeal features Features that represent. vOlcmg states. Laryngeal node The node ?f the feature hIerarchy from which branch out the features that capture vOlcmg states. Larynx The boxlike structure located in the throat thro~gh which air passes during speech production, commonly known as the vOlcebox. Lateral A manner feature that characterizes all and only varieties of I. Lateral fissure The tissure that separates the temporal lobe from the frontal ud parietal lobes. LIIRnIlricative A lateral sound made with a nalTOW enough closure to be dauified as a fricative. 1.£ .......".. The unilateral control of cognitive functions by either the Cll'dIe riJllt side of the brain (c.g., languagc is latcrali/cd to the left I,.......re in most people). SouDda made with the sides of the tonguc lowcrcd (c,g., varieties Buglish morphemes of classical origin thc majority of ~hich are from Lalin IndIrectly through F . Maoy c . L' rench uch • ) Irom attn. IIr '''nte 1lI"'Ilht ". Lax vowel A vOwel th . "lher ~"IlI. Ita~t . I t' I I at"nt d llIan,.. h... tn re a lve y css vo' I a e"'-lt' ."" I,. ~ ~ ca Ira "a I ~·l"".- bur). Ct consln' . Pae<~ --.. ~ - • Cl(>n ( "'"01, f Learrung strategies Th e·g..th•• lhe ~>n uage input and develo e. Way, in whi ~'>".I ...~"'-_ Left-headed unboundnPdlflngul~tic k.no eh langua. '~'IlI1lItir~ h d' I ~ OOt Wltd·e I..",. -- ea IS ocated OVer th I An Unbo ge. -'><1' """'. Length The aUditory e eftntOSt SYllabi Unded llIe" ,....... l.- I h propeny e(e ".tal f ~ sca e t at ranges from h of a So .g., pr(,,,,· '"Itin Lesion Severe damag s on to long. und that ena~leI. ~ a.e Lexical ambiguity T~ to the brain. e~ u, 10 P~ . form has two or mOre e result of hO nt0Ph It <lit , Lexical category ThemeanIngS, either r ~ny Or PolYe adjective (A), and pre Word·level sYnta:tatedor nOl. Illy inlhat, ...... . diff' POSI1on (1') Ie Cate . -...... LeXical USlon Lin ' . ' gone~ nOll d gUISltc ch n( ') wor s and then gradual ange that first . . ,~tI! (I language. Y spreads thr manlfe,>!, itscl Lexical gaps Gaps in th I . oUgh the V"",I.. f Ot '-' . e eXlcon h -""'IIiary 0( or contact WIth another c i t at resuit fr ~ Lexicalization The proc U ture. om technol~ . a language (e.g.. the co~~!~h~~e~y concepts are enc . ~ by the word roil). molton' and 'manner~lbe""GI LeXIcon A speaker's mental d' . ~-.... h t · lCltonary h' ' - t e syn acuc properties m' ,W Ich contains' language's words. ,eanlng, and phonolOgiCal lIIfOlllllliaa.. Light syllable A svllable wh rh ~ . ose yme c . one mora and i said to be light (S onlatns alIloe.... Lingua franca A third lan"uag~ ilifftalso Syllablt-.... diff I e ~ a IS usedwhen erent anguages come into contac ~_Sl(",_ each other' language. t and are not fully -_1111 Linguistic competence peakers' ab'itv 1· , d I 'J to IIldIt:e un mute number of utterance. including - • • Linguistic typology An approach to Ian::-1•.1Il language' accordmg to ilieir tructuIal C11111C1....,..fIii genetic relationship . Linguistic uniwrsals Structural clw4' language, of the world. Linguistic The di ciplinelllallllll....... Lobes ub~tructure' of tile caeIIIl dlstlllet re. pon ibilities(e.g........ Logographic writiD& mnrpheme or even emiae l.ongitudioalllssure .,...... the back and sep.....
- 371. "{ l" TIC... L . ' 'Or'" of a _ ...Olllld thai enable." lh t J I ", 1''''''< - . Q pIa ... rhc 4tH I. l ... ,ft (ll loud. Ce it on J.oUd~ /'... fhal r:ulg.·... tn."n . to 'hanu..-(cril'cs ,-ovds made with the t :J ..... ;1 I.. • {lin' (h~tt I.. . . ' h i ' Qngue h.... • Jdf':.11 h.'.I. . 'mfal po-sltlOn In t C ora cavity, VUQy 10M J tnllli al.t: h h I " -ch 'lnH'rt' h ·... m.tdt." wit [e tongue Owered (e g h Jt..UDI. ~. tn.·' r ~I( I , ', l e Vo 10M HUH' rJ t',1f dnd I!l£ Wei ' ' lllWJ... w ch'" ~l ... -:rmn~la(jng from one language. SUch as En . -h 'ne tra".,lutlO n h" French. using a computer_ ghsh, to , ..., J ~. "UI.· "IS . ' h . . a"orh,'r IJn!!UJ!-'die/ionar) A dIctionary t at appears In cOmpUte • ·hin.,..readable . llinu checkers and thesauruses, I' form ' ... /' ,nd ,n 'I'" " th . - u 'h .f' !har ," Fe'ltures that represent e claSses . , features' I conson 'f8J'or da.<s . 'd glide. and vowe ' ant, .- . 'II itqUl . d ot" [flJ,,n1. n.1', . A secondary strategy use to recOnSt ' / strateg) < d ' h rUet P '8J·oril.' ru es, . lhal the segment Joun tn t e majority of rOto_ ' .• t -npulate. c (S I Ph Cogn t<)mlS u . a S d be the proto-Iorm, ee a so ooetic pI ..ates should be assume W aUSlbllity srrateg)',) Features that represent manner of articulation, fanner features h ode of the feature hIerarchy from which bran h - ode Ten " c O Ut h .fanner n 0 manner ofarncu/atlOn, I e !hat relale I ' f i ' featun:. . uJ tion The vanous con IguratlOns produced by , , Manners ofartIe a e velum, and glottis in different ways (e POSition_ ing the /lpS" wngu . ,g" nasal, fri arive IIqurd), " h ' c '. Those characteristIcs t at are conSidered to b Marked trald/ ts niversaJly rarer in languages, e 1110re mp/ex an or u . Th' h h " co D'....erential HypotheSIS tS ypot eSls Jnvestigat Markedness U1' k dn I I ' es the ' that the degree of mar e ess pays a ro e In econd la assumpuon I ' k d f nguage ' " by comparing the re attve mar e ness 0 structures in th acqursrtwn eLI and the L2, I 'fi ' Markedness theory A theory that c assl les trab!ts or patterns of languages ked (those that are conSIdered to e more Complex a dJ as mar th th ' nor ' ally rarer) and unmarked (ose at are conSidered to b I umvers e ess complex and/or universally more common). M ...: An array of features that represents a segment. BUlK , h' h I Matrix clause The larger p~rase In ~ IC a comp ementclause OCCurs. u_":_ ofManner A princIple that IS thought to underhe the effiCient ,YA&UIII A 'd b' - d use of language and is fonnulated as: VOl am IgUlty an obscurity; be brier and orderly. Muim ofQuality A principle that is thought to underlie the effiCient U se of IaDguageand is fonnulated as: Try to mak~ your contri bution one that is true, (Do not say things that are false or for whIch you lack adequate evidence,) ....... oIQwmtity A principle that is thought to underlie the efficient U se ClfJau&uage and is fonnulated as: Do not make your contri bution more or iabmative than required. A principle that is thought to underl ie the efficient use formulated as: Be relevant. . " ltpCIIC1Jl1C princiJ:lles that ensure that conversational interactions .,c:r..GJllnlti1 ve Principle. 1··.....······1"J •HOrI"e ';E;~----------___"",,;;: Mcr~er A chan"e ' Or etlntent Ih eo tn a h at· j phonemes collapse' P "no", "'gn., 90... . into on ~tl:a ~In'¥ ... that language, e, therchy >YICtn "y, Mcsolect A creole V'I ' re<luCln. thin "'hi," ' nety th • e ~'t terms of the amount f' lit >il, c nu, ..~ '- Mctacogmhve strategi enee Iro etn 'n __ " olnflu uctli Il~ d l'b ' es Le· , 111 Ihe Crnl e I erately 10 L2 learn' orrllng >tr' 'tondard. <:ct 'Ill! Metaphor The underst ,ng " ateglelh.t l""lIta lt " times responsible fo' ~ndlng of one "'eult(j~ ... terms of 'war': She a~'l~nguage chancnncePt In Ie -.....,,,,, Metathesis A process t~'lared hiln in~~ le,g, 'arg;' <>1, Saxon a[ks]iarr becam at reorders a edebale), Iltnr UIll1t...~ Metrical reet Units ore ask;, Old EnD li heqU~nce or """011 .. d metnc I . b b"d._. '"&Ilc: an one or more associat a structure ~arne b nl; Ie" Metrics The study of st cd unstressedSY1~Onlting o{ "d ), , Mid vowel A VoWelth:t ess Placel11ent. ables, a,r.n.... (th ISmade ' '_ e,g" e vowel sOUnd in lilththe10 Minimal foot See Dege s£r), ngUe neilherrai~ Modified input Simpi~e~ate fOOt, ~~ also Foreigner talk.) Ie speech direCted M dill at nO nn . o ier An OPtional elem - a~ve S1lo>l._ in that blue car- thaI GI enIt that deSCribes ap '--n. Uet , ona Ike ' ropen Module (psychOlinguistiCS) A S In tileCar rhar Gl Yo!a~(t.c..w..r mous from other processing unit of prOCessing .~~Iikt!). Th' , Units """ IS ltlil!iv.l.. Mora IS IS the minimal rh th : , -."'J..... of the syllable, (See also Sy~a:C:~It;itbeiongS10lberb Morpheme The smallest unit f I elghl) YIIIe~ meaning or function (e g bo k O anguage that tarries ;od " ,OS ConsISts f ,"- '"'1lIiIIIiaa""'- Morphology The system of cat ' 0 "t<:IWo __ ........ _ , d - egones and lUI ' -'"-_ hon an Illterpretation, Its IDvo!vt:d iII........ Morphophonemic rules Rules that morphs, account for al~ Motherese The type of peech that is typicaU other adults to young children (also y..... Motor aphasia See Non·fluent &lbIsia. Movement test Atest used to determineual!lllli~'IIIII" by moving them a a single unit toilWllll:llaa..... lurmur The glottal state that produces _ •••• relaxed enough to allow enough air to ....1 .... whispeI') effect (also called ~ Mutual intelligibility The cri&aQa.". hetween language and dialcct: _l1li. can be understood by socaltl•• the same language. Nasal A manner fealUle _ _ _ lowered.
- 372. ll~lll , ..I H ' , Il~ effect (hul a nasal t'onsonaru CUI) I ' . I'll..' 11;1,,1 111 l~IVC ,) , ....1I181...n . n ,In f "nl ~)n ..·" f t'l /t)L.'rtlig (he vdulll . allowing .. .I...".t-( . 1IIld., pn.)j.JII~·"'·t , all' to Pa!)< ," .. QlJs .'~ 1 , 1 '-,,'i.lCt.·... ., ' h 'luu:h rhl..' 11.1,.1 r· .,.. ) 11;1 aClluin..'c.1 a Innguage us a chi Id in ' I I ..._ Olle l( tl n 'll .lithe spt,at,.,t·r , ~ uri.! ,trim:, . hI' "ftam granlll1Htl(;ai knowledge is inborn .,c.: .. I"~ Il' ( .1 Lt, h t' , N til-isH. Ie..' . t" suunds Ihul s ares a Ci.-Hurc Or fe'll ' all· . . d;t." 0 • < Liles ( lun" ('I"", e,g" alliccJ ShIp'), 'h An approach (O investigating child In . " Hpproj)( d h'Id ' " ngUagC ' NatunahstJ( I.. . 'rve and rccor C I rcn S Sp o ntanCQ . 111 . -.. "·Il.'hcr:-. O"M.: liS verb. which n: .,t.. .11 /><'h.1 ill"'." '.' . th'l! guides language reconslruction by d CfllL'1101i ' Ctcrrn' Naturalne.•· ·"·Ing..:s arc nawra/. Ill. iJl~ 'helh<.'r or n<llCC'III'S uhoul grammaticality gleaned by I . 'dcncc c, , " anglo NegaUl'C el b',sis of whal IS mIssing or ungrammatical in th IUgc karners on Ihe "5::' 1/1'0 Positive evidence,) c data '1 hI' to Ihem. (. " I , (; I ' N ' aal a < , "I'nnovation (C.g.../l'< /Ocraey In ewtoundland E . I 'm A lexlC.1 I . . . . nghSh) Neo ogJs .• 'nformtllion.proccsslI1g units ot the nervou ' " N urons The ntlSlC I S sYstclll e .. 'ct nern' cells. . , ' also c?"~. The scientific :;tudy of the brain. NeuroscIence. Know/edge tbat is introduced infO tbe discours f NeM' informatIOn e Or the lirsltime. . r 'd 'lddress t'I'ms h' , No-namin#! The prac/rce 0 avol IIlg, "~. w en parlicipants arc unsure which term to lise, Node S,'I' Class node. . '. , ,.' . I J aradiom The set 01 n:latcd fOlms assoctated wtlh a noun ( I Nomna p " aso called a dec/ension). , NOD-lIuent aphasia Aphasia that result~ irom damage to parts of the brain in front of the central sulcus .Illd that ts c~araclenzed by slow, effortful speech production (also called ~otor llphasla). NOD.'exica' category See Functlona! ~ategory. . Non-tenrunaJ iDtonation contour RtSlIlg or Ie~el Intonation at the end of an utterance. often signalling that the utterance IS IIlcomplete. OUD (N) A lexical category Iha! typ.ica~ly names entities,. can Usually be inflected for number and possesston (Ill English), and functions as the head ofa noun phrase (e.g., k"I', Boh. fl1'I'CI'plioll). Moyement A IranstiJrlnation that moves a noun phrase into the SUbject poation. ...... (N) lel i A vocalic element that Iimils the core of a syllahk (c,g., Ihl' the nucleus of the tirst syllahle 01 Pli/ric/..). (Pronoun drop parameter) If' a language allows Null lit...... subject noun phrase may ne omitted without r,'ndering till' lDOIphoJogicaJ category that expressl's contrasts involving ••4111"~ ( ,. in English. the two way distinl'tion netwl'l'l Ohject pennunenee A ahilily 10 n:cogni/,e Iha 'Icvch'PI11~11 (,leI inlcraction With them I "h"'q, h. Iill ""1 ~_ . Nl' . <lVc .'1"" "'- Oblique A nOun h iln .~i • th' ... t PrllSe t) 'I."' "....,_. Obstrllen Any non., III c'"n)' t< IIl<It~n't<I 1... Obviative A verh fo~"n(lnUll Cll,,, .'ne, "'ilh. 1'<:,.j" lilt referred to by Ihe ve" l1 b u'co In ,"~I.'nl: trltill;' pr<I<"ttl "'e- , r I, n ·..c I" Vc ' '>n Ihe conversallon. (Se I' (It thc e"l' n~Ua~e ·" lir...,.· . . I e a ~() p '1 Ily n hI I .~ ,...., OCCIpita lobe The a' . ' rllXilllat ..rcVillU I "dl'Olt '.:"'Ib... 1'1 h ' leaoflh C,) 'Yt) 1.'> .....,.. w 1IC 1 t e VISual COrtex' , e hrain "It" <iii ' .. e..;. Old information See C~s IOC,ltcd, III Ihe rCar tho: r,-;. , -Ven i t' III lh .. Onomatopoeic Words W , n orlllatil t a"~ular that they name (e g I ortl, Ihut hav ~ &Y,,- It ' ..• I' Ill' hi c'''Cn Onset Wllhin a syllabi ' Ss), crcalcdl I ' e , the I ""'u eac 1 nucleus that do , (lngCsl Se ndlikt.h. ' es not, qUencc f '''III;.. language In question (e. Violate Ihc () tlln"'n ...... ham .sfer). g" hq fOrll), lh PhllnltuCllt ilIIlll)tho:t.... O .t' S C (In'Ct I' tlln,,~, '<Cl or pPOSI Ion ee Contrast n lhe F.ec"","" or lilt Oral sounds SOund, P;A IItId "I~ h rVlUccd . iii throug tbe nasal passag "'llh lhe I h h . Ccut off Ve UIll . Ort ograp Y A sel o f ' ral!icd and " convenlions r the IbrR... orm. . Or represe ' _.... Overextension A develo nllng ang",_ . h'ld' d . Plllental ph, "'"t;" In "'"'-- C IS wor IS mOre gene I ,enoll)cnnn in h' .._ d It f ( ra Or Inclu ' '" Iththe a U orm e.g.. daddy Used to f liVe lhan lhat r ~II(" Overgeneralization A dcvel re erto any adult Illal 0 the~- I b d oPlllenlal h e), ~ over y roa application of a I P enolllenon that Palatalization The ef1'ecl lh~ ef;~!·,falledinstead O!ft~ fnItalit typtcally have on velar. ahe I, . VOwel, and the ...,_.• . I . 0 ar. and dental "- ...... arttCU anon more palatal (e.g th' f. lops.IIIakiac...- Palatals Sound produced Ct~h l~,"'l lundo! ~episnallhl:.....~' Th hi h c t()ngue onor '--.otII). Palate e get pan of !he rool' (If the 11CIr ........... :;._._,.. Paiato-aiwoiar (area) The area JUst be~' roof of t~e mouth n harp) (also called lid tile IheoI.r Paragraphia An ~rr(lr In nting SOC-Wida Parameter Th~ ~t f Itemativ for a lIIIicaIIr"'." ,1 ,tlahk h) t.:nicr al GrilIll1lartoiDdi'fllllll Pnraphrase, 1 1 ntences thal have ... --.' tl'.g..I,::,,!' Ila, written bv Gotdw •I- l/.I"I. l'nril'lal loht> ,t , l th ' tl mporallobe Pill' l'r d I that •pptopri Ie label of.....1&l1li_ I'~r ing The illpect I the aualy f ilts 5~yDUlcac 1 __
- 373. 't , •t I JIt ... . IHtl'1"hlhlgl'"'~lf pn.l.'l.',,,"' Ih•.tt duph.....all~s ).. Pard,.' n'CII",Iit.'urwn I • ( . b' III J:1t!.lIl1~. IlIl.bllll 'run' and Iu/ ~;llt or lh~ N'''''' h' ~ hh,'h HII''' I"" t. u 'll/r ',viII nUl') , t1hlf11htllll!! i...,.JJ pnl,"t,.'" (hal Ill.lrks .1 gr" Parti,.' IliliU",,'t·tU)11 ,,1 ",f I fIlllr r1k"lI1l' (l.'.~.. thi"k/lhou~"t) anttl1~ttiC~lI p 1'1 h,' rfl~ p. . _ . • . "l'Utr.I ..r h . • ,,,'lHl'lh.'-l' III .. 111,,:11 IIH.' noun phra.'iC' hearing the Pa"';u' ,,'nlt'II""- ,, -'".-1(l.',Co .• 1I1f' Il'por! wax 1'rt.'I'ar('d 11"It .. lhelile I',It.. I' t.'lh,y,h'd I'''U .I'" .. • «. o"""itree mMn). . . ... III hk h the meaning of a Vord bec • I h...• 1'1'''-''''' . I '" onlcs I Prjttn,wn 11 U,cd hl meafl simp y gil" ). ' cs~ "" «(.',c Jl t'nf I' h I:" ,>1/1," ,', ', ,,) The s lIahk he ore l every "Ist Olle ill 'I 't' 13ft' (.r~l n) t: . . II u' .. vOrd Pt'nll '" 'I I ·i ,·,1 l,;,IL'.:on Ih:1l Iyr ' '''' y ISlingllishes 'I ' IIH)fl' H) ~)~ I.. .... , '!l IOno 0 ""rson I ' '~l'rl Ihl' Sl't'l1l1d persoll (Ihe aduressee ) 'Inu '- e- l e Ii It'r'~lll (f h..' 'IX' . ~. h d' 'f' • .. lilc U . U-..I I· , 'bL'l (<,.g" 111 f:l1g h' h, I e If erence belween I, llrd l1rrL""~(lU (jf1.(lUl t • .'0ll. ~llld .•" {ht 1/1. 'i III fs llIade Ihmugh Ihe modifil'atlon of airllo ' Ph nn""8/' . '" ,. . " I " In lo a.,.. • . -rinc rht..' h)lJ ,l!; LJC ()r COn .slrrCllllg '1(, pharynx. e hln 11 In n. tr.ll. ... .. h I P '- 1'/' ' " '1 "f Ihl' Ihi'll"I helween I e IInl i.l and Ihe laryn Pharl n 1C.. iHt:. . I " . _ I ' ' • •. eh 'Inil'''1s u",~d h) aluma s speclilca I) lor <'omlla " ' Phl"lTm()n~,'j ( tnh.:UlIVC pU'1'<,,,',s, , , IUlld USl'd 111 hUlI1all language (also called a speech so Phone I 11. " , 'h' , ,,' , , ' und ), rh' phonolo",cal 1II111 11110 Ich PICdlllahlc varnllls f' Phone-mt' l: l:' • T. I' h ~ ,0 nOn I'·, e"lIll'lIl' art' grouped (e,g.. 111 leng IS ,III and III bclon - l',mtr.b 1 l ' ". , - , g to the pho/lt'llIt'II;), , Ph '(' paraphasia Specch errors Ihat result fmm phonemic ' h ' onl.'nll ' Sll SlIllI_ lion, ;lIId llnll,sS/(lIl,' (C ,!! , ,1/'(1,,1/ ilia) he pronouncl'd as 1'0(11/ l, Phonetk determinll'hl' The pa~'1 of a Chinl'''' characler Ihal provides intilrllwlion ahow IhL' pronUIlL'I.llIllll or Ihe eorrl'spolldtng morpheme • Phonetic phlU,sihilit,r ~lralcJ.:.l Thc pril1lar~ slr.lIeg) llsed 10 rl't:on:~truc pnl/o-ti>nm; il rl'4Iml'~ a,l1) sound c hanges poslIed to he phonetical! I plausible, (St'<' ,,1.1-0 MIIJorll~ 1'1111', slratcg,l, ) , Y Phont'tk sound change A '('II/Id change thaI rl"ult, III a Ile allophone of an a1read) t'xi,ting phOnt'llll', PIIouetkaJI.' condlliom'C/ sound change S(lund l'hance thaI heg'I11 , ~ ' . - s as ubde a1lera,jons in Ihe ,S(lllnd pattern 01 a languagc' In pan lc ular phonctic cnvironmenls, I'loaecks Th~ br.tnl'h ot' lingu/.IIl" thaI naill/nl's the inVt:nlory and IfnIcture oflh~ sounds of language, .....1fnpIJk wrltinJl A I) pe of Tilillg in h,ch S) Illhols Il'plesenl qiIIbles or5egmenls, .......... da8JJie A sound change Ihaf rt'slIlts in 11ll' addition, l'llIllina IeIITaIIg m nl of phonellll" (l'.g.. splils, Illl'rgc IS L ........ Iype of al'julfl'd d)"Il' ia ill IHeh 11ll' palienl the abilily to USt spdlill ' to -sOUlid rult's anti can onl) or h n before, rhal denv phonelic rl'pl("<'lIlallon, Imlll untlt'I- ling for allemalions amnII' allnphnnl", I'honolol(icul skeletOn ' )I"m()hl~y The COln ,~" ,. Sk~I. principles thai dCe POlle1l1 "I " "I] • rn11nc 1 ' grO t Phonotuclics The. low () ' l1hilt Se 01C lind, nl.~ Phruse level The 111 ' 1 1 1l' lr"I/I P,,.,. ' , CnCul I ''''I h "In· I "I,,~ IS repreSented. " ev(.', un q". ij "It.~_ 'hrnse One Or 'nore WIlIth I <>1 -" .... I • ' I ' , WOl'd, lh' Ir<~ D1ll.... wo eVe S, .1 phrase leVel , ,Il 'Ire hu I 'P4tlt~, _"" II,,' "pple, Bob, h"rried I ,ll1d aW ord I' '''lund. . I~& l(~ "hr"se structure rule () class), cVel,anu: 'k<I'''If' '-~ phrase (e,g" XP -. S A ,~Ie of grll 'I"" ~n, ' - "hyl" The groups ( peclhcr) X) IlI111afthai ~,' ~lI " , "" . Inlo whi '- ' '"1.,h, t .. slocks me placed (al Cll PlIrp "()Il] ,'ictogrnms PiClOI':'l~o called Super~ltnCdly rel"lcd ""'~lI ' , • Icpresc Oeks)~1l] . , Pldgm A speech variel ' ~tUiol1' of 0', cnndllll dIfferent languages Y lh'll dCVCln bjtq, tlr e'. ~ , corne ' "P, lih 'eo, languages, Illt) C OOa el] 'Peale ' , , Th 'C UOd d 'r, If Pmym e ~YSlern of " 0 nO I. lWQ or uscd fOr Such things a W nllng MaOdun, nl ~ ~ T ' Sstreel " n With -ooq- Pitch he aUditory propc .Igo, and hr'Uld a IlIOdifted I that ranges from low to h7Yof a SOUnd thule nalll." -"tin ~ Place features Feature. h gh, nahle u, 0 pi Stat rep <lCt II Place node The nOde of h' ' rc,enlplace f. . 0Il'1tIIt major place features t e leuture hlerarc: anlcUlullI!, Places of articulation' Th, ' . i Irnlll hich ~ to produce different soun~POIOts a lhich th' ' tl!l __ Plural A COntrast assOCiat~'d ' e UIIItatncanb:-.., d ' , e nh th ___ an assoCiated Wllh noun ' th' ,e nJOrphllloOi al ' f s Ut relen l • C ca!Pa.-, Pohteness ormulas 'US 'h' (U group, --&"-, Qf-... ' . ' IU I leh re ___ dIrect (e,g" Could You ,hul I d quest, 01 com",.., ~ Th ' IIC OUT ') in to • A . '-_ _ .... Polysemy eitu3tion In h' 'h ' ......ofS"," rlItA.._. _ I " ' I~ alord has tv; __ (c,g" mg It ' ntelhgent', brl~hl hin" oorlllllt......I.......f~ i>ol)s)'nthetic language Lan»' tng ), " gu3ge In IlObich .in.... lo~g stm~g., ot Ie Icale3tl'gllne and affi _ .....1_,. 01 an l'ntm: "C11l'n 'e in EnglLh(e lnukti'ofIta...._. J·osithe e,idence Elde~~e obtai~ b ~ fllrllled 1Ilh'r.ln,' II) whIch they are actually --.,_.~..
- 374. rFA~p("",~ lINl.;L1:->' II .. lhra. ..l.· and (k.:cur.. betore irs complement (c.g.• int P~P',·"I(jlln:tl I 0, Vi/h. lilT ' : . charJc[Co,rjc of certain non-li.nguistic approaches t Prt":scnpfH t' A ' .. k t 1pR~."L'ribc one syste m In preference to an 0 &rUrn_ mar rn rh.l( rh(.·) "c:' l Other. (See Desc ipthe ) . f' ,. ab" -: .r The ""umption or be"e Imp led by the use of a . ,...."...ppo- ..uon PartIcular (In:lll~ 't~.l.·tur.;:he most prominent ~tress of a w.or~. Primsr, sl,.",.,s Is Analysis A hJghly quantHatJve approach '"", Compo"e" - b ' th to sOc' Pri"CI..- . • -h using statistical tec n1ques at aI/ow the i . 10_ IjlJ£UI.,UI.~ re....t:an.:: . u~ber of linguistic variants. nVeShgator n~31ar!:!en ' . 10 e ,,,",1 " Th ' principle that constrains the Interpretation of Principle .. d e formulated as: A reflexive pronoun mU St ~efJexive pronoun. , an I.' d 't aVe an - d nr that c-comman s I . . . .anr.ece ~ The pJincip/e that constrams the mterpretation of prono . PrinCIple I ted as' A pronominal must not have an antec d I11Jnals and IS formu a -. e ent that c-commands It. . . . I . . . I fCompositionallty, the A pnnclp e underlYmg senten . PrinClP e 0 T h ' f Ce Inte . that is formulated as: e meaning 0 a sentence is det . r- pretatJon . art d h . ertnined th aning of its component p s an t e manner In which th ~ e= . ~~ ed in syntactJc structure. D-.~~!!.. Articulatory adjustments that OCcur during the prOdu t' ~-~ . ../. C I~~ h (e g deletion. epenthesIs. asslIm atlOn). speec . ., ' . f . Proclitic A elitic attached to the begmrung 0 a follOWIng Word ( , 'the' in I'ami ·the friend ' French. (See a/so Clitic.) e.g., I Productivity The relative freedom WIth whIch affixes can Combine With bases of the appropriate category ............,~ive assimilation Assimilation in whIch a sound influe • 'V5'~ . -d I'd d . nCes a following segment (e.g., Jlqur -g I e eVOlcIng). Pronominal A pronoun whose interpretation may. but does not have t b . th 0 e detennined by an antecedent In e same sentence (e.g., he, her). ' Pronoun A word whose interpretation can be determined by an th . h . 0 er element (an antecedent) In t e same sentence (e.g., him she them I herself). , ' , se Yes Pronoun drop parameter See Null Subjects. Prosodk morphology A theory that highlights the ways in which Prosod' . . hI ' I IC units condwon morp 0 oglca proces~es. ProIodkproperties See Suprasegmental properties. ......lorms Fonns of a proto-lang uage, written with a preceding asterisk to indicate their hypothetical character. .....European The proto-lang uage from which evolved most of JMsuaBesofEurope, Persia (lran)_ and the northern part of Ind ia. A language reconstructed through the methods of hi,tor- 'DIe best exemplars of a concept (e.g .• rohins Of magpie, are _ ....- coacept ·bird'). lana used in some languages to indicate that the suhjccl use V I Willen WithOut an hlC r~1 . (S I 0 oven u'llf h entl ly. ee a so bViati" ' uhil!<;l . I tc . I Th .e.) hnd' "n~ ...... °adlca e pan of a Ch' It~le .rl;,j _q I" • lne "itt 111ft morpheme s meaning (al . . ~e C har. .ltrt""'~'" . Th' ~o Call d aC ",r h ....'" ,"', Readmg e mterprelatio e a (e I al ~ Real world knowledge F~ fOr a pan/I)' pr')'i~ I h act~ ....... -u ar tl~ do not aug and rOcks do . """PIe kn uller~n . li). knowledge. nO I ~Ieep). "'" a""uI~' "" . A ~~ • ReanalYSIs sOurce of I l<,"eQ If "">rId I attribute a compOund Or ro:~gUage C han I Iletiflt~~ ~ not broken down Into com '- affix truge that In Y"Q~ Rebus principle The ext PO nentl1l0fph ClUte III a~"I~e ~ like the word whose meaensIOn of a sinel1le, (e.g..•"td lh.1 (I~ P nlng th · "n to, ''''''' +b' Received ronunciation m,p) e SIgn tept any ""ltd II...~'g.,) h_ h· h ' b d Th etnltQ . "'4l w IC IS ase On the upper_ e Preti i lnilial 1 PI,% is generally regarded as re . class ' !leC:h gfous aceenl Y. , glonally ° Ihe f)( Il . Reduced A dorsal feature lh neUtral '><:luthea, 'Uilb EA••.. at cha ' 'Iofl'.!t ._~ Reduced vowel An (unslressed racteriz.eso I ~~ the tongue in central regio' n 0 /VOWel prOdunY'>ChV;a. [l]. (See also Schwa.) the l1louth!,Q% V;lth thth ~ Reduplication A morpholog' I Ill>Ou%c_ Poi1II, h' h . IC a proee .., ~ base t~ w. IC It applies. (See al 55 that dUplie,,_ ' III reduphcation.) So Partial ....., all or Referents The set of entities t . ~~~~ ~ cailed its denotation Or exten ?whIch a Word O r ... • 51On ) epr~ RefleXIve pronoun A pronoun th . 1Cl!efQ (e.g., himself, herselfJ. at mUst have ac-toTnrn."", Regional dialect A peech V anet . '-..uJ&~ (e.g.. 1 Tev.foundland Engli hl. Y'POken Ina P<Uti.CUlar~ Register A peech Variel. appropnate. ... fonnal v ca. ual . to apanlcuar ~ Register tones Leel tone hat 19na}. ~-_ R egre iYe assimilation I1ni~ ~arung diff~ . . on In which precedmg egment (e.",.. ill f· t e a __ ma~ become [p1in anti,ipati nof the ~ 'die r..a in the phra e r!tar pen [ <rp penl _ P 'dIe _ ....~ Related langua e L guage that deveopcd --ItIII. ",e. uti 11 t h. mg trnph
- 375. R l' (l"C. ) :1 If'tlf)(' ,HhHl rh.u " ,1I11 1.~.~ng.l"r.Il~.rI~tlnc.d, . ..Urr-'llll r l'h ' /nptllht.·"'" th.H l..I~olt:: .tll,: I..lr~cly fC lonncU Rrkt.;n...·Jlrj(Ul I ""....· 1 1-lit ,)t 1c..' lc.:tJ Item.... rcrulJ1rng the gr'llll oVer lime h J' (t."p :h.. (; . l • mar . Ihmug IlL I " h 111,', d<, "lllp"d. 01 the In)llJ II., • h rh,fgtn.. I >rphllll)~"lcal p rocess l at slIb."ililUlCS . nl I n, ~, .. . One Replat t!'nlt' . 'Ill III a ord by anolher (c.g.. .lIlg/W,Ulg). nOn_ h ~Ilill.: ,,-gmt: , _ 1'1' morr (.. ('r.lphic pre."'iC'lI wlJons 0 eaturc Ch~lngcs. .. ......."'''''')1'' . I' h . ....p ·l ·h' 01 Id<, I'IV ~ILhcr "ur mg L e tongut! LIp back into th .. n.., L r , . , . e rn ....,n> h Ih ' I"""'''' upI.varus and bac" m Lhe mouth OOth h "unl.: 1llL! t.: eo . . ' ,'r >. ~, P" of we<l)..enmg L hat typIcally Involves the eh', Kholacl. ,m , < nge of [1.1 I" Ir~. . - n>wel articulntion with r.eolouring. RholaclzatlOn f . Rl The nue/eus nnd the coda 0 a syllable (e.g.. [u:tsl in th Rh.~m" ( e Word boof, l. . h' h d ·antaue The phenomenon 111 w IC people with la Right ear a ~ ., . nguag . the left hemi. 'phere ho:ar speech louder and clearer wHh the right ear. e In . h h ded unbounded foot An unbounded metncal foot in h' RIg t- ea . W Ich th head is located over the nghtmosl syllable (e.g., col/eCI). e Root (of a word) The morpheme 111 a word thal carries the rn . mponent of the word meanIng and belongs to a leXical C'lteg aJOr co . . ' ory (e 'ol/ecl in the word collec/IOn.I). .g.. R~t (of the tongue) The pari of the tongue that is contained in the u part of the throat. . PJlCr Root node The highest node of the feature hIerarchy. Round A place feature lhat characterizes sounds made by prOtrud' Ing the lips (e.g.. [:)/. {w /). ' . Rounded (sounds) Sounds made wuh the lrps protruding (e g [ 'J . '. u.• [0) [:))). , S Rule the The phrase structure rule that states the COmpOSI'tl' • . on of a sentence: S ~ NP Inn VP. Schwa The lax vowel that is characterized by briefer duration than any of the other vowels (also called a reduced vowel) (e.g.. the underlined I ' " vOwe s m amid. bOl/al/o. po/a·e. S!!ppose ). Seeood Ian~age-acqujsjtjon (SLA) The acqUIsition of proficiency' h · • Ii I In a language t at ISnot one s Irst anguage. Secondary stress The second most prominent stress of a Word. SepneataJ change Sound change that invo lves the simplification f complex consonant (e.g.. deaffrication). 0 a ......u Individual speech sounds. broadening The process in which the meaning of a W d ~ " . . . or 8 more mcluslve than lis earlICr form (e,g.. bam uscd to mean 'a ,r.ceto store barley'). See Componential analysb. The process in which the meaning of a word becomes IllllIIilwl dwJ iu earlier fonn (e.g., meal used to mean 'any type of its fo rmer meaning. wking on tt' ncw~ often rela . c uslOlnary ), tl'<t. IHl~' . Th '"'11" I, Semantics e Study <>1 . e IC. l " t"· , Th · n1C;'IJHn . • "t" ., SemJO ICS ,c stUdy <>1'i ~I" V III h"'II' '''''''1 ~ 111 Sensory aphaSIa See 1<'1 ." "11 101. ~~, ' ' I h U""l" c VIl"." ..... Se((uentta .C .ange SOund c ~'I"i" ... ....... (c.g.. asslmllall~n). h~nge th"t Shift A change In a phon I . 11I'IIv_ t· II () ogle' I "' . systema Ica y l11odified. a 'Yl. "tilt . I d So th· eln II ar olher ISa tere (e.g. the G at thclr I"'hieh Sibilants See Stride~ts rcal l-'.nglih V "r~anl/~tl "tnt ... . . h'W. . 111 ~ "'1 Ph.,ha Sign A unll of eOlllmu . . . t Shih Ith r r..:,"<1llt" .f" d nlCatlon I. l<q signr ler an SOmething " '. strUC tu b, t>-L . slgnlhed re th. ..... Signal A sIgn that triggers a : d' C IIII" traffic lights). SPeCIfic aC ti II 1, ''''' "n"ll h '~ Signilied The real WOrld oh'e epanllt, ' conceptual Content. J C t that a sign he r<:qIVtr Si,mifier That part of a sig h repreellts a, It, ,., . n t at Sl' , "'til recei vcr of a message. . Irnulale. '" lht 0- I alltall .., Simple vowe s VOwels that d eJnct.en during their production (al 0 not show a It I"&an 01 JI._ f so Call d ne>tICea)1 ... sounds 0 cg,b and gel). e lllonOPh h e chan d - lOll ~elnllll>l'" Simple wor A Word that con 11,<i ) Ie. ,....__, Ststs of . ....... v Singular A contrast aSSOCiated . a S ingle llIo"'h Il'IItI . d . W ith the ." ellle( and associate with nouns that f mOllJhnloo' e.g.. fro'l (eV . re er to· ~tCal calt e) Skeleton . -tier) A sequence of tia~lngleentity. g<l!yCJ!1ItIt!iber syllable structure and segmental st mlng 1Osltlon .. Slang Informal or faddish U sages o~cture. llledtiUlng , Social network analysis An app ahnguage. h · '. roaCtoocr· the researc er tS a panlclpant.ob 10 tngultic ~ ., " . erver of a '''''' --"1111"""-'. lingulsuc vanauon In tenns of th k' ",,-.al YIlIlp atId ~_ experienced b) peakers. e md and dens~ or __ Social stratification The differenll t' ~ . . , a ton of lanl>l.._ . vertlcal conUnuum of OI:lo-economic tatu c,;~ V1fiaiea ....... Sociolect A. peech ariet) 'poken b~ a s. parti~ular .·oclal characteristic Such as oc~ of lCIO!IIt ... __."~' age. ll-ecooomic _.,..... Sociolinguit.ics The t~d) .ofhe SOCial8Speclsof-"" Song In .In an c,mUllumcatlOn, length~ e labontellll . . . . ,(mild. . . Sonorant A maJor cla~ feature that • III ..ble ': ocb. glide ,liquids.aad SOJlorit) rhe rclatl'oie loudness of a (pcl1n~ f lh ocallract involved........ S(lu nd • hift The y lematic lII0III1II..... ,rimm' La Spe ifier rd that helpllO. . . .
- 376. and thllt ,",:,-w,IIlHllI..·...h.lh."h tx·,h.·~llh :p (l.•.~•• ~~'i" ((/)( phr~' '" 1", .. ) I~JNl' 1II1•1 .g • "t lhL". •h.:O(I'''£I(.' prtlfX·nll,,~... uf speech "':_""v~nult 'n .,,-, ..JU~llh.lO. dnd Inh:n,u} . 'ounu .~- tb If t '''Ilil ...... . "tu.:h sht),,"s Inlllh..~l1r th.u rn>Jlh.~t..·' ,"'pel."trogranh Ph n In' - ....... h . ~rnJgnl . CTl'Up hlht. " 1l1Cnlv.:fS s arc both u . .. • ".....·h "'lDJmUm,I~I "f 1.;IIEu~gc .!nd Ihl! numlS lor its apprOPri~:"CUIUr tmgU;lfl or at uSe In " tal l)nrl"~r. n... ... lIl1ularion of the process of decOding th )"'nJlltl" '""- - e SPe . 'p<-«h ",,'t, . JI lir,1 'II!P 10 L1nderswmjing speech. ech "11,.1l1e""1.1111 . . h' h h . "gll.1 • . 1.:';lI,lIu;llion In W IC I ere IS approPri •·".....·h ,;(w.ll",n " ate USe Of I.tnguagl.'- ~ Phone · h ,,,und ., t' . . - h d . b • p<-« h' Thc ,iIllu/a!Jon of speec pro uct,on YCOIllPUt ·.......·h "nr I'Sr~ ' f I er. • r--- ' . Th' language or lorm ° anguage used by any 'p<-«h ,arret) C - group of ",·.!kL·CS /. I h · "~ ronunciation A source ° anguage c ange Whereby a s,wlJmg p 'Iris"s Ihat renects more closely the spelling of th ne" Pnmunc,..'JaCllln I. • • t e word . onouncl!d as [oft;>n] rather than [n anj). 1<' ,T ojlt'" pr f h · '''''- 'wation in which allophones 0 t e same phonellle co SpIlt . ,I hI ' f h d'" Ille to ··ch each mher due to t e oss 0 t e con I((Onlng envlro Loncrast I _ nlllent I · . one or more new phonemes. , re,u Clng In " , . • . Split brain experiments StudIes that mvestlgate the effects of urgicalJy .c"ering the corpus callosum. ' . . . S 'sm A slip of the tongue mvolvmg the tranSpOStllOn of the' '. JHHmen . InitIal sounds of word.~ in an utterance. . . S read Glottis ([SG]) A laryngeal feature that dlstmguishes unasp' P . Ir'lteu from aspirated sounds. . Standard language The superposed vanety of a language that is elllpl d· d d h' d ' oyeu b} the governmenl and me la, us~ an taug t In e lIcattOnal institutions and ;s the main or only wnlten vanely. , Stem The base to which an inflectional affix is added (e.g.. modification is the stem for -s in the word modificatIOns). Stimulus-bound communication Communication that only occurs when' . • J ti It i triggered by exposure to a cerlam Sllmu liS or or certain Specific ends (e.g., the warning caJJ of a bird). Steeb The groups inlo which purportedly related Amerindian language families have been placed. StGppiog A Common substitution process in child langllage acqUiSition that iDvolves the replacement ofa fricative by a corresponding stop (e.g., zebra pronounced [di:br~J). Sounds made with a complete and momentary closure of airflow fl!:"t_••tbe vocal tract (e.g" the initial sounds ofpleasure and grab). The mental processes used by language learners in forming and ."ilJipoilftcses about linguistic input and in using linguistic knowledge l!IIJI_aliVesituations. The process whereby extrametrical syllables are Stress ctash I. C{~'ll- 'I • " Igl11' Ie,,,, ( il11l11<':' Hliely neXt I" "tH'n (I PI...,. cU.'h I I I 11 corn!spomhng 'Ire". lither' '"~" "I I C on 11 tin III Itl Stressc( vowels VOWels 1c level,," I{' I. Vtl "'h'th due [0 the eombineu fl th'l l<rt h,.... 'I" I "". e cC[, Pcrc ty,._ Strident A place featu 01PItch 1.'v'<I ..., d r rc tho "ll I ., ItI Itves an a fncales (in E at aClIu (nt, <lIVtl Stroke A haemorrhage In!!olish,h I '}ICaly (b~;n~ 'ttt~i IlI<.r lI causI ng bratn darnagn( n l the brain (: II d31" "IClt", ' ~ aSO, '''b'b .'" he Structurally ambiguou called 'I e 1<,<; I:dlltq Il<~, h S 'Th ' tete-, "g, , bib.:' I whIch I e meanings of Ihe' e relall{)n n;u-atUI:' ru>lur e ""'" than one way (e.g.,fclsf eCI Ir COIllPonen t....ttn a''&ttitl., <I iIIl_ Subcategorization The Irs lind IIl010r .t W('rds c~b'"1<: (~IIt) "l options (e.g., the verb de~~~~:I!ication()~~~I). n"" «Inlh~ III Subject The NP oCCurrin .ISS UbcutegO . 'ds InttTnt 'n "- rador). g 1I11Il1CdlatelyTi/Cdfllr<lt"lI)ftbtlrl;" Subject Constraint the A under S Ie ~PI'llltnl ~ f ' c o •., hen I clements rom being remo nstralnt nn • III '" Subset Principle, the Th:ei d frOIll aSUbjec:ransfOrlltut(,n 11<, Q correspond to the mOst restr~lttal Or defaUltPhrae. !hat !ltv fewest patterns). Cltve OPtion (i ~etllng of a ~ . t' A .e., the l>ar:.~_. Subshtu Ion tYpe of aUditoril OPtion tha;~'1Qer '-In of one segment With anothe . y based Chang . Ptrtnl 1bt 1 d [ . rSlmtlar ' e tnvol . (f] rep ace x] In some Words) seglllent(e.g ' Vlngthertjlb.-.... Substitution test A test used' to .,tnlhehillJryo{F::~ constituent by replaCing them . h detelllline if ~ . Wtt as· I a group Substratum Influence The i fI ' lng eWord. of "'otda . 1 n uence of " , dommant. anguage on a dominant la a .l(lliticaly or of words mto English from Am . dnguage tn the area' CUllU!ally.,.. d R 'd' enn lanlangu e.g.. lhebo.....~- Succee s . apl , Jerky movements of th agesl. '''--a for an object. eeyes Used in reading Suffix An afflx that is attached to the d . or~ Sulci The area where the cerebral coen n Off Its base (e.g., '!YiaGIIirW.. .nfl ex ts olded·· '---J Superstratum I uence The influe IU(sUlgo;r.--.._ . nee of a poll' --.. dommant language on another langua' ticany or F h . gelDthearea( Nonnan- rene on English) during the Middl E ' e.g., lie......,. Suppletion A morphological process that m~...~gisbl*iall I . ·-r.liallillll....... by rep aCIng a morpheme with an entirely ~ be/was). Suprasegmental properties Those Pl'Operti.cs of _ ... their makeup no matter what their plac:e or __!•• loudness. and length (also called prolllMl£...... Surface dlslexia A type of acquired dJIIaIiaII unable to recognize words as wholes, _1_-, a set of spelling-lo-sound rub Ijretftl)·
- 377. ,) II hinucleI Ie.". !be - • 't . "ritin~ In "Ju-h eacb .ymbol "'Prese a ~ ..uu.:ture r.h.u ...On..·..i...b OJ a ~. !J i ele . ::J ed ilb it. ,s.-.. also Onset.. XUcJl'Ils. ~ ~ 01" more re anes f I Iu .1 ~~1 ab e itb""'o, relation:hip 10 its ref~ e.~.. the de eoon of the Taboo E pres I e and are therefore often f'UJlh=Ized T.,.c ~ (~I!e ~ ) The!3Il~ ce th4t an 1-2 learner i Jeannng ...... h page (translation The, n~ a:e mto e I in Ihe 'OIIrce Iquage is translat,ed. ,..,.... e Forftgner IJIlk r-" : II~ speed! peech I and hoc ..,.-....s The ge In child langu ......... ~ aR generall) Ion er than t 0 ,~.:::=~ _1D05IJIOO.~ucaJ ~: 'lie __ bluepnnt ..... !bar Template TempLatic:
- 379. Language index .tokh.u:. .N7... 1b7 -I.:adlan Fren("h.:"I.. , .(n..:an /.lfl!!uJ,ge....,h ,- -tfiJ..,un... JQ I. ~ 1- 1 ~fn')-A"i.lU;:. 3Nl. 400-.. ~08 .-1;!(3. 175 -inu. )T;• .t07 _ Akk,dian. ~O I. ,97-8 AlbJOi,n. 391. 393 Alc!ur.377 Aloonqui3II. .JO.I. ~5. ~06 .~Iiaic. 360. 3%-7. ~08. ~lIn -merican Engll'ih. 33. 3-t.. 50. 3~1. 347-8. 349. 372.555-7.566-7. 617.674--5.693-1 Amerindiwl languages. 61. 114.282.317.343. 356, .160. 362. 576. 594 Apurinii. J8J Arabic. n. 139, 252-.1..160. 37.1.401-3.413,467. 507,514-16.537, 572. 602-1, 612 Aramaic. ~O I. 604 Arapaho. 377 Arawak.407 Armenian, 391. 393, 409 Assyrian. 40 I Athapaskan language.s. .17. 134. 159. 362, 404. 406 AlSugewi, 282 Australian English. 558, 570. 571 Australian languages, 167. 169-70,375,389.400 AUlII1aJ1 Gennan, 565 ~Asiatic languages, 398,399 AuIInJaNian. 399-40 AN 397 All,ji.413 41."2:,396 Bambara. -'03 Buntu I:mguages. 165. 170. 339.368-9.390. -103. 55-1 Basque, 167.375.384 Bemba.215 Bengali. 39-1. 395, 563 Berber. 384. -10 I Biblical languages, ...WI Bilo."<i.551 Bini. ..J5 Black English. 560 Blackfoot, 37 Breton, 391. 561 British English. 27. 33. 34. 37.39-11. 42, -13. 347. 349.312. 557. 563-71. 694--5 Belfast English. 544--5 Cockney English. 50, 54, 326. 328. 558. 565 East Somerset dialecr, 568 English dialects, 566-7 Geordie. 565 Lancashire dialect. 565, 571 London English. 317. 372. Seeals() Cockney Midlands English. 570-1 Northern English. 41 , 317.3-19.570-1 Northern Ireland English. 566 Received pronum:iatlon (RP). 27. 33. 36. 19. 317.570-1 Sconish English, 38. 566, 570.571 Glasgow English (Glaswegian). 103. 555-6.558,565 Hawick dialect, 56!} Senu," (Liverpool dialect), 14. 565 Somerset dialect, 565 Southwest England dialect, 565 Yorkshire diaIe,t, 5/)5 ------ Bulgarian. 367. 393 60 Bunak. 400 . 2 Bumlcse. 377. 378 38 398-9 ,4. Byeiorussiull. 393, 602 CambOdian. 73-4. 380 398-9.6 13 ' Canadian English. II 3 53n, l21n, 329 3.37. 341-2. 349. 372 See a/so NeWFound" English and Canadian French 57 6 327.342.343' I, CantOJles~, 373. 380. 399 56_.606. See also' Chinese Cape Town English. 372 Cape York CreOle 574-(; Catalan. 392, 565 . Cauca~ian languages 61 397 ' . Celtic. 342, 357. 391 39? Chadic. 40 I ' - Chamorro. 175-6,400 Chechen. 397 Chemehuevi. 114. 115. 117-18,1/9 Cherokee. 404. 610 Cht Bemba. 170, 173 Chinese. 219. 373 378 398--9,563·,591'. 604-6.607.609,620. See also Mandarin Chipewyan 366. 404 Chukchee. 155. 156 Cockney English. 50, 54, 326, 328, 558. 565 Coptic, 401 Cornish, 392, 562 Cree, 5,48, 370,380,404. 531, 592, 611 Creole lan~lIages, 563 Capc York ('rcole, 57.. 6 I'rendl hased ('reoles. 5(,1 Jamakall ('r~olc. 562 Crow, 17X.404 Cullan Sp,lItish, 34X CUl>hitic.4{) C/Cl.:h. 379, 191 Dana, 378 Dakota, 377, 594 Danish. 350, 391 Delaware, 397-8 Dutch. 53, 343, 350 373 39 1.493. 565 57:' Duwai, 1 1-2 ' - Dyirbal. 58,169_70 Efik. 377,403 Egyptian. 401,591.598_9 Eng•. 400 English. See American EngliSh: Black English; British Engl~sh: Canadian Engltsh: COCkney Engltsh; Irish English: Middle English; Montreal English; Newfoundland English; North American English' Old English; , Received pronunciation (RP): Standard English Non-standard English EskimO-Aleut, 404, 405. 406 fukimo. See InuktilUt Estonian. 395-6 European French, "7.62. 317 Ewe, 403 - Faroese. 391 Farsi (Persian). 394 Fijian. 309--10. 400 Finnish. 48. 156. 155-•• 360. 377. 3 9.395-6.630 Flemish. 391 French. 2'.+1. --.5.61. 6~. ,I. <0, 13.-1... 11°. l~~n. 130.142. 165. 2~0-1. 316. 320. 32.t. 32:-6. 32~. 33~. _~51-{>. }o-.3'0.3"2. 3'6. 3~:. 390. :N2_ 50-1. SO'. 511.513. 51 t>-I Q. 52+-'5. :'i3~ -4 )~X, 5b~. 5 5(>:.5,2. 601. ~ff , I CUI dtan h< lh:h; Eumpean 1-1l.'11 'h; . 'onnan- rrctkh. Quebe.: French: Standard Fren 'h I'n lan, 91
- 381. .;ttth .. ';&"-41('0('1 3Ul ",,1 ; ..... t-""ru,' UnlN"tf""" ~,,'lutn ~ ... ,'. '('I t-..rrn..1 (~... -- f J.n..111•.r~,,-·'·"(·"I .. ~fltlt."f'I'k.'~'" dn"n~. ',"'d- r .... t..k·nr.I' ~.lf"' ~"" ( , .•u....tn'.....,.. ,('00( .. " '01' n.' '" ~..'lIJ..th__-t'll'l(l,·tk"': ' I ~. :-'. ttl. (I~, N'C ( ( " l · 1I111-'UI.Ul(lfl.l ! pl")f1t.~h·" , ..._ ..... :1' , t1'uJ.l ,,'.~li ",...-.jIll... U,)!I, 't. ',' h.113n~u.lf"· -~.II"lrrtlf1 "'nfl-d. .'i'~ ,'" ",.~.f' ,," ...' 1"(11 01", L"I~. -- tt.. ' l) ..-nftlh-l!11..• pnn.. ipk.... :0-. 5VCJ ..-Ul' :. ,t1 .. ft)(: (0().. 1 I".'. ~r.HnlU.lti"'·'I••(i(lll .tnt.!. "S'-4 II1tl~:(;~ln..l1. lt1()-J. 1$4, ':15, .1J~-5 l.llgU~g~ l.'h.mge .mJ. n.:'! ·0 rn:'II..Iu...·U ir~ llf. 103. -'j'S~ (frh.'.He... JO.ol.IOn. 101. J~(l. 325-6 Atl·r1",',lfil'ln. 32tl. 357 (n...,,10 ...:ripr... tll2 - a!c..•• ,U1J L.:'! ,ll.'qui"Hwn. . ""l,, l~t'nr r:,i;. ~Sf,-92.. 433. ~5 ~ p..!'~h '!- ,md, 22~ .~{l. 2SQ-.~2..* ..'O:n-- ~ R,l!luttn.uiug r.mgu.l!=c..·... 1~1. .lSI 'Uilllnl.ui...m. 432-4 ~r.lrhl:l. 42Q· 31 Cn--c..·IlWl1l. I~S 1.).3,'('1.54 - !>M U'ln.'.Ull nlt.'chanl...Pl. 5... jtl-6(l 'I..' I.I.•·c ( 0, ..r(,I~l lhll1l(f},h... j,--l ·5. ":::4,) -I. 4.'1 . .................. -'vu·::a· "u Areal d"s~ificl1U,ln :")7 Argot. 557--9 .... Argument. 683 Ari~totle. 268: 416, M 1 Arttculatory teature... 69 99-101. 101_~ . 449-50. S~e ai.~o . Features, phonetic ArtICulator)' phonetics 18-19. 666. S<~ als Phonetics 0 Articulato!)· proc:esses. Se~ ~esse..,, phonet Aryten01ds.22 Ie Aspiration. 31-2. 81-') 91-~. 100.361:' co-articulalion and - 31-2.50 . derivations and, 103-5 morphophonemic rul and. 24S-{i e, rule <;>rdering and. 104-5 spelhng and. 592 ,yllables and. 91-3 A:-.sertion morphemes") >-.t A.,imilation. 53. I{)(,' - ~49-50. 66&. 670 aphasia and. 431 child langua2. and 470-1 - • ,ound change and. 319-21 Sua/so C<>-anicubuon .""'-->ociauon Ime. .!4. - 109-10. Ill-1 2' Auden. W.H.• 10 Audi[orily-ba..~ 'OOnd change. }~t>-c Autopsy ~tudi~ -:1-::. ;"' Auto-.egmental - Au:<ili~ ern. 1 ~_}. l~:':' I - I 52 -~ .:. talso II-
- 382. c~ pinse (CP 109-2'~ )n-jIOqucsaon 2!ld. 209-10 Cw.," J nlS I 7-". /96-. < C- Rules -'. ,61,~ .aficn -'. ~H . - -SII1ICIIR ru 811..1 90 ...-croles and. ..... • __ 106 ...... __ 194--6 a..-.....133 J3S-8. OM. C,0mput311(C.aJ bngUl'[11... "'. I'N--" ) " k"'Wh: !roUnJ for 1Ik"";:O"0. '00 '"no:- I arrlic-3tioo, of. 693 ' OIIII"'t:lUonaJ ~~ 0'1-: morpboIc, .-aI.Ul 1) ". tt-.1-: morpbok, "3) 3ll3hrer. 6'5 1l1(lfP/X'1 _:. du-omro' 1K'I1. 0' - morpb<>I : ",31 po: '<'. ()' I--l Compu!<'f Iangu g • Coll1putenzed -. 131 T"IOOg.r..ph~ . .l22 Coo.:.,pL.'::'~ lk:qw lOon of. -I 3-: fuzz) •.:!~b-: graded.':: 6-- grammatI 'uauoD of. 2 2-4 inIanaI lrUc!ure of. 27~ lex....."urioo of. 2 9-1C meaplKws and. .7 9 ,.-ypes and. 241. 48J....4 ,;ontraq, :UOOD~ con~onJ.nb Yn Engh'h. 0-1 O"e) C n!ras! • -I ComeNlUon.300-5 CODeNluOn~impu~ JOO ComersationaI principles. meaning otnd. l":--., :!.:( pmgmati('.•md. 30" Cun~ifonn. S'l? - C"-tier 'q C)be"~~Jargon. 5t>O C)cle. ::06-7 C)nllic alph3bet. lQ. t>O~ I).suucru", S" Deep SI.ru.:tUI: Dal3.ba.~ aprll~atllln~. b93 Wt:lba. .. ~ue~. b"9 DatiC~ ca..-..e, lbO. .3-4 Dati. Ioemetlt. _ DeaffiiC31lon. 325-(:. 35" [)e,:len'h.'In. I~ De..-oiling speech. b"O Deep 'tnJ.:r=. ~5-<J Ca.so and. c6.L1 I",e",oo and. C64--S. ,( langU3ge processmgII1II. 4~ thematic roles II1II. 289 "'It Mo, meoIlIIII. 205- .21-12.D1-9 Degeminaboo. 324, 3SS-6 DegmenIe fool.. II DegRc WOld. I 186-'
- 383. lmilltlum .ml.1 I.:h,l1.1hutgualf-=:. 1MM l ) 111I1,,:,",U n l,nlgr.tmtnes.. ~." -1 lmplc mt:'utullo n .6 & 0 hnllh cuu ('ona unlve"ub. :74 •.'77 -K. :8"2. 3M" b. 5 2· 4. 535n Implicit knowled ge. (9). Su n/.o Ltn g: U' ...lIC com petence Im pl0....'..c..... 60 ndll!'oh c. prom'IUns. 576 ndc~ ic l ...ign:>.. 630. 632. 631.645-6 Indexing progl.lm:>.. 693-5 Inuiun :>.cripts. 6 2- 3 Indirect object. 683 Imhl' t llf.)pc!,-m. 357--60 Infinite lunguage. 680 phi '~2~ iUd IIlU. 'nterf~rc:nce .11- '1 4"'J() tll(JTransfer Rl!gaUve Interliln@uaBe.504- ' 5 - 23. 524-- 5 tntema change.. t41 Imernal .tcconstruc;uan.. "'51 Intematuma. Phonet.K ~~hahet. 'J ,' 63 ....)mbos~lffc:t1n. onh Amencan )'Uem. <j 30.34. 51 Internet. The, (+)S Inte~ntc:n...ta. link. 50&-J) Imonauon.-_l, ~ '30 66& lltinithc "(:rb. 67 2. 673. 685 Infh. ':Q. .3QQ 3.cqul itl n uf. 480,...90 aph~l3. and. 416 ........ ....19 - Inne~l'on. 160-70 . 67:! .:qu;:>.iti.on of. 474-5. ,77 .lphJ.!'oiJ. ~Uld. 4.:!.6 . 4-:!q. .31. .3~. .33- tkri" J.t;l)O ,"s.• . t>1-3 ,n Engl...h. 03-4 and e i(al ~ategories. I~. fl(,"nnJ.. 105---.;"" n:!ular ~. irregular. - It>}- uO(.":'f'ab and. 3 ~. 3 :'1 0[>.11. ItoS-- 0 Intllm}.;.U('In retrie val. ~95-6 IIl~'''' <!.60 in c l..'Omp'-')o~nl' ('If ,; mmum..:atlon .:;- .b3~. I. ().j4. t45 phra.......e intonation. 610 ntran··..ithe ems, 167 nuu."ie r. ; nerson.2.0 acqublt1.0n of -1. deep ·tTU..:ture and ~O.J-S. ~()--9 lang £c ~hanet a.ncL 33 'Mn l..Jni'e~ Grammar ~ - .......... h lo,"etnelll >nd. ~O&-- 1 land,.. ~ .J bll2.tO ..... 5f4 MO holm!!,. -m,- h L.mn.; an::u3:;:e -n )t1C '-"J,,,ua,,,,,
- 384. l.angu:tE~ nL.1.lnll'n..llk:~. :'('11 :. Lart~""~'l'l':C.·"UJ~ 'l't" p.." ..:h...'tlmgUl'u...·, 1An8U01S~ rl".·llfl'rru...·U('IO. w<J,....("I~•• r.l .."l.11l1J'lf!lfn.:.350--6 hl..rlr:' 11, 357~) IDr~rn..ll, .1.57 rn~h)-lnJ')-European .lllJ.357-62 r"J'l'I~g) and. 361-2 wn~u.tg~ "hifr. 561-2 LMlguJge "pecitic sound pattem:-.. 79-82 Lant!uJge matlon 1~kl1j ariillion. 566-7 mQrphological variacion. 67-9 s}nractic variation. 569 phOnological variation, 569-70 LII) ngeal features. 98. 99. 100.148 Lar}ngeal node. 102 Larynx. 2(}-1. 50, 364n ofchimpanlee. 648 Lal< closure. 456 Laler:li feature. 98. 101. 102 122n L.1Ieralized. 380. 395. 561 Lalerals. 29-30. 51-2, 100n Lalln alphabel. 600-1, 608 Lax vowels. See VO" els: tense is, lax Leamabilily.658 Learning a second language. See Second language acquisition learnIng stralegies. 527 Leavis. FR. . 10 Lefl-handers. 41 8-19 Left-headed fool. 114--17 217 . Lenglh. 41. 48. 52. See also Vowels: long H. short LevellOnes. 44. 377 Lexical acc.,s. 441-4. 451 -2. 453 ambiguilY, 270-1 , 695. 697 change, 340-4, 346--7 diffusion. 300, 313 gaps. 340-1 semanlics of words, 689-92 Lexical calegories. 279-82. 678-9.See also Pans ofspeech C81qory labels, 678. 679 compIementizers and. 200-2 .·Qrn~ .·on~;:ht.ltn8' b .• ck' ,Ion ~'II.I, n"allOn ilIld,IS,S,) 147_9 '">d. I...... rntleclion. S phra.e 'tru""d. I... U .185-90<tu,. an.. nlersaJ -""', ~15- C""" Lexicaj d .16 ""''''"- ex.:I~lon -4 "rnen L' 51-3 1s''l.!2 e.llCaJ items. 67 "<l also w: 8·697 entry. 686 ol'd" s., Insenion 6 Le.xicaj re ' 84...5 presenta . See a/~o lJ hOn. 674 represe nderl' LexicaJizat : ntation YlOg .....on of Le' 23'l-42 conc"PI.. X~cograPhen LeXIcon 132 ,695 , .249 1 340,441 .-61,317 451-2.4;;.448. ' 684--9 S , 530,58 Corn . ee al.fo I I . PUlalional . eXlcolo LIaison, 77-8 gy L~ngu~ franca. 57' LinguiStic auton .. · hYPOlhe,~ITlY Linguistic corn' S, 652 · 416 pelen«·4-5 Linking. 77-8. See . · vOCalic r all() POl LIps, 14. 27-8 j Rholtc co-' ,0. 59 666 a.nlculation and' 51 .50. rounding of 14-- 96 '·),37 51 Liquid-glide de" . . ' 70-- Olclng 122~' 97. 104-5~ III. acqulsilion of. 470 Irqulds. 33-4. 70. 76.17 99. See also Liquid_ . glrde devolcing non-English. 61_1 phOnOlactics and.-1l+-5 pilch and. 41 universals and. 377 vOIceless. 53 LISP. 559 Loanwords, 511-12. 572. See also Borrowing Lobes (of the brain), 420--1 location role. 286, 287 "X) Locative ca<;e, 166-7 ' - Logographic writing. 591-2 595-6. 597-8, 604-6' 610.620 ' Lun~ l.:on.,.onl1nt... .:l~ l..t.mgiludinul rl......ure. 411 Loullne...... (of ..ound". 4' M~l)lh 251 MC'fIall~"ltc MC'&c1 • '2'tJlO. 'kr l.c"ltub 'Ac "c:c:t.s'n 4K- 9.670 Low feature. 00. 102. 122n Low vowels. 37-8 Lowth. Roben, 12 Lungs. 14. 20-1. 666 MaChin~9~~Med translation. Machine·readabe dictionary (MRD). 672. 687 Machine translation. 693. 696-8 Major class features. 99-01. 248. See also Feature hierarchy Major classes (of sound..l). 23-5 Majority rules strategy. 351-2 Manner features, 98. 99.101 Manner maxim. 300. 302 Manner node. 102 Manner of aniculation. 21-35 Meli1phctf 21, I ~56 I 14<,..~ MCtultol ~( , Melnl'.lll~'il~l 25S-f,(1 '2 Metril.: 1: 21 Mid lowe"•. 11_lJ Mtlr~y. Lt:llley. 5-l4 MI.OImal atllil:h Mmimal fool, ~Il, 4Sft Mtmmal P<lir;, 11)"" 1 328 • 4-5, Minority lan@u,ge matntenan~e Mod programmes.S31_2 e<.. of langua@e aspir.llion and. 31-2 features and, 98. 99.101, 102 proce......mg 4S(....6() Modifier.. 93, 2i5~ Module. In language proce"mg.454-1 Morphemes. 133-5 acquisition of. 41 -6 416-1,520-3 . allOlTlorph, of. 134-5 245-50 . bound and f!<e. 134 cranberry. 14- minimal pairs and, 70 sound change and, 319-20 Mapping problem. 690 Markedness Differential Hypothesis, 512-14, ~rroro; of exchange. 440 Identlfymg In unfamiliar language,. 112-3 Ll and L2 learning 518-20 Markedness theory, 314-5, 319.386,512-14 Maternal speech. See Casegiver speech Matrix clause. 199 Maxims of conversation. 300-2 Meaning. 2, 43. 682- 9. 69. See also Semantics aphasia and. 426-8 compounds and, 154--5 concepts and. 276-84 contrastive segments and. 70-2 lexical categories and. 183-4 nature of. 268-76 of sentences. See Sentence interpretalion syntactic categories and, 82-3 . compared, 520-3 In ~.enta lexicon. 45l-3 W nttng and. 591. 604-5 61- 19 . Morphology. 4, 132~. Set also Computational morphology aphasia and. 431-2 complex derivations. 47-9.See also Compounds. derivation and inflection language change and. 376.332~ language plllCe'Sing aDd. 4S -3. Set al.ro Morphemes Old English. 34 operations 01 bales, 3&-44 thematic roles and. 286-7 Medical record keeping. 698-9 passives aDd. 229-33 phonology al,:M5-M Prosodic. 2S1-' iepiESCiMl'" .,.,.t..a....".
- 385. t ·",l ....,)~ .::. "".•"" ... '" .!t ~''',''','' , ,Ilh.. :~, '4 ~."''h: ,an.""""' U, • ,s' nth.·... H",s ~ """h'hn,~,u"h:" and, " " . ,S,'Hh,.-h.a1 "'t ...... ~ .:. ...,l t'k... $~ o.l.:'- ...,1';' "" . .:.s.... No' ,, ,'1"...... 'f ~ ~ _- S ..~' '1 .,,{.h.'ll.;-....~q -('0...':'",-, ,., . +>'. -,<,"- •
- 386. l L (s sun.::olD:! tOUs natun: !~e~.e'S ng R!'~llIatlun, IO.l 10 n R!', 113blfk (h~. Q~ RI.!'tn.ltll". lJ........ Rhoct.,.· m, .'':'" :;; ~.:;·~I..ln)&.-(" 109 "-lW (reque",-") and, 694 ~ycholog'. 5 1 PutrnOfU. ~"'<) RhOlI,; •.1..N. 5 I. Srf!' dJ.flJ p)-.(·HII.:ali.· r~ Lmlmg Puns 10- 11 Qual • C'r Qual. I 6---. I. .'9 Rh)ortk". Xl, X()-I.)(), 45~1 Rh.·k.41)~ .3 RighH'Ir.Ulching language~. QuaJH) .·Control dei.'C' . &JQ Quaht}n:u.lm f•. 00 301 QUe-stl 'n Se-~), S'-no .1.'Hi-Q Righ(·ear ad anlage. 413-4 Righl-hea.ded foot. 11+-17. '" qut.·'uoo,: U'h queS(H1ns Radical. 605-6 R~ l Rasmu... .15, R.:adine dhl~rbance In apha,ia. -l~9-Jl ..H~ e:tperilTk!'n.... 441_7 "ntmg and. 619-~O Re-.lding ma..:hine" 701'1 Real ",odd knOl, ledge, ~5 Reanal} 'IS. 3J6, .lJ5-6 Rebc pnncipJe. 596, 610. Sp~alw Determinau"e' Recelcd pronunciatioll (RP). 33. Se~alw English ReCipient role. 683 Reconstruction. Set.' Language reconstru(.'tioll Recur Ie rules, 680 Reduced feature. 101 Reduced owel. 19-40. 122-1 Rcdundann. 636 Reduplicatt;>n. 143.254. 39'!--IOO part.al. 254 Referents 273.629.1>44-5. 648.657 RegIOnal d.aJl"CL 541. 563-71. Seea/", D.alects Re,ISIer. 541. 559. 572. 579-81 Regi lei' Iones. 44. 377 Jteareuive IIS5lmiialion. 53-4 109 ___II)IDlactic anaJy IS. Roman-;,phabet. 60 I Root node. '0 I. 2-1-8 Root (of n ",ord). 135-8 Rom (of the longue). 26 Round feafure. 96, 100 Rounding (of lips). 34. 37. 51.57.62 RP..3.1 Su al...o Recei "ed pronuncialion Rule ordering. 101-8.247-8. 331-2 Rules. morphological. 675 Rule,. morphophonemic. 245-{5 Rules. phonological. 101-8, 431 Rule... phrase structure. See Phrase ..tru..:ture rules Rule,.., tr<lmfonnatipnaJ. Set' Tran..formiluom. Runic Ioriting, 601 Rus...cll, BcnranLl. 268. 634, 664 S Rule. The. 192- 's·strm:turc St't'Surhu.:e slrut.:ture S,,'C.<le,. 4:1Y. 445-6. 456 Sarah. 649-50 SI..·.mdmaians, 3-1~ St..'hlcit.:hcr, August. J6() Sch"a.39-40 deletion. 55. IM--5. 106 epenthe;i,. 106-7.247 8 features and. 101 plural allomorph~ and. 247 vowe-l rcdut·tion and. J22-3. St.'t' also Reduced vowel Srcom.llanguage af.:quil"llion, 502- W age and. 521 5 hilingual education, S31-1 characteristics of learners. S25-11 ,,:hil,J liln1Zua.f:~ "'.'4Ul"tt~"11 and. 503 -4 cognatle ra("lOf'Ii., 526-7 good language learner the. 52:7--8 . Imn~~~~n programmes. 12 da..~room. the 528-3 t • L::! morphology, 510-3 L2 phonology. 531-6 L2 syntax, 516-20 modified input. 529 role. of Ihe first language 10.50+-5 roll! of the 'iecond language, 50S See al.fa Interlanguage Uniersal Grammar and 512.516.519 . Second language teaching. 528-34 Secondary stress. -1-9. 114. 117-18 Segmental sound Change. J 19, J::!5-6. 511-12 Segments. sound. 19-20. 68-71.112 contmsUve segments. 70--~ duration. 670 Sernanfll.: analysis. 670, See u/Jf) Computational :-emantlc~ Semantic broadening. 344 Semamic decomposition. 274-5 Semantic features. 675 Semantil:- Information. 689 Semantic narrowing. 3-14-5 Scmantic propenies, 686. 689. See a/so Semantic decomposition Semantic representation. 691 Semantic shift. 345 St!mamicity, 657 Semantic!'!. 4. 268-312 iKt)uisilion of. 4ft 1-8, 489 aphaSIa and. 432 cornponcnrial analYSIS, 274-5 i,;om::cptual syh!l11. 276--84 c:onvcratinn and, lOO-5 language l:hangc and, 344 I> pragmatics. 2Y5 lOS pronoun Inh:rprl'tallon, 292 -5 SI'II..·u,k·. SI')(.:"l1loU"II.. l'lmo,.·'I..·"I', 'ilN S'l.:lnI1)!:,t~ .... c,. c,tl{' I..'n."'lc', ...." h ,h.('.·,u}::~. 'ih' 1 ,h"'l:lUr,.: ,1)')''''. ~~! , ':Ul'hl!1I""I.Id .'('(1. ~~4 ~ ~nl"tlIh,"hll1 htO.h .. hmn~ 1 .ddr~...... ~~ ! hmuamC'lah ut. s·m l .'"rll-0n .md artJ,l.lt, ~~1 hO al~ua~e imd ~..:.tll~r. Sr~' ther ' l'.h 1 ,49 S4 hngUl,IC "1<p.... 56(1 1 p"!l!-ltls.51! rcgish!r. 511.)· ~ rc...l:nn:h method.... 540 h. 564 (:, S1!' und hmgutge. ~I'f' LangUlge 1,1d gC1der slang. 555· 7 socil slmtltlcatlon. 542·Q ,peet.:h ...1oo.HOO.... SI6-S5 "arieties l)f Engh....h. 54&-q Songs. b"J. 524 b38. b3'l-lO. 645. &5&-9. 6&On Sonoranl.... 48. IN. !2 phoootJ.ctks. and. & 5. 81 uneno.a'" and. 371. "117-8 ,o~d englh amI. q2-3 e. C'",uc llt'ltl Nl'.1... .,h4 ntt !nn.'1 lhr. t,' IIl1C mh! ,mI.' ~q llll 1 1"'~' .1 (If,nml,1t 1I1l 14 X' l:<~~on~'s ,tI. 'Kl S~"ttl~ram, h'l) Hl. htl1 (*'~ Spc~d, ~ 2'. ,"I'C" II"H Phmlt:II.;" Phnnllllg Sl'lf;S~~mel., ,U Speed, ')'1he dtC~n~y' ,, 1 Leoch' mulle 1 )( h pn"M.lI.;H(l,--~i t'*.l pen,:cl'Hl'" 1~ 4~ ) 4~1 pre p.mnlng. 4'9 41 rh-.,hm n, S«'C" ~t~"'!i . da...h -nttng anJ, ~q Spec..::h I.:,)mmun,)'. '~O. S-I1554 Sono"I. 2-1.56 Sound ';hange. 3&-.12 audllony-basou.326 calaJogue of. 3I phoneuc. .3~b-7"l phono,,!pcaL 3.7-9 , rule o"knng <Ind. 33 -. ",,,,,,enla!. .1 4. '25-0. Speech nrg;ns D 4, 21- l Speech fc~ogm'l)n, ~ 671-1.0)1 4.71--'1 Spe~..:h ...I1t'1<:. Sltr Speec"ynlhe .t+l9-7Xl spec·h )nlh ller.ftIi& sl<',en .nguag~. b'l5 04 ,b4'l S. also :p=h - .. ~ ho Le p.1l'noog) "l"'t, cquentlal. 3PI. .1 ~-.- . ('lund pattern:... fC Ph.'nl..)og.) " lUOl.l pn~u("lng :..y~tcm. ~O--' S lUn.! ,hlfl, "~~'I. . ,,'~) .mnd~....pet.!'ch.~, b 1 7~ s.e aho Phonente Ph,)n~nc'; Ph,)m)ogy mplemenl~ dl tnbuuon of. '72 3 frequ n"es of. 661 n rural clal of 96-7 I"'ken sou!C~ an&UI&C 69 ,po""" ynthesis ,-. 69 Sp=:h ,an~. 54 'pelhng.4. '1).15 325.686 apbuia- ,hecUn,fI f.naiIh. 5
- 387. 00 27 54- ~~on.md.~91 '-~ lmllam n and ,,;- lab ,_ . - ~ 4 dent.> ~i . ;5.1-4. +l9 dJs . - - •.,4. 58--9 trt'/:ndaru:n .tn<f. 54- 5 8 • C!T1.atlOn ilnd '75 otta... "'17 R ..,- ' • non £nih-h:5~Jo()(J palatal 59 ph >nota t puc.h an~ ~J arid. 88- 9 unnersal, and. 374 ln$ . U ular 'i9 Straregle;';r L2 I Stra} sylJahl earne". 527 120 e adJUnctIon. Srn:ss 48-9. J13-' I 255...(j(). 359. :13' 668.670 - ai,rerna h ring. 114-17 cas . 258-60 compounds and. 153 255-7 • metnc and. II 3-21 ~and. 255-7 ..._rmd.4S-9 P-lof. 142 157 346-7 • . ...-,..49.113-14 111-11 . ..__ .... 54 91-2. ~.•___ __2S1 _ ..411. . . . ~I "'~)II"'-I:" r'" , h rh".tbm:tnO -<>0 • ua 'i~NOU: Wld.. , hJ m""-' l. l~U:~f) anll4q IOZ ""'0-. • Wo, tn) e " e~br Oa: 'ul .' :mn ldent .u- , ~r;J,U'C' l..'ap;.lL'U) ~truclur:~1 :J~I;II '- • . IJUI.'1ure ut W~!~JU~IY. ;X~-.6 q)uhlplc I• • I.L -xo ~C)ole. h~5 :el'i. J·n-9 Ubc.HegOJ'l.lal",n. 1Y6-7 Sutxo I~S-l}. 205-0, 6X5-6 l'[ ",.. I Us n.Uure gr.lmm..llical of ,:;ol.leJgc:. 7-'), 6N "" 1~"£f! rnl(:es~lOg. S SUbJCCI Lunslrai ut'lJ<.'d • IQJ "'3 01 , The. 214 68.1 . - -In. 66-1. 'oISC .!OJ 106-8 ~~~fSR~es and. 2tll -::! .5 j~ :;dparamett!r. 5.15n .5 1 1<-~(), m,:n 520 p.I'i"IVe" anu "'), 2X9 'i' • 0- 9~ H. h~ril:.llld,2t;9 300 transfonnatHlOs anLl 2 I4. 22X. 2Q(~I . :!O]. uudcr~wod. lotJ I..('rU oruer <lUU 117 lX'- .... ·9, S ~..j ,.uthC,t Pnn..:tplc.5IH 10 ~uh"'lUut~on. 126.470 ... S U~...[ltUIJ(ln le~l. ItJJ-l ""7 u"~trarum. J~ 1-2 .-- Sufi: . J.1R mtlectional 0'. dcr~"ational. 161 ~Oflle English 3 deri vational suft- 145.,(, . IXes. Sulcus: .j 17. 41 9. 420 ~umenan writing 595-7 Superstratum. 341 342 ~UPPletion. 141 -2' uprasegmenlals. 41 - 9 .178- 9. 668 . Surface dy lexia.430 Surface representations onhographic. 674 phonemic. 674 Surface structure. 204-5 Inversion and. 205. 207 IlklUUtlt: ruL: 'J-~'l :0. WlO UhM.,H1coror 'ltl 7 ru <tno S~ltt.J:lrl..H 211 lo! .'".....~. h.m. I) . '-7, :'i"~, 547 N) S)lIahl~1~4~l~::!U 7 -t.) , Ilo.tUHJ: <In./~dl...l) ~ntI08. 591 ah. 34. .54 om -.597- 8 SylJ.lhlt.: Ph-9.611 - 12 . 107~nlogy. 90-5. umblo;yll' b' Syllable Fin~ ~~(y and, 91_' Ot!voit.:i ~lruent - Syllables. 2-1. 4~g/()5. 512 aJlomorph . K3-95 closed .. s ~ and. 245 defined 6~)pen, 79 hea..'y, 94-5. 9 5~l In langu~lgt! re . 450....1 P X:e5lng, iJgh~ 'J+..5 nat~ralnes.'i and, 36' procC:i.'M!'i and ~p - .1 110. Set' "i,'o-sUH- 5. phonulogy )'liabllt; seltlng up, Kf>-9{) ~lrcss and, lJ3- -:'i I II) 21 . 1J6. !.lructurc of. Ii: 94 IIl7 ·X. 2~7 H . 41>9 70.5J.1 '16 unit... fli ' ,I n:prc'l'IHalulO <iOu, I () .20 6K- 9 102· 1 . . ":l'lghl, l)~ 5,516 ",f1tlll~ .lnd 19- ""II) 5lJ7 :-<' -. 59~. ~ylvlanrl...s~re -+"0 Symbolic 'Igo;. 630.-1 ') . 1>:14,1>.17 65' ,03_. Symptomatil..' "'I~n~ .. ~~(;654 631. 632-3:6.17 . 64J-...l. 656-7 660 SYIKOpe. 322. .3:!3, ,3', n Synon)ms.269 . 1.363 Syntaclic analysis 669 69()""1 . -70, Syntactic t.:ategories. 182-1 .214-16.477 -. cntena for determ" 183-5 IOlOg. Syntactic features. 668 Syntactic parser computational linguistics 67(>-,82 ... psycholinguistic. 454-7 457-8 • Syntax. 4. 181- 244 666 669. 697 Se~ al'~ TabOO, 554-5 q~ ~~c::~~~------~~~~--------------------.. Te),t. ~OR. SKl 5,6Kl l'cx.' inuy~I~, 66(" 69, ~ Tt!x ami dll'tt.'uur...e ltoaly",'!o Nt' MUltOIt'"1 2 1 , 69 , lhcllOI(; fht& 1e1 Tt:x.lua coheslun. 5K4- 5 2~9 _l)'l TeJll,ua compcu:m.:e. SOR _lj Um~ersa (irammM 1.11 ThctnlIC roles. 286-91. 41) _5-1o.1.'!C.--l1 486-S, 685. 6l)()' Wh !;1u'Iemcnl, 2h~·1 Theme rolc. 23()-, . - -:-' --1. 'lK4,4'6(}- '286-92. 411. 4.'.1 Tra.m.ltlona (,;0"..'" The,auru s e s . 612 411 1 C H,"'. Thorpe. W.H .. 656 TranMll....e leTb.., 61 065 Thyroid cartilage. 1 1 6&3, 6~5 . . Tree diagram, {~ne Tiers, 0-'2.253. See ahio 86--1. ,'9 __1 n 'S·e:.!, A..to~egmenta ~" noi.on~ a'-':o Structural R ambguy epl'e!iien(lions~ bui.dmg. '236--9 Prosodic morphology Tree sruclure~ (word,) Tilde. 51. 58 3(>-,1' Timed-rending experiments, Tri.,6-'2 444-5 Trochaic. 114 Tip (of Ihe longue). 26. 29, Truth conditions. 213 33.50.61,91.100 Two-word stage. 411 Tokens. 628. 648. 651 Typolo~ 361 2 ' Tonal assimilalion. I 11-12 b" -, ,14-9, Tone. 43-6. 41-8. 605 512-14.520 assimilation and. I I 1-12 placement of, 142-3 representations and, Umlaut. 141.318.320-1 Unbounded foot. 13-14 111- 1'2 universals and, 378-9 Tone language. See Tone Tongue. 14. 25_6.33.34,96. 12'2n co-articulation and, 50-I movement in diphthongs, 36 118-19 • Underex.tenslon.4S4 Underlying (basic) fealure, 103,105 . Talking Machine. 666 Targel, in priming eltperiments.443-4 vowels and, 36-9 Top-down parsing. 617-8, 682 Underying representation 103-4,245.246-51 , 431-2,614 Underlying semanlic infonnation, 691 Urnt' of metrical representation, 13-14 UnilS of phonological analysis, 68-9. 83. 102- 3 Targetlangua!e.. in L2 acqUlSltlOn, 507 in O1ach~ne translation. 696-8 Teacher talk, 529 Teeth, 14. 26, 29 Telegraphic speech. 426. 429.432.477-9 Template bird song. 641 phrase strUcture. 190. 194-5 Templatic morphology. 252-3 Temporal lobe. 420. 428 Tense. feature. 10 1 Tense. verb. See Verb tense Tense vowels. See Vowels: tense vs. lax Tcmlinals (words). 679. See ll/soWords Top-down processing. 449. 454.456 Topic. 299-300. 301. 383 Trace. 208.212.433 Trachea, 2 . 666 Tran cription. See Phonetic Transcription Tran.fer errors. 506 Transfer. negative. 504-5. 511. 512. See also Interlanguage Transformational models. 682 Tran. formational syntax. 182, 203,229 TransfomlatiOns.202-14• 238-9.337 acquisition of. 479-81 constraints on. 23-4 inversion. 203-4. Universal Grammar. 24-21. 493-5 L2 acquisition and. 512. 516.518-20.524-5 Universallendencies.314 Univen;als oflanguage.6-1. 86.88. 8-20. 361-2. Set also Uni"etsal~ MarkedDcsStbiMJI7; ParameteR childanguaF"" 469-11 ~ aeoeS expIei i •
- 388. a"'nMl'OIt"''''1I ',,'rIc gnunmalh.'U:lUOQ and. :~ ... 1O1.·..... i'-ln .md, ~Il-~ 1m.·~Ulat. (>64 Ilklll111ir.:r. .1. ~::'5·6 ",U(II.)II, ::,stl-2 phr"'~ ,Iru..:lure and, hi..rlWl..·.:aJ tmgUl,n.:<;..llk.I. '" Imph....:uwn.:tl•.17.... ~T' so, JS~ 3S.... ('t, ....3~n IS;;: .•.)(} lfl1ll.'p..,J1 Gramm.tr and. nl(...-plklllb~al• .lSI).. ~ l~ phonoJ"gl.."3.I. _r~ :-;<l(l. }S7 ::'1.:'i.::'1~::'1 emt.'r·, Lm. ,159-6() "t.'ne[ mllnJ."C"l. 64+-5. 657 Vili. 507 . ~"J)f!k:th..·. 2J~-':!~. .1S~-('I, 3S~-·t,l lx:.ltlulary. ",7'> ~K;JJ ":llnJ.i (H)C.II fold:.). 14, :;!O-.l. 27. '"' 1-42. f) JX1Jll,S) and. _17~q l!nmad.cd. SN' Iar/...l'dnes:-. ,,,,,,-,,, l ....lJ;c.".686 l ,'uJa.';:"T l'ubr.>.. ::7. 5Q, 62 dan•.:. :'9. 60 ("3l'S. ::6-7. 3-+-5. 60, 319 ,,;o-arth:uJarion and. 51 fcature:-. and. 101 pht.')no(;Jc(jt,;>; and. 04-5 Ve-lum. '26-7. 51. 58.101 ,."O-artIcul.1tion and. 50. 51 na."3li7allon and. 53 'c.*f"h .h"'J,ement Parameter. 51S em Rai,ing. 219-222.5 J8. 5~J-2 Vc.-ro (cnst'. 8. 46. 184. 216. 234n.664 compound... and. J53-4 infle.,.·rionand. J60-I, 16]-1. 168-70 mternaJ (."hange (ablau[) and. 1./1 ooo-Engti,h.169-70 suppleuon and. 141-:! tone placemenr and. 142-3 universals of. 283 Verbal hedges. 552 Verbal parad'gm. 168-9 Verba, 2-3. 135-{i. 182-5. 297-8.481-2. 664. 685. s,~ also Verb - oomplemall. of. 197-8. 226.685 _WI'IIOII ofnoun 10. 3 157 f I U-..u pmperues 'IS J:;=~~~673, 685 ofchimpiln7ee. 648 ~"k;al t.rt'le-t. 20. .15 "lx'all) h.tndic3ppcd. 699 Vocoder. 666 ·.oi~c b;Jr', 067 Voice feature. 69, 95. 96. 98. 99, 100. 101. 105-6. III. ././9 Voke lag. 31-2. 51. 1220 .(lil,.'cd ...ounds. 22. 23. 27- .15. ././9. St·, also Vowels Voi<.:cles..ness. 22. 28-32. 33. .14-5.52.5.1.72-7 Voicing. 22, 3640 <1"plrallon and. 31-2 ':Issilniialion. 43--54. 248. ~70-1 co-articulation and. 51 language t:hungc and. .118. .114. .131-1. .152. 353-5 Vowel harmony. 361 Vowel laxing. J27 Vowel lengthening. 92-3. 107. 2~9 Vowel redu(':lion. 56. 322-3. .1.15.354-5 Vowels. 23-4. 35-41. 666 acqui!-OJlion of. 468 co-articulation and. 51 <...ontra~ls. 71-2 diphthong'. .16 fealure matrix for. 99 flopping and. 5~ lionl and back. .17-9. 96 long v,. 'hon. 39.48. 71-2.75-6.92-5. 107.329. :'76-7 monophlhon8', 36 na....u. 27. .15. 51. 5.1. 58. 79-81,97. 109. 122n. 375.376. non-English. 57 pilch and. 41--{i pbooeIic ymbols for. 42 pure vowel •36 awduI:ed, 40 'lluple H~"eh. Jb ...lre'is und. ~8-9 tense S. la:~. 35. .39-41 71. 78-9. 92-5.101' 107.327 . univen.als and. 375-7 387 . VY!;l:oL<;ky. Lev. 491 Ui:1l1 Sll"e~t Journal. 686 Washoe. 648-9, 650-1. 65"1 Wave ronns. 666, 670 - Weak g~~~~tive captlcity. weake~~! (of meaning), Weakening (of sounds), 318. ~~~5. 348. 353--4. Webster. Noah, 616 Wernicke. Carl. 428 Wernicke's aphasia. 428-9 430. 435n . Vemicke's area. 422, ..H9 43~ . ",h Movement. 205-7 211-12 . relative c1au~s and 227-9 . thematic roles and, 289 Universal Grammar and 219 . IVh quoSlion,. 219.480_1 SeeCllso WII Movement 'hispery voice. 23. 59 'White nOise', 667 Word-ba.,ed morphology. 137.672 Word boundary. 103 Vord formation. 144-60. 559. See a/so specific pmct!Ht!.~ acquisition of. 471-6 compounding. 151-6. 556 derivalion. 1+1-51. 556 Inflection and. 160-4 language change and. 340-1 ,lang and. 555-7 Word frequency. 693-4 Word game,. 45(}-1 Word manufacture (COinage), 159-60 Word order, 5. 7.166 animal communu,,'UlIon and. 649 ,50. 654 chIld language "od. 477. 49.1 in hiSlory of English. 314. 337-40 honoogiCU p and. 69 .. sychohngut.l-iliCH 44 3 P rescureh to.to. sctTHlotic re~~~~'; uroonl'f 132-80 ~l~lIC~~r~o;:'e~!., 100. See Work1ng,t Y'APph cuuon<, II .~oe Web, 695 world W'~9_20. 591-624 Wnung. . nd 429-31. aphaSia a , 619 Chinese.6Q4.-6 h English orthograp y. 613-19 -604 history of. 592 9 Japanese. 607 2 I pes of. 59- Y . language, wnt~~chine translation and. 695. 698. 699 language, {I,.". wnUc.o target language, (fJ~ Wug-le<,t.414-5 X' categories.. 94---6 XP Rule. The. 90, <.IS 41, 204-5.226 Yes-no que~ion$. 339-.4(), 513--4 acquisition of. 4R(}.-1, 49 inver!o>ion m. '20"3--. 207-9 Universal Grammar and. 21-9 Zero der"i.vaton. See Conversion Zero ending. 67