The assessment will analyze the validity and relevance of the fundamental right of property in light with the two views provided by Review Group supported by later developments and case laws concerning the given issue.
Classification of law - Legal Environment of business - Business Law - Manu M...manumelwin
Public Law is concerned with the legal relation between the state and the individuals. All laws relating to the distribution and exercise of power by the state are the part of public law.
Classification of law - Legal Environment of business - Business Law - Manu M...manumelwin
Public Law is concerned with the legal relation between the state and the individuals. All laws relating to the distribution and exercise of power by the state are the part of public law.
The presentation deals with some legal maxims used in India starting from what is a legal maxim to some legal maxims used in Indian Courts viz. Actus Dei Nemini Injuriam , Actori incumbit onus probandi , Actio Personalis Moritur Cum Persona , Actus Non Facit Reum Nisi Mens Sit Rea , Assignatus utitur jure auctoris etc .with their English meaning and related case law.
LLB LAW NOTES ON PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW
FREE AFFIDAVITS AND NOTICES FORMATS
FREE AGREEMENTS AND CONTRACTS FORMATS
FREE LLB LAW NOTES
FREE CA ICWA NOTES
FREE LLB LAW FIRST SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW SECOND SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW THIRD SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW FOURTH SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW FIFTH SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW SIXTH SEM NOTES
FREE CA ICWA FOUNDATION NOTES
FREE CA ICWA INTERMEDIATE NOTES
FREE CA ICWA FINAL NOTES
KANOON KE RAKHWALE INDIA
HIRE LAWYER ONLINE
LAW FIRMS IN DELHI
CA FIRM DELHI
VISIT : https://www.kanoonkerakhwale.com/
VISIT : https://hirelawyeronline.com/
Nature of law and administration of justice by Dr. Rajashree J. Jawalesundarsasane
This topic deals with definition and concept of law , kinds and sources of law and Administration of Justice under Jurisprudence. This topic is useful for law students and for general public to understand the basic concepts ,
The presentation deals with some legal maxims used in India starting from what is a legal maxim to some legal maxims used in Indian Courts viz. Actus Dei Nemini Injuriam , Actori incumbit onus probandi , Actio Personalis Moritur Cum Persona , Actus Non Facit Reum Nisi Mens Sit Rea , Assignatus utitur jure auctoris etc .with their English meaning and related case law.
LLB LAW NOTES ON PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW
FREE AFFIDAVITS AND NOTICES FORMATS
FREE AGREEMENTS AND CONTRACTS FORMATS
FREE LLB LAW NOTES
FREE CA ICWA NOTES
FREE LLB LAW FIRST SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW SECOND SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW THIRD SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW FOURTH SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW FIFTH SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW SIXTH SEM NOTES
FREE CA ICWA FOUNDATION NOTES
FREE CA ICWA INTERMEDIATE NOTES
FREE CA ICWA FINAL NOTES
KANOON KE RAKHWALE INDIA
HIRE LAWYER ONLINE
LAW FIRMS IN DELHI
CA FIRM DELHI
VISIT : https://www.kanoonkerakhwale.com/
VISIT : https://hirelawyeronline.com/
Nature of law and administration of justice by Dr. Rajashree J. Jawalesundarsasane
This topic deals with definition and concept of law , kinds and sources of law and Administration of Justice under Jurisprudence. This topic is useful for law students and for general public to understand the basic concepts ,
In this presentation, we will discuss about the role of government in enacting labor laws in order to protect and promote interest of labors, in details. We will talk about the constitutional framework, social justice and role of industrial relations.
To know more about Welingkar School’s Distance Learning Program and courses offered, visit:
http://www.welingkaronline.org/distance-learning/online-mba.html
THIS PRESENTATION IS ABOUT THE BASIC OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION FOR THE POST GRADUATE NURSES IN INDIA.IT FOCUSES ON THE BASIC RIGHTS AND SECTION OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION.
This country’s planted thick with laws from coast to coast . . . a.docxjuliennehar
This country’s planted thick with laws from coast to coast . . . and if you cut them down... d’you really think you could stand upright in the winds that would blow then?
A MAn for All SeASonS, Act I
Consider . . . 1.1
John Yates, a commercial fisherman, caught undersized red grouper in federal waters in the Gulf of Mexico. To prevent federal authorities from confirming that he had harvested undersized fish, Yates ordered a crew member to toss the suspect fish into the sea. Yates was charged with, and convicted of, violating 18 U.S.C. § 1519,
“Whoever knowingly alters, destroys, mutilates, conceals, covers up, falsifies, or makes a false entry in any record, document, or tangible object with the intent to impede, obstruct, or influence the investigation . . . or
any case filed . . . or in relation to or contemplation of any such matter or case, shall be fined under this title, imprisoned not more than 20 years, or both.”
Mr. Yates says that the statute applies to financial records and not fish. The statute was passed after Enron collapsed and its financial records and audit papers had been shredded to deter such actions by businesses. Who decides whether the law applies to hurling fish overboard? What should the court decide?
1-1
Definition of Law
Philosophers and scholars throughout history have offered definitions of law. Aristotle, the early Greek philosopher, wrote that “the law is reason unaffected by desire” and “law is a form of order, and good law must necessarily mean good order.” Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., a U.S. Supreme Court justice of the early twentieth century, said, “[L]aw embodies the story of a nation’s development through many centuries.” Sir William Blackstone, the English philosopher and legal scholar, observed that law was “that rule of action which is prescribed by some superior and which the inferior is bound to obey.” Black’s Law Dictionary defines law as “a body of rules of action or conduct prescribed by the controlling authority, and having legal binding force.”1 Law has been defined at least once by every philosopher, statesman, and police officer.
Law is simply the body of rules governing individuals and their relationships. Most of these rules become law through a recognized governmental authority. Laws give us basic freedoms, rights, and protections. Law also offers a model of conduct for members of society in their business and personal lives and gives them certainty of expectation. Plans, businesses, contracts, and property ownership are based on the expectation that the law will provide consistent protection of rights. Without such constancy in legal boundaries, society would be a mass of chaos and confusion.
1-2
Classifications of Law
1-2a public versus private Law
Public law includes those laws enacted by some authorized governmental body. State and federal constitutions and statutes are all examples of public laws, as are the state incorporation and partnership procedures, county taxation statutes, and lo ...
Chapter 3 Due Process, Equal Protection, and Civil Rights Those .docxchristinemaritza
Chapter 3 Due Process, Equal Protection, and Civil Rights
Those who deny freedom to others deserve it not for themselves.
Abraham Lincoln
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter you should better understand:
· • The standards applied for determining whether a procedure satisfies the constitutional due process requirements
· • The manner in which the restrictions on federal government action in the Bill of Rights have been incorporated into the due process guaranty that applies to state actions
· • The U.S. Supreme Court’s approach to determining whether classifications violate the constitutional equal protection requirements
· • The classifications to which “strict scrutiny” is applied in the equal protection analysis
· • The basic remedies available for civil rights violations
At the heart of the rule of law lie the ideals that everyone should be treated fairly and equally before the law. Toward this end the U.S. Constitution protects individual rights by constraining government. But fairness and equality cannot be reduced to prohibitions. To reach more broadly the Constitution also includes fundamental guaranties. Many important court decisions and legislative acts addressing individual rights have been based on the two most fundamental general guaranties: the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause.
A Due Process Clause was part of the Fifth Amendment in the original Bill of Rights and it was aimed at the federal government. It provides that no person shall be “deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process.” The original Bill of Rights did not mention equal protection of the laws in a general sense. The Fourteenth Amendment, added after the Civil War and aimed at former slave states, included the same due process provisions as the Fifth Amendment. The Fourteenth Amendment also included the Equal Protection Clause. It provides that no state shall “deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.” Although nothing in the text said that equal protection applied to the federal government as well as to the states, the U.S. Supreme Court eventually held that it did. In 1954 in Bolling v. Sharpe the Court said that “the concepts of equal protection and due process, both stemming from our American ideal of fairness, are not mutually exclusive. The ‘equal protection of the laws’ is a more explicit safeguard of prohibited unfairness than ‘due process of law,’ and, therefore, we do not imply that the two are always interchangeable phrases. But, as this Court has recognized, discrimination may be so unjustifiable as to be violative of due process.”1 Consequently due process and equal protection apply to both federal and state laws.
The Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses address government action. They require that laws and legal procedures be fair. As discussed in the final section of this chapter, other constitutional provisions or laws may directly address unfair or discriminato ...
11262014 The Legal Environment of Business, Ch. 2 - Learning.docxhyacinthshackley2629
11/26/2014 The Legal Environment of Business, Ch. 2 - Learning Activity - Week1 - LAW/421 - eCampus
https://newclassroom3.phoenix.edu/Classroom/ToolContainer.jsp?context=co&contextId=OSIRIS:44425562&activityId=e39998c3-78e0-4134-9e5d-ee8e50800c06… 1/31
Business and the Constitution
Learning Outcomes Checklist
After studying this chapter, students who have mastered the material will be able to:
Explain the federal system in the context of the U.S. Constitution.
Describe the purpose and structure of the Constitution.
List the major provisions of the first three articles of the Constitution and
explain the underlying assumptions of coequal branches of government.
Identify the powers of Congress that impact individuals and businesses.
Recognize the role of judicial review in interpreting the Constitution.
Understand the various applications and limits of congressional power
under the Commerce Clause.
Apply Constitutional restrictions on state regulation of commerce in the
business environment.
Explain how the tax and spend powers impact business.
List the major protections in the Constitution’s Bill of Rights and explain
how they apply in the business environment.
Understand limits imposed on government overreaching by virtue of the
Due Process Clause and Equal Protection Clause.
Explain the right of privacy that has been recognized by the U.S. Supreme
Court and Congress.
Afundamental knowledge of constitutional law is an important step in understanding the
source and application of federal statutory law as well as the power and limits of
government agencies enforcing regulations. Business managers and owners should
also be aware of the impact of constitutional law and protections of individuals and
business entities across a broad spectrum of sectors. In this chapter students will learn:
The structure of the U.S. Constitution and individual state constitutions, and their
respective roles in the American legal system.
The specific powers granted to the government in the Constitution.
The protections afforded by the Constitution in the Bill of Rights and the Fourteenth
Amendment.
Structure and Nature of the Constitution: Federal Powers
11/26/2014 The Legal Environment of Business, Ch. 2 - Learning Activity - Week1 - LAW/421 - eCampus
https://newclassroom3.phoenix.edu/Classroom/ToolContainer.jsp?context=co&contextId=OSIRIS:44425562&activityId=e39998c3-78e0-4134-9e5d-ee8e50800c06… 2/31
LO21
The United States uses a federal system in which a national government coexists with the
government of each state. An important concept underlying the federal system is that the federal
government has only limited powers to regulate individuals and businesses. States are thought of
as having more inherent powers to protect the general welfare of their citizenry with only general
constitutional authorization.1 In contrast, the federal government’s power to regulate must be
specifically granted by the U.S. Constitution. For example, the Cons.
Free Essays from 123 Help Me | Property Law Chuck decides to go into property development. He finds for sale a row of three derelict empty cottages close to .... 63, property law. university of essex school of law assignment feedback and cover sheet (do not write your name on this sheet or your essay) module name:. Land Law Essays. The essays below were written by students to help you with your own studies. If you are looking for help with your essay then we offer a .... Property Law 1 (Land Law). Info: 3964 words (16 pages) Essay Published: 16th Jul 2019. Reference this. Jurisdiction / Tag(s): UK Law.. Property law is a set of legal rules that controls the use, enjoyment, and rental of property. Many of the laws affecting property were established by English .... Explore a big database【WITH NO SIGN UP】– 100% FREE Property Law Essay Examples✓All popular types of essays ➥ Argumentative, Persuasive, .... Quiz yourself on Property, Exam 2 of 30 law essay practice questions and writing exercises by Quimbee. Built to emulate law school and MEE exams.. View and download property law essays examples. Also discover topics, titles, outlines, thesis statements, and conclusions for your property law essay.. An easement is the right to enter onto someone's land and use a portion of that ... Under the common law, title in land was measured by first in time, .... Intellectual property law essay examples written by your fellow students are collected here. LawBirdie is the best database of free law essay ...
Essay Questions Exam #1 Due Sunday Oct 19th @ 10pm Emmanuel .docxbridgelandying
Essay Questions Exam #1
Due Sunday Oct 19th @ 10pm
Emmanuel
1. What are the differences between domestic law and international law? What are the sources for international law?
Domestic law is enforced by legit government. Codified by a legitimate government. Domestic law is dominated by dominated by culture. No true international law
International law – 1) a nation can consent to be bound by international law (agree to a treaty)
2)a convention (comes out of the UN) UN has to be signed by each country- international contract. 3) also consent by custom & practices.
2. What is "enfranchisement"? Discuss the amendments in the US Constitution that applies to
Enfranchisement- to admit to the privileges of a citizen and especially to the right of suffrage
Amendments
· 15th – blacks
· 19th –deals with women rights
· 23th –Washington D.C. can vote
· 24th – abolish property tax vote
· 26th – Lower voting age to 18 years
David Lopez
3. What is “ethics”? What is “morality”? What are the differences between ethics, morality and the law? Briefly discuss legal obligations, professional obligations and organizational obligations.
As mentioned in chapter 5, at the most basic level, ethics constitutes right or wrong behavior. It is a branch of philosophy focusing on morality and the way moral principles are derived and implemented. Ethics has to do with the fairness, justness, rightness, or wrongness of an action. Morals are influenced by culture or society, however they are principal’s set individually by person to person. Business ethics and business law are closely intertwined because ultimately the law rests on social beliefs about right and wrong behavior in the business world.
4. What is "pleadings"? Discuss the contents of a complaint.
The complaint and answer, taken together, are known as the pleadings.
-The facts showing that the court has subject- matter and personal jurisdiction
-The facts establishing the plaintiff’s basis for relief,
-The remedy the plaintiff is seeking.
5. Discuss at least four reasons why the court will apply equitable remedies. Note:UMIRU
Equitable remedies include specific performance, an injunction, and rescission. Specific performance involves ordering a party to perform an agreement as promised. An injunction is an order to a party to cease engaging in a specific activity or to undo some wrong or injury. Rescission is the cancellation of a contractual obligation.Todays courts will not grant equitable remedies unless the remedy at law (monetary damages )is inadequate.
6. Briefly discuss the major publication, practices and invention that had an influence on the US Constitution.
Ideas from many people and several existing documents, including the Articles of Confederation and Declaration of Independence had major influences on the publication for the constitution.
7. What is evidence law? What criteria must be met for evidence to be admissible.
The law of evidence provides principle ...
Similar to VALIDITY OF INCLUSION OF RIGHT TO PROPERTY IN THE CONSTITUTION- Article 40.3.2° and Article 43 (20)
This research deals with the critical analysis of the case, L. Chandra Kumar v. U.O.I [1997]. Efforts have been made to explain the jurisprudential premise of Articles 323-A and 323-B of the Constitution of India, 1950. Efforts have been made to understand the legislative intent behind the Administrative Tribunals Act of 1985.
This entry analyses the Corfu Channel Case, the first case before the Interna...Utkarsh Kumar
This entry analyses the Corfu Channel Case, the first case before the International Court of Justice, concerning dammage to British navy ships due to mines in Albanian waters
Admissibility of Parliamentary Debates - Crilly v FarringtonUtkarsh Kumar
The project will assess the decision of the Supreme Court in Crilly v Farrington [2001] 3 IR 251 insofar as it relates to the question of whether the courts should have regard to parliamentary debates when interpreting legislation.
Validity of contingent and conditional bequests Utkarsh Kumar
Introduction – ‘Vest’ meaning and differences
Contingent Bequests
Conditional Bequests
Validity of conditions subsequent & forfeiture of bequest – with reference to S. 134
Defeasance clause – distinguished from repugnant clause
Conclusion
THE NAZ FOUNDATION CASE (Section 377) - Interlinking and HyperlinkingUtkarsh Kumar
The Naz Foundation (India) Trust, the original petitioner in the constitutional challenge to Section 377, IPC, has filed a petition seeking review of the judgment of the Hon'ble Supreme Court in Suresh Kumar Koushal v. Naz Foundation (India) Trust (Civil Appeal No. 10972 of 2013). On 11th December, 2013, the Hon'ble Supreme Court, in a regressive decision, has upheld the validity of Section 377, IPC that criminalises all penile non-vaginal sexual acts between consenting adults and has set aside the judgment of Delhi High Court of 2009 that had decriminalized adult consensual sexual acts in private.
Represented by Lawyers Collective, the Petition argues that there are a number of grave and manifest errors of law and wrong application of law in the impugned judgment that need to be corrected under review by this Hon'ble Court. The judgment is contrary to the grain of Hon'ble Supreme Court's own jurisprudence on advancement of fundamental rights and freedoms of all persons, especially those who face marginalisation in society. It completely dismisses the foreign jurisprudence from all over the world and international human rights law on sexual orientation and gender identity. Reliance on the principles of judicial restraint and Parliament's prerogative to change laws is misplaced, when the law has been challenged for violation of fundamental rights of individuals, as is being done in the present case.
Seeking an interim stay on the operation of the judgment, the petition notes that it has caused immense prejudice to all adult persons who engage in consensual sex, particularly those from the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender community, who suddenly have been put at risk of prosecution under criminal law. In the last four years, many persons from the LGBT community have become open about their sexual identity and disclosed their intimate relationships on the basis of the High Court judgment decriminalising the same.
The Petition further states that since it raises significant issues of constitutional import of substantial public interest and far reaching public importance, an oral hearing ought to be given by the Hon'ble Supreme Court.
Synopsis On Annual General Meeting/Extra Ordinary General Meeting With Ordinary And Special Businesses And Ordinary And Special Resolutions with Companies (Postal Ballot) Regulations, 2018
NATURE, ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL LAW.pptxanvithaav
These slides helps the student of international law to understand what is the nature of international law? and how international law was originated and developed?.
The slides was well structured along with the highlighted points for better understanding .
A "File Trademark" is a legal term referring to the registration of a unique symbol, logo, or name used to identify and distinguish products or services. This process provides legal protection, granting exclusive rights to the trademark owner, and helps prevent unauthorized use by competitors.
Visit Now: https://www.tumblr.com/trademark-quick/751620857551634432/ensure-legal-protection-file-your-trademark-with?source=share
Car Accident Injury Do I Have a Case....Knowyourright
Every year, thousands of Minnesotans are injured in car accidents. These injuries can be severe – even life-changing. Under Minnesota law, you can pursue compensation through a personal injury lawsuit.
VALIDITY OF INCLUSION OF RIGHT TO PROPERTY IN THE CONSTITUTION- Article 40.3.2° and Article 43
1. VALIDITY OF INCLUSION OF RIGHT TO
PROPERTY IN THE CONSTITUTION
Article 40.3.2° and Article 43
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW- ASSESSMENT
ABSTRACT
The assessmentwill analyzethe validity and relevanceof the
fundamental right of property in light with the two views provided by
Review Group supported by later developments and case laws
concerning the given issue.
NAME: UTKARSH KUMAR
STUDENT ID.: 14209353
BRANCH: SUTHERLAND SCHOOL OF LAW
2. INTRODUCTION
The fundamental right is warranted by two provisions of the Constitution − Article
40.3.2° and Article 43. generally, Article 40.3.2° could shield the individual citizen’s
property rights, whereas Article 43 deals with the establishment of property itself.
The right to own and transfer private property is guaranteed by Article 43, subject to
"the principles of social justice", and in accordance with laws passed reconciling the
right "with the exigencies of the common good"
In case Blake v Attorney General1, the Court examined the issue of the interplay
between Art. 43 and Art. 40.3 in detail, concluding that, while Art. 43 protect private
property as an institution (i.e. prohibits its complete abolition), Art. 40.3 prevent an
unjust attack on the property rights of an individual.
The right to enjoyment of private property is protected by the European Convention
on Human Rights (ECHR) in Article 1, Protocol 1 of the Convention.2
REVIEW GROUP, 1996
The Review Group perceives that, regardless of detailing may be concocted to trade
Article 40.3.2° and Article 43, it might more likely than not abstain from entrusting a
degree (even a high degree) of subjective evaluation to the legal. It is considered by
Review Group that, it may be liked to recast these procurements in an exceedingly
way that accommodated an extra organized and target system of legal investigation
1 [1982] IR 117
2 "Every natural or legal person is entitled to the peaceful enjoyment of his
possessions. No one shall be deprived of his possessions except in the public interest
and subject to the conditions provided for by law and by the general principles of
international law.
The preceding provisions shall not, however, in any way impair the right of a State to
enforce such laws as it deems necessary to control the use of property in accordance
with the general interest or to secure the payment of taxes or other contributions or
penalties."
3. TWO VIEWS
The majority was of the opinion that the Constitution should contain such a
protection whereas some members of the Review Group did not favor the
constitutional protection of property rights.
Firstly, the one in favor was of the opinion that State has legitimate reasons to
manage and regulate the exercise of property rights as, the prosperity of the State
depends in substantial live on property like land, building, equity or the other kind of
wealth being on the market as a supply of, or security for investment. Also, the same
has been acknowledged internationally.
Secondly, the assertion of property rights has traditionally been related to the
protection of business and business interests and isn't designed to confirm to
everybody the fabric conditions for a lifetime of dignity. They take into account,
therefore, that it's no place among the basic rights provisions of a constitution.
Moreover, in their read, the constitutional protection of property rights might
endorse major differ- entails within the possession of productive wealth existing at
the time of the adoption of the text.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. The Constitution should expressly protect the right to property (majority
view).
2. The Constitution should expressly provide that such property rights can be
qualified, restricted etc. by legislation where there are clear social justice or
other public policy reasons for doing so.
4. FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS/ CASE LAWS
Major development in the issue was seen in the case-
Re Article 26 and the Health (Amendment) (No2) Bill 20043 (referred to
below as the “Health Bill Case”).
The State had been charging elderly people for medication since 1975 although
they were entitled for free treatment; thereby the charges levied were unlawful.
The administration acquainted a Bill looking for with reflectively render the
charges legitimate.4
The court perceived that patients unlawfully charged had a property right
comprising of a privilege of activity to recuperate that cash. The court found that
the patients' property rights in connection to the money would be annulled by
the bill.
“In the view of the Court, such legislation cannot be regarded as “regulating” the
exercise of property rights. It is straining the meaning of the reference in Article
43.2.1 of the Constitution to the “principles of social justice”5
“an abrogation of property rights and an unjust attack on them contrary to the
provisions of the Constitution and in particular Articles 43 and 40.3.2.”6
Unjust Attack -Costello P. in Daly v. Revenue Commissioners7
The SC held that to claim relief under Article 40.3.2, the claimant must prove as
“unjust attack” on its right to private property
“When … an applicant claims that his constitutionally protected right to private
property referred to in Article 40.3.2 has been infringed and that the State has
failed in the obligation imposed on it by that Article to protect his property rights,
he has to show that those rights have been subject to an unjust attack'. He can do
this by showing that the law which has restricted the exercise of his rights or
otherwise infringed them has failed to pass a proportionality test.”
Taxation is an interference with property rights. This was recognized
in Daly v Revenue Commissioners.8
3 [2005] 1 IR 205
4 “... firstly, to examine the nature of the property rights at issue; secondly, to
consider whether the Bill consists of a regulation of those rights in accordance with
principles of social justice and whether the Bill is required so as to delimit those
rights in accordance with the exigencies of the common good; thirdly, in the light of
its conclusions on these issues, to consider whether the Bill constitutes an unjust
attack on those property rights
5 [2005] 1 IR 205 [130]
6 [2005] 1 IR 205 [134]
7 [1995] 3 I.R.
5. In Daly, Mr Justice Costello stated: that legislative interference in property rights
occurs every day of the week and no constitutional impropriety is involved.
When, as in this case, an applicant claims that his constitutionally protected right
to private property referred to in Article 40.3.2° has been infringed and that the
State has failed in the obligation imposed on it by that article to protect his
property rights he has to show that those rights have been subject to ‘an unjust
attack’.
Eighth Report of the Convention on the Constitution- Economic,
Social and Cultural (ESC) Rights9 stated that:
“Finally, it should be noted that the right to property – which, while widely
accepted as a civil and political right, has important economic and social
dimensions – is protected under not one but two provisions of the Constitution:
Article 40.3.2° and Article 43, which provisions mutually inform each other.”
In Ireland and the Attorney General v Mayo County Council10 case, the
court held that property rights, as protected by the Constitution, are not
absolute. The power of the State to regulate the use of land has been
recognized in a number of cases.
For example, In Central Dublin Development Association v. Attorney General
11Kenny J stated, the state may exercise the property right with the aim to
promote common good.12
Compensation and property rights: Kelly in a passage approved by
Finnegan P stated that Constitutionality of property rights is not
interfered with the existence of compensation scheme
“It is submitted that it follows from Article 43.1 that compensation cannot
validate an interference with property rights that is not justified by the
exigencies of the common good. Any other view would mean that Article 43
merely guarantees a right to compensation rather than a right to property per
se.”13
HC in the case The Central Dublin Development Association Limited.
Cecil F. Hollinshead, M. Rowan & Company Limited, Barry J. Hardy
Limited and Mary W. O'Brien v The Attorney General gave a
conclusive remark on the right to property guaranteed by constitution:
8 [1995] 3 IR
9 1March, 2014
10 [2014] IEHC 382
11 [1975] ILTR 69
12 [Article 43.2.1] does not require that the exercise of the rights of property must
in all cases be regulated by the principles of social justice. It recognizes that the
exercise of these rights ought to be regulated by these principles and that the State
accordingly may delimit (which I think means restrict) by law the exercise of the
said rights with a view to reconciling it with the exigencies of the common good.”
13 Hogan and Whyte, Kelly: The Irish Constitution, 4th Ed., 2003, Dublin
6. In my view an analysis of the text of the Constitution and of the decisions on
it lead to these conclusions:
(1) The right of private property is a personal right;
(2) In virtue of his rational being, man has a natural right to individual
or private ownership of worldly wealth;
(3) This constitutional right consists of a bundle of rights most of
which are founded in contract;
(4) The State cannot pass any law which abolishes all the bundle of
rights which we call ownership or the general right to transfer,
bequeath and inherit property.
(5) The exercise of these rights ought to be regulated by the principles
of social justice and the State accordingly may by law restrict their
exercise with a view to reconciling this with the demands of the
common good.
(6) The Courts have jurisdiction to inquire whether the restriction is
in accordance with the principles of social justice and whether the
legislation is necessary to reconcile this exercise with the demands
of the common good.
(7) If any of the rights which together constitute our conception of
ownership are abolished or restricted (as distinct from the
abolition of all the rights), the absence of compensation for this
restriction or abolition will make the Act which does this invalid if
it is an unjust attack on the property rights.
CONCLUSION/ COMMENTS
7. Considering the cases and developments in the issue in hand, the minority view
of Review Group seems more persuasive. An express provision in the
constitution provides for various issues in following cases:
Social In-justice
Bank Guarantee
Austerity
Rent/ Leases
The perspective that an arrangement of property rights needs to meet a test on
how it influences others. The rights aren't genuine unless they sufficiently profit
other individuals.
The State's obligation to ensure property rights is not total, as the wording of
Article 40.3.2 itself makes clear. This point was traditionally made by O’Higgins
CJ “It is noted that the guarantee of protection given by Article 40, s. 3, sub-s. 2, of
the Constitution is qualified by the words ‘as best it may’. This implies
circumstances in which the State may have to balance its protection of the right
as against other obligations arising from regard for the common good.”14
Rent has been one of the most common limitation of property right. The same
can be illustrated by a very local example of case of Grafton Street in Dublin. John
Corcoran, owner Korky store on Grofton street said “Over the past ten years
rents on Grafton Street have surged to a level where they are now the fifth
highest in the world. We have seen many well regarded retail businesses
fail…these companies cited rents as the primary reason for their closure.”15
All these factors, which ultimately lead to breach of property right for all, or a
class of people makes it fundamentally irrelevant to include the same in the
constitution. The Fundamental motive to include a right in the constitution is
infringed if the same if coupled by limitations or factors that ultimately leads to
shortcomings and irrelevancy.
---------------------x--------------------x--------------------
WORD COUNT: 1583 (excluding footnote & cover page)
14 Moynihan v Greensmyth [1977] IR 55
15 Last day of Korkys Grafton Street
<https://irishcommercialtenants.wordpress.com> accessed 01 March 2015