Connecting Philippine Mythology to Magical Realism in Two Short Stories 2

The Application of Philippine Mythology in Magical Realism
by:
Gio Romero B. Chao
A THESIS PAPER
Submitted to:
Mrs. Andrea G. Soluta
Silliman University English Department
In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in English major in
Creative Writing
March 2016

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ABSTRACT
This study proposed an organic connection between magical realism and Philippine
mythology in two creative works of fiction, using postcolonial criticism. In identifying magical
realism and its characteristics, it is necessary to provide an overview of its history. Key concepts
of Franz Roh, Alejo Carpentier, Angel Flores, Gabriel Garcia Marquez and other contributors
will be discussed in Chapter II. Furthermore, this study will provide some examples of Philippine
folk literature and beliefs to build its argument.
This thesis did not propose an exact formula for writing magical realist stories. Instead, it
focused on the importance of mythology in the creation of such stories. The wealth of myth in
Philippine literature provided material for the writer to produce magical realist stories. This study
attempted to examine its application in the author’s creative works.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Abstract ii
Table of Contents iii
Chapter I THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE
Introduction 1
Statement of the Problem 3
Significance of Study 4
Scope and Delimitation 5
Definition of Terms 6
Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE, STUDIES AND THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
Related Literature
Definition of Magical Realism 7
History and Development of Magical Realism
 In the West 10
 In the Philippines 21
Characteristics of Magical Realism 30

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Related Studies
Folk Beliefs and Customs 32
Creatures of Philippine Lower Mythology 39
 Duende 40
 Kapre 42
 Tikbalang 43
 Sirena 43
 Mangkukulam 44
Theoretical Approach 46
Chapter III METHODOLOGY 48
Chapter IV PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND APPLICATION OF DATA 51
Chapter V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 62
References 66
Appendix
A. Pascual 68
B. Siquijor 77

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CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE
Introduction
Magical realism is a broad term and its definition has changed over the years. The term
generally applies to art, literature, film and television. (Bowers 1) German art critic Franz Roh
first applied the term magical realism to describe the artistic return to objectivity by some Post-
Expressionist painters. In the preface of The Kingdom of this World, Alejo Carpentier argued that
the form, which he called marvellous realism, was uniquely Latin American “by virtue of Latin
America’s history, geography, demography, and politics—not by manifesto” (Bowers 13) and
that European magical realism was pretentious and artificial; while Angel Flores proposed his
version of magical realism had aspects of both Roh’s magical realism and Carpentier’s
marvellous realism. The writer Gabriel Garcia Marquez cited Alejo Carpentier as an inspiration,
although he and Carpentier differed in their writings: Carpentier’s writings were predominantly
realist with magical happenings that inspire awe, whereas Marquez’s writings treated magical
happenings as common occurrences in everyday life. (Bowers 37).
“Garcia Marquez also suggests that cultures and countries differ in what they call ‘real.’
It is here that magical realism serves its most important function, because it facilitates the
inclusion of alternative belief systems. It is no coincidence that magical realism is flourishing in
cultures such as Mexico and Columbia, where European and indigenous cultures have mixed,
with the result that ancient myths are often just beneath the surface.” (Zamora, 2006) The
Philippines, which had had a lengthy Spanish occupation, a brief Japanese occupation, a

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dictatorship— not to mention an ongoing relationship with the United States, may be seen as
fertile ground for magical realism. The National Artist for Literature, Nick Joaquin has been
considered a magical realist by critics for his stories which feature realism and the fantastic.

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Statement of the Problem
This thesis wishes to answer the following problems:
1. What is magical realism?
2. What are the special features or characteristics of magical realism?
3. How do elements in this study’s creative works convey magical realism?
4. What are the sources of mythology used for each story?
5. How is “colonial depersonalization” and “mimicry” expressed in the study’s creative
works?

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Significance of Study
This study aims to broaden literary discourse for magical realism in the English language
and to impart an understanding and appreciation for Philippine mythology and its practical
application to magical realism. Given the scarcity of literary studies on the topic of magical
realism, new studies are always welcome in the academe. The problem areas of magical realism
range from outdated arguments on behalf of formalism to imprecise methods of criticism on
behalf of postructuralism which argues that similar features in text and context recur in all texts,
that is to say, if text a and text b are the same, then both must come from the same category. The
latter is especially problematic because there are non-magical realist stories that contain magical
realist elements (Bortolussi, 2003).
Above all, it is a personal endeavour on the part of the author to attempt to explain why
truth can sometimes merge with the fantastic and how that relationship can affect the realization
of one’s self and the other which will be discussed in chapters II and III.

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Scope and Delimitation
This study is confined to the Philippine context and focuses on the writings of Lois
Parkinson Zamora, Wendy Faris, Franz Roh, Alejo Carpentier, Angel Flores and Gabriel Garcia
Marquez, Maximo Ramos, Francisco Demetrio Radaza, Bienvenido and Cynthia Lumbera, Homi
K. Bhabha and the testimonials of Paolo Poral and Jaizer Nadal. The study uses excepts from
online videos to further illustrate its points.
The main objective of this study is to provide a critical analysis of the author’s creative
works which demonstrate an organic connection between magical realism and Philippine
mythology. Although the works of Alejo Carpentier, Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Nick Joaquin will
not be taken up extensively, some of their works will be cited for the purpose of drawing
comparisons.
A basic understanding of postcolonial criticism and an overview of Homi K. Bhabha’s
Interrogating Culture and The Postcolonial and the Postmodern present a sufficient method in
analyzing the author’s works.

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Definition of Terms
Image(ry) – “languages that causes people to imagine pictures in their mind” (“Imagery,” n.d.
Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/imagery)
Object(s) – the thing that is represented.
Metaphor – figures of speech used as analogues for ideas.
Folklore – “…any bit of knowledge passed down generation to generation, which describes or
depicts the beliefs and lifestyle of the ancestors of a chosen ethnic group…”
Identity – “the way in which an individual and/or group identifies itself.” (“Key Terms in Post-
Colonial Theory,” n.d para. 14. Retrieved from http://www3.dbu.edu/mitchell/postcold.htm.)
Self – the figurative self.
Other - “the social and psychological ways in which one group excludes or marginalizes another
group. By declaring someone ‘Other,’ persons tend to stress what makes them dissimilar from or
opposite of another, and this carries over into the way they represent others, especially through
stereotypes” (“Key Terms in Post-Colonial Theory,” n.d. para. 25. Retrieved from
http://www3.dbu.edu/mitchell/postcold.htm.)
Mimicry – it is when the dominated culture mimics the dominant culture.
Colonial Depersonalization – Western identity is defined by representation of the other.

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Definition of Magical Realism
Lois Parkinson Zamora and Wendy Faris define magical realism as a combination of
realism and the fantastic in such a way that magical elements grow organically out of the reality
portrayed. Although the term “magical realism” had existed in art criticism since 1925, it did not
receive much attention in the beginning due to the rise in popularity of New Objectivity and the
failure of magical realism to distinguish itself from other artistic movements at the time. A
simple discussion on aesthetics would not suffice, since the original concept of magical realism
had changed significantly over a period of eight years. Chapter Two will follow a specific
timeline set by Bowers (2004): “The first period is set in Germany in the 1920s, the second
period in Central America in the 1940s and the third period, beginning in 1955 in Latin America,
continues internationally to this day.” The key figures of the magical realist movement (Franz
Roh, Alejo Carpentier and Angel Flores) suggest a shift in emphasis in magical realism which
transitioned from the purely visual to the literary. Above all, it is important for the reader to
understand the relationship or dynamic between objects and the nature of representation, since
magical realism began in the visual medium of Expressionism.
So, what is an object in relation to art? An object is something that an artist can perceive:
a potted plant (Kanoldt’s “Still Life II”), a mandolin in the arms of a gypsy woman (Rousseau’s
“Gypsy Woman”) or even a group of rugby players in a scrum whose outline matches a spider
(Koch’s “Scrum IV”). In realism, objects represent only themselves; they may have symbolic,
psychological or metaphysical values, but they do not function in the same way as objects in
magical realism. Objects in magical realism represent themselves and also “the potential for
some kind of alternative reality” which emerges from the ordinary. “Scrum IV” is an excellent

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example of a magical realist painting: an object (men in a scrum) which inheres to the
marvellous (the outline of a spider). To quote Zamora: “the phases of all art can be distinguished
quite simply by means of the particular objects that artists perceive, among all the objects in the
world, thanks to an act of selection that is already an act of creation.” In Expressionism, there is
a preference for “fantastic, extraterrestrial, remote objects” which are found in the everyday but
investigated with “shocking exoticism.” Expressionist art contains exaggerated representations of
everyday objects to the effect of Cubism. On the subject of magical realism, German art critic
Franz Roh noticed the fantastic representations of objects at the start of the 20th century which
celebrated the mundane; this new style of painting inherited the techniques of Neo-Classicism
which depicted objects realistically but in new ways that “alienated the current idea of Realism.”
According to Georg Kremer, it is a central challenge to identify the boundaries of magical
realism which pertain to reality and fantasy. In painting, as in fiction, magical realism deals with
themes of isolation and alienation to bring out a sense of uncanny or Unheimlichkeit from the
real. (See Figure 1)

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Figure 1 Pyke Koch, "The Harvest," 1953 (http://www.ing.com/ING-in-Society/Art/Search-in-
Collection/Art-Display-On/The-Harvest.htm)

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Development and History of Magical Realism
In the West
Magical realism was conceived in the Germany, in 1924, by art critic Franz Roh to describe
the new trends in Expressionist art, but it was not until a year later when Roh published his book
Nach Expressionismus Magischer Realismus: Probleme der neusten europäischen Malerei
(Post-expressionism, Magic Realism: Problems of the Most Recent European Painting) that the
term “magical realism” was appropriated in German art criticism. The subjective nature of past
Expressionism, its emphasis on mood and color, and its distortion of reality, was negated by the
second-generation of German Expressionists who proposed a return to “artistic sobriety.” This
new art focused on objectivity and introduced “a new formal concept characterized by
frightening harshness, critical sobriety and a return to precise natural depictions.” Moreover, this
new art negated the tyrannical idealism which prevailed during the fourteen-year life of the
Weimar Republic; its artists, demoralized by Germany’s loss at World War I and the subsequent
revolution, began approaching their subjects with icy cynicism.
The year 1925 marked the death of Expressionism. Critics like Gustav Hartlaub and
Frank Roh engaged in discourse regarding the new trend in Post-Expressionist art which had
grown in prominence since 1921. During Roh’s visit to the Galerie Goltz, he noted that “the
works do not only have a high quality, but present the new European trend in painting in which
we are presently engaged: the trend toward a new objectivism, the rejection of all ... [those]
techniques which many contemporaries in the aftermath of Impressionism are still using.” This
artistic discourse resulted in the creation of two new strains of art criticism: Hartlaub’s Neue
Sachlichkeit or New Objectivity and Roh’s magical realism; from the outset, both Roh’s and

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Hartlaub’s criticisms “denoted the same mode of art that had come into being with demise of
Expressionism and the aftermath of World War I,” although they emphasised different aspects of
this new art.
While Roh’s magical realism initially focused on the stylistic element of painting,
Hartlaub’s New Objectivity delved deeper into its socio-political aspect in which he classified
certain artists as members of the right or left wing. The right wing artists had adopted the
conservative, formal style of Neo-Classicism to expose the eccentricity and chaos of
Expressionism. The left wing artists did not confine themselves to the Classicist style but were
more contemporary in their approach. (See Figure 2) The former tended “slightly towards
sentimentality, idyllic escapism...” or in the more conservative vein “...invoked clear, timeless
Classicism.” The latter, termed Verists, tended towards a more rigid representation of reality.
New Objectivity as a mode of art criticism eclipsed magical realism and garnered more
attention following Hartlaub’s Neue Sachlichkeit exhibition in 1925 which featured artists whose
works “have remained true or returned to a positive, palpable reality” by eliminating “the
impressionistically vague and the expressionistically abstract.” The painters in Hartlaub’s Neue
Sachlichkeit exhibit included Otto Dix, Marx Ernst, Alexander Kanoldt, George Grosz, Georg
Schimpf and eleven others that were also mentioned in Roh’s Nach-Expressionismus, Magischer
Realismus: Probleme der neusten Europaischen Malerei.
Magical realist paintings were produced during the years 1919 to 1923 in Weimar
Germany, in a time of “political fragility.” Following Germany’s defeat in World War I and the
Russian Revolution in the year 1917, groups of artists were formed all over the country. In the
preface of German Expressionism 1919-1925 – The Second Generation, Earl Powell III wrote:

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“Though short-lived, these groups represent an important chapter in the history of modern
German art… instead of ending with the war, the Expressionist period continued well into the
1920s with a vigorous second-generation.”

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Figure 2 George Grosz, "Gray Day,"1921 (http://www.paulgormanis.com/wp-
content/uploads/2014/12/George-Grosz-the-gray-day-1921-big.jpg)

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In tracing the origins of magical realism in Germany, it is with great importance that the
history of “political violence” and “extreme economic difficulty” in Weimar, Germany, during
the early 1900’s is addressed as these external forces factor into the creation of magical realist
paintings. According to Roh, “... [magical realists] searched for ‘soberness’ and ‘freedom from
all sentimentality’”. (See Figure 3) These concepts of German Post-Expressionism rallied against
the “…heated color palette, Utopian message and shattering disillusionment…” of
Expressionism.
Max Ernst, who was among the painters listed in Neue Sachlichkeit, had been classified
as a left wing artist. His style was profoundly influenced by the Italian Giorgio de Chirico whose
paintings were labelled as the precursor of magical realism. However, de Chirico’s paintings also
inspired the Surrealist movement which was quite popular among artists in France. According to
Irene Guenther:
The arte metafisica (metaphysical art) of de Chirico and Carrà greatly influenced German
artists like Max Ernst, George Grosz, and Anton Räderscheidt. De Chirico exhibited in
Italy for the first time in 1919. Already by the end of that year, Max Ernst had seen
reproductions of the Italian’s works at Galerie Goltz in Munich, which had a copy of the
journal Valori Plastici.
Despite its pictorial origin, Roh’s magical realism entered Latin American literary
criticism in the 1950’s when his essay was translated into Spanish and published by José Ortega
y Gasset’s Revista de Occidente in 1927. From its European formulation, Alejo Carpentier
argued that magical realism was uniquely American in that it ” ...[did] not imply a conscious
assault on conventionally depicted reality but, rather, an amplification of perceived reality

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required by and inherent in Latin American nature and culture.” In two essays published in 1949
and in 1975, Carpentier called this strictly American form of magical realism, lo real
maravilloso americano, which differed in spirit and in practice from European Surrealism.
Carpentier posited that Latin American literature contained a natural affinity between the real
and the imaginary. Carpentier’s essay, which served to preface his first novel, El reino de este
mundo (The Kingdom of this World, 1949), had claimed that the magical and the realistic were
not recent inventions but had existed earlier as facets of Latin American literature which, since
Gasset’s translation of Roh’s 1925 essay, enabled Latin American writers to see critically into
their own works. Carpentier stated:
I saw the possibility of establishing certain synchronisms, American, recurrent, timeless,
relating this to that, yesterday to today. I saw the possibility of bringing to our own
latitudes certain European truths, reversing those who travel against the sun and would
take our truths to a place where, just thirty years ago, there was no capacity to understand
or measure those truths in their real dimensions.

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Figure 3 Alexander Kanoldt, "Still Life II," 1922
(https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Alexander_Kanoldt_Still_Life_II.jpg)

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Angel Flores has stated that the thematic and geographical approach towards Spanish
American literature typically undermines the stylistic component in all stories written by Spanish
Americans; and that, in relating the novel to history or to ecology, the focus no longer centers on
plot but on the novel’s chronology which the author may not have intended (“novel of Colonial
period” or “novel period of Independence,” and so on). Flores has cited Echeverria, who is
known outside of Latin America as a “Romantic poet,” but whose novel El Matadero (The
Slaughterhouse) was a “precursory masterpiece of Naturalism;” “Romantic”, “Realistic”,
“Naturalistic”, mislabels such as these plagued the novels of Rómulo Gallegos and José Eustasio
Rivera. Moreover, Flores paints Spanish American fiction in the same shade as Carpentier’s lo
real maravilloso americano in that he says: “Romanticism and Realism seem bound together in
one afflatus. ‘Costumbrismo’ [‘local color realism’], flowering constantly in Spain as in Latin
America, reveals over and again the mixture of romantic-realist elements.” This oscillation
between Romanticism and Realism, macho and feminine, the fantastic and the real, Flores posits,
is rooted in the great Spanish tradition of painting and writing which dated years before
Fernando de Rojas, Lope, Quevedo El Greco, Cervantes, Goya, Pérez Galdós were made
conscious of magical realism. The words “ambivalence” and “ambiguity” are used by Flores
throughout his essay to describe the creative tendencies of these artists.
Critics argue that Arturo Uslar-Pietri, a Venetian writer, is responsible for exporting
magical realism to Latin America before Alejo Carpentier. Uslar-Pietri’s short stories in the
1930s were more faithful to Franz Roh’s original idea of magical realism than to Carpentier’s lo
real maravilloso americano. By then Roh had disassociated himself with magical realism and
changed the heading of Nachexpressionismus [sic] with Neue Sachlichkeit in recognition that
magical realism had been eclipsed by Hartlaub’s New Objectivity. Franz Roh departed from

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magical realism in 1958 with his publication of Geschichte der Deutschen Kunst von 1900 bis
zur Gegenwart or German Art in the Twentieth Century which contained a short version of his
list of characteristics of magical realism published in 1925:
Expressionism New Objectivity
1. Ecstatic subjects Sober subjects
2. Suppression of the object The object clarified
3. Rhythmical Representational
4. Extravagant Puristically severe
5. Dynamic Static
6. Loud Quiet
7. Summary Thorough
8. Close-up view Close and far view
9. Monumental Miniature
10. Warm (hot) Cold
11. Thick color texture Thin paint surface
12. Rough Smooth
13. Emphasis on visibility of painting
process
Effacement of the painting process
14. Centrifugal Centripetal
15. Expressive deformation External purification of object

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However, it is Alejo Carpentier’s version of magical realism that is most recognizable to
readers of contemporary Latin American fiction. His addition of culture and geography as key
elements of marvellous realism have outlasted Roh’s concept. Moreover, it is marvellous realism
that Gabriel Garcia Marquez cites as a major influence on his style of writing. The Columbian
Gabriel Garcia Marquez, also known as “Gabo”, is a prominent figure in Latin American
magical realism whose fiction mixed the imaginative and the real. His novel “One Hundred
Years of Solitude” is considered as a masterpiece of magical realism.
The Novel Prize winner, Gabriel Garcia Marquez, is widely considered as one of the
most significant writers of the twentieth-century. In an article published online in the New York
Times, Salman Rushdie praised Gabo for his massive contribution to the genre; Carlos Fuentes
added that “writers in Latin America can’t use the word ‘solitude’ any more [sic], because they
worry that people will think it’s a reference to Gabo...” Fuentes was Gabo’s contemporary during
the Latin American Boom period; he along with Julio Cortazar, Mario Vargas Llosa helped
shape the great Latin American novel. The novels published during the second half of the
twentieth century were characterized by their modernist nature which developed new means of
expression through narrative and novelistic experimentation. Although these novels are generally
considered “modernist novels,” some of them infringe on postmodernist territory employing
narrative techniques like the reversal of the reader’s expectations through the manipulation of
time and plot.
Gabriel Garcia Marquez did not use magical realism as a means to express “the abundant
mix of cultures that Carpentier saw in Cuba with his European Cuban perspective,” but as a
means to express his own cultural heritage using the oral storytelling techniques of his
grandmother. In other words, Marquez was rarely inspired by external influences but through

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actual experience crafted the mythical village of Macondo from his childhood memories of
Columbia which synthesized Carpentier’s marvellous realism.
Marquez’s literary attitude towards the common man and his relationship with mythic
stories can be traced back to the huge, supposedly haunted house owned by his grandparents, in
Aracataca, where Marquez spent his childhood years. The young Marquez lived in the coastal
region of Columbia which had a vital mix of African and Hispanic cultures. Raymond L.
Williams viewed it as “the perfect physical setting for magical realism,” but the Columbians
viewed it as a distinct and exotic part of the nation. Aracataca became the basis for Marquez’s
creation of Macondo and its characters. According to Bowers, Gabriel Garcia Marquez utilizes
three sources of magical realism in his novel “One Hundred Years of Solitude”: “a confusion of
time scales that suggest mythic time; a mixture of superstition, gossip and exaggeration; and the
shock of the new. The first type of magical realism includes characters who live beyond their
usual lifespan; the second type includes occasions when characters fear their children will be
born with pig tails, as a result of incest, when an entire town becomes insomniac and is saved by
a magic potion by the enigmatic gypsy Melquiades and when it rains continuously for years on
end.” The third source of magic realism comes in the form of Jose Arcadio Buendia’s excitement
over seeing the scientific inventions brought to Macondo by Melquiades. The writings of
Marquez present a vivid sense of nostalgia because of his clear, detailed prose.

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In the Philippines
An examination of Philippine history from pre-colonial times is essential in tracing the
development of Philippine literature and its involvement in Philippine magical realist texts.
1524 was identified as the start of Philippine history. The date was disproved by the
discovery of the Tabon Man in Palawan in 1962 which suggested pre-colonial history dating
50,000 years ago. Co-authors Bienvenido Lumbrera and Cynthia Lumbrera stated:
From accounts by chroniclers writing during the early years of the Spanish conquest, we
learn that the early Filipinos lived in villages frequently found along sea coasts, and river
backs, close to major sources of food and the most convenient transportation routes. They
were fishermen, jungle farmers and hunters, a folk versatile at finding their livelihood
where they could.
The “Beyer Wave Migration Theory,” which proposed that an ethnic migration was
responsible for the physical endowments of the Filipinos, proved problematic. H. Otley Beyer
considered any sort of connection between races, using the stone sites in Novaliches to form the
base of his argument. William Henry Scott, a leading figure in Philippine anthropology,
indicated: “during the next twenty years, [Beyer] assigned every bone and artifact to one of the
waves, and placed the waves [chronically] from primitive to advance.” Being the first of its kind,
“The Beyer Wave Migration Theory” was thereby dismissed after forty years of research in the
field of geology, linguistics, and archaeology due to lack of evidence and misinformation. New
research claimed that the Austronesian race varied in physical appearance even before the
supposed arrival of the Mongoloids 5,000 years ago. Studies on this matter pointed to nutrition
and physical activity which brought about the modern Filipino.

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Language is the result of two “speech communities” meeting one another. Speech
communities undergo a series of linguistic transformations until the mode of communication
results in a common language. The language of the Ilonggo functions as two dialects: Hiligaynon
and Kinaray-a. As a result of that transaction, these communities will use the same word but
differ in meaning. This is evident among Visayan cultures.
For instance, the word karon is both used in the Cebuano dialect of the Visayan language
and the Hiligaynon dialect of the Ilonggo language. In Cebuano, karon means “now,” but in
Ilonggo, karon means “later.” It therefore follows that the phrase “karon na”— na signifying
immediacy— may mean “now” or “later” depending on the speaker.
The early Filipino settlers took refuge in Northern Luzon and in the Negros Islands. It is
for a fact that the Negritos have cultivated the island for hundreds of years. The Negritos are an
ethnic group in the Philippines who occupy most rural areas of the country and are characterized
by their dark skin and bushy hair. Being the earliest settlers, the Negritos are directly responsible
for the beliefs and practices of the Filipinos. Although their body of works are limited, the
Negrito’s ability to journalize an experience is proof of their intelligence. Philippine literature
started with them.
The Negritos wrote on tree barks, bamboos, and palm leaves. They articulated themselves
through poetry, music, dance and storytelling which were preserved years later through
newfound methods of writing and word-of-mouth. Their stories and poems are filled with
images of nature and magic (diwatas, aswang and other phenomena).
The Negritos have succeeded in various aspects of life. Within their structured
communities, they have learned to live by means of hunting and fishing. They are quick to

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master neighboring languages which enables interaction between them and the lowlanders. In A
Primer on the Negrito of the Philippines, Fox writes: “Another characteristic of Negrito life, a
characteristic which strikingly demarcates them from the surrounding Christian lowlanders, is
their inexhaustible knowledge of the plant and animal kingdom.” In other words, the Negritos
worshipped nature. They believed that anitos (spirits) inhabited the forest and performed pagan
rituals as they saw fit. The Negritos were known to act upon the changes in nature: strong wind,
rain and so on. For these reasons, folk literature was invented. Dr Damania Eugenio, a Filipino
folklorist, had divided folk literature into three separate categories:
Folk Narratives
Stories were handed down from generation to generation using primitive methods. The
Negritos mostly engaged in oral literature, though writing was also practiced using leaves, tree
barks and stone slabs. Whether it was to preserve their beliefs or to address other Negritos, the
frequent interaction between Negritos resulted in the creation of the folk narrative.
Folk narratives consisted of origin myths, hero tales, fables, and legends. Ownership of
folk narratives was communal which meant that everyone in the community had the right to tell
the stories in their own way. The individual was permitted to act out or receive the folk narrative
as it were “…expressive of his own beliefs, attitudes, and emotions.” Apart from the baybayin or
badlit as it was known in Visayas, the Negritos utilized a native syllabary exclusive to their
community. The Negrito’s syllabary consisted of three vowels and fourteen consonants.
Plot, setting, and character made up the narrative. The intrusion of fantastic elements had
distinguished folk narratives from other narratives. Fables (“The Monkey Who Became a

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Servant”, “The Monkey Prince”, “The Monkey and the Crocodile”) belonged to folk narrative.
Myths (“The Two Woodcutters and the Elf”) and legends (“Why Dogs Bare Their Teeth”, “The
Origin of Bananas”) fell under the same category. In “A Brief History of Philippine Literature,”
Teofilo Tuazon had stated:
The written literature of the Filipinos is only about four hundred years old, a very short
period to that of many other countries, or when compared to the length of time our
ancestors have lived in these islands. Various causes are responsible for the brevity of its
history; but the chief contributing factor to this unfortunate condition was the destruction
of our written narrative literature.
Only a few of these written narratives survived during the Spanish era. Some were
destroyed during the start of the Spanish occupation.
Folk Speech
Folk speeches are composed of bugtong (riddles) and salawikain (proverbs). Every ethnic
group has its own riddle and proverb that can only be understood in the context of said group.
Folk speeches are accountable for the formation of Philippine ethics. In bugtong, the thinking
game relies on two essential components: wit and logic. The speaker tells the riddle. Through a
series of inquiries, the listener guesses the object of the riddle. Here are examples taken from
“Philippine Literature: History and Anthropology”:

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AETA
Wearing a crown but not a queen,
Wearing scales but not a fish.
(Pineapple)
BAGOBO
Guess what it is:
Baby in Maguindanao
Heard as far sa Saysay
When it squalls.
(Gong)
ISNEG
On Iggat’s thigh,
Everything is in a rush.
(Honey in a hive)
SUBANON
Apu’s waist band
That no one might borrow
(Python)

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TAGBANWA
A big house
Surrounded by many windows.
(Fishing net)
The bugtong is an exercise on imagery. Meaning or talinghaga (analogue, metaphor,
figure) arises from a juxtaposition of two unlikely images. The Bagobos have added two new
stanzas to the original structure which stands in contrast to the bugtong’s conventional two-
stanza structure.
This makes the bugtong a unique style where defamiliarization is key. This trait may
have been developed from the needs and beliefs of the pre-colonial communities in the
Philippines. Daily life consisted of looping routines and roundabout labor, and as such
the bugtong served as a way of reminding the community of the richness of their lifestyle.
Folk Songs
Singing is a Filipino pastime. The Negritos enjoy singing as much as the lowlanders. In
ethnic cultures, singing serves both a ritualistic purpose and a secular purpose. On occasion,
these folk songs are accompanied by bamboo guitars, flutes, and crude harps depending on the
tribe. Music is a big part of Negrito life. It is used for courtship among other things. The aliri in
Northern Luzon is a good example. Unlike the harana, in which the male suitor is the one
singing, the aliri requires both man and woman to sing. The difference between aliri and the
newer mode of kundiman is the former’s dynamic lyricism. Both man and woman must retain the

27
last lyric of either partner in a series of melodic exchanges. It is sung until such time that the
woman falls in love with the man. Every song has a specific function in rural communities.
Corazon Canave-Dioquino elaborates:
Vocal genres include epics relating genealogies and exploits of heroes and gods; work
songs related to planting, harvesting, fishing; ritual songs to drive away evil spirits or to
invoke blessings from the good spirits; songs to celebrate festive occasions particularly
marriage, birth, victory at war, or the settling of tribal disputes; mourning songs for the
dead; courting songs; and children's game songs.
The rural peoples shared a sense of aestheticism with the lowlanders as evidenced by the
existence of folk narratives, folk speeches and folk songs in their communities. The syllabary,
which was their most valuable contributions to Philippine culture, fell into misuse among the
Christianized Filipinos, who constituted the majority of the population. The early Filipinos failed
to keep record of their oral lore and, according to Lumbrera, fewer of them could decipher what
has been record. Furthermore, the delicate materials on which they wrote were destroyed by
Spanish missionaries in the course of converting the rural peoples.
The Spanish colonizers maintained control over the general affairs in the Philippines—
from economic to political to military decisions, even after the country was turned over to the
American regime. This accelerated the Americanization of the intellectual Filipino. Through the
Fulbright program, the Spanish system of education was overhauled and patented after the
curriculum of the United States of America which exposed artists to the trending styles of
writing available to the entire Western hemisphere. Furthermore, the Philippine Free Press and

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Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards provided avenues for Filipino artist to showcase their
writings.
Philippine folklore and Christian myths continue to commingle with the predominant
style of writing like Realism, despite the strong presence of Western influences in Filipino
writing. (Cavile 2) An example of this is The Mass of Saint Sylvestre by Nick Joaquin; here, the
protagonist, Mateo the Maestro, witnesses a sacred mass hosted by celestial beings to lengthen
his mortal years but is turned to stone by Saint Sylvestre’s glare. It is written in English, the
language of the colonizer, and “in the mode of realism that is a European import.” (Faris 104-
105)
April Ann Cavile considered National artist Nick Joaquin and Wilfrido Nolledo as writers
of the genre. Cavile claimed that the lack of studies on Philippine magical realism and serious
interest in that field discredits the claims made on behalf of these two artists and by Nick Joaquin
himself who, in his 1996 Ramon Magsaysay Awardee’s lecture, revealed that his stories
contained magical realist elements even before Latin America popularized the term (Joaquin,
1996).
Cavile’s contention is that Nick Joaquin’s early stories antedated the publication of
Carpentier’s lo real maravilloso americano which popularized the form. In a footnote by Cristina
Pontoja-Hidalgo, Dr. Priscelina Legasto claimed that magical realism was introduced around the
late 1970s and 1980s in the political science classes of Professor Ed Garcia, but even assuming
that the Philippine literati had read these texts at the time, Joaquin’s stories were published
during the Commonwealth period, before the Latin American writers were published in
Barcelona and before their works were translated into English. Furthermore, the term “magic

29
realism” was supposedly applied by Nick Joaquin before Carpentier, to describe his new
journalism. Dr. Cesar Ruiz Aquino (Cavile, 2012) stated that Joaquin’s usage of the term magic
realism before the Boom indicated that he wrote unconsciously in that mode.
Solidad Reyes suggested that the mixture of “serious devotion and farce” reflected the
transgressive qualities of Filipino popular culture, its rites, rituals and practices such as
penetencia. This quality is demonstrated in Filipino komiks which resemble the marvellous
realism of Latin America in that the excessive elements of fantastic narrative are naturalized.
However, it is problematic to conclude that early Filipino komiks were written in the mode of
magical realism. The problem is explained by Hidalgo:
This isolation of the literature written in English from other Philippine literatures in our
literary criticism tends to reinforce the notion that it has developed in an altogether
different way, and was subject to different influences...
In addition to that, Hidalgo categorized novels Great Philippine Jungle Energy Cafe by
Alfred Yuson, Firewalkers by Erwin Castillo, which employed narrative techniques of
modernism and postmodernism and ancient myths and heroic legends in the mode of realism, not
as fantasy but as history, not defined by the colonial master, but by the Filipinos themselves
whose narration of history is accentuated by exaggeration and fabrication. Hidalgo called it
“Pinoy marvellous realism” which is certainly different from the magical realism of Marquez in
that the novel Firewalkers uses the marginalized people under the army of occupation, historical
details with myths and legends to create an alternate account of history.

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Characteristics of Magical Realism
The five characteristics of magical realism listed below were taken from Wendy Faris’ essay
entitled Scheherazade’s Children: Magical Realism and Postmodern Fiction.
Irreducible Element
The irreducible element is that which cannot be explained according to the laws of the
universe. Faris states that in the case of magical realism, the magic really does happen. As in the
novel One Hundred Years of Solitude, where the death of Colonel Buendia is telegraphed by a
pool of blood traveling to his mother’s house, the metaphor calls attention to itself. There is a
disruption of the ordinary logic of cause and effect. Faris mentions Grenouille from the novel
Perfume: The Story of a Murderer who is an exceptional perfumer. “Grenouille’s perfuming
abilities and the uncannily entrancing scent he manufactures for himself are magical, but the
mass hysteria that they engender and that tears him literally limb from limb and devours him at
the end of the novel is real, and all-too-familiar as an analogue for the atrocities of persecution
and scapegoating in recent history.”
Presence of Phenomenal World
There are two elements that distinguish magical realism from fantasy: the author’s
attention to sensory detail as a continuation and renewal of the realistic tradition; and the
author’s rendition of magical events as a departure from that tradition. In magical realist stories,
the reader witnesses an idiosyncratic recreation of historical events grounded in historical
realities, oftentimes in alternate versions of historical accounts. Faris explains that the

31
combination of mystic truths and historical events are part of mankind’s collective memory “thus
these histories include magic and folk wisdom.”
Unsettling Doubts in the Reader
There are various reasons as to why readers will hesitate between two contradictory
understandings of events. According to Faris, “some readers in some cultures will hesitate less
than others…. The reader’s primary doubt is between understanding an event as a character’s
hallucination or as a miracle.” It follows that for every reader there is different response
depending on the reader’s cultural background and on the story itself, since some stories are
better at easing the reader into the world.
Merging of Two Worlds
In magical realism, the real and the imaginary are constantly interacting. As a result, the
line between these two worlds is blurred and the reader does not experience either world fully. It
is the space in-between fact and fiction that magical realism fully exists.
Disturbance of Time, Space and Identity
Magical realist works aims to reintroduce time, space and identity. In One Hundred Years
of Solitude, there is a room in which “it is always March and always Monday.” Here our sense of
time is disrupted. At the end of Distant Relations, our sense of space is disrupted “when tropical
plants grow over the Paris automobile club’s pool…” because it brings into question why
tropical plants should grow in Paris. Also, in That Voice, where the identity of the voice is never
revealed, the integrity of the narrator is questioned by the reader.

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RELATED STUDIES
Folk Beliefs and Customs
The folk and, generally speaking, peoples who have not yet passed the threshold of what
is known as civilization, seems to have a keener eye, ear and feel for these objective-
subjctive [sic] aspects of human and cosmic life. It seems that sophisticated man loses
much of the ability to thrill at the sight of a star-studded sky, or be transported by the
glory of a rainbow or the sunset, or be frightened at the roar of the thunder and the
lightning flash. Is it when man “grows up” he pays a price for this growth; that he
becomes sometimes impervious to another side of reality... (Radaza 1970, xxviii)
The early Filipinos structured their beliefs in accordance with their respective
communities. Their belief-systems contained practices relating to supernatural entities such as
the diwata and the anito. According to Fernando Blumintritt, the “continual invocation and
adoration of the anitos, the souls or spirits of their ancestors” was basis for the primitive Tagalog
religion. (Hislop 1) Additionally, the term anito, which originally meant “ancestral spirit,” was
recognized throughout the Philippines by its general definition, “spirit.”
Hislop explained that the worship of ancestral spirits among the Filipinos was
significantly influenced by Chinese religion, whereas the worship of mountains, rivers and
forests was incorporated into the Chinese religion by the Chinese emperor, in 1375, during the
height of friendly relations between the Filipinos and the Chinese. Other than that, the Filipino
religion was, as stated by Blumitritt, “sufficiently diverse from Chinese religion...”
Anitos were known to cause illness, misfortune and other times, death. To keep on good
terms with them, the Filipinos held feasts in their honor. As animists, the Filipinos observed

33
slight changes in their environment— “a snake or lizard that ‘spoke to’ somebody descending the
house steps...” or the call of a turtledove with green and white plumages known locally as
limokon, foretold catastrophe. A babaylan or diviner used information gathered from rocks,
rivers and other natural sources to foresee changes in weather and occasionally, to ask the diwata
for answers. The notion of sacred and secular life did not in rural cultures, before the Spanish
advent. “Religion is intermingled in every action in an attempt, by ritualistic observance, to bring
life into conformity with the mysterious world of spirits who infuse matter and events and
determine man’s fate.” (qtd. in Ramos 178)
According to Hislop, Spanish missionaries saw Filipinos as pagans because they
worshiped without temples or organized priesthood, honored no founder, used no scriptures.
Anito-worship was entirely confined to one’s home. Although they had buildings called
simbahan for community worship, the purpose for their construction was due to the people’s
desire to celebrate the festival called pandot which was formerly held in the large house of a
chief. (Hislop 1971, 147-150) Though native priesthood was not well organized as in the
Catholic religion, it was a functioning part of primitive Filipino society. Part of their duty was to
determine which anitos had to be placated and how to do this.
The word diwata did not originate in the Philippines since its origin could be traced back
to India and further down to Greece. The word was most recognized in the southern part of the
Philippines, by the Cebuanos, the Bisayans, the Bataks of Palawan, Manobos, Subanos,
Tinurays, Maguindanaos, Magahats and men of Bukidnon, but there was no fixed definition of
the word. For instance, the diwata were believed by the people of Bukidnon to be men of heaven,
but to the Tinurays, the diwata was a great eight-headed fish.

34
Some gods belonged to a genuine pantheon, had specific roles, in connection with birth,
longevity, death, and the afterlife. Others acted as patrons of specific human conditions: The
name of Dalikmata was invoked in the case of eye ailments; the image of the holy child, which
Magellan gifted to Humabon’s wife, was referred to as the “Spaniards’ diwata” and was
supposedly immersed in water, during seasons of drought. (Scott 1994, 79) They also believed
that animals and objects were possessed by spirits; objects were shaped into idols, which they
believed were responsible for giving rain, making rice grow and improving the quality of rice,
and through them the Filipinos prayed for protection in their tribulations; this ancient practice
would reappear in the converted Filipinos as a devotion to the santos. (See Figure 1)
Ancient beliefs and practices persist to this day in Philippine Catholicism as evidenced by
the continued practice of honoring one’s ancestors. Another example is the fisherman who goes
out to sea during All Souls’ Day, expecting a large catch with the help of his ancestors. Even in
converted societies, rather than worshipping the Judaeo-Christian God, rural Filipinos regress to
the pagan attitude of paying respects to the inhabitants of the spirit-world. They are more
inclined to ask something from higher power than to devote their lives to unselfish service.
The Dictionary of Philippine folk beliefs and customs by Francisco Demetrio y Radaza
gives insight into man’s motivation for belief. He begins by discussing the word tuo which in
Cebuano means “to believe.” Tuo-tuo, a reduplication of the word tuo, means “to spread
superstition; or to pretend.” The most important of all is the word pagtuo which is defined as
“pagkalawat sa pagkamo kun pagkadiha sa butang”; in English, it means “to accept the
existence or situation of a thing.”

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Figure 1 Bullit Marquez, "Ritual Atonement," 2012 (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/04/05/christians-in-
philippines_n_1405551.html#gallery/218972/6)

36
The act of believing involves not only cognition but also volition; in order to align one’s
mind with that of another, one must first know what he must positively bring his own
mind to concur or agree with it. (Radaza 1970, iv)
Radaza stated that on the basis of his study of definitions, Filipino superstitions ranged
from trivial to unreal. Of the trivial, he mentioned the belief that if a man should hear a knock on
his door, at night, he should wait until his name is called and only then may he say, “Yes, I’m
coming,” because his visitor may be an evil spirit. Of the unreal, he mentioned the belief that at
midnight on Holy Friday the bells of a belfry become soft and that whoever bites off a piece and
swallows it will possess the power to jump the height or the distance of ten feet.
Relative to the terms tuo, tuo-tuo and pagtuo are the terms tilimad-on, panglihi or lihi
and tigal-i or patig-ali. Tilimad-on is defined as “ilhanan sa panahon” or “sign of the times.” It
is a sign from an event (“if an old man dies and simultaneously also a child dies, the soul of the
old man is in a happy state because he is accompanied by the soul of a child.”) or an object (“a
mole under the eye, a rather large ear which is a sign of longevity, the smell of candle burning”)
which may turn out favorable or unfavorable. Panglihi, as described in Dictionary of Philippine
Folk Beliefs and Customs, may relate to the four instances listed below:
1. Ang mabdos nga nihigugma sa bisan unsang butanga ang holma nianang
butanga makita sa lawas sa bata ng mahimugso. Lihi as “a visible mark upon the
baby’s body resembling the object of the mother’s fancy.” The author related this to
the account of a Caucasian missionary who claimed that pregnant women stared at
him during mass in the hope that their children might inherit his blonde hair, long

37
nose, etc. In other words, malihi-an. This, according to him, was precisely how
blonde hair on Filipino children came to be.
2. Mahitungod sa mga buluhaton sa pagtanom sa bisan unsang tanoma sa adlaw sa
mga santos ug sa mga kalag (November 1 and 2). Lihi as “observances for planting
on the feasts of All Saints and All Souls...” This instructs the planter to take 3 strands
of hair, 9 pieces of small hot pepper and 9 pieces of shells and bury them together
with the roots that he may wish to plant; recite “Hail Mary, full of grace.” (Neither
Radaza nor the book’s informant specifies the punishment, if the planter does not
follow these instructions.)
3. Sa Semana-Santa, labi na gayud sa Hueves Santo, Viernes Santos ug Sabado
Santo mao kini’y mga adlaw nga iglilihi, ug angay nga magtrabaho. Lihi as
abstention from heavy physical work during Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and
Holy Saturday as these are “holy days of obligation.”
4. Ang pagdalit sa bag-ong abut sa mga namuyo sa yuta nga dili ingon nato sa
panahon sa unang pagani sa humay o sa mais, ingon man usab ang dili pagkaon
nianang unang abut sa wala mahimo kining pagdalit. Lihi as prohibition from
eating the harvest after the sacrifice has been made.
Radaza stated: “The purpose of the injunction or prohibition (whether this be stated
explicitly or only implicitly) is always the acquisition of some good and/or the avoidance of
some evil.”
There are two types of tigal-i; the first relates to an object used, act or gesture done, with
the intention of achieving a desired end (i.e., placing a cross in the middle of a rice field and
pouring wine or tuba on the ground as offering to the apo before one starts planting); the second

38
relates to the warding or dispelling of evil effects, either through sumpa (ritual) or through
sagang or panagang— an object to ward off evil spirits.
As I have mentioned earlier, the presence of malignant spirits can cause sickness. One
method of curing the sick is “to appease the evil spirits by entertaining them with tuba, tobacco,
one or two cooked eggs, white or black chicken, etc., after verbally supplicating them.” As
panagang, one may place a knife under a child on its first bath to drive away evil spirits, or bathe
only on Good Friday by rubbing vinegar on one’s wrists, ankles and kneecaps in the figure of a
cross to protect oneself from the evil effects of bathing.

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Creatures of Philippine Lower Mythology
Myths play a significant role in rural and urban societies in the Philippines: the belief that
rice spoils overnight because it was touched by a kapre; that winning the favor of elves and
duendes may lead to a better harvest; that placing a mermaid’s hair in a bamboo trap will cause
many fish to enter it may sound silly to the “modern sophisticated man.” However, to many
Filipinos, myths are a part of everyday life. Maximo Ramos proposed this structure in his book
to categorize the massive cast of creatures throughout Philippine lower mythology:
1. Demons 5. Ghouls 9. Vampires
2. Dragons 6. Giants 10 Viscera-Suckers
3. Dwarfs 7. Merfolk 11. Werewolves
4. Elves 8. Ogres 12. Witches
The lesser creatures, which I have chosen for my short stories, come from 1, 3, 7 and 12:
specifically, the duende, the kapre, the tikbalang, the sirena and the mangkukulam.

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Duende
As a dwarf, the duendes are small and playful creatures that bring good fortune or bad
luck to whoever they come in contact with. Duendes live in anthills or dirt mounds. They can be
wrathful to humans who disrespect them by pointing, behaving rudely in their presence or
leaving trash near their houses. Any bit of knowledge would tell us that accidentally stepping on
an anthill could cause serious illnesses. Once, a two year-old girl was touched by a duende, and it
left a red mark on her side called kiliti (the dwarf’s tickle). Duendes are known to hide important
things from humans like necklaces and watches until such time that they decide to give it back.
They are easily jealous creatures. The extent of their jealousy ranges from stealing trivial items
to making food fall off the table. The former explains why we can’t find things most of the time
or at all. Duendes are known by many names. Nuno sa Punso (old man in the termite mound) or
Nuno is perhaps the most depicted. These creatures have the appearance of an old man with a
long white beard, having one eye and one nostril. They wear a red cap which renders them
invisible. Duendes show themselves only to those they favor.
One respondent from Iloilo claimed to see a family of duendes when he was about ten
years old. They inhabited the mango tree in his front yard which coincidentally grew on the day
of his birth. One night, as he was sleeping on his bed, a small hand tapped him on the leg. When
he awoke, he saw a duende standing near his bed. The duende invited him to enter the mango
tree in his front yard and he accepted. My respondent then claimed to enter the realm of the
duendes where he was treated as guest. In another story, a well-known restaurant in Iloilo called
“Tatoy’s Manokan” is supposedly inhabited by a clan of duendes whose kubo is located at the
front of the restaurant. (See Figure 2)

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Figure 4 "In front of the duende's hut," January 1, 2016

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Kapre
The kapre is a tree demon, resembling a tall, dark man in a loincloth. This creature can be
found living atop big trees like the balete, santol, tamarind and duhat. They are habitual
smokers, fashioning pipes from legs of banana trees. The scent of their cigars is said to lure
humans into their domain. Once there, the tree demon is free to do whatever. As a demon, he has
the ability to grow and shrink and assume many forms. The kapre’s leg can grow to the size of a
tree; his eyes are the size of two plates. He can misdirect humans, lead them astray and make
familiar ground seem unfamiliar. There are different types of kapre depending on region.
Maximo Ramos elaborates:
Typical of the kapre type, the bawo and ungo of the Eastern Visayas sat in large trees to
“smoke the biggest pipes.” Their Iloko counterpart was more frugal and did not sport a
pipe but made fuller use of the abundance of tobacco in his region, smoking “a roll of
tobacco big as a banana trunk with smoke coming out from it thick as a chimney.” The
Zambales kapre was “most often seen sitting on a large branch and smoking a cigar as
large as a man’s thigh.”
Numerous online sources describe the kapre as a creature who scares children. But then
one source suggests that he is especially fond of children. This complicates the author’s claim
that the kapre is generally neutral. When passing by a large tree, one should always say the
phrase, “tabi tabi po” as a form of respect to the kapre who may be living in the tree.
One respondent from Dumaguete claimed to have been at the center of a strange love
triangle between a ghost-woman and a kapre who occupied a mango tree outside his boarding
house. At night the jealous kapre would appear at his door and shake his bed when he was

43
asleep. Confused, the man left his boarding house and contacted a medium who told him that the
mysterious phenomenon was caused by a jealous kapre who did not approve of the relationship
between him and the ghost-woman who supposedly lived in his room.
Tikbalang
The tikbalang is a demon with the head of a horse and the body of a human. The
tikbalang can be male or female. When it rains and the sun is out, it is believed that two
tikbalangs are being wed. In general, the tikbalang enjoys luring humans into the forest and
abducting attractive men and women from villages. It can take the form of a handsome man or
woman. Male tikbalangs are known to rape women in nearby villages. If a woman is raped by a
male tikbalang and becomes pregnant, her child will become a tikbalang. In a news story
reported by ABS CBN, a woman in Infanta, Quezon claimed that a male tikbalang courted her
when she was thirty years old. (ABS-CBN News. [2014, January 1]. Woman got pregnant by a
‘tikbalang’? [Video File]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hyy7yBc6wxM)
The tikbalang is known to carry a magic charm known as mutya which grants its users
incredible power. One method of obtaining the mutya is to climb on back of a tikbalang and ride
it until it tires. Afterwards, if the man survives, the mutya will be presented to him and he will
have the tikbalang’s loyalty.
Sirena
The Spanish loan-word sirena is the name generally given to Philippine mermaids,
although strictly speaking, the sirens of classical mythology were man-eating monsters
disguised as pretty maidens with enchanting voices.

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The sirena and the European mermaid are essentially similar in that they resemble
beautiful maidens “with the head and upper body of female human and the tail of a fish.” Both of
them live in streams, ponds and lakes. “They are known to fall in love with humans and marry
them.” This is famously depicted in the Disney animated movie, The Little Mermaid.
Mangkukulam
Belief in witches exists in all lands, from earliest times to the present day. The wise
woman and the medicine man of primitive societies, the learned pagan priestess, the
divinities of early religions became through the influence of Christianity or the
modification of folk tradition, the malignant, accursed witches and sorcerers of the
Middle Ages and later folk belief.
The mangkukulam is a witch native to the Iloko, Pampango and Tagalog speaking
cultures as well as others, who uses black magic to inflict curses upon people. The mangkukulam
is not to be confused with the aswang who possesses the powers of transformation. According to
Ramos, there is a good way to tell if person is a mangkukulam: look into their eyes. If the image
is inverted, it means that they practice maleficum or the working of evil— a noticeable feature of
the mangkukulam. Like the tikbalang, the mangkukulam may resemble a male or female human;
“usually sickly-looking and with reddish eyes,” the mangkukulam is particularly active during
what is called the “witching hour” which begins at moonrise or moonset. In describing witches,
Lynch stated:
[By day witches] ...shun the informal social gatherings held in the neighborhood, such as
the women’s group at the river, come together for washing, bathing and exchanging, or
the men’s usual gathering at some favourite store or barbershop.

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However, it is said that witches are “amiable” to those who befriend him. They do not ask
for advice from ordinary people and perform manual work by themselves. To conceal their
identities, “witches attend mass every day and even receive communion.”
According to Nunez, the mangkukulam can cause “great headaches,” “aches in other parts
of the body,” “boils or internal tumors,” “swellings on the head or in any other place...” with the
use of dolls and pins which she keeps in an abubut or rattan basket. This bears a resemblance to
the voodoo tradition of the Haitian people originating in Africa where the variations of the
voodoo tradition are said to originate; “the services of a witch-doctor in possession of the
necessary anting-anting” (the sagang) is said to cure one who come under the spell of a
mangkukulam.” (Ramos, 1971) The witch-doctor gives his service for free. For some reason, his
charms do not work, if he charges his patients.
As a countermeasure, the witch-doctor must enter the house of a suspected mangkukulam
and threaten to threaten to cut her ears off with a bolo while demanding that she “go through the
needle’s eye” Then the witch confesses her identity, collapses and calls out “I am through it!”
The patient then rises, cured.

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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
In analyzing the author’s creative works, three sources of mythology were considered:
Indigenous mythology
Indigenous mythology refers to the indigenous peoples’ myths. This study made use of
Philippines mythologies from various ethnic groups; the concept of the tikbalang was lifted from
the myth of the Tagalogs; the concept of tuo was lifted from the Bisayans. Indigenous myths
pertain to belief systems and practices during pre-colonial times. This includes Anitism,
Philippine folk beliefs and customs and creatures of Philippine lower mythology.
Christian mythology
Christian mythology refers to the myths associated with the Christian religion. Christian
myths include cosmic myths (the creation of the world), eschatological myths (hell/inferno), hero
myths, etc. According to Carl F. H. Henry, Early Christians refrained from using the word myth,
which was associated with falsehood, to describe their sacred texts. This study analyzed Spanish
Catholicism and its continued effect on Philippine culture.
Myth Based on Popular Culture/Popular Myth
Popular Culture is, for much of the twentieth century, believed to be “anything in
between high culture and folk culture.” High culture challenges tradition and aspires to validate
the individual. On the other hand, folk culture is communal which means that the creator and the
audience belong to same social group and the creator employs the daily experience of that group.
“Neither has extensive influence outside their intrinsic social groups.” (Goff, 2012) Popular

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culture therefore touches on both aspects of high and folk culture to appeal to a wider
demographic. Myths based on popular culture include movies, television shows, popular books,
etc.

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CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
This study employed postcolonial criticism to interpret the research found in chapter II.
In proving an organic connection between Philippine mythology and magical realism, this study
analyzed the influences of colonialism during the development of Philippine literature. The
objective of this chapter is to present postcolonial criticism and theories of Homi K. Bhabha on
“colonial depersonalization” and “mimicry”
Postcolonial Criticism
Postcolonial criticism is a study of political discourse which analyzes existing powers of
colonialism/imperialism. It aims to identify the so-called “other” or marginalized people and to
examine cultural relations between Western and “third world” countries— that is, between the
colonizers and the colonized. (Selden, Widdowson & Booker, 2005)
Post-colonial criticism also questions the role of the western literary canon and western
history as dominant forms of knowledge making. The terms "first-world," "second
world," "third world" and "fourth world" nations are critiqued by post-colonial critics
because they reinforce the dominant positions of western cultures populating first world
status. This critique includes the literary canon and histories written from the perspective
of first-world cultures. So, for example, a post-colonial critic might question the works
included in "the canon" because the canon does not contain works by authors outside
western culture. (Brizee, Tompkins, Chernouski & Boyle, 2015)

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Moreover, postcolonial theorists like Edward Said, Giyatri Chakravorty Spivak and Homi
K. Bhabha were concerned with the representation of dominated cultures in literature, although
they posited different arguments on the matter. Through a combination of Poststructuralist,
Marxist strategies, the postcolonial theorists undermined the imperialist subject.
This study is interested in the writings of Homi K. Bhabha. His book Locations of
Culture introduced two concepts. The concepts are “colonial depersonalization” and “mimicry.”
Colonial Depersonalization
Homi K. Bhabha’s analysis of “colonial depersonalization” in relation to Fanon’s Black
Skin, White Masks was employed for the selection and analyses of the author’s creative works.
Using Fanon’s story, Bhabha deduced that the stereotypes of primitivism and degeneracy
Westerners associated with the black man had formed the representative narrative of Western
personhood. (Bhabha, 1994) Furthermore, the black man’s desire is articulated in three processes
of identification: first, in his recognition of the other’s place (self in relation to other); second, in
his desire to occupy his master’s space while also aligning himself with others (role reversal);
third, in his want of independence from a pre-given identity (self-identity). In literature, we have
Friday who becomes “civilized” under the mentorship of Robinson Crusoe. In film, we have
Django Freeman, a black slave whose freedom is bought by a white man and who is given the
opportunity to gun down his white oppressors— ironically, while donning the clothes of his
oppressors.
Mimicry

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Bhabha’s argument hinges on the idea that civilized indigenous populations are products
of repetition, imitation and resemblance. “For Bhabha, mimicry is the effect of the doubling that
takes place when one culture dominates another. Some of those dominated will attempt to mimic
those in the dominant culture.” (Christopher Flynn. [2014, September 6]. Postcolonial Theory.
[Video File]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TG1HL8h8aMM) Mimicry is
an expression of the colonizer’s desire for a recognizable other that is “almost the same but not
quite” which in turn gives the colonial subject a partial presence.

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Chapter IV
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND APPLICATION OF DATA
My two short stories “Pascual” and “Siquijor” will be examined through postcolonial
criticism. Both of these stories combine magical realism and Philippine mythology. “Pascual” is
a coming of age story set in present-day Manila; “Siquijor” is an adventure story set in Siquijor
during the fifteenth century which parodies the discovery of the island by Capitan General
Esteban Rodriguez.
Again, magical realism is a combination of realism and the fantastic in such a way that
magical elements grow organically out of the reality portrayed. My stories aim to reintroduce
real objects in ways which will bring out the uncanny element in reality. Philippine mythology
plays a central role in the narrative mode. The myth helps to situate the reader historically,
geographically, demographically, politically in the Philippines, as in marvelous realism, and
produces a sense of “ambiguity” which is faithful to concept of Angel Flores. “Pascual” and
“Siqujior” are modeled after two short stories by Gabriel Garcia Marquez, “A Very Old Man
with Enormous Wings” and “The Handsomest Drowned Man in the World,” in terms of tone and
narrative structure. I have also attempted to emulate Marquez’s emphasis on confusion of time
scales, superstition, gossip and exaggeration, and the shock of the new.

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Pascual
The story begins with a husband and wife who vainly attempt to have children in spite of
the husband’s impotence. Miguel, the husband, leaves for Bulacan to join the Obando festival in
the hope that afterwards he would be able have a child with his wife, Candida. However, Miguel
does not come home after the Obando and Candida mysteriously becomes pregnant. Left alone
in their apartment, Candida becomes depressed and starts eating trash to stave off her hunger, but
as a result, she becomes even hungrier and turns to kamote (for which she has developed a
monstrous appetite) as an alternative. By the eight month, her landlord, RJ, confronts her at the
gate of their boarding house just as she is about to leave for the market. RJ indirectly tells her
that she is pregnant and that she should not feel ashamed about it. Then he offers to take her to
the hospital for a check-up. This surprises Candida but she nevertheless accepts RJ’s offer for
fear of upsetting him.
The doctor urges her to stay in the hospital as she is too far in her pregnancy and may go
into labor anytime. Some hours later, Candida is rushed into the delivery room where she
conceives a giant kamote. In her confused state, she mistakes the vegetable for a baby boy.
Meanwhile, RJ is asleep in the hallway. It is revealed in a dream that RJ is secretly in love with
Candida. When he wakes up, he realizes that Candida has left the hospital and returned home to
their boarding house with her newborn child which is a kamote. Back home, Candida places the
kamote on the table. It enrages her and she begins to throw Miguel’s things out of the door. In
frustration, she considers hurling the kamote in the street but decides against it and instead buries
the kamote in the soil. Shortly after burying the kamote, Candida hears a cooing in the gravel. So

53
she digs out the kamote but then discovers a baby boy crying. She picks the babe up in her arms
and nurses it. The baby boy is given the name Pascual.
Throughout Pascual’s life, he is dealt fantastic stories about his birth and his father.
Candida exaggerates her stories in order to rationalize her son’s mysterious birth and to protect
him from Miguel’s disappearance. Pascual grows up believing in the myths of his mother and
comes to own it as part of his identity. This makes him quite famous in his baranggay as he
proclaims to the street kids that he was once a kamote and that his father is a mountain in
Bulacan. Later on, RJ professes his love for Candida through a text message. The conversation
ends in RJ forcing Candida to love him or he will throw them out of his boarding house. Candida
decides to leave the boarding house with Pascual and they transfer in a smaller room in Caloocan
where life is no doubt harder for them. Pascual quits school to bus tables at a Chinese restaurant
when Candida gets sick from a bacterial infection in her stomach. But, since Pascual’s salary is
not enough to pay for her medicines, her condition worsens and soon she is admitted to the
hospital.
On her deathbed, Candida confesses to lying about Pascual’s father. Pascual insists that
his father is the Mountain Manalmon in Bulacan. Unable to convince him, Candida passes away
and Death enters the room to collect her soul while Pascual weeps at her bedside. The news of
Candida’s passing reaches Miguel in Bulacan. Miguel has entered priesthood many years ago.
As penance, he returns to Manila to visit her wake and conduct mass for free. At the wake he is
approached by a young man who reminds him of himself back in the day. Miguel asks if he is the
son of Candida. The young man says yes and Miguel breaks down in tears. Miguel claims to be
Pascual’s father. Pascual realizes that Miguel is telling the truth but maintains that his father is a
mountain in Bulacan.

54
In the end, Pascual takes a bus to Bulacan with his mother’s ashes. He hopes to reunite
his parents by releasing Candida’s ashes on the mountain. He is joined on the bus by Death who
says that he, too, is travelling to Bulacan. Pascual engages the friendly specter in a conversation
which ends with him continuing Candida’s story.
Analysis and Interpretation of Data
The story contains three sources of myth:
Christian myth: the Fertility Dance of Obando mentioned in the story refers to a three-
day festival held in honor of the three patrons of Obando, Bulacan: San Pascual de Baylon “the
patron of devout worshippers who are looking to get married and have baby boys,” Santa Clara
“the patron saint of the childless who want to have baby girls,” and Nuestra Senora de Salambao
“protector of people who work in fishing, the main source of livelihood in Obando.” The ritual
dates back to an ancient fertility dance called Kasilonawan. Childless couples and individuals
who are looking for partners sing Awit Kay Santa Clara and dance the fandango throughout
town. This practice falls under tigal-i since the dance is performed with the intention of
producing a desired outcome. Miguel wants to have a son so he participates in the festival. But
then he ends up staying in Bulacan.
Indigenous myth: the phenomenon of Pascual’s birth relates to the first instance of
panglihi or lihi which is “a visible mark upon the baby’s body resembling the object of the
mother’s fancy.” I chose to exaggerate the myth so that Candida’s hankering for kamote turned
her child into an actual vegetable instead of a baby boy with marks on his body. Candida did not
see it as strange nor did any of the characters in the story. When she got angry, it was not

55
because she gave birth to a kamote but because the kamote reminded her of Miguel’s
disappearance.
Myth based on popular culture: the most recognizable depiction of Death is a skeletal
figure carrying a scythe. This is evidenced by television shows like Grim Adventures of Billy and
Mandy, Regular Show and Family Guy, the novel Repo Man by Terry Prachett. In my story,
Death is portrayed as lazy and misanthropic rather than swift and assiduous. I gave him a
personality so he could interact with the characters and a calculator so he could work more
efficiently. I added logic to his character.
Now, how is magic conveyed in the story?
Magic merges with the mundane, objective reality of the fictive world. Ordinary logic is
distorted: Miguel leaves for Bulacan to attend the Obando; Candida gets pregnant months later
and conceives a kamote. Magical realism is not fantasy nor is it escapist fiction; it is imaginative
writing set in realistic context. (Zamora, 2006) The Harry Potter books are not magical realist
novels because while the magic exists in the fictive world, it offsets reality. Hogwarts can only
exist in the literary world while Quezon City exists in the real, non-literary world. In magical
realism, the magical element is received by realistic truths: the all-too familiar quality of doubt
appears when Miguel arrives in Bulacan and does not come home until his wife’s death; the true
identity of Pascual’s father is revealed to him, despite his unwavering conviction. The reader is
aware of the truth, but Pascual’s show of resistance causes unsettling doubts in the reader. Since
magic is an organic element of the realist narrative, the narrator makes no attempt to explain
what has transpired, hence the matter-of-fact tone. At this point the reader may forgo his doubts
or hold on to his disbelief. Moreover, the reader’s certainties are undermined by magical realism.

56
He eventually accepts the mixture of magical happenings and factual details not as “either/or”
but as “both at once.” For instance, the reader may accept Death as an eternal character who
exists in and out of time and who possesses a calculator— an artifact of the psychical world—
and the flaw of laziness and misanthropy— which human beings possess.
Mimicry is articulated through Miguel’s character. Marginalization is unconsciously
reinforced by Miguel’s participation in the Fertility Dance of the Obando (formerly believed to
be a ritual dance for fertility, the festival was altered by the colonizer to include saints), and in
his servitude to the church as a priest. His return home is symbolic of the transcultural
transformation he had undergone in Bulacan. He no longer resembles his old self but becomes
“domesticated.” Colonial ambivalence is similarly articulated in the defiance of the other:
Despite all logic and reason, Pascual is born as a kamote. Pascual rejects his true identity in favor
of a fantastic identity (believing his father is a mountain). The latter also criticizes how mythic
storytelling undermines European rationality by presenting two conflicting views: one rational
and one irrational. Here is an excerpt from “Pascual”:
In close proximity, the two looked nearly identical. Pascual resisted the urge to touch
this man’s face. What are the chances of finding out your father is a priest? Not only was
it sickening to Pascual, it also wasn’t a good story to tell his friends who were resolute
Christians.
In another instance, Pascual gives up his otherness to conform to European rationality,
but his otherness continues to overlap:

57
Pascual was now thirteen. He had given up his nickname and his stories and focused
solely on work. He paid for a week’s worth of antibiotics. The label specified two 120
gram capsules per day but Candida’s dosage secretly went beyond three capsules. It was
only a matter of time and Pascual knew it more than anyone, but he refused to stop
caring.
Self is therefore created from the other’s resistance to colonial powers. By the end
Pascual gained a deeper understanding of himself because he had experienced withdrawal from
his otherness and criticism from his peers (Candida and Miguel) who tried to rationalize with
him.
Siquijor
The story begins in the 15th century, with a shipwrecked crew composed of a captain, an
admiral, a friar and ninety men who make their way to the island of Siquijor. An unnamed boy
witnesses their arrival on the beach. The boy hides behind a wall of mangroves and arms himself
with a branch. When Almirante Aguirre walks up to the mangroves on the far side of the beach,
the boy mistakes him for a catao and charges at him with the branch. The branch snaps in two.
This alerts Capitan General Rodriguez and he tries to intervene. Aguirre eventually sees the boy
and alerts the men to his discovery. The men crowd behind him. As a peace offering, one of the
men place a wooden ornament at the boy’s feet. Another man presents him with the image of the
child Jesus robed in vermilion. The boy recognizes that the items placed before him are carved
from duhat like the idol he keeps at home. The men try to communicate with him in Castilian,
Catalan and Galician but they are unsuccessful. Fray Santiago performs an impromptu baptismal.

58
By some miracle, the boy curses in Spanish and the men all laugh. Afterwards, He is given the
name Felipe. Grateful, the boy named Felipe offers to take them to his village in the mountains.
Capital General Rodriguez accepts and authorizes Felipe to take them to the mountains. They
enter the forest.
Felipe ignores the call of a certain bird. So he comes across an old man sitting on an
anthill. Felipe tells the old man to climb off so they can cross. The old man refuses. Felipe bribes
him with a comfortable chair on which to sit. The old man refuses and says that a chair is useless
to him. Almirante Aguirre approaches the anthill and threatens the old man to climb off. Both the
old man and Almirante Aguirre exchange looks. Then an itch forms all over Aguirre’s back. This
causes Aguirre to run towards the river and nearly drown. The old man redirects his gaze upon
the rest of the men and sends them running towards the river as well.
The men find a great tree on which to rest. Some of the men have jumped into the river to
drown the red ants that crawled up their legs. Fray Santiago, who is a physician, rubs ointment
over Aguirre’s rashes. Felipe tries to find a way out of the forest but he does not remember
which path to take. This leads him to a young girl. The girl tells him that she has been kidnapped
by a tikbalang and taken into the forest against her will. She has escaped. She asks the boy if she
can join him and his friends. The boy accepts.
When they return to the clearing to meet with the Spaniards, the giant tree has
disappeared along with some of the men. Capitan General Rodriguez, Almirante Aguirre, Fray
Santiago and seventy men are all waiting for the boy to return. However, Fidel is too afraid to
ask Capitan General Rodriguez what has happened. So he lies about finding a way out of the
forest. The men are pleased with him.

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Fray Santiago performs his second baptismal on the girl in the hope of replicating his
success with Felipe. But he fails to convert the girl and pronounces her soul eternally damned.
The men think so, too. They allow her to join them anyway for fear that Felipe may abandon
them if they choose to leave her.
By morning, they find a bahay kubo. Felipe raps at the door and an old woman shows up.
He mistakes the old woman for a babaylan and asks her to dispel the curse of the tikbalang. The
old woman says that she is a mangkukulam and that she does not help people. Felipe continues to
inquire. So the mangkukulam tells him to invert his clothes so that curse will be lifted.
One by one they invert their clothes and disappear after running to the end of the forest.
Only Felipe and the unnamed girl remain. Felipe is about to take off his loincloth when the girl
suddenly orders him not to. She tells him that she cannot leave the forest. Then the girl reveals
that she does not love the tikbalang who captured her and that she herself is a tikbalang. She
expresses her attraction towards the boy and promises to make him king as long as he remains in
the forest with her. Felipe thinks about it.
Meanwhile, the men have arrived at the entrance of the Felipe’s village. Before anyone
can ask where Felipe was, raindrops fall on the Capitan General’s cheek. Expressing his love for
the rain, he looks up and sees the sun shining; a phenomenon which signifies the marriage of two
tikbalangs.

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Analysis and Interpretation
There are two sources of myth in this story:
Creatures of Philippine lower mythology: Catao (sirena), nuno sa punso, kapre, tikbalang,
mangkukulam. Almirante Aguirre is mistaken for a catao because of his tough and scaly armor.
The old man sitting on the anthill, alternatively called nuno/nuno sa punso, is a magical dwarf
that causes harm to anyone who destroys his anthill and/or disrespects him. The disappearing
tree is based on the story of a boy who falls asleep beside a giant tree which turns out to be a
kapre’s leg. (Ramos, 1971) The tikbalang shape shifts into a girl. The mangkukulam is a witch
that takes the form of a woman, possesses magical powers and knowledge of the unknown.
Christian mythology: Belief in saints, the baptism of the boy and girl. Capitan General
Rodriguez kisses the scapular of San Nicolas for protection. Fray Santiago baptizes the boy.
Afterwards the boy is named Felipe. The same thing is done to the girl. However, the friar fails
to convert her.
The real and the fantastic are ambiguously represented to facilitate the “merging of two
worlds.” Reality is depicted with awe (the ocean turning gold, Capitan General Rodriguez
claiming that the island is overrun by flying embers, the boy mistaking Almirante Aguirre for a
catao) and fantasy is depicted as commonplace (the boy immediately conversed in Spanish after
his baptism, the occurrence of the supernatural, observance of bad omens i.e the call of a certain
bird). Furthermore, the story is narrated matter-of-factly, despite its perverted logic (when the
unnamed girl did not converse in Spanish after her baptism, the Spaniards take it as a rejection of
their faith). The disruption of space is utilized in the narrative (the tikbalang’s curse prevents the

61
crew from exiting the forest) as well as the disruption of identity (the boy embraces the culture of
the other and loses the self)
The story illustrates Bhabha’s theory of “colonial depersonalization” in that the
stereotypes of primitivism and savagery the Spaniards associate with the Filipino forms the
representative narrative of the Spaniard’s personhood. In other words, the Spanish identity or self
is formed from the Filipino identity or other. Furthermore, the story illustrates the three
processes of identification similar to the example given by Bhabha:
(1) The Filipino’s recognition of the other’s place (self in relation to other): “He
recognized they were Spaniards, not catao.”
(2) A desire to occupy his master’s space while also aligning himself with others (role
reversal): Felipe converses with the men of the Trinidad like a natural born Spaniard and
desires to please them, but does not cast off his loincloth and speaks fluent Bisaya to the
old man, the girl and the mangkukulam.
(3) A want of independence from a pre-given identity (self-identity): Felipe’s decision to
stay in the forest instead of leaving with the Spaniards presents resistance/hesitance on
the part of the self to accept the other.
I used the historical accounts of Esteban Rodriguez and Juan Aguirre, who landed on the
island of Siquijor by accident while straying off the Cebu Strait. There was little information
about it online. So I decided to build my story around that small event. Siquijor is an island
teeming with mystic traditions, magical potions, shamans, witches and sorcerers that it is not
hard to imagine duwendes, kapres, tikbalangs, etc. (“The Mystical Island of Siquijor,” 2012)

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Chapter IV
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Magical realism is a combination of the real and the fantastic in such a way that magical
elements grow organically out of the reality portrayed. The term was first coined by Franz Roh
in his book Nach Expressionismus Magischer Realismus: Probleme der neusten europäischen
Malerei (Post-expressionism, Magic Realism: Problems of the Most Recent European Painting)
to describe the new trend of Postructuralist art that emerged during the start of the twentieth
century. Magical realist painters like Pyke Koch were concerned with the ordinary world of
mundane objects and the inherent magic of mundane objects. From its visual origin, Roh’s
concept would see literary application in Alejo Carpentier’s lo maravillosa real americano
(American marvelous realism/marvelous realism). Carpentier posited that Latin American
literature contained a natural affinity between the real and the imaginary by virtue of Latin
American history, geography, demography and politics. The movement, in turn, was criticized
by Angel Flores who stated that the thematic and geographical approach towards Spanish
American literature typically undermined the stylistic component in all stories written by Spanish
Americans. However, both Carpentier and Flores agreed that Realism and Romanticism seemed
bound together in one afflatus that flowed constantly in Latin American. There was no apparent
movement of magical realism in the Philippines. On the other hand, Nick Joaquin had been
synonymous with the production of magical realist stories that were intrinsically Filipino. This
tradition of magical realism extended to a whole generation of Filipino writers such as Wilfrido
Nolledo, Eric Gamalinda, the Alfars, F. Sionil Jose among others.

63
As indicated in Anitism: A Survey of Religious Beliefs Native to the Philippines (Hislop,
1970), Filipino folk beliefs and customs, which figured in the stories of Nick Joaquin as well as
the author’s short stories, originated in early religion. Anitism demanded religious worship of
ancestral spirits known as anito. The anito was known to cause good fortune, illness and death.
The Filipinos believed in the anitos and became superstitious to such a degree that irrational
fears such as hearing a certain bird’s call would keep them from performing tasks in the
community. The tendency to believe without imperial evidence is most evident in rural societies
in the Philippines, although Filipinos living in urban societies also experience this cultural
transgression in the form of Christianity. “…Christian observers are alarmed at the extent of
pagan practice among those who are called Christians, to the extent that their true religion may
be considered paganism, with Christianity merely an addition to their paganism rather than a
replacement of it.” (Hislop, 1970) The Dictionary of Philippine folk beliefs and customs by
Francisco Demetrio y Radaza gave insight into man’s motivation for belief. He began by
discussing the word tuo which in Cebuano meant “to believe.” The concept of tuo is closely
related to five terms: tilimad-on (omen), panglihi or lihi (a visible mark on a baby’s body; an
observance of planting; abstention from difficult labor during holy days; prohibition from eating
after a sacrifice), tigal-i (an object used, or gesture done, with the intention of achieving a
desired outcome) and patig-ali (warding or dispelling of evil forces). These terms constitute
Philippine belief-systems.
The three things students of literature should remember about postcolonial criticism:
post-colonial criticism investigates the existing powers between the colonized and the colonizer;
the struggle for ethnic, cultural and political autonomy and the awareness of transcultural
overlapping. (“Key Terms in Post-Colonial Theory,” n.d. para. 3. Retrieved from

64
http://www3.dbu.edu/mitchell/postcold.htm) Homi K. Bhabha introduced ideas such as “colonial
depersonalization” and “mimicry” which became key terms in postcolonial discourse.
This study proved an organic connection between Philippine mythology and magical
realism using postcolonial criticism. Faris and Zamora stated that magical realist texts drew upon
cultural systems that were no less valid than the cultural systems used by traditional literary
realism; often employing non-Western cultural systems, these so-called magical realist texts
prioritized mystery over empiricism, empathy over technology, tradition over innovation, based
on collective practices that united communities such as myths, legends and rituals. (Faris &
Zamora, 2012) Of the numerous articles written about Philippine history, one proposed that
ethnic migration was responsible for the physical endowments of the Filipinos. Another more
recent study pointed to exercise and nutrition as factors that brought about the modern Filipino.
We learn that the Filipinos were folk capable of finding livelihood wherever they could. One
community frequently engaged with another in an attempt to define a common language—
which might explain why the word “karon” means “now” in Cebuano/Bisaya and “later” in
Ilonggo. It is safe to say that the diversity of Philippine oral literature is a product of multiple
exchanges between speech communities.
There was commonality in the Filipino’s belief-system and that was anitism or the
religious worship of anitos. The anito or ancestral spirit is believed to cause prosperity and other
times sickness and death. Filipinos also animals and objects were possessed by spirits. So they
made idols through which they prayed rain, better harvest, etc. Ancient beliefs and practices are

65
still evident in the modern Filipino’s continued practice of honoring his ancestors and in his
tendency of asking things from higher power, instead of devoting his life to religious service.
Furthermore, these ancient beliefs and practices have persisted in newer generations and still
affect many Filipinos today— which might explain why a Filipino will hesitate before camping
in the forest or say “tabi-tabi” po before passing a large tree. The fantastical landscape of
Philippine literature abounds with stories of witches, love potions, saints coming to life (“Mass
of St. Sylvestre”), outlandish characters (Leon from “The Great Philippine Jungle Energy Café”),
etc. It is easy to argue that the “magic” is part of our national identity— an impulse on the part of
Nick Joaquin who created a bulk of magical realist stories, which he termed magic realism,
antedating that of the Boom period. In conclusion, because Philippine myths, beliefs and customs
remain relevant to the modern Filipino and because magical realism invests on myth, legends
and rituals, it can be said that magical realism and Philippine mythology are organically
connected.

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REFERENCES
Books:
Bowers, M. A. (2004). Magic(al) realism. London: Routledge.
Caville, A. (2012). Magical realism in Philippine literature in English: From early beginnings
(1946-1985) to the present times (1996-Present). [Unpublished Masteral thesis]. Silliman
University.
Del Castillo, T. Y. (1937). A brief history of Philippine literature. Manila, Philippine islands:
Progressive schoolbooks.
English, L. J. (1986). Tagalog-English Dictionary. Manila: Congregation of the Most Holy
Redeemer.
Goff, P. (2012) The Columbia guide to religion in American history. Columbia University Press.
Hawkes, T. (1977). Structuralism & semiotics. London: Methuen.
Lumbera, B. & Lumbera, C. N. (1982). Philippine literature: A history & anthology. Metro
Manila, Philippines: National Book Store.
Lévi-Strauss, C., Jacobson, C., & Schoepf, B. G. (1963). Structural anthropology. New York:
Basic Books.
Lévi-Strauss, C. (1979). Myth and meaning. New York: Schocken Books.
Noval-Morales, D. Y. & Monan, J. (1979). A primer on the Negritos of the Philippines. Manila:
Philippine Business for Social Progress.
Scott, W. H. (1994). Barangay: Sixteenth-century Philippine culture and society. Quezon City,
Manila, Philippines: Ateneo de Manila University Press.
Ramos, M. D. (1971). Creatures of Philippine lower mythology. Quezon City: University of the
Philippines Press.
White, C.F.H. (1976). God, revelation and authority. Crossway Books.
Zamora, L. P. & Faris, W. B. (1995). Magical realism: Theory, history, community. Durham,
NC: Duke University Press.
Online Sources:
Claude Levi-Strauss & Structuralism. (n.d.). Retrieved, from
http://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/~janzb/courses/phi4804/levistrauss1.htm

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De Viana, A. V. (2011). The Philippines: A Story of a nation. Retrieved, from
http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/handle/10125/15372/301.The Philippines
A story of a Nation.PDF?sequence=1
Mascuñana, R. V., & Mascuñana, E. F. (2004). The folk healers-sorcerers of Siquijor. Manila,
Philippines: Rex Book Store.
Philippine mythical creatures: The “Kapre” smoking monster. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://philippinemythicalcreatures.blogspot.com/2012/07/the-kapre-smoking-
monster.html
New realism. (2016). Retrieved from http://www.thefreedictionary.com/New Realism
The Kapre. (2008). Retrieved, from
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m
Rushdie, S. (2014). Magic in service of truth. Retrieved from
http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/21/books/review/gabriel-garcia-marquezs-work-was-
rooted-in-the-real.html?_r=0
The writer's toolbox - ask the w riter - Gotham Writers Workshop. (n.d.). Retrieved from
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different-than-fantasy

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APPENDIX
Reunited at Mount Manalmon
In the beginning, when the young Candida wedded Miguel de Lima whose impotence
was known throughout the baranggay, she didn’t expect years later to give birth to a five pound
kamote, or that she would have to endure a small house, an empty stomach, and a husband who
would one day disappear.
They lived in Quezon City, in a small room on the second floor of a boarding house
which had a commanding view of the slums. Candida would look to the shanties and believe that
if a sheet of canvas could pass for an actual roof, anything was possible. That if she tried hard
enough, she could ignore the exposed wiring and the padlocked emergency exit and the stink of
the estero.
Miguel had heard of this “pleasant and affordable residence” through the neighborhood
grapevine, three days before they got married in the municipyo. The room came with a stand fan
and a metal bed frame with missing screws. The rent was P1,000 a month which was a small
encouragement for living in the Slum Mecca of Quezon City. Candida just kept quiet and walked
up and down the stairs with her head down as if she were counting penances. The boarding house
was owned by a man named RJ. He was the sort of person who set deadlines for himself and said
things like “as soon as possible” but hardly accomplished anything on time. RJ’s Lodging House
was a testament to his inadequacy.
Meanwhile, without warning, Miguel boarded a bus to Bulacan. He planned to join the
Obando, if only to ask the saints for a child, preferably male, tisoy, someone to inherit many of
his good qualities.

69
When Miguel left for Bulacan, the severity of his absence weakened Candida’s body little
by little. After the sixth month of Miguel’s absence, Candida stopped hoping to receive a letter.
But she still went to the post office to disturb the pissy dwarf of a clerk whom she had grown to
like.
Candida neglected to eat regularly for so long that hunger had created a vacuum in her
stomach. She derived a momentary satisfaction from chewing trash, but afterwards she felt even
hungrier. To satisfy her monstrous appetite, Candida ate dirt-cheap kamote. Vivian, to whom
Candida owed two mountains of debt, showed her sympathy in the form of kamote. One random
day in the eight month of Miguel’s absence, as Candida made her way to Vivian’s, someone with
wild hair ran after her. To her surprise, she found it was RJ.
“How far along are you?” he asked.
Candida shielded her tummy with a bayong.
“Don’t need to hide it,” he said. “Let me take you to the doctor.”
With his chin down, he looked through each one of his keys, and retrieved the one for his
Yamaha motorcycle. RJ smiled through his yellow fangs that still held evidence of the beef tapa
he had eaten for breakfast.
Stepping into the doctor’s office, Candida felt as though her whole life would be shown
on the ultrasound machine. The doctor gave his most reassuring smile.
“It’s best for you to stay in one of our rooms,” he said. “This far into the pregnancy… the
baby might come out anytime.”
True enough. Some hours later, Candida conceived a five-pound kamote. The doctor
stood there quietly, so Candida squinted at the figure in the light, and believed that she had given

Connecting Philippine Mythology to Magical Realism in Two Short Stories 2

Connecting Philippine Mythology to Magical Realism in Two Short Stories 2

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