1) Conductivity measurements are useful for monitoring water quality in power plants, raw water treatment plants, and district heating systems.
2) Key applications include monitoring for cooling water leaks, controlling chemical dosing and water purification systems, and detecting impurities.
3) Proper temperature compensation is important for accurate conductivity readings, especially at very low conductivity levels close to that of ultra pure water.
Water analysis from_intake_well_to_boiler_drum-npriyank.modi
The document discusses water treatment from the intake well to the boiler drum in a power plant. It covers:
1) Water treatment processes from intake to clarifier like alum dosing and chlorine dosing to remove solids.
2) Water treatment from clarifier to DM plant and softener plant using filters and ion exchange.
3) Dosing like hydrazine and phosphates in the boiler feedwater loop to control oxygen and pH.
4) The need for measuring parameters like silica, pH, conductivity and oxygen levels at various stages to monitor water quality and prevent corrosion in the system.
Basic Thermal Power Plant Chemistry, for Operational Staff.Syed Aqeel Ahmed
The document provides an overview of water chemistry training for power plant operators. It discusses the importance of controlling water quality to prevent scale, corrosion, and biological growth in power plant systems. It covers external water treatment processes like clarification, filtration, and desalination. It also summarizes internal water treatment including oxygen scavenging, pH control, and use of chemicals like hydrazine. Key water quality parameters that are monitored like conductivity, pH, chlorides, and sodium are explained. The document provides troubleshooting guidance and emphasizes the importance of detecting condenser leakage to prevent contamination of boiler water.
Oxygen treatment for super critical power plantsSantosh Pardhi
Oxygen treatment improves water quality in supercritical power plants by reducing flow-assisted corrosion and impurities that cause turbine blade deposits. It works by dosing oxygen gas at the deaerator and condensate polishing unit outlet to produce stable iron oxide layers that minimize corrosion. The advantages of oxygen treatment include virtually no iron transport, reduced flow-assisted corrosion, less frequent regeneration of condensate polishers, and a broad effective pH range.
This document discusses the importance of monitoring steam-water cycle chemistry parameters and water treatment in thermal power plants. It outlines the key parameters that should be continuously monitored, including cation conductivity, pH, dissolved oxygen, sodium and others. It also describes diagnostic parameters that are monitored periodically. Maintaining proper monitoring and treatment is necessary to prevent corrosion, scale deposition and deposition in turbines for high availability and efficiency.
Power Plant Chemistry FEED WATER TREATMENTDilip Kumar
This document provides information on feed water treatment and corrosion control in power plants. It discusses the types of impurities found in feed water and how maintaining an alkaline pH and removing dissolved oxygen can minimize corrosion. It also outlines water quality guidelines and parameters for different types of plant systems. The objectives of chemical treatment are to reduce corrosion and prevent scale formation. Various chemical treatments used include volatile alkalis to control pH, hydrazine for oxygen removal, and phosphates for alkalinity and corrosion control.
After Cation Conductivity (ACC) is a measurement of the electrolytic conductivity of a water sample after it has passed through a cation exchange resin column. It detects low levels of anion contaminants like chlorides and sulfates. ACC is commonly measured on main steam, reheat steam, condensate, feedwater, and boiler drum samples in power plants. It is important because power plant steam and water systems must maintain high purity to prevent corrosion and deposition. The cation exchange column increases the conductivity contribution from contaminant salts, amplifying the sensitivity of the conductivity analyzer.
POWER PLANT CHEMISTRY( WATER TREATMENT FOR BOILERS)Dilip Kumar
This document discusses the treatment of water for high pressure boilers and steam-water quality parameters. It describes the various processes involved - intake of raw water from rivers, aeration, addition of chemicals for coagulation and disinfection, clarification, filtration, and demineralization. It then discusses water treatment for boilers, including dosing of chemicals to prevent corrosion. Various sampling points and parameters for treated water and steam are listed. Finally, it briefly covers generator chemistry, including cooling of stator and rotor, hydrogen purity requirements, and primary water system treatment.
S k-sharma-water-chemistry-in-thermal-power-plantsteddy tavares
The document provides an overview of water chemistry in thermal power plants. It discusses various water sources and treatment processes. Raw water undergoes clarification, filtration, and softening before being converted to demineralized water in the DM plant. This ultrapure water is used as boiler feed water. Cooling water chemistry is controlled to prevent scale, corrosion, and microbial growth. Proper treatment of waste streams can achieve zero liquid discharge from the plant.
Water analysis from_intake_well_to_boiler_drum-npriyank.modi
The document discusses water treatment from the intake well to the boiler drum in a power plant. It covers:
1) Water treatment processes from intake to clarifier like alum dosing and chlorine dosing to remove solids.
2) Water treatment from clarifier to DM plant and softener plant using filters and ion exchange.
3) Dosing like hydrazine and phosphates in the boiler feedwater loop to control oxygen and pH.
4) The need for measuring parameters like silica, pH, conductivity and oxygen levels at various stages to monitor water quality and prevent corrosion in the system.
Basic Thermal Power Plant Chemistry, for Operational Staff.Syed Aqeel Ahmed
The document provides an overview of water chemistry training for power plant operators. It discusses the importance of controlling water quality to prevent scale, corrosion, and biological growth in power plant systems. It covers external water treatment processes like clarification, filtration, and desalination. It also summarizes internal water treatment including oxygen scavenging, pH control, and use of chemicals like hydrazine. Key water quality parameters that are monitored like conductivity, pH, chlorides, and sodium are explained. The document provides troubleshooting guidance and emphasizes the importance of detecting condenser leakage to prevent contamination of boiler water.
Oxygen treatment for super critical power plantsSantosh Pardhi
Oxygen treatment improves water quality in supercritical power plants by reducing flow-assisted corrosion and impurities that cause turbine blade deposits. It works by dosing oxygen gas at the deaerator and condensate polishing unit outlet to produce stable iron oxide layers that minimize corrosion. The advantages of oxygen treatment include virtually no iron transport, reduced flow-assisted corrosion, less frequent regeneration of condensate polishers, and a broad effective pH range.
This document discusses the importance of monitoring steam-water cycle chemistry parameters and water treatment in thermal power plants. It outlines the key parameters that should be continuously monitored, including cation conductivity, pH, dissolved oxygen, sodium and others. It also describes diagnostic parameters that are monitored periodically. Maintaining proper monitoring and treatment is necessary to prevent corrosion, scale deposition and deposition in turbines for high availability and efficiency.
Power Plant Chemistry FEED WATER TREATMENTDilip Kumar
This document provides information on feed water treatment and corrosion control in power plants. It discusses the types of impurities found in feed water and how maintaining an alkaline pH and removing dissolved oxygen can minimize corrosion. It also outlines water quality guidelines and parameters for different types of plant systems. The objectives of chemical treatment are to reduce corrosion and prevent scale formation. Various chemical treatments used include volatile alkalis to control pH, hydrazine for oxygen removal, and phosphates for alkalinity and corrosion control.
After Cation Conductivity (ACC) is a measurement of the electrolytic conductivity of a water sample after it has passed through a cation exchange resin column. It detects low levels of anion contaminants like chlorides and sulfates. ACC is commonly measured on main steam, reheat steam, condensate, feedwater, and boiler drum samples in power plants. It is important because power plant steam and water systems must maintain high purity to prevent corrosion and deposition. The cation exchange column increases the conductivity contribution from contaminant salts, amplifying the sensitivity of the conductivity analyzer.
POWER PLANT CHEMISTRY( WATER TREATMENT FOR BOILERS)Dilip Kumar
This document discusses the treatment of water for high pressure boilers and steam-water quality parameters. It describes the various processes involved - intake of raw water from rivers, aeration, addition of chemicals for coagulation and disinfection, clarification, filtration, and demineralization. It then discusses water treatment for boilers, including dosing of chemicals to prevent corrosion. Various sampling points and parameters for treated water and steam are listed. Finally, it briefly covers generator chemistry, including cooling of stator and rotor, hydrogen purity requirements, and primary water system treatment.
S k-sharma-water-chemistry-in-thermal-power-plantsteddy tavares
The document provides an overview of water chemistry in thermal power plants. It discusses various water sources and treatment processes. Raw water undergoes clarification, filtration, and softening before being converted to demineralized water in the DM plant. This ultrapure water is used as boiler feed water. Cooling water chemistry is controlled to prevent scale, corrosion, and microbial growth. Proper treatment of waste streams can achieve zero liquid discharge from the plant.
This document discusses the role of chemistry in power plants. It covers various aspects of feedwater treatment including removal of insoluble and soluble impurities. It discusses parameters for boiler water quality at different plant capacities. Methods for physical and chemical deaeration of feedwater like use of hydrazine are explained. Boiler water chemistry including use of volatile alkalis like ammonia for pH control is covered. Methods for detecting and addressing condenser leaks are summarized. Quality guidelines for steam and requirements for monitoring systems are provided.
The document discusses cooling water systems and issues related to corrosion, scaling, and biofouling. It describes three types of cooling water systems - once through, closed re-circulating, and open re-circulating. Major cooling water problems include corrosion, scaling, biofouling, and fouling. Scaling can be caused by high concentrations of calcium carbonate, magnesium, and other substances above the control limits. Chemical treatments use zinc phosphate as a corrosion inhibitor and scale inhibitors along with dispersants to control scaling and suspended solids.
HRSG water chemistry & corrosion controlAbdul Hannan
This document discusses water chemistry and corrosion control in HRSGs. It describes the components of HRSGs, including economizers, steam drums, evaporators, and superheaters. It outlines treatment methods for different sections of the HRSG to control corrosion and deposition, including phosphate and volatile amine treatments. It also discusses common corrosion mechanisms like pitting, crevice, and stress corrosion cracking that can occur in HRSGs and outlines best practices to minimize corrosion.
The document discusses water treatment for industrial boilers. It notes that natural water requires treatment to suit industrial applications. For high pressure boilers, almost all impurities must be removed to minimize deposits and corrosion. Proper water treatment is also needed to control internal corrosion of boiler tubes through maintaining pH and removing contaminants like oxygen. The document outlines various types of corrosion from factors like acidity, alkalinity, oxygen, and contaminants in feedwater and discusses methods for their control and prevention.
Here I explained about power plant chemistry. Explained in details how to produce DM water, cooling water, drinking water etc from raw water. Also discussed about main plant steam cycle chemistry.
Power plant chemistry internal water treatmentumar farooq
This document provides an overview of internal water treatment in power plants. It was authored by Umar Farooq, a senior chemist working for NOMAC in Saudi Arabia. The document covers basic chemistry concepts, properties of water, types of hardness, and various internal water treatment methods including phosphate and oxygen scavenger treatment. The goal of internal water treatment is to prevent scale and corrosion in boiler systems by maintaining proper water chemistry conditions. Phosphate treatment works by precipitating hardness minerals to form a protective sludge layer, while oxygen scavengers like sodium sulfite and hydrazine remove dissolved oxygen to inhibit corrosion.
This document provides information about water treatment processes and ion exchange resins used in water purification. It discusses the sources and types of water impurities and how treatment methods like coagulation with polyaluminum chloride, filtration through activated carbon filters, and ion exchange with resins like strong acid cation and weak acid cation can remove various contaminants. It also provides specifications for the ion exchange resins and details their chemical properties and manufacturing processes.
The document discusses a condensate polishing unit (CPU), which is a resin-based ion exchange system that treats boiler feedwater to improve water quality. It removes dissolved and suspended contaminants to make boiler operation more efficient and improve steam quality. The CPU controls corrosion, impurities from makeup water, and condenser leaks. It works by exchanging ions through mixed cation and anion resin beds and regenerating the resins to remove residual ions. Key factors that impact its performance include flow rate, regeneration process, water composition treated, and resin quality. It outlines the CPU design, regeneration steps, operating cycles, and design options used at a particular power plant.
The document provides information on boiler water treatment including:
- Benefits of steam such as high heat content and ease of distribution.
- Major problems in boilers like scaling, corrosion, and carryover of impurities.
- Effects of scaling and corrosion like reduced heat transfer and increased maintenance costs.
- Pretreatment methods like deaeration and chemical treatment to control scaling, corrosion, and silica carryover.
- Use of oxygen scavengers, neutralizing amines, and filming amines to control corrosion in boilers and return lines.
The document discusses various chemical dosing systems used in a power plant. It describes the dosing of ammonia, TSP, carbohydrazide in the HRSG system to control pH, prevent scale and corrosion. It also discusses dosing of corrosion inhibitors, biocides, sulfuric acid and chlorine in the cooling tower and closed cooling water systems. Lime, alum and polyelectrolyte dosing in pretreatment is covered as well for coagulation and flocculation.
Silica carryover from boiler water to steam turbines can cause deposits even when boiler water carryover is low. Silica is selectively dissolved from boiler water and carried into steam turbines by steam. The key to minimizing silica deposits is controlling the silica content in boiler water, with the maximum level depending on operating pressure. Research shows that silica solubility in steam increases with steam density and temperature but decreases with decreasing pressure or density. Silica carryover is directly proportional to the silica level in boiler water and increases rapidly with rising boiler pressure. Guidelines provide the maximum boiler water silica levels corresponding to pressure to limit steam silica to levels that prevent significant turbine deposits.
This document provides an overview of cooling water problems and solutions. It discusses common issues like scaling, corrosion, and biological growth that result from poor water quality. The document then covers critical water parameters like conductivity, pH, alkalinity, hardness, and saturation index. It explains different types of scale and methods to control scale, such as water softening, pH adjustment, controlling concentration cycles, and chemical treatment. The focus is on maintaining water quality to prevent problems and reduce maintenance costs for cooling systems.
This document discusses silica monitoring in steam/water cycles of power plants. Silica is a contaminant that can deposit on turbine blades and reduce efficiency. Close monitoring of silica concentrations helps manage efficiency and avoid costly shutdowns. Key locations for silica measurement include the demineralization plant, boiler feedwater, and boiler blowdown water. The Hach 5500sc Silica Analyzer provides an on-line solution for accurate, reliable silica monitoring to optimize plant performance and prevent turbine damage.
Raw Water Intake & Pre Treatment of Raw Water in a Thermal Power PlantSUDHEER KUMAR KALYANAM
The document discusses the treatment process for raw water from rivers and lakes. It describes how raw water contains physical, biological, and chemical impurities. The treatment process involves intake, screening, pre-chlorination, storage, aeration, coagulation, flocculation, clarification, filtration through sand and activated carbon, and storage of filtered water. This multi-stage process removes suspended solids, bacteria, algae and other contaminants to produce portable water suitable for drinking and industrial use.
This document discusses boiler water treatment from Thermax Limited. It covers water chemistry issues like scaling, corrosion and carryover and their causes. It describes different treatment programs like phosphate, amine and oxygen scavenger dosing. Key steps of treatment include chemical dosing, monitoring water parameters, and preservation during shut down. The objective is to maintain water quality, prevent equipment damage, and ensure reliability and efficiency.
This document discusses phosphate hideout in boiler water systems. Phosphate hideout occurs when phosphate disappears from boiler water under high heat or load conditions, then returns without dosing when conditions are reduced. It can cause control difficulties. The document identifies causes of hideout as well as effects like water chemistry upsets and potential under-deposit corrosion. It provides guidelines on maintaining low phosphate levels, avoiding sudden load changes, and controlling dosing to minimize hideout based on recent IAPWS recommendations.
The document discusses Eloguard, an eco-friendly boiler feed water treatment. Eloguard is a single product replacement for conventional treatments, providing complete protection to boiler and condensate systems. It forms an impervious film barrier and manages corrosion, scaling and carryover through multiple organic components. Eloguard eliminates drawbacks of conventional treatments like higher blowdown and multiple chemicals. It allows for easier and more cost effective conditioning of boiler feed water.
This document discusses conductometric titration, which is an electrochemical analytical method that measures the electrical conductance of an electrolyte solution. It describes the principles and instrumentation of conductometry, including how conductivity is measured using a conductivity meter or by performing a titration. Some key applications of conductometric titration are determining the end point of acid-base and precipitation titrations, and it has various uses in fields like environmental analysis, food testing, and quality control.
This document provides an overview of conductometry. It discusses how conductometry measures the conductance of electrolyte solutions using a conductivity cell and conductometer. It describes different types of conductivity cells and how conductometric titrations work by measuring changes in conductance during titrations. Examples of various acid-base titrations are given. Conductometric titrations can be used to analyze many different samples and have advantages like not requiring indicators. Applications include measuring water pollution, food analyses, and more.
This document discusses the role of chemistry in power plants. It covers various aspects of feedwater treatment including removal of insoluble and soluble impurities. It discusses parameters for boiler water quality at different plant capacities. Methods for physical and chemical deaeration of feedwater like use of hydrazine are explained. Boiler water chemistry including use of volatile alkalis like ammonia for pH control is covered. Methods for detecting and addressing condenser leaks are summarized. Quality guidelines for steam and requirements for monitoring systems are provided.
The document discusses cooling water systems and issues related to corrosion, scaling, and biofouling. It describes three types of cooling water systems - once through, closed re-circulating, and open re-circulating. Major cooling water problems include corrosion, scaling, biofouling, and fouling. Scaling can be caused by high concentrations of calcium carbonate, magnesium, and other substances above the control limits. Chemical treatments use zinc phosphate as a corrosion inhibitor and scale inhibitors along with dispersants to control scaling and suspended solids.
HRSG water chemistry & corrosion controlAbdul Hannan
This document discusses water chemistry and corrosion control in HRSGs. It describes the components of HRSGs, including economizers, steam drums, evaporators, and superheaters. It outlines treatment methods for different sections of the HRSG to control corrosion and deposition, including phosphate and volatile amine treatments. It also discusses common corrosion mechanisms like pitting, crevice, and stress corrosion cracking that can occur in HRSGs and outlines best practices to minimize corrosion.
The document discusses water treatment for industrial boilers. It notes that natural water requires treatment to suit industrial applications. For high pressure boilers, almost all impurities must be removed to minimize deposits and corrosion. Proper water treatment is also needed to control internal corrosion of boiler tubes through maintaining pH and removing contaminants like oxygen. The document outlines various types of corrosion from factors like acidity, alkalinity, oxygen, and contaminants in feedwater and discusses methods for their control and prevention.
Here I explained about power plant chemistry. Explained in details how to produce DM water, cooling water, drinking water etc from raw water. Also discussed about main plant steam cycle chemistry.
Power plant chemistry internal water treatmentumar farooq
This document provides an overview of internal water treatment in power plants. It was authored by Umar Farooq, a senior chemist working for NOMAC in Saudi Arabia. The document covers basic chemistry concepts, properties of water, types of hardness, and various internal water treatment methods including phosphate and oxygen scavenger treatment. The goal of internal water treatment is to prevent scale and corrosion in boiler systems by maintaining proper water chemistry conditions. Phosphate treatment works by precipitating hardness minerals to form a protective sludge layer, while oxygen scavengers like sodium sulfite and hydrazine remove dissolved oxygen to inhibit corrosion.
This document provides information about water treatment processes and ion exchange resins used in water purification. It discusses the sources and types of water impurities and how treatment methods like coagulation with polyaluminum chloride, filtration through activated carbon filters, and ion exchange with resins like strong acid cation and weak acid cation can remove various contaminants. It also provides specifications for the ion exchange resins and details their chemical properties and manufacturing processes.
The document discusses a condensate polishing unit (CPU), which is a resin-based ion exchange system that treats boiler feedwater to improve water quality. It removes dissolved and suspended contaminants to make boiler operation more efficient and improve steam quality. The CPU controls corrosion, impurities from makeup water, and condenser leaks. It works by exchanging ions through mixed cation and anion resin beds and regenerating the resins to remove residual ions. Key factors that impact its performance include flow rate, regeneration process, water composition treated, and resin quality. It outlines the CPU design, regeneration steps, operating cycles, and design options used at a particular power plant.
The document provides information on boiler water treatment including:
- Benefits of steam such as high heat content and ease of distribution.
- Major problems in boilers like scaling, corrosion, and carryover of impurities.
- Effects of scaling and corrosion like reduced heat transfer and increased maintenance costs.
- Pretreatment methods like deaeration and chemical treatment to control scaling, corrosion, and silica carryover.
- Use of oxygen scavengers, neutralizing amines, and filming amines to control corrosion in boilers and return lines.
The document discusses various chemical dosing systems used in a power plant. It describes the dosing of ammonia, TSP, carbohydrazide in the HRSG system to control pH, prevent scale and corrosion. It also discusses dosing of corrosion inhibitors, biocides, sulfuric acid and chlorine in the cooling tower and closed cooling water systems. Lime, alum and polyelectrolyte dosing in pretreatment is covered as well for coagulation and flocculation.
Silica carryover from boiler water to steam turbines can cause deposits even when boiler water carryover is low. Silica is selectively dissolved from boiler water and carried into steam turbines by steam. The key to minimizing silica deposits is controlling the silica content in boiler water, with the maximum level depending on operating pressure. Research shows that silica solubility in steam increases with steam density and temperature but decreases with decreasing pressure or density. Silica carryover is directly proportional to the silica level in boiler water and increases rapidly with rising boiler pressure. Guidelines provide the maximum boiler water silica levels corresponding to pressure to limit steam silica to levels that prevent significant turbine deposits.
This document provides an overview of cooling water problems and solutions. It discusses common issues like scaling, corrosion, and biological growth that result from poor water quality. The document then covers critical water parameters like conductivity, pH, alkalinity, hardness, and saturation index. It explains different types of scale and methods to control scale, such as water softening, pH adjustment, controlling concentration cycles, and chemical treatment. The focus is on maintaining water quality to prevent problems and reduce maintenance costs for cooling systems.
This document discusses silica monitoring in steam/water cycles of power plants. Silica is a contaminant that can deposit on turbine blades and reduce efficiency. Close monitoring of silica concentrations helps manage efficiency and avoid costly shutdowns. Key locations for silica measurement include the demineralization plant, boiler feedwater, and boiler blowdown water. The Hach 5500sc Silica Analyzer provides an on-line solution for accurate, reliable silica monitoring to optimize plant performance and prevent turbine damage.
Raw Water Intake & Pre Treatment of Raw Water in a Thermal Power PlantSUDHEER KUMAR KALYANAM
The document discusses the treatment process for raw water from rivers and lakes. It describes how raw water contains physical, biological, and chemical impurities. The treatment process involves intake, screening, pre-chlorination, storage, aeration, coagulation, flocculation, clarification, filtration through sand and activated carbon, and storage of filtered water. This multi-stage process removes suspended solids, bacteria, algae and other contaminants to produce portable water suitable for drinking and industrial use.
This document discusses boiler water treatment from Thermax Limited. It covers water chemistry issues like scaling, corrosion and carryover and their causes. It describes different treatment programs like phosphate, amine and oxygen scavenger dosing. Key steps of treatment include chemical dosing, monitoring water parameters, and preservation during shut down. The objective is to maintain water quality, prevent equipment damage, and ensure reliability and efficiency.
This document discusses phosphate hideout in boiler water systems. Phosphate hideout occurs when phosphate disappears from boiler water under high heat or load conditions, then returns without dosing when conditions are reduced. It can cause control difficulties. The document identifies causes of hideout as well as effects like water chemistry upsets and potential under-deposit corrosion. It provides guidelines on maintaining low phosphate levels, avoiding sudden load changes, and controlling dosing to minimize hideout based on recent IAPWS recommendations.
The document discusses Eloguard, an eco-friendly boiler feed water treatment. Eloguard is a single product replacement for conventional treatments, providing complete protection to boiler and condensate systems. It forms an impervious film barrier and manages corrosion, scaling and carryover through multiple organic components. Eloguard eliminates drawbacks of conventional treatments like higher blowdown and multiple chemicals. It allows for easier and more cost effective conditioning of boiler feed water.
This document discusses conductometric titration, which is an electrochemical analytical method that measures the electrical conductance of an electrolyte solution. It describes the principles and instrumentation of conductometry, including how conductivity is measured using a conductivity meter or by performing a titration. Some key applications of conductometric titration are determining the end point of acid-base and precipitation titrations, and it has various uses in fields like environmental analysis, food testing, and quality control.
This document provides an overview of conductometry. It discusses how conductometry measures the conductance of electrolyte solutions using a conductivity cell and conductometer. It describes different types of conductivity cells and how conductometric titrations work by measuring changes in conductance during titrations. Examples of various acid-base titrations are given. Conductometric titrations can be used to analyze many different samples and have advantages like not requiring indicators. Applications include measuring water pollution, food analyses, and more.
It is an electrochemical method of analysis used for the determination or measurement of the electrical conductance of an electrolyte solution by means of a conductometer.
Electric conductivity of an electrolyte solution depends on :
Type of ions (cations, anions, singly or doubly charged
Concentration of ions
Temperature
Mobility of ions
The main principle involved in this method is that the movement of the ions creates the electrical conductivity. The movement of the ions is mainly depended on the concentration of the ions.
The electric conductance in accordance with ohms law which states that the strength of current (i) passing through conductor is directly proportional to potential difference & inversely to resistance.
i =V/R
This document discusses different methods for measuring soil pH, including aqueous suspensions, saturated pastes, and extracts. It provides details on calibrating pH meters and outlines the procedure for measuring pH in aqueous soil suspensions. Key points include:
- pH can be measured in water, 1M KCl solution, or 0.01M CaCl2 solution to account for total acidity.
- Measurements should be made without agitation and corrected to 25°C for consistency.
- The "paste effect" can cause errors by up to 1 pH unit when electrodes contact sediment.
- Contact time and soil:solution ratios can influence pH values, with 1:5 being the recommended ISO ratio.
Open re-circulating cooling towers use evaporation and conduction to lower the temperature of re-circulating water. There are three main types of towers. Scale forms as dissolved solids concentration increases during evaporation, and can deposit on heat exchanger surfaces. Cycles of concentration, blowdown rates, and water treatment chemicals are used to control scale and corrosion. Common treatment programs involve phosphonates, polymers, zinc, and biocides to inhibit scale, fouling, and microbiological growth.
This document discusses analytical instrumentation used to measure pH and conductivity. It begins by stating that maintaining analytical instruments is a major challenge for industries. It then provides details on pH, including its scale from 0-14 and how pH meters work by measuring the voltage difference between reference and measuring electrodes. The document also covers conductivity measurement and its applications in determining salt content and water quality. It concludes by listing some common water quality and air quality parameters that are monitored along with other types of analytical instruments.
Conductivity is a measure of how well an aqueous solution can conduct electricity, which depends on the concentration of ions in the solution from dissolved electrolytes. Conductivity is widely used in industrial applications such as water treatment, leak detection, clean-in-place monitoring, and desalination. There are two main types of conductivity sensors - contacting sensors with electrodes that directly contact the solution, and inductive sensors that induce currents without contacts using coils.
PH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution on a logarithmic scale. It is used to monitor the acidity or alkalinity of boiler water, with ideal ranges of 7.5-14 for boiler water and 6.5-10 for condensate water. Various tests and treatments are used to control boiler and feedwater chemistry. These include filtration to remove impurities, chemical precipitation to reduce dissolved minerals, ion exchange to remove ions, deaeration to remove oxygen, and internal treatments and blowdown to control solids concentration in the boiler.
Aquas solution electrical conductivity (k) calculation د. shaltout
- Conductivity is a measure of a solution's ability to conduct electricity, which depends on the presence, concentration, mobility, and charge of ions in the solution.
- Conductivity is measured between two electrodes and reported in units of micromhos per centimeter or millisiemens per meter.
- A solution's conductivity is directly proportional to the electrode surface area and inversely proportional to the distance between electrodes.
The document discusses the challenges of accurately measuring pH in deionized water due to its low ionic strength and buffering capacity. It explains that resistivity can be used instead to infer pH, as deionized water with 18.2 MΩ resistivity will have a neutral pH of 7. The types of ions present from dissolved salts affect pH, depending on if they come from strong acids/bases or weak acids/bases. Different deionization system configurations like SAC-WBA or SAC-SBA will produce characteristically lower or higher pH ranges due to the ions they remove or don't remove.
This document provides an overview of conductometry and its applications. It discusses Ohm's law and how conductivity is measured using electrodes, standard solutions, and a conductivity cell. Factors that affect conductivity include ion size, temperature, charge, and number. Conductometric titrations can be used to determine endpoints and are advantageous because no indicator is needed. Types of titrations discussed include acid-base, precipitation, replacement, redox, and complexometric. Recent applications include use in refineries, estimating polyelectrolytes, and biotechnology/environmental monitoring.
This document provides an introduction to conductometric titrations. It explains that conductometric titrations measure the change in conductivity at the endpoint of a titration reaction. The document discusses the principles behind conductivity changes during titrations and the apparatus used. It then describes the procedure for conductometric titrations and plots the results. Finally, it provides examples of different types of conductometric titrations including neutralization, redox, and precipitation titrations.
Ion exchange chromatography uses charged sites on a stationary phase to retain ions from a solution based on electrostatic attraction. There are three main types of ion exchangers: resins, gels, and inorganic exchangers. Resins are the most common and are made from organic polymers like polystyrene cross-linked with divinylbenzene. The charged groups can be cationic like sulfonic acid or anionic like quaternary ammonium. Ion exchange chromatography is useful for separating ions and ionizable compounds based on factors like charge and size.
This document provides an overview of conductometry and its applications. It discusses Ohm's law and how conductivity is measured using electrodes, standard solutions, and a conductivity cell. Factors that affect conductivity include ion size, temperature, charge, and number. Conductometric titrations can be used to determine endpoints and are advantageous because no indicator is needed. Types of titrations discussed include acid-base, precipitation, replacement, redox, and complexometric. Recent applications include use in refineries, biotechnology, and environmental monitoring.
This document discusses pH measurement and provides details on:
- The definition and scale of pH as a measure of acidity or alkalinity.
- Why pH is measured in various industries and applications.
- The principles of pH measurement using a glass electrode and pH meter.
- Factors that affect pH measurement accuracy such as temperature, ionic strength, and electrode calibration.
- The process of calibrating pH electrodes using buffer solutions and adjusting for the Nernstian slope.
The document describes an experiment to determine the conductivity of a water sample. Conductivity is measured using a conductivity meter, which applies a voltage between electrodes in a probe immersed in the sample. This allows calculation of conductivity based on the resistance and current. The experiment involves calibrating the meter using a standard potassium chloride solution before measuring the conductivity of three water samples. The conductivity values obtained are then interpreted based on how conductivity relates to the concentration of dissolved ions in the water.
A STUDY ON OCEAN ACIDIFICATION DUE TO CARBON DIOXIDE ALONG THE COAST OF VISAK...Soma Sekhar Sriadibhatla
Extensive Data Analytics on samples to understand Ocean Acidification process, a serious damage to ecosystem, increase in production of Carbon dioxide.
Electrical conductivity is a measure of a water's ability to conduct an electric current, which is directly related to the concentration of dissolved ions in the water; it can be used to assess water quality, determine suitability for uses like irrigation or fish culture, and estimate total dissolved solids. Measurement involves applying a voltage to electrodes in the water and calculating conductivity based on the resulting current using a conductivity meter calibrated with a standard potassium chloride solution.
1. Conductivity in power plants
Introduction
A power plant with its steam/water cycle, raw water Due to the fact that the conductivity of the H+ is several
treatment plant and, if used, district heating water system, is times higher than the conductivity of all other cations, the
an evident field for conductivity measurements. sensitivity is enlarged several times (approx. 3.5 times).
Thus values of 1-5 mg/NaCl/ton can be detected.
Applications such as control of the water quality are nearby,
but also the ion-exchangers exhaust or wash-out after The diagram shown above is just an example showing
regeneration is easily controlled. possible applications of conductivity measurements. Not all
the points of measurement are always needed, but a suitable
Conductivity measurements are useful as supplement to selection can be made to meet individual requirements. The
other kinds of measurements. If a correlation exists between conductivity measurements are the most reliable quality
the pH-value and the ion-concentration, it is expected that a assurance regarding system purity and pH.
correlation also exists between the conductivity and the pH-
value. That is the case of the boiler feedwater when The raw water deionization plant shown is a rather complex
alkalized with ammonia. type with its weak acid and strong acid cation exchangers as
well as weak base and strong base anion exchangers. The
A peculiar application is the detection of impurity anions, advantage is an excellent utilization of the regeneration
where the water passes through a cation exchanger before reagents.
the conductivity measurement. The district heating water loop shown uses relatively pure
water. Common practice is often more simple concerning
What happens is: Cations from free base (NH+) are the water conditioning, the result of which is some quite
exchanged to H+, which reacts with OH- from the base, different conductivity values of the district heating water.
giving pure water of very low conductivity. Cations from
salts are also exchanged to H+, which form corresponding In the following, the single measurements are mentioned
amounts of free acids with anions from the salt. more detailed.
Application note A1.6E -1-
2. Indication of cooling water break-in Dosing of chemicals
After having passed the turbine and produced the power, The conductivity at 8 is used for direct control of the NH3
the steam condenses in the condenser. In coast regions, the or N2H4 dosage pump.
condenser is often cooled by seawater, the break-in of
which has serious effects due to its contents of salt. A Control of the boiler feed water:
leakage of the condenser (break-in of cooling water) will Quality, pH control, and salt
give a rise of the conductivity at 1 and 2. Measurement of contents
specific conductivity 1 gives a response very fast, but the Immediately after the mixed bed filters, the water is
sensitivity is not very high. When the cation exchanger alkalized to a pH value at 8-9.5. In addition, the water is
removes cations and increases the sensitivity, the preheated and deaerated. A sample of the boiler feed water
measurement of conductivity 2 will give an excellent is cooled, and the conductivity is measured by the
sensitivity. The cation filter will delay the response of instrument at 9 expressing pH-value. If no considerable
measurement. Thus, measurement 1 very fast indicates any amounts of impurity salts are present in the water, a
big in leakage and salt water and measurement 2 indicates correlation between the conductivity and the pH-value is
very small in leakage of salt water, though delayed for a found. In order to detect also small amounts of impurities,
few minutes. The cation exchanger has to remove the the conductivity is also measured after a cation exchanger,
conductivity from the alkalinity of the raw condensate and which removes the alkalinity and increases the sensitivity of
to increase the sensitivity of the measurement. the measurement. The meter at 10 makes the measurement
in question.
Control of district heating
condensate Control of the salt content in boiler
The steam, which is to heat the district heating supply water (drum boiler)
water, comes from the bleeding turbine. After a In the case of a drum boiler, it is of interest to control the
measurement of the conductivity at 3, the condensate is purity of the boiler water. A sample of the water from drum
diverted to the main turbine condensate if the conductivity is cooled, and the conductivity before and after a cation
is to high.If the conductivity is low, i.e. the condensate is exchanger is measured. The conductivity at 11 indicates the
pure enough, the condensate is pumped into the deaerator sum of dosed chemicals and accumulated salts; the
storage tank. conductivity at 12 indicates the amount of accumulated
salts. If NaOH is used as the alkalizing agent, pH can be
estimated from measurements 11 and 12. The control of
Control of the cation exchanger dosage can be based on these very reliable measurements.
The cation exchangers of the two parallel condensate The measurement of conductivity at 12 can be used for
polishers have to remove the cations as well as the control of blow-down from the drum.
ammonia. Under normal conditions, a rise of the
conductivity at 4 (or 5) indicates and exhausted ion Control of the water in the start
exchanger. A cooling water break-in also gives a rise of cyclone
conductivity, but that is detected by a corresponding rise of As previously mentioned, the cation exchanger removes the
the conductivity at 2. alkalinity from the N2H4 and NH3 and gains the sensitivity
of the salt measurement. In case of a once through boiler,
Control of the condensate polisher the measurement at 12 is made of the water in the start
effluent, control of the ion cyclone during start-up or low load operation.
exchangers
The mixed bed ion exchangers have to secure the purity of
the boiler feedwater. The water is now ultra pure water,
which is practically free of impurity ions. The conductivity
meter 6 (or 7) controls the purity of the water prior to the
dosage of chemicals e.g. NH3 and N2H4. In plants with full
flow condensate polishing, this measurement is often
considered as the most important criterion for assurance of
pure steam/water cycle. The meter also indicates the end of
rinse after regeneration of the mixed bed exchanger to
determine the point of putting into operation.
Application note A1.6E -2-
3. Steady control of the boiler steam
Control of the make-up water
salt content
Small quantities of salt are carried with the steam. To The make-up water is normally stored in a tank before
control that, a conductivity measurement can be made on a injection in the condenser, which acts as a deaerator. Under
sample of condensed steam. This measurement is also made certain circumstances, the water absorbs carbondioxide or
after a cation exchanger, which removes the ammonia impurity ions which increases the conductivity. The
always present in the steam due to the boiler feedwater conductivity at 17 controls the purity of the make-up prior
dosage and thus increases the sensitivity of the salt to injection into the condenser.
conductivity measurement.
Control of district heating return
Control of ion exchanger and rinse water
after regeneration Several possibilities of contaminating the district heating
The conductivity measurement at 14 and 15 can be used to water exist. The measurements of the district heating return
control the proper functioning of the ion exchangers as well water conductivity is the best quality control and can also
as the end of operation cycle and the end of rinse after be used to localize a leak section.
regeneration. If recorded, the conductivity can be used to
predict the rate of regeneration of the mixed bed filter. The Control of district heating water
weak base anion exchanger A1 absorbs mineral acids and before heat exchanger
the bulk of organic content of raw water. The break through The district heating return water is conditioned to pH 9 or
of mineral acids is giving an increased conductivity after more to protect the whole water system including the heat
the weak base anion exchanger bed. The mineral acids start exchangers. Conductivity at 20 is used to control the
to replace previously absorbed organics, which can result in conditioning.
fouling of the strong acid anion exchanger. The strong base
anion exchanger A2 normally absorbs the silicate and the
Control of the district heating
rest of the carbon dioxide. Sodium leakage of the cation
conditioning loop
exchangers will produce NaOH at the output of the A2 ion
exchanger, giving a rise of the conductivity as well as of the In the district heating water-conditioning loop cation
pH-value. exchanger removes the alkalinity, and the anion exchanger
purifies the water. The conductivities at 21 and 22 can be
used to control the proper functioning of the ion exchangers
Control of the make-up water and of
as well as the exhaust and the end of rinse after
the ion exchanger
regeneration.
After the mixed bed filter, the water is practically free of
impurity ions SiO2 and CO2, and ready for use as make-up
water. The mixed bed filter absorbs the impurity ions
passing through the precedent ion exchangers. The
conductivity at 16 controls the purity of the make-up water
when leaving the deionization plant; the measurement also
determines the exhaust of the mixed bed filter as well as the
end of the rinse after regeneration.
Application note A1.6E -3-
4. The conductivity of high purity water
Ultra pure water is water from which all impurity ions have This cable compensator is used in monitor types 3213 and
been removed. The high purity water from the raw water 3214. The conductivity changes with the temperature in a
treatment plant and from the condensate polisher of modern way, which depends on the ions present in the water. For
power plants is close to the ultra pure water level. that reason the temperature is measured by a platinum
resistance thermometer and used for temperature
Water in this range has an odd conductivity/ temperature compensation.
relationship, the curves of which can be seen at figure 1 for
different levels of purity. By an A/D converter, a microprocessor reads the
conductivity and the temperature. The microprocessor
Big problems arise about the temperature compensation of recalculates the measured conductivity at the actual
the high purity water conductivity, since the curves change temperature to its value at the reference temperature. The
according to the purity. However, the problems can be temperature compensation algorithms take into account the
solved. conductivity originating from the auto-proteolysis of the
water, the so-called background conductivity.
The conductivity of high purity water is contributed by the
thermic dissociation of the water molecule itself H2O ï H+ First the background conductivity at the actual temperature
+ OH-, called the background conductivity, and by the is calculated and subtracted from the measured
impurity ions present, e.g. NaCl → Na+ + Cl-, called the conductivity. Then the remaining conductivity is
salt conductivity. compensated for according to the selected reference
temperature and temperature compensation (neutral, acidic,
alkaline, or ammonia environments). Finally, the
background conductivity is calculated at the reference
temperature and added.
Fig. 2
The principle of measurements
Conductivity measurement by means of the 4-electrode The necessity of the way of compensating used is illustrated
system is based upon separate measurements of current and in figure 2. The upper curve shows the reading of a
voltage. Hence electrode overvoltage due to polarization conductivity meter (e.g. type 2822) having a single TC
and scaling is compensated for. compensating according to the salt conductivity
temperature curve only. The error (mS/m) is independent of
A separate channel measures the potential of the voltage the range of the conductivity meter.
electrodes. The signal is rectified and compared to a
reference voltage in a regulator, which controls the current The lower curves show the reading of a conductivity meter
electrode current to provide a constant potential across the type 3213 having a dual TC, compensating according to
voltage electrodes. The current flowing is now linear to the both the salt conductivity temperature curve and the
conductivity. background conductivity curve.
The 4-electrode sensors can have very small electrodes. The If the background conductivity is not compensated for, it is
electrode capacitance will thus be very low and no errors evident that troubles arise when conductivities close to ultra
are seen due to the electrode capacitance. The cable pure water conductivity (0.055 µS/cm at 25°C) are
capacitance is compensated for by a unique built-in cable detected, especially when the temperature varies.
compensator, for all cable lengths up to at least 50 meters.
Application note A1.6E www.kemotron.com