1) Social learning mechanisms like statistical learning, implicit learning, learning by imitation, and learning by analogy allow humans to learn complex behaviors from each other.
2) Imitation and social interaction are important for learning, as statistical learning alone is not sufficient for tasks like language acquisition. Infants learn best from live, social interactions rather than isolated media exposure.
3) Understanding others' intentions through mind reading abilities like imitation may be crucial for social learning mechanisms like observational learning to function effectively.
1. Early learning mechanisms in humans include statistical learning, learning by imitation, explanatory learning, and learning by analogy.
2. Statistical learning allows humans to implicitly learn patterns and make predictions from frequent exposure to instances, even early in development.
3. Learning by imitation is present in human infants as young as 9 months and allows them to learn behaviors by observing others, though this ability is weaker for learning from 2D video versus live 3D demonstrations.
This document discusses various mechanisms of early learning in humans, including statistical learning, learning by imitation, and explanatory/causal learning. It notes that infants are capable of statistical learning by tracking conditional probabilities between events. Infants can also learn through imitation, observing and replicating the behaviors of others. Additionally, infants engage in explanatory learning, making causal inferences and analogies to understand new phenomena based on prior knowledge. The document examines debates around nature vs nurture in language acquisition and suggests neural commitment helps explain how infants successfully learn the phonemes of their native language during a critical period in early development.
This document discusses social learning and early learning mechanisms in humans, including statistical learning, learning by imitation, and explanatory/causal learning. It addresses how humans can acquire generic knowledge from a single instance through communication, noting statistical learning relies on repetitive instances while communication allows for single-instance learning. Early learning mechanisms in infants are also reviewed, including their ability to track statistical dependencies and learn through imitation, causal reasoning, and analogy.
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development proposes that children progress through four distinct stages - sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. The author proposes a preschool classroom design based on Piaget's theory, with activities targeting physical, cognitive, social/emotional, and language development. The classroom layout aims to allow fluid transition between open learning areas. Example activities include counting exercises to develop motor and number skills, storytelling and drawing to practice recall and order, show-and-tell to foster social skills, and object naming to support language acquisition. The author argues this design aligns with Piaget's view of cognitive development in the preoperational stage.
Vygotsky\'s Theory of Cognitive DevelopmentDumitru Stoica
Lev Vygotsky believed that cognitive development is primarily shaped by social and cultural factors. He rejected the idea of fixed developmental stages and instead focused on the mechanisms that drive development. Vygotsky argued that higher mental functions originate through social interactions and language use before becoming internalized. A key concept is the Zone of Proximal Development, which represents the gap between what a child can do independently and what they can do with guidance. Within the ZPD, instruction can promote cognitive growth.
The document discusses different perspectives on cognitive development in infants and children, including Piaget's theory of constructivism, nativism, and domain specificity. It summarizes experimental methods used to study development, such as habituation studies and preferential looking tasks. Key findings are presented showing infants have innate knowledge of objects, including principles of continuity, cohesion and contact.
This document discusses key theorists in cognitive development, including Piaget, Vygotsky, and Bruner. It summarizes some of their main agreements and disagreements. Piaget believed that cognitive development occurs through self-discovery, while Vygotsky and Bruner emphasized the role of social and cultural influences. Specifically, Vygotsky believed that language acquisition shapes thought and problem-solving abilities. The document also compares Piaget and Vygotsky's views on topics like maturational readiness, the role of language in development, and implications for teaching practices.
1. Early learning mechanisms in humans include statistical learning, learning by imitation, explanatory learning, and learning by analogy.
2. Statistical learning allows humans to implicitly learn patterns and make predictions from frequent exposure to instances, even early in development.
3. Learning by imitation is present in human infants as young as 9 months and allows them to learn behaviors by observing others, though this ability is weaker for learning from 2D video versus live 3D demonstrations.
This document discusses various mechanisms of early learning in humans, including statistical learning, learning by imitation, and explanatory/causal learning. It notes that infants are capable of statistical learning by tracking conditional probabilities between events. Infants can also learn through imitation, observing and replicating the behaviors of others. Additionally, infants engage in explanatory learning, making causal inferences and analogies to understand new phenomena based on prior knowledge. The document examines debates around nature vs nurture in language acquisition and suggests neural commitment helps explain how infants successfully learn the phonemes of their native language during a critical period in early development.
This document discusses social learning and early learning mechanisms in humans, including statistical learning, learning by imitation, and explanatory/causal learning. It addresses how humans can acquire generic knowledge from a single instance through communication, noting statistical learning relies on repetitive instances while communication allows for single-instance learning. Early learning mechanisms in infants are also reviewed, including their ability to track statistical dependencies and learn through imitation, causal reasoning, and analogy.
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development proposes that children progress through four distinct stages - sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. The author proposes a preschool classroom design based on Piaget's theory, with activities targeting physical, cognitive, social/emotional, and language development. The classroom layout aims to allow fluid transition between open learning areas. Example activities include counting exercises to develop motor and number skills, storytelling and drawing to practice recall and order, show-and-tell to foster social skills, and object naming to support language acquisition. The author argues this design aligns with Piaget's view of cognitive development in the preoperational stage.
Vygotsky\'s Theory of Cognitive DevelopmentDumitru Stoica
Lev Vygotsky believed that cognitive development is primarily shaped by social and cultural factors. He rejected the idea of fixed developmental stages and instead focused on the mechanisms that drive development. Vygotsky argued that higher mental functions originate through social interactions and language use before becoming internalized. A key concept is the Zone of Proximal Development, which represents the gap between what a child can do independently and what they can do with guidance. Within the ZPD, instruction can promote cognitive growth.
The document discusses different perspectives on cognitive development in infants and children, including Piaget's theory of constructivism, nativism, and domain specificity. It summarizes experimental methods used to study development, such as habituation studies and preferential looking tasks. Key findings are presented showing infants have innate knowledge of objects, including principles of continuity, cohesion and contact.
This document discusses key theorists in cognitive development, including Piaget, Vygotsky, and Bruner. It summarizes some of their main agreements and disagreements. Piaget believed that cognitive development occurs through self-discovery, while Vygotsky and Bruner emphasized the role of social and cultural influences. Specifically, Vygotsky believed that language acquisition shapes thought and problem-solving abilities. The document also compares Piaget and Vygotsky's views on topics like maturational readiness, the role of language in development, and implications for teaching practices.
Cognitive and Knowledge Development
A presentation of learning theories that explain the differences between the ways children think and develop and the ways adults learn.
This document summarizes Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky's theories of cognitive development. Piaget believed that children construct knowledge through interactions with their environment in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Vygotsky emphasized the social aspects of learning and believed that social interaction and language were central to cognitive development. The document concludes that both Piaget and Vygotsky's theories imply that hands-on learning, peer interactions, and learning from mistakes can promote cognitive development in children.
This document discusses theories of cognitive development from Piaget and Vygotsky. It summarizes Piaget's theory that children progress through stages of cognitive development as their schemas and ability to assimilate and accommodate new information develops. It also discusses Vygotsky's view that cognitive development is influenced by social and cultural contexts, and introduces the concepts of the zone of proximal development and scaffolding.
The Ghosts in the Computer: The Role of Agency and Animacy Attributions in “...Francys Subiaul
Three studies evaluated the role of 4-year-old children’s agency- and animacy-attributions when learning from a computerized ghost control (GC). In GCs participants observe events occurring without an apparent agent, as if executed by a “ghost” or unobserved causal forces. Using a touch-screen, children in Experiment 1 responded to three pictures in a specific order under three learning conditions: (i) trial-and-error (Baseline), (ii) imitation and (iii) Ghost Control. Before testing in the GC, children were read one of three scripts that determined agency attributions. Post-test assessments confirmed that all children attributed agency to the computer and learned in all GCs. In Experiment 2, children were not trained on the computer prior to testing, and no scripts were used. Three different GCs, varying in number of agency cues, were used. Children failed to learn in these GCs, yet attributed agency and animacy to the computer. Experiment 3 evaluated whether children could learn from a human model in the absence of training under conditions where the information presented by the model and the computer was either consistent or inconsistent. Children evidenced learning in both of these conditions. Overall, learning in social conditions (Exp. 3) was significantly better than learning in GCs (Exp. 2). These results, together with other published research, suggest that children privilege social over non-social sources of information and are generally more adept at learning novel tasks from a human than from a computer or GC.
Constructivism is a theory of learning that emphasizes the active role of learners in constructing their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiences and reflecting on those experiences. There are two main types of constructivism: cognitive constructivism, which focuses on how individuals construct meaning, and social constructivism, which emphasizes social interactions and cooperative learning. Piaget's theory of cognitive development outlines four stages - sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational - that children progress through as they construct understanding. Vygotsky expanded on constructivism with his theory of the zone of proximal development, which is the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance and collaboration
The document summarizes key aspects of Social Learning Theory and Cognitivism. Social Learning Theory, developed by Bandura, focuses on how behavior is learned through observation and modeling within a social environment. Bandura's Bobo doll experiments demonstrated how children imitate aggressive behaviors they observe in adults. Cognitivism views learning as involving internal cognitive processes like attention, memory, and motivation that influence how behaviors are reproduced. Piaget's stages of cognitive development describe how children's thinking abilities develop from sensorimotor to formal operations.
Psychology Seminar Series 2013 - Ruth LaidlerSalfordPsych
14th February 2013: Young children’s naïve biological knowledge Ruth Laidler (University of Salford)
Event Information here: http://hub.salford.ac.uk/salfordpsych/news-and-events/seminar-series/
Perspectives on Learning Cogintive Approach-PiagetHala Fawzi
This document discusses Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. It outlines Piaget's four stages of cognitive development from infancy to adulthood. The stages include the sensorimotor stage from birth to age 2, the preoperational stage from ages 2 to 7, the concrete operational stage from ages 7 to 11, and the formal operational stage from ages 11 to adulthood. The document also discusses key concepts in Piaget's theory, including schemas, assimilation, accommodation, equilibrium, and object permanence. It provides examples and criticisms of Piaget's theory and applications for teaching in the classroom.
Vygotsky's social development theory posits that social interaction and culture play fundamental roles in cognitive development. According to Vygotsky, language acquisition allows children to develop new mental processes through social interactions with more knowledgeable others. A key concept is the zone of proximal development, which refers to tasks that children can complete with guidance but not independently. Scaffolding involves providing support that is tailored to a learner's current abilities and gradually removing assistance as skills develop. Vygotsky emphasized the role of culture and experience in cognitive development and that thought emerges from language acquired socially. His theory has applications for teaching including targeting instruction to a student's ZPD and using cooperative learning exercises.
This document discusses cognitive and social constructivism as approaches for an effective classroom. It explains that cognitive constructivism is based on Piaget's theory that learning is an individual process of constructing knowledge from experiences. Social constructivism, developed from Vygotsky's work, views learning as a social process where ideas are constructed through interactions with others. The document provides details on Piaget's stages of development and Vygotsky's theories of the zone of proximal development and social interaction to illustrate how these constructivist approaches can guide teaching methods and strategies.
Jean Piaget was a Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher known for his theory of cognitive development. He observed that children progress through four distinct stages of cognitive development as their minds become capable of more complex and abstract thought. Piaget believed that intelligence develops through the biological processes of assimilation and accommodation as a child interacts with their environment. His theory that cognitive structures develop progressively through a series of stages influenced the field of developmental psychology.
Scaffolding is an instructional technique that builds on a learner's prior knowledge by providing individualized support to help them achieve tasks just beyond their current abilities. It is based on the zone of proximal development, which represents the gap between what learners can do independently and what they can do with guidance. When using scaffolding, teachers provide tasks that allow learners to internalize new concepts by building on what they already know. Support is gradually decreased as learners demonstrate mastery, helping them gain independence.
piaget theory of cognitive development(Prepared by sanjog Macwan)sanjog macwan
Paiget theory of cognitive development divided in to four stage
1.Sesorimotor stage
2.Preoperational stage
3.Concrete operational stage
4.Fpramal operational stage
During this stage child thinking ,understanding and mentally development occur.....
First language acquisition theories malik sahabHina Honey
Cognitivism focuses on internal mental processes like thinking, memory, and problem-solving to understand learning, rather than only observing behavior like behaviorism. Two influential cognitive theories of language acquisition were proposed by Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Piaget believed that language develops through stages linked to cognitive development, with children able to speak as their thinking abilities grow. Vygotsky argued that language and thought are interrelated and develop together through social interaction, with more advanced thinking becoming possible due to language. Both theorists contributed to understanding how cognitive abilities and social factors influence language acquisition in children.
Piaget's theory proposes that children's cognitive development occurs in four distinct stages:
1) Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years) where infants learn through senses and motor skills.
2) Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years) where symbolic thought and language emerge but reasoning is intuitive.
3) Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years) where logical thought develops and children can think about concrete events.
4) Formal operational stage (11 years and up) where abstract and logical thought allow for hypothetical deductive reasoning.
This document summarizes Piaget's theory of cognitive development and Vygotsky's sociocultural perspective. It describes Piaget's four stages of development and some criticisms of his approach. It then outlines Vygotsky's view that cognitive development is influenced by social and cultural factors like language, collaboration, and the zone of proximal development. Vygotsky argued culture transforms basic mental functions into higher order thinking through tools like language.
This document discusses Jean Piaget's theories of cognitive development and epistemology. It covers Piaget's four main stages of development: sensory-motor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operations, and formal operations. Each stage is characterized by different cognitive abilities as children's minds develop from birth through adolescence. Play is highlighted as essential to cognitive growth as children assimilate and accommodate new information into their developing understanding of the world.
1. Piaget studied his own children's intellectual development and proposed four main stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
2. The sensorimotor stage involves learning through senses and motor skills without using symbols or language. The preoperational stage involves using symbols and language but still being egocentric.
3. In the concrete operational stage, logical thinking develops but is limited to concrete objects. In the formal operational stage, abstract and hypothetical thinking ability emerges along with scientific reasoning skills.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development proposes that children progress through four discrete stages of development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. At each stage, the child demonstrates new cognitive abilities. Kohlberg's theory of moral development also outlines six stages through which individuals progress: obedience and punishment, individualism and exchange, interpersonal relationships, maintaining social order, social contract and individual rights, and universal principles. Both theories posit that development occurs through progressive stages and is influenced by biological maturation and experience.
THEORIES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENTPiaget’s TheoryWe begin wi.docxsusannr
THEORIES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT
Piaget’s Theory
We begin with the theory of the famous Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget (Gruber & Voneche, 1995). Piaget disagreed with the behaviorist notion that children come into this world as “blank slates” who simply receive and store information about the world from other people (Driver, Asoko, Leach, Mortimer & Scott, 1994). Instead, Piaget argued that, at all ages, humans actively interact with their world, and through those interactions try to interpret and understand it in terms of what they already know. He also thought that humans change the ways in which they interact with and interpret the world as they grow older and more experienced. What is important for teachers to understand is (1) how children are likely to interact with and interpret the world at particular ages and (2) what factors lead children to move from less sophisticated to more sophisticated forms of interaction and interpretation.
In describing how children interact with and interpret the world, Piaget proposed four stages of intellectual development. He believed that these stages were universal, that is, that children everywhere, regardless of culture or experience passed through the same stages. He also believed that children progressed through the stages in an invariant order, that is, all children move from simpler, less adequate ways of thinking to increasingly more complex, sophisticated ways of thinking. Piaget did allow that some children might develop faster than others and that some might never achieve the highest stage(s) of thinking.
Piaget’s claims about stages of intellectual development have faced many criticisms, as you have no doubt read in your human development text. For example, it has been suggested that development is much more gradual and piecemeal than implied by the notion of a stage (Santrock, 2008, 2009). Nevertheless, these stages still provide a useful framework for teachers. In particular, Piaget’s stages provide clues about how students will interpret and approach many of the problems that you pose, as well as clues about the types of problems and experiences that are most likely to engage students and be beneficial for them (Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield & Travers, 2000; Feinburg & Mindess, 1994; Santrock, 2008).
The four stages that Piaget proposed are described briefly below. Please note that the age ranges listed are only approximations.
Sensorimotor period. This stage characterizes the thinking of children up until the age of 2 years. During this stage, infants and toddlers learn about the world by acting on it directly through motoric and sensory activities, such as sucking, grasping, and looking. In this way, they gradually learn about the physical properties of objects and develop rudimentary understanding of space, time, and causality.
Preoperational period. This stage characterizes the thinking of children between the ages of 2 and 6 years. Preoperational chil.
Becoming a high-fidelity--Super--Imitator: What are the contributions of soci...Francys Subiaul
In contrast to other primates, human children’s imitation performance goes from low- to high-fidelity soon after infancy. Are such changes associated with the development of other forms of learning? We addressed this question by testing 215 children (26-59 months) on two social conditions (imitation, emulation)—involving a demonstration—and two asocial conditions (recall and trial-and-error)—involving individual learning—using two touchscreen tasks. The tasks required responding to either three different pictures in a specific picture order (Cognitive: Apple→Boy→Cat) or three identical pictures in a specific spatial order (Motor-Spatial Up→Down→Right). There were age-related improvements across all conditions. And imitation, emulation and recall performance were significantly better than trial-and-error learning. Generalized linear models demonstrated that motor-spatial imitation fidelity was associated with age and motor-spatial emulation, but cognitive imitation fidelity was only associated with age. While, this study provides evidence for multiple imitation mechanisms, the development of one of those mechanisms—motor-spatial imitation—may be bootstrapped by the development of another—motor-spatial emulation. Together, these findings provide important clues about the development of what is arguably a distinctive feature of human imitation performance.
Cognitive and Knowledge Development
A presentation of learning theories that explain the differences between the ways children think and develop and the ways adults learn.
This document summarizes Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky's theories of cognitive development. Piaget believed that children construct knowledge through interactions with their environment in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Vygotsky emphasized the social aspects of learning and believed that social interaction and language were central to cognitive development. The document concludes that both Piaget and Vygotsky's theories imply that hands-on learning, peer interactions, and learning from mistakes can promote cognitive development in children.
This document discusses theories of cognitive development from Piaget and Vygotsky. It summarizes Piaget's theory that children progress through stages of cognitive development as their schemas and ability to assimilate and accommodate new information develops. It also discusses Vygotsky's view that cognitive development is influenced by social and cultural contexts, and introduces the concepts of the zone of proximal development and scaffolding.
The Ghosts in the Computer: The Role of Agency and Animacy Attributions in “...Francys Subiaul
Three studies evaluated the role of 4-year-old children’s agency- and animacy-attributions when learning from a computerized ghost control (GC). In GCs participants observe events occurring without an apparent agent, as if executed by a “ghost” or unobserved causal forces. Using a touch-screen, children in Experiment 1 responded to three pictures in a specific order under three learning conditions: (i) trial-and-error (Baseline), (ii) imitation and (iii) Ghost Control. Before testing in the GC, children were read one of three scripts that determined agency attributions. Post-test assessments confirmed that all children attributed agency to the computer and learned in all GCs. In Experiment 2, children were not trained on the computer prior to testing, and no scripts were used. Three different GCs, varying in number of agency cues, were used. Children failed to learn in these GCs, yet attributed agency and animacy to the computer. Experiment 3 evaluated whether children could learn from a human model in the absence of training under conditions where the information presented by the model and the computer was either consistent or inconsistent. Children evidenced learning in both of these conditions. Overall, learning in social conditions (Exp. 3) was significantly better than learning in GCs (Exp. 2). These results, together with other published research, suggest that children privilege social over non-social sources of information and are generally more adept at learning novel tasks from a human than from a computer or GC.
Constructivism is a theory of learning that emphasizes the active role of learners in constructing their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiences and reflecting on those experiences. There are two main types of constructivism: cognitive constructivism, which focuses on how individuals construct meaning, and social constructivism, which emphasizes social interactions and cooperative learning. Piaget's theory of cognitive development outlines four stages - sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational - that children progress through as they construct understanding. Vygotsky expanded on constructivism with his theory of the zone of proximal development, which is the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance and collaboration
The document summarizes key aspects of Social Learning Theory and Cognitivism. Social Learning Theory, developed by Bandura, focuses on how behavior is learned through observation and modeling within a social environment. Bandura's Bobo doll experiments demonstrated how children imitate aggressive behaviors they observe in adults. Cognitivism views learning as involving internal cognitive processes like attention, memory, and motivation that influence how behaviors are reproduced. Piaget's stages of cognitive development describe how children's thinking abilities develop from sensorimotor to formal operations.
Psychology Seminar Series 2013 - Ruth LaidlerSalfordPsych
14th February 2013: Young children’s naïve biological knowledge Ruth Laidler (University of Salford)
Event Information here: http://hub.salford.ac.uk/salfordpsych/news-and-events/seminar-series/
Perspectives on Learning Cogintive Approach-PiagetHala Fawzi
This document discusses Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. It outlines Piaget's four stages of cognitive development from infancy to adulthood. The stages include the sensorimotor stage from birth to age 2, the preoperational stage from ages 2 to 7, the concrete operational stage from ages 7 to 11, and the formal operational stage from ages 11 to adulthood. The document also discusses key concepts in Piaget's theory, including schemas, assimilation, accommodation, equilibrium, and object permanence. It provides examples and criticisms of Piaget's theory and applications for teaching in the classroom.
Vygotsky's social development theory posits that social interaction and culture play fundamental roles in cognitive development. According to Vygotsky, language acquisition allows children to develop new mental processes through social interactions with more knowledgeable others. A key concept is the zone of proximal development, which refers to tasks that children can complete with guidance but not independently. Scaffolding involves providing support that is tailored to a learner's current abilities and gradually removing assistance as skills develop. Vygotsky emphasized the role of culture and experience in cognitive development and that thought emerges from language acquired socially. His theory has applications for teaching including targeting instruction to a student's ZPD and using cooperative learning exercises.
This document discusses cognitive and social constructivism as approaches for an effective classroom. It explains that cognitive constructivism is based on Piaget's theory that learning is an individual process of constructing knowledge from experiences. Social constructivism, developed from Vygotsky's work, views learning as a social process where ideas are constructed through interactions with others. The document provides details on Piaget's stages of development and Vygotsky's theories of the zone of proximal development and social interaction to illustrate how these constructivist approaches can guide teaching methods and strategies.
Jean Piaget was a Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher known for his theory of cognitive development. He observed that children progress through four distinct stages of cognitive development as their minds become capable of more complex and abstract thought. Piaget believed that intelligence develops through the biological processes of assimilation and accommodation as a child interacts with their environment. His theory that cognitive structures develop progressively through a series of stages influenced the field of developmental psychology.
Scaffolding is an instructional technique that builds on a learner's prior knowledge by providing individualized support to help them achieve tasks just beyond their current abilities. It is based on the zone of proximal development, which represents the gap between what learners can do independently and what they can do with guidance. When using scaffolding, teachers provide tasks that allow learners to internalize new concepts by building on what they already know. Support is gradually decreased as learners demonstrate mastery, helping them gain independence.
piaget theory of cognitive development(Prepared by sanjog Macwan)sanjog macwan
Paiget theory of cognitive development divided in to four stage
1.Sesorimotor stage
2.Preoperational stage
3.Concrete operational stage
4.Fpramal operational stage
During this stage child thinking ,understanding and mentally development occur.....
First language acquisition theories malik sahabHina Honey
Cognitivism focuses on internal mental processes like thinking, memory, and problem-solving to understand learning, rather than only observing behavior like behaviorism. Two influential cognitive theories of language acquisition were proposed by Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Piaget believed that language develops through stages linked to cognitive development, with children able to speak as their thinking abilities grow. Vygotsky argued that language and thought are interrelated and develop together through social interaction, with more advanced thinking becoming possible due to language. Both theorists contributed to understanding how cognitive abilities and social factors influence language acquisition in children.
Piaget's theory proposes that children's cognitive development occurs in four distinct stages:
1) Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years) where infants learn through senses and motor skills.
2) Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years) where symbolic thought and language emerge but reasoning is intuitive.
3) Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years) where logical thought develops and children can think about concrete events.
4) Formal operational stage (11 years and up) where abstract and logical thought allow for hypothetical deductive reasoning.
This document summarizes Piaget's theory of cognitive development and Vygotsky's sociocultural perspective. It describes Piaget's four stages of development and some criticisms of his approach. It then outlines Vygotsky's view that cognitive development is influenced by social and cultural factors like language, collaboration, and the zone of proximal development. Vygotsky argued culture transforms basic mental functions into higher order thinking through tools like language.
This document discusses Jean Piaget's theories of cognitive development and epistemology. It covers Piaget's four main stages of development: sensory-motor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operations, and formal operations. Each stage is characterized by different cognitive abilities as children's minds develop from birth through adolescence. Play is highlighted as essential to cognitive growth as children assimilate and accommodate new information into their developing understanding of the world.
1. Piaget studied his own children's intellectual development and proposed four main stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
2. The sensorimotor stage involves learning through senses and motor skills without using symbols or language. The preoperational stage involves using symbols and language but still being egocentric.
3. In the concrete operational stage, logical thinking develops but is limited to concrete objects. In the formal operational stage, abstract and hypothetical thinking ability emerges along with scientific reasoning skills.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development proposes that children progress through four discrete stages of development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. At each stage, the child demonstrates new cognitive abilities. Kohlberg's theory of moral development also outlines six stages through which individuals progress: obedience and punishment, individualism and exchange, interpersonal relationships, maintaining social order, social contract and individual rights, and universal principles. Both theories posit that development occurs through progressive stages and is influenced by biological maturation and experience.
THEORIES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENTPiaget’s TheoryWe begin wi.docxsusannr
THEORIES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT
Piaget’s Theory
We begin with the theory of the famous Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget (Gruber & Voneche, 1995). Piaget disagreed with the behaviorist notion that children come into this world as “blank slates” who simply receive and store information about the world from other people (Driver, Asoko, Leach, Mortimer & Scott, 1994). Instead, Piaget argued that, at all ages, humans actively interact with their world, and through those interactions try to interpret and understand it in terms of what they already know. He also thought that humans change the ways in which they interact with and interpret the world as they grow older and more experienced. What is important for teachers to understand is (1) how children are likely to interact with and interpret the world at particular ages and (2) what factors lead children to move from less sophisticated to more sophisticated forms of interaction and interpretation.
In describing how children interact with and interpret the world, Piaget proposed four stages of intellectual development. He believed that these stages were universal, that is, that children everywhere, regardless of culture or experience passed through the same stages. He also believed that children progressed through the stages in an invariant order, that is, all children move from simpler, less adequate ways of thinking to increasingly more complex, sophisticated ways of thinking. Piaget did allow that some children might develop faster than others and that some might never achieve the highest stage(s) of thinking.
Piaget’s claims about stages of intellectual development have faced many criticisms, as you have no doubt read in your human development text. For example, it has been suggested that development is much more gradual and piecemeal than implied by the notion of a stage (Santrock, 2008, 2009). Nevertheless, these stages still provide a useful framework for teachers. In particular, Piaget’s stages provide clues about how students will interpret and approach many of the problems that you pose, as well as clues about the types of problems and experiences that are most likely to engage students and be beneficial for them (Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield & Travers, 2000; Feinburg & Mindess, 1994; Santrock, 2008).
The four stages that Piaget proposed are described briefly below. Please note that the age ranges listed are only approximations.
Sensorimotor period. This stage characterizes the thinking of children up until the age of 2 years. During this stage, infants and toddlers learn about the world by acting on it directly through motoric and sensory activities, such as sucking, grasping, and looking. In this way, they gradually learn about the physical properties of objects and develop rudimentary understanding of space, time, and causality.
Preoperational period. This stage characterizes the thinking of children between the ages of 2 and 6 years. Preoperational chil.
Becoming a high-fidelity--Super--Imitator: What are the contributions of soci...Francys Subiaul
In contrast to other primates, human children’s imitation performance goes from low- to high-fidelity soon after infancy. Are such changes associated with the development of other forms of learning? We addressed this question by testing 215 children (26-59 months) on two social conditions (imitation, emulation)—involving a demonstration—and two asocial conditions (recall and trial-and-error)—involving individual learning—using two touchscreen tasks. The tasks required responding to either three different pictures in a specific picture order (Cognitive: Apple→Boy→Cat) or three identical pictures in a specific spatial order (Motor-Spatial Up→Down→Right). There were age-related improvements across all conditions. And imitation, emulation and recall performance were significantly better than trial-and-error learning. Generalized linear models demonstrated that motor-spatial imitation fidelity was associated with age and motor-spatial emulation, but cognitive imitation fidelity was only associated with age. While, this study provides evidence for multiple imitation mechanisms, the development of one of those mechanisms—motor-spatial imitation—may be bootstrapped by the development of another—motor-spatial emulation. Together, these findings provide important clues about the development of what is arguably a distinctive feature of human imitation performance.
This document discusses several contributions of the mind-brain-behavioral sciences to education. It summarizes research on different types of learning like associative learning, statistical learning, imitation, and cultural transmission. Several studies are cited that explore learning mechanisms in humans from a young age, the importance of social interaction and imitation in language learning, and evidence that humans have evolved abilities for teaching and cultural transmission of knowledge. Potential constraints and timing of learning processes in the brain are also mentioned.
The document discusses various learning theories and their implications for teaching, including:
1) Behaviourism focuses on conditioning and external influences on learning while constructivism sees learning as an internal cognitive process of knowledge construction.
2) Social constructivism and Vygotsky's zone of proximal development emphasize social learning and scaffolding within a learner's potential level with help from others.
3) Multiple intelligences theory proposes eight intelligences and incorporating them into lessons through varied activities matching different strengths.
4) Brain-based learning suggests creating a multi-sensory, flexible environment allowing self-expression and personal meaning-making.
This document discusses cognitive flexibility and its relationship to social competence in children from ages 7 to 11. It first provides background on cognitive flexibility and its neurological basis. It then hypothesizes that children with higher cognitive flexibility, as measured by a Stroop test, will display more cooperative behaviors and less non-cooperative behaviors during a puzzle task with a peer. The results from administering the Stroop test and observing the puzzle interactions supported this, finding that children with greater cognitive flexibility cooperated more and were less neutral or non-cooperative. No other factors like age or gender appeared to influence this relationship between flexibility and social skills.
The document outlines 12 principles of natural learning based on research from multiple disciplines including neuroscience, psychology, and education. The principles describe how the body, brain, and mind work together in the learning process. They indicate that learning is enhanced when it engages the physiology, is social and meaningful, involves pattern-finding and emotions, and considers individual differences. The principles provide a framework for educators to optimize learning by taking a holistic view of the learner.
The document discusses Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development and Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of cognitive development. Piaget's theory proposes that children progress through four distinct stages of cognitive development - sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Piaget believed that cognitive development relies on biological maturation and hands-on learning from the environment. In contrast, Vygotsky emphasized the role of social and cultural influences on cognitive development. He believed that learning occurs through social interactions and that language plays a central role in thinking and learning.
The cognitive structure of goal emulation during the preschool years. Francys Subiaul
Humans excel at both mirroring others’ actions (imitation) as well as others’ goals and intentions (emulation). Since most research has focused on imitation, here we focus on how social and asocial learning predict the development of goal emulation. We tested 215 preschool children on two social conditions (imitation, emulation) and two asocial conditions (trial-and-error and recall) using two touchscreen tasks. The tasks involved responding to either three different pictures in a specific picture order (Cognitive: Apple→Boy→Cat) or three identical pictures in a specific spatial order (Motor-Spatial Up→Down→Right). Generalized linear models demonstrated that during the preschool years, Motor-Spatial emulation is associated with social and asocial learning, while Cognitive emulation is associated only with social learning, including Motor-spatial emulation and multiple forms of imitation. This result contrasts with those from a previous study using this same dataset showing that Motor-Spatial and Cognitive imitation were neither associated with one another nor, generally, predicted by other forms of social or asocial learning. Together these results suggests that while developmental changes in imitation are associated with multiple—specialized—mechanisms, developmental changes in emulation are associated with age-related changes and a more unitary, domain-general mechanism that receives input from several different cognitive and learning processes, including some that may not necessarily be specialized for social learning.
Kimbrilee Schmitz To respond my opinion 8.1Consider the model.docxDIPESH30
Kimbrilee Schmitz: To respond my opinion 8.1
Consider the models of Piaget, Erickson, and others regarding the stages of cognitive developmental. Do these models suggest a correlation between cognitive development and learning development throughout the human lifespan? Why or why not?
Learning development consists of allowing a person to learn at their own pace so they fully understand what is learned and feel accomplished when they master a task. If a person is pushed to learn to fast, they feel defeated because they do not understand the concepts. If a person is learning at a pace that is too slow, they become bored. People also need to have time to learn, reflect, and apply what they have learned (Mayhew, Wolniak & Pascarella, 2008). Although some learning needs to be structured so people learn the correct concepts, there needs to be time for out of the box thinking and hands on applications.
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development starts with an infant that cannot recognize that they are separate from the world and ends around age 11 where a child has a good concept of themselves and the world around them (Malerstein and Ahern, 1979). Erickson’s stages of life development stretches from birth to old age. Erickson believed that people had to complete steps in one phase before entering the next stage. These stages go from learning about one’s self and the world and end in reflecting on life and making sure all questions are answered (Ornstein, Cron & Slocum, 1989). Both of these models have a correlation with learning development. People have to learn certain things in each stage of their life. If they do not learn or accomplish certain things it is difficult for them to move forward in their life. Although there are age ranges set up with the models of cognitive development not everyone reaches each stage in the same time period. Just like learning development, people must learn and accomplish things at their own pace.
Resources:
Malerstein, A., & Ahern, M. M. (1979). Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development and Adult Character Structure. American Journal Of Psychotherapy, 33(1), 107. Retrieved from: https://lopes.idm.oclc.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rlh&AN=5349402&site=eds-live&scope=site
Mayhew, M. J., Wolniak, G. C., & Pascarella, E. T. (2008). How Educational Practices Affect the Development of Life-long Learning Orientations in Traditionally-aged Undergraduate Students. Research in Higher Education, (4). 337. Retrieved from: https://lopes.idm.oclc.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsjsr&AN=edsjsr.25704567&site=eds-live&scope=site
Ornstein, S., Cron, W. L., & Slocum, J. W. (1989). Life stage versus career stage: A comparative test of the theories of Levinson and Super. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 10(2), 117-133. Retrieved from: https://lopes.idm.oclc.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=1989-31344-001&site=eds- ...
Cognitive development of children and adolescentsRamil Gallardo
The document summarizes several theories of cognitive development in children and adolescents. It discusses Piaget's stages of cognitive development which include the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages. It also outlines Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory which emphasizes the role of social interaction in cognitive development. According to this theory, social and cultural tools are transmitted through imitative, instructed, and collaborative learning. Vygotsky also introduced the concept of the zone of proximal development. Finally, the document briefly mentions information-processing theory which views cognition as analogous to a computer that processes information.
Cognitive Development The last two decades .docxpickersgillkayne
The document discusses cognitive development in infants and young children. It describes how infants possess sophisticated cognitive skills from a very early age, including the ability to solve problems, understand cause and effect, imitate others, develop number sense, engage in symbolic play, and learn through exploration. It also explains that cognitive development is supported by social interactions, cultural context, memory, attention skills, and understanding routines like personal care. Parents and caregivers play a key role in providing a context that promotes infants' cognitive learning and development.
Cognitive Development
“The last two decades of infancy research have seen dramatic changes in the
way developmental psychologists char
acterize the earliest stages of cognitive
development. The infant, once regarded
as an organism driven mainly by sim
ple sensorimotor schemes, is now seen
as possessing sophisticated cognitive
skills and even sophisticated concepts
that guide knowledge acquisition”
(Madole and Oakes 1999, 263).
“What we see in the crib is the great
est mind that has ever existed, the
most powerful learning machine in
the universe” (Gopnik, Meltzoff, and
Kuhl 1999, 1).
The term cognitive development
refers to the process of growth and
change in intellectual/mental abilities
such as thinking, reasoning and
understanding. It includes the acquisi
tion and consolidation of knowledge.
Infants draw on social-emotional,
language, motor, and perceptual
experiences and abilities for cognitive
development. They are attuned to
relationships between features of
objects, actions, and the physical
environment. But they are particularly
attuned to people. Parents, family
members, friends, teachers, and care
givers play a vital role in supporting
the cognitive development of infants by
providing the healthy interpersonal or
social-emotional context in which
cognitive development unfolds. Caring,
responsive adults provide the base
from which infants can fully engage in
behaviors and interactions that pro
mote learning. Such adults also serve
as a prime source of imitation.
Cultural context is important to
young children’s cognitive develop
ment. There is substantial variation
in how intelligence is defined within
different cultures (Sternberg and
Grigorenko 2004). As a result, dif
ferent aspects of cognitive function
ing or cognitive performance may be
more highly valued in some cultural
contexts than in others. For example,
whereas processing speed is an aspect
of intelligence that is highly valued
within the predominant Western con
ceptualizations of intelligence, “Ugan
dan villagers associate intelligence
with adjectives such as slow, careful,
and active” (Rogoff and Chavajay 1995,
865.). Aspects of intelligence that have
to do with social competence appear to
be seen as more important than speed
��
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O
G
N
IT
IV
E
D
E
V
E
L
O
P
M
E
N
T
60
in some non-Western cultural contexts
(Sternberg and Grigorenko 2004). Cer
tainly, it is crucial for early childhood
professionals to recognize the role that
cultural context plays in defining and
setting the stage for children’s healthy
cognitive functioning.
Research has identified a broad
range of cognitive competencies and
described the remarkable progres
sion of cognitive development during
the early childhood years. Experts in
the field describe infants as active,
motivated, and engaged learners who
possess an impressive range of cogni
tive competencies (National Research
Council and Institute of ...
Theories of PSYCHOLINGUISTICS, Language acquisition, Noam Chomsky, Jean Piaget, F. B. Skinner, Innateness theory, Behaviorist theory, Cognitive theory.
Models of teaching are instructional designs that describe learning environments and interactions to cause specific changes in student behavior. There are several families of models including social, information-processing, personal, and behavioral systems. Models aim to accomplish common educational goals, are research-based, and conform to philosophical orientations. Jerome Bruner's work emphasized that students actively construct knowledge and proposed three stages of representation: enactive, iconic, and symbolic. Bruner also advocated for discovery learning and a spiral curriculum.
1. This document discusses ten key findings from cognitive research on learning. The findings illustrate how teaching and learning can be better understood by applying insights from cognitive science.
2. One finding is that learning occurs within the learner - teachers can provide information but students must actively construct new knowledge structures themselves. Prior knowledge also strongly influences new learning.
3. Another finding is that optimal learning requires integrating new and prior knowledge by linking more abstract relationships. Both conceptual knowledge and procedural skills are important, as are metacognitive skills to reflect on one's own learning.
The Multi Store Model Of Memory And Research Into...Lindsey Campbell
The multi-store model of memory proposes that memory can be divided into three distinct parts: the sensory store, short-term store, and long-term store. According to this model, data is first encountered by the sensory store and then processed into the short-term store if given attention, and finally into the long-term store if rehearsed. Research such as Murdock's serial position effect study provides support for this model. The working memory model examines how information is temporarily stored and manipulated to perform tasks. Working memory allows for the immediate recall of information through rehearsal. Luck and Vogel's change detection experiment found that the capacity of short-term memory is around 3-4 items.
Carryover effects of joint attention to repeated events in chimpanzees and yo...Francys Subiaul
Gaze following is a fundamental component of triadic social interaction which includes events and an object shared with other
individuals and is found in both human and nonhuman primates. Most previous work has focused only on the immediate reaction
after following another’s gaze. In contrast, this study investigated whether gaze following is retained after the observation of the
other’s gaze shift, whether this retainment differs between species and age groups, and whether the retainment depends on the nature of the preceding events. In the social condition, subjects (1- and 2-year-old human children and chimpanzees) witnessed an experimenter who looked and pointed in the direction of a target lamp. In the physical condition, the target lamp blinked but the experimenter did not provide any cues. After a brief delay, we presented the same stimulus again without any cues. All subjects looked again to the target location after experiencing the social condition and thus showed a carryover effect. However, only 2-year-olds showed a carryover effect in the physical condition; 1-year-olds and chimpanzees did not. Additionally, only human children showed spontaneous interactive actions such as pointing. Our results suggest that the difference between the two age groups and chimpanzees is conceptual and not only quantitative.
Experientialism emerged as a philosophical theory in the 1950s-1980s that maintained personal experience is the principal basis of knowledge. It developed in response to the inadequacies of behaviorism. Major theorists included Dewey, Lewin, Piaget, Kolb, Lakoff, and Johnson. Kolb's experiential learning cycle emphasized a four-stage process: concrete experience, observation/reflection, formation of abstract concepts, testing concepts in new situations. Lakoff and Johnson argued meaning depends on how we frame experiences based on our bodies and social contexts. Experientialism posits that learning occurs best through hands-on experience and reflection rather than passive knowledge transmission. It remains influential in fields like education,
The social interactionalist theory Bruner presentationJess Roebuck
Jerome Bruner proposed three modes of cognitive representation that develop sequentially in children: enactive (action-based), iconic (image-based), and symbolic (language-based). He believed that as children mature, their thinking becomes more complex as they progress through these three modes. Bruner's research found that children begin to regularly use symbolic representation, such as language, around ages 6-7 to mentally manipulate and transform visual information. His theory was supported by experiments showing that shielding visual cues encouraged symbolic thinking abilities earlier than if images were visible. However, some like Noam Chomsky criticized the theory, arguing that language development depends more on innate abilities than environmental influences.
This document provides an overview of cognition and language from a cognitive psychology perspective. It discusses three main topics: thinking and reasoning, problem solving, and language. For thinking and reasoning, it describes mental images and concepts. For problem solving, it outlines the three steps of problem solving and discusses various problem solving strategies and challenges. For language, it discusses the elements of language including grammar, language development from babbling to age 5, theories of language acquisition, the influence of language on thinking, and issues around bilingualism.
This document discusses neuroethics and its relationship to educational issues. It begins by defining neuroethics and cognitive neuroscience. It then examines various ethics issues related to neuroscience research and its applications, including impacts on individuals and society. It discusses how the scientific understanding of the brain can influence views of humanity. It also explores the neuroscience of moral decision making and how an understanding of brain mechanisms can inform views of living. The document traces the history of neuroethics back to the 2000s and conferences/publications that helped establish the field. It analyzes challenges of communicating neuroscience research to the public and proposes ways to enhance communication. Many neuroethical issues are also relevant for education and cognitive science due to the study of
1) A study from 1993 found that listening to Mozart's music led to temporary improved spatial reasoning skills in adults, but this effect was not replicated by other researchers.
2) A more recent 2010 study found higher effects from studies conducted by the original researchers compared to other groups, indicating potential bias. There is little evidence left that Mozart's music specifically enhances performance.
3) A politician proposed funding to make music available to young children to help brain development, citing the Mozart effect research. However, the Mozart effect has not been reliably shown.
This document discusses the potential for a marriage between cognitive science and education but also identifies risks and challenges. It outlines common interests in learning and teaching that could form the basis for collaboration. However, it also lists 10 "slippery slopes" such as getting the science wrong or overstating what can be directly applied. It raises questions about how to produce and disseminate knowledge in a usable way. Translational research models from evidence-based medicine and medicine are discussed as possible approaches but challenges in education are also noted, such as more spurious evidence and lack of infrastructure for classification and training.
Teaching critical thinking involves defining what it is, how to teach it, and why it is important. There is no consensus on a definition of critical thinking, how best to teach it, or whether it can be taught. Approaches include stand-alone courses focusing on general skills versus integrated approaches within specific subjects. While critical thinking is widely believed to be important, there is skepticism around whether it can truly be taught and evaluations of critical thinking programs have had mixed results.
Digital technologies are increasingly used in education both formally and informally. While technologies may engage students as "digital natives," simply using technologies does not guarantee effective learning. Meaningful learning requires understanding principles rather than just practicing skills. Studies show skills can transfer between similar tasks, but not always to novel tasks without principles. Technologies offer potential to simulate real-world problem solving, but more research is needed to identify how and why specific technologies may improve learning outcomes.
The document discusses research on the impact and effectiveness of teachers. It summarizes several key studies:
1) Studies show that high-quality teachers can have long-term positive impacts on students' outcomes beyond test scores, such as earnings and college attendance. However, precisely evaluating a teacher's impact is difficult.
2) A Tennessee study found that students assigned to more experienced teachers had higher earnings, and those in smaller classes were more likely to attend college.
3) A larger study linking teacher value-added scores to student outcomes as adults found students assigned higher-VA teachers were more likely to attend college, earn more, live in better neighborhoods, and less likely to become pregnant as teens.
4
The document discusses several concepts related to obstacles in learning science:
1. Children enter formal science education with intuitive "folk theories" about the physical and natural world developed from everyday experiences that can conflict with scientific explanations and be difficult to change.
2. These naive intuitions both help children learn by providing initial frameworks but also act as an obstacle if they contradict scientific facts. Overcoming these preconceptions requires conceptual change in how ideas are understood.
3. The process of conceptual change that replaces preconceptions with scientific concepts is debated, with differing views on whether change involves replacing whole theories versus more incremental adjustments to knowledge. Understanding conceptual change is important for improving science teaching.
Learning involves lasting changes in the functional architecture of the brain through experience. It occurs through different mechanisms at various stages of life. Early learning mechanisms in infants and young children include statistical learning, causal learning, imitation, and learning through social interactions. Babies are born with core knowledge and learning mechanisms that allow them to acquire cultural skills and knowledge from a very early age through observation, experimentation, and implicit learning processes. Learning is both an individual and social process supported by evolved capacities for language, cooperation, and culture that enabled the human capacity for cumulative cultural evolution.
This document discusses the emergence of cognitive studies and its application to education as a new interdisciplinary field. It provides a brief history of related initiatives dating back to the 1990s from various organizations studying topics like neuroscience and education, the science of learning, and learning sciences. The disciplines involved include biology, cognitive science, education, neuroscience, psychology, and technology. The goals are to better understand cognitive and social processes involved in learning and teaching to improve learning outcomes and design better learning environments. While the new insights from these fields may transform education, William James cautioned in 1899 that teaching remains an art, and sciences do not directly generate teaching methods, requiring inventive minds to apply findings creatively.
Critical thinking can be defined in various ways from different perspectives. From a philosophical perspective, it involves skills like reflection, reasoning, and making judgments based on evidence. From a cognitive perspective, it refers to the thinking processes used by experts in different domains. There is no consensus on how to define or teach critical thinking. Research suggests it may not be a general skill that can be transferred, but rather is intertwined with domain-specific knowledge. Deliberate practice of critical thinking skills through activities like argument mapping may be needed to improve students' abilities.
The document discusses number processing and calculation from a cognitive neuroscience perspective. It proposes that cultural practices like reading and arithmetic may have developed by "recycling" pre-existing neural circuits in the brain. In particular, regions in the parietal cortex that evolved to process quantities and perform spatial transformations may have been adapted for numerical tasks. Evidence for this comes from studies finding that the same parietal regions are consistently activated during tasks involving numbers across individuals and cultures.
1. The document discusses issues around evaluating the cognitive and educational impacts of technologies. It emphasizes the need for rigorous empirical testing and evidence-based approaches rather than pseudoscience.
2. Fair testing requires considering alternative explanations, ensuring experimental and control groups are equivalent, using active controls, and not overinterpreting results. Transfer of skills from one context to another is difficult to achieve.
3. Some studies show potential cognitive benefits of techniques like brain training games and video games for skills like visuospatial attention, while others find limited evidence of broader real-world impacts. Generalization of skills is challenging.
The document discusses cognitive resistance to learning science and the difficult acquisition of scientific concepts. It covers how children develop intuitive theories about the world from a young age that sometimes clash with scientific explanations, making conceptual change challenging. While babies observe and experiment with the world like scientists, developing abstract causal systems, their thinking differs from professional science. Science requires skills that must be taught, as scientific reasoning does not come naturally to the human mind due to our evolutionary history in small social groups. Overall, the document examines the origins of scientific thinking in childhood and challenges to learning science posed by natural intuitive theories developed from a young age.
1. EP2. Social learning Elena Pasquinelli Education, cognition, cerveau Cogmaster 2010-2011
2. Kinds of knowledge/kinds of learning An introduction to some basic learningmechanisms, in particular social learning NP: in short Whyisitinteresting? Broadening the view on cognition (social cognition) A practicalexample of social issues in education 1:1 tutoring
3. a step back to early learning mechanisms:- statistical learning - implicit learning- explanatory learning - learning by analogy
4. Learning = the modification of behavior in light of experience statistical learning, learning by imitation, explanation-based or causal learning and learning by analogy. Using these simple learning mechanisms, the brain appears to build up complex representations about how the world is.” (Goswami, 2008, p. 52) Under this definition, learning is a common function to different animal species
5. Statistical learning “Babies appear to be able to make connections between events that are reliably associated, even while in the womb. Once outside the womb, they appear to be able to track statistical dependencies in the world, such as conditional probabilities between visual events or between sounds. This turns out to be a very powerful learning mechanism.” (Goswami, 2006)
6. Statistical learning and language Critical periods in language learning differ in the three aspects of language: phonetics (before 12 months), syntax (18-36), lexicon (forever) Why are children better than adults? (Kuhl, 2004): neural commitment Once perceptual systems are committed they filter new information Commitment is done between 6 and 12 months (for phonetics): before, children distinguish all the phonetic units of all languages
7. Statistical learning and language How can children succeed in a difficult task as identifying and grouping the more or less 40 phonemes that compose their language? In the middle of a great variability of speech? (Kuhl, 2004) Language acquisition has provoked a debate on nature (Chomsky) vs nurture (Skinner) Statistical learning (Saffran, et al, 1996) applies to the capacity to identify phonemes and to the capacity of segmenting words Japanese and English infants are both exposed to both /r/ and /l/ sounds, but in Japanese the sound /r/ is much more frequent Babies spot the transitional probabilities between syllables
8. Implicitlearning Implicit learning theories are based on the capacity of extracting regularities, e.g. on grammar: Reber, 1967, 1989: implicit learning allows the acquisition of complex, abstract knowledge without awareness and effort (extraction of abstract rules) Pacton & Perruchet, 2006: acquisition of the aptitude to correctly answering to certain situations, without the intention of learning (no extraction of abstract rules; the learning of rules requires explicit learning) the crucial variable is the exposition to regularities in the environment
9. Implicitlearning of errors If implicit learning can happen by repeated exposition (with attention), then the repeated exposition to errors favors the learning of errors Multiple choice tests enhance learning of good, and bad, answers (Marsh, et al., 2007, p. 195)
10. It does not mean one can learn without attention (concurrent attentional tasks lower the capacity of implicit learning)
11. Statisticallearning & Extraction of causal structures “… specific perceptual features of two objects in a “launching” event (where object A impacts object B, causing it to begin to move) may vary, but spatio-temporal dynamics (and therefore causal structure, i.e., the fact that A causes B to move) will vary less. (Goswami, 2008b, p. 9) The perceptual “illusion” of causality during launching and other visual events noted by Michotte (1963) http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Discourse/Narrative/michotte-demo.swf
12. Learning by explanation & analogy “In the field of machine learning, explanation-based learning depends on constructing causal explanations for phenomena on the basis of specific training examples, using prior domain knowledge. If infants were merely learning condition-outcome relations, as in associative learning, then they would be unable to make predictions about novel events.” (Goswami, 2008, p. 66)
13. Learning by analogy “In learning by analogy, “we face a situation, we recall a similar situation, we match them up, we reason, and we learn” (Winston, 1980). We may decide whether a dog has a heart by thinking about whether people have hearts (young children use “personification analogies” to learn about biological kinds, see Inagaki & Hatano, 1988), or we may solve a mathematical problem about the interaction of forces by using an analogy to a tug-of-war (young children use familiar physical systems to reason about unfamiliar ones, see Pauen, 1996). (Goswami, 2008)
15. Language: statistical learning is not enough Statistical learning can have strong and durable effects on phonetics at 9 months of age, and with short-time exposure to statistical regularities 9 months old children can learn to distinguish Mandarin phonemes from exposure to play and interaction with a Mandarin speaking tutor But is statistical learning enough? 9 months old children cannot learn to distinguish Mandarin phonemes from a Mandarin speaking TV-canned /audiotaped tutor Social interaction is required
16. Social interaction Social interaction can have an effect on learning through: Enhancement of attention Additional information (gaze to object) Activation of mirror systems, and other mechanisms for perception-action linking in the brain
17. Implicitlearningis not enough Perruchet & Pacton, 2006: Explicit learning completes implicit learning with rules Perruchet & Pacton, 2006: In any case, explicit learning raises performances in comparison with implicit learning (school instruction demands more than above chance performances) Reber, 1989: introduction of explicit instruction is especially useful when information is provided before (rather than during or after the implicit learning phase), maybe because it helps directing attention on meaningful aspects Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000: Judd & Scholckow 1908’s experiment confirms that explicit instruction (before training) enhances performances for new situations
18.
19. At 14 months, babies imitate with a delay (1 week) and rationally:
20. They imitate certain features of the action if and only if they consider that they are functional to the reaching of the goal, not if they are contingent to the situation
22. (Gergely, et al., 2002)“Learning by imitation can be defined as B learns from A some part of the form of a behavior… One example is learning the use of a novel tool by imitating the actions of another user with that tool. (Goswami, 2008, p. 62-63)
23. Imitation -> mind reading The like-me hypothesis states that infants grow to understand others in three stages: Imitation: babies come to understand (or experience) the intrinsic connection between observed and executed acts, as manifest by newborn imitation First-person experience: Infants experience the regular relationship between their own acts and underlying mental states. Understanding Other Minds: Others who act "like me" have internal states "like me.” (Meltzoff, 2005)
24. Imitation, social cognition & mirror neurons Among the studies on social cognition, mirror neurons have gained lot of attention Mirror neurons are involved in the representation of an action Mirror neurons are activated when observing an action, independently from the specific motor realization of the action Mirror neurons are related to the goal, and the agent Mirror neurons could be involved in the understanding of others’ intentions and to imitation Speculatively, in empathy (Iacoboni, et al., 2005)
25. Learning by imitation & TV 14 months’ babies can learn the same actions from real experimenters and from experimenters canned in a TV video (on live) But they learn less than from live action (video deficit effect) (Zack, et al. 2009, p. 14) Is that because of 2D/3D encoding differences? What happens with 3D models? the limit comes from the transfer of information from one dimension to another Infants do just as well imitating 2D/2D than 3D/3D: 2D is not as impoverished as to block imitation, and 2D does not represent a poorly understood condition in comparison with 3D Representational flexibility seems to be the problem
26. Mind reading -> Imitation Infants understand and imitate adults’ intentions, not only their behaviors Learning by imitation seems to require the understanding of others’ intentions (Tomasello, 1990)
27. Understanding human intentions Three levels of understanding others’ actions & reading of intentions) Perceiving others as actors that produce their actions (6 months old children) Perceiving others as having goals for their actions (9 months) Perceiving others as making plans for reaching their goal, and choosing the most rational action (14 months) (Tomasello, et al. 2005)
28. (Motivation for) Engaging in shared intentions 3 levels of engagement in shared intentions: Dyadic engagement: face to face interactions and protoconversations with shared emotions Tryadic engagement: doing things together, but without assigning roles for the reaching of the goal; sharing perception and goals (9-12 months) Collaborative engagement = sharing action plans (12-15 months)
29. Humanness At the origin of human culture and cognition stand two capacities: - mind reading, and in particular: the capacity of perceiving and understanding others’ intentions - a motivation for engaging in shared intention activities So: shared intentionality is what makes humans special in the animal reign (Tomasello, 2005)
30. Cultural intelligence hypothesis Baby humans differ from primates mainly because of social abilities Further differences between humans and primate might derive from these social-cultural Humans have developed special cognitive skills as a result of the development of specialized skills for absorbing knowledge and practices of their social group Herrmann, et al., 2005
31.
32. natural pedagogy: - the induction problem- the conditions for natural pedagogy
33. Induction problem Induction problem: how to compose bits of episodic information into a general knowledge that can then be applied to several, different situations Learning generalizable knowledge from social interactions seems to be specific to humans
34. Natural pedagogy Natural pedagogy = Social learning mechanisms (present in different species) + A special form of communication (human-specific) Double function: reception/production Natural pedagogy seems to be universal, thus “natural”
37. Ostensive signals 1. preferential attention for the sources of ostensive signals Preference for ostensive signals : Gaze contact Newborns preferentially look at schematic face-like patterns with direct gaze vs averted gaze; preference disappears when faces are upside-down; preference disappears when the typical iris/sclera patters of eyes is inverted Same neural activation for infants and adults in response to direct gaze and common neural activation for two different ostensive stimuli (direct gaze & eye-brow raise) Motherese Motionese
38.
39. Useful for sampling parts of the world that others found interesting, and present in other animals
40. Human infants follow gaze shifts only when these are preceded by ostensive signals (greeting, gaze contact)
41. Infants expect to find an object at the “end” of a gaze-following in an ostensive context
42. 13 months old Infants expect to find the named object (if its name is part of their vocabulary)
43.
44. When infants (18 months old) observe adults expressing emotional valence in relationship to an object in a non-communicative context, they infer that person’s particular preference (she does not like it). But when the same pattern of valence expression is inserted in a communicative context, infants attach the expressed value to the object and expect that other people will react in the same manner to the object (it is disgusting for everybody)
45. Infants (9 months old) shift their encoding pattern from location to appearance features when the situation shifts from non-communicative to communicative.
46. They are more likely to detect change in location in a non-communicative situation, but detect more often features change in a communicative situation and neglect location; and this happens even in situations in which location is important, pragmatically, such as hiding games
47. This bias could explain A not-B task errors: children stop being interested in location and do not mind about the new location, because the communicative contexts has made them focus on the features of the object. In fact, once communicative cues are removed, the errors diminish.
50. Distributed cognition The unit of analysis of cognitive performances should be extended beyond the individual so as to encompass social and material interactions with tools (Hutchins, 1995)
51. Extended cognition Performances typically described as cognitive are significantly worst in absence of interaction with tools, others, or of epistemic actions that have no other aim than favoring a better knowledge of the world (Clark & Chalmers, 1998)
52. Social neuroscience “… the brain does not exist in isolation but rather is a fundamental but interacting component of a developing or aging individual who is a mere actor in the larger theater of life. This theater is undeniably social, beginning with prenatal care, mother-infant attachment, and early childhood experiences, and ending with loneliness or social support and with familiar or societal decisions about care for the elderly. … Social psychology, with its panoramic focus on the effects of human association and the impact of society on the individual, is therefore a fundamental although sometimes unaknowledged complement to the neurosciences.” (Cacioppo & Berentson, 1992, p. 1020)
53. Integration of levels of analysis importance of multilevel, integrative analysis of complex psychological phenomena 1. Neurochemical events influence social processes/Social processes influence neurochemical events Difficulty in the integration of neuroscience and social psychology levels of analysis: different scales into which brain and behavior can be represented The level of organization of psychological phenomena vary from molecular the organism set into a physical environment and a socio-cultural context Neurosciences generally encompass the lower level of the spectrum, social psychology the higher one Integration means that analyses at each level of organization can inform, refine or constrain inferences in the other levels
54. 2. The study of the elements of the system can fall short of useful and comprehensive explanations In other sciences, the existence of different levels of explanation (protons/rocks) does not lead to considering geology as a folk theory when compared with molecular level models. Distinctive levels of analysis are complementary, not alternative
55. 3. A set of neural events can be a sufficient cause for producing a psychological phenomenon, without being a necessary one E.g., lying rubustly produces certain electrodermal responses ; but other conditions can produce the same electrodermal responses In the case of multiple determinants of a certain behavior, studies on the sufficiency of a certain neurophysiological condition in causing a certain phenomenological phenomenon are impôrtant but lack generalizing power.
56. from medicine to education “… no single level of behavioral organization is best for all psychological questions. An example can be found in the relative utility of specifying the sociocognitive versus the neurophysiological basis of patient delay following the onset of gynecologic cancer. Women can now survive most gynecologic cancers if the disease is diagnosed and treated early. … The form of the representation of patient delay offered by neuroscientific analyses of patient delay, although perhaps contributing to more complete understanding of the phenomenon, is not optimal for identifying the determinants of patient delay or for developing effective interventions to minimize such delay. Huge savings in resources and human suffering are there to be reaped not through a specification of the brain circuits underlying patient delay, but by well-conceived public health campaings that identify the early signs of cancer… ” (Cacioppo & Berentson, 1992, p. 1022)
57. Affective neuroscience Importance of emotions for rationality Role of motivation in learning Role of reward and punishment (Posner & Rothbart, 2008; Immordinao-Yang, 2010)