Character array (strings)
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Strings in C are arrays of characters terminated by a null character. They can be declared and initialized using character arrays or string literals. The C compiler automatically places a null character at the end of string constants. Strings can be accessed and printed using the %s format specifier. Common string functions include strcpy to copy strings, strcat to concatenate strings, strlen to get string length, and strcmp to compare strings.
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![Definition : String
Strings are actually one-dimensional array of characters terminated by
a null character '0'.
Declaration and initialization of string
char str[6]={‘H,’e’,’l’,’l’,’o’,’0’};
Or
char str[6]=“Hello”;](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7)
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3. The Banker's algorithm is a deadlock avoidance technique that dynamically checks the resource allocation state to ensure it remains safe and no circular wait can occur.
Semaphore
Semaphores provide a solution for mutual exclusion among concurrent processes by using integer variables and operations like wait() and signal(). There are two main types: counting semaphores, which have an unrestricted value domain and are used to coordinate shared resources; and binary semaphores, which are restricted to values of 0 and 1. Semaphores use queues to block processes when resources are unavailable and wakeup processes when resources become available.
Monitors
Monitors provide mutual exclusion and condition synchronization within a defined structure. A monitor contains shared variable declarations and procedures that operate on those variables. Only one process can execute code within a monitor at a time. Condition variables allow additional synchronization, where a process can wait on a condition and another process can signal that condition. This allows processes to synchronize execution without risking problems like deadlocks that can occur with improper use of semaphores.
Classical problems of process synchronization
The document discusses three classical problems of process synchronization:
1) The Producer-Consumer problem which is solved using semaphores to control access to a shared buffer between a producer and consumer.
2) The Readers-Writers problem where multiple processes can read a file but only one can write to prevent inconsistencies, solved using semaphores.
3) The Dining Philosophers problem where philosophers share chopsticks, which must be solved to prevent deadlock situations when all philosophers try to eat at once.
System programs
A virtual machine is a software implementation of a computer that runs programs like an actual physical machine. It shares the physical hardware of the host machine but isolates the guest operating system and applications to avoid impacting other users. Using CPU scheduling and virtual memory techniques, the host operating system can create the illusion for each virtual machine that it has its own dedicated CPU and memory. This allows a single physical machine to run multiple operating systems concurrently while maintaining isolation between them.
System programs
System programs, also known as system utilities, provide convenient tools for program development and execution. They are categorized into file management, status information, file modification, programming language support, program loading and execution, communication, and application programs. System programs perform functions like creating, deleting and modifying files, displaying system status, supporting programming languages, loading and executing other programs, enabling communication, and providing applications to solve common problems.
Services and system calls
The open system call opens a file and returns a file descriptor. It takes a file path, access flags, and optional mode as arguments. The library function open() wraps the system call. It returns the file descriptor on success or -1 on error and sets errno. The program then uses the descriptor for read, write, or other file operations.
Operating system structure
The document discusses different structures used in operating system design, including simple, layered, microkernel, and modular structures. A simple structure has limited separation of interfaces and layers and is constrained by hardware. A layered structure divides an OS into logical layers with lower layers invoking higher layers, providing modularity but potential inefficiency. A microkernel structure moves most functions to user space with message passing between programs and services, allowing for easier extension and portability but more overhead. A modular structure uses loadable modules like device drivers or file systems to create a flexible, object-oriented kernel.
Operating system deign and implementation
The document discusses operating system design and implementation. It outlines design goals for an operating system including user goals like ease of use and reliability, and system goals which depend on the environment. Implementation is discussed, noting traditionally assembly was used but modern operating systems often use high-level languages like C and C++ due to advantages in development speed, portability and understandability, though assembly is still sometimes used for performance critical routines. Memory management and CPU scheduling are highlighted as important parts of implementation.
Pointer to array and structure
Pointer to array and pointer to structure . how to access elements of array and structure using pointer
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Character array (strings)
- 1. Character Array (Strings) Prepared By: Mr. Sangram A. Patil Assistant Professor PVPIT,Budhgaon
- 2. Definition : String Strings are actually one-dimensional array of characters terminated by a null character '0'. Declaration and initialization of string char str[6]={‘H,’e’,’l’,’l’,’o’,’0’}; Or char str[6]=“Hello”;
- 3. Actually, you do not place the null character at the end of a string constant. The C compiler automatically places the '0' at the end of the string when it initializes the array. #include <stdio.h> int main () { char message[6] = {'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '0'}; printf(“Message: %sn", message ); return 0; } • It is also possible to access character array by using for loop. • Also we can get whole string at a time and print it using %s format specifier.
- 4. String related functions Sr.No. Function & Purpose 1 strcpy(s1, s2); Copies string s2 into string s1. 2 strcat(s1, s2); Concatenates string s2 onto the end of string s1. 3 strlen(s1); Returns the length of string s1. 4 strcmp(s1, s2); Returns 0 if s1 and s2 are the same; less than 0 if s1<s2; greater than 0 if s1>s2. strchr(s1, ch); Returns a pointer to the first occurrence of character ch in string s1. 6 strstr(s1, s2); Returns a pointer to the first occurrence of string s2 in string s1.