Chapter-2 (3)_1 information system.pptx

Chapter: 2
Understanding Learning Theories

Contents
31-12-2020 Learning Styles and Theories 2
• Learning styles
 Why study learning styles?
 VAK theory
 Bernice McCarthy’s 4MAT system
 Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory model
• Learning Theories
 Behaviorism
 Cognitivism
 Constructivism
 Elaboration theory
 Nine Events of Instructions
 Component Display Theory

Contents
• Learning Process
• Three representational modes
• Self, metacognition, cognition, knowledge
• Arousal
• Feedback
• Domains of Learning

Learning Styles

Why study learning styles
Your learning style is your learning preference.
• How do you like to learn?
• influenced by many factors such as individual experience, different
intelligences and personality factors such as a preference for learning alone or
in a group
Knowing about Your Learning Style Helps You to:
Be more productive
Increase achievement
Be more creative
Improve problem solving
Make better decisions
Learn more effectively

VAK Theory
• Visual (Learning through seeing..)
• Auditory (Learning through listening..)
• Kinesthetic/Tactile ( Learning through moving, doing and touching..)
Which one of these is highly used in Ethiopia?

VAK Theory
Visual (Learning through seeing..)
• learners tend to see videos and images when they remember things and
may use mind maps.
• They have a tendancy for writing, drawing, imagining and prefer to create
their own notes and to read for themselves.
• They have an inclination to see a concept as whole rather than individual
parts.
• They benefit from seeing the aims and objectives of learning sessions or
from understanding the purpose of the session.
• Relying heavily on their senses and enjoying working in groups where they
observe non-verbal cues from colleagues, they learn through role play and
watching others perform or demonstrate a skill. Moreover, they also tend
to have good control over sign language

VAK Theory
Auditory (Learning through listening..)
• Listeners hear what is being said in order to understand
• may have difficulty with instructions that are written.
• Prefer to learn by listening and often mentally recall the words they
have heard
• Prefer listening to lectures, stories and other audios
• Interpret the underlying meanings of the speech through listening to
the tone of the voice, pitch and speed
• Prefer discussing and communicating with other classmates.

VAK Theory
Kinesthetic/Tactile ( Learning through moving, doing and touching..)
• Kinesthetic learners learn best through a hands-on approach, actively
exploring the physical world around them.
• They may find it hard to sit still for long periods and may become
distracted by their need for activity and exploration
Associate learners of the following field with Kinesthetic/Tactile, Auditory, Visual
Authors, Researchers, Engineers, Journalists, artists,
Childrens, Adults, Youngsters
Disability with various issues

Bernice McCarthy’s 4MAT system
• The fundamental assumption of The 4MAT Model, that humans learn
and develop through continuous, personal adaptations as they
construct meaning in their lives
• 4MAT deepens the experience of learning by engaging learners in
diverse learning sets which require the learner to form and test the
limits of his/her understanding.

Step One —- Quadrant 1 Right
to engage the learner in a Concrete experience which leads to a search of prior
knowledge and prior experience. In this step the teacher encourages diversification of ideas,
dialogue and participation
Suggestions for teachers
• Connect students directly to the concept
• Capture students’ attention by initiating a group problem-solving activity before delivery of
instruction.
• Begin with a situation that is familiar to students and builds on what they already know.
• Construct a learning experience that allows diverse and personal student responses.
• Facilitate the work of cooperative teams of students.
Evaluation: Engagement, participation in collaborative dialogue and generation of ideas.

Step Two — Quadrant 1 Left
 the teacher engages student reflection upon their existing level of their knowledge
and experience to determine if their opinions and beliefs are supportable.
 In quadrant one (right and left) the goal is engagement. However, in quadrant one
left the teacher’s role is to assist student as they explain and outline their thinking.
Objective: Examine the Experience.
Suggestions for teachers :
• Guide students to reflection and analysis of the experience.
• Encourage students to share their perceptions and beliefs.
• Summarize and review similarities and differences.
• Establish a positive attitude toward the diversity of different people’s experience.
• Clarify the reason for the learning.
Evaluation: The quality of students’ analyses of their collective subjective world of
experience. Students ability to explore stated feelings by listening, listing, patterning,
prioritizing, stating their own reflections

Step Three — Quadrant 2 Right
 to create a context for the learner to represent the subjective nature of his/her
existing knowledge
 encouraged to symbolize and Image making etc.
 learner switching from reflective experience to reflective thinking
Objective: Integrate personal experiences into conceptual understanding.
• Provide a metaview, lifting students into a wider view of the concept.
• Use another medium (not reading or writing) to connect students’ personal knowing to the
concept (i.e. visual arts, music, movement, etc.).
• Involve learners in reflective production that blends the emotional and the cognitive.
• Transform the concept yet to be taught into an image or experience, a “sneak preview” for the
students.
• Deepen the connection between the concept and its relationship to the students’ lives.
• Relate what the students already know to what the experts have found.
Evaluation: Quality of student production and reflection

Step Four — Quadrant 2 Left
 engages students in objective thinking
 Focus on analysis of verifiable concepts, facts, generalizations and theories.
 role of the teacher is to present information and experience in complete and systematic ways
Objective: Define theories and concepts.
Suggestions for teachers:
• Provide “acknowledged body of knowledge” related to the concept.
• Emphasize the most significant aspects of the concept in an organized, organic manner.
• Draw attention to important and discrete details
• Use a variety of delivery systems: interactive lecture, text, guest speakers, films, visuals,
demonstrations, etc. when available.
Evaluation: Teacher verbal and/or written checking for student understanding

Step Five — Quadrant 3 Left
• emphasis shifts from acquisition and assimilation to testing and adaptation
• Students now take the lead to apply what has been taught
• The teacher’s role here is coaching and assisting as students refine their ability to find applications
of their ideas.
Objective: Working on Defined Concepts (Reinforcement and Manipulation)
• Provide hands-on activities for practice and mastery.
• Check for understanding of concepts and skills by using relevant standard materials, i.e. worksheets,
text problems, workbooks, teacher prepared exercises, etc.
• Provide opportunities for students to practice new learning, perhaps in multi-modal ways (learning
centres, games fostering skills development, etc.)
• Set high expectations for skills mastery.
• Use concept of mastery learning to determine if re-teaching is necessary and how it will be carried
out.
• Have students create additional multi-modal practice for each other
Evaluation: Quality of student work, perhaps an objective quiz

Step Six — Quadrant 3 Right
• the student tests the limits and contradictions of his/her understanding.
• The teacher’s role is to encourage students to take the application of learned ideas to more
sophisticated, personal levels.
• Students are encouraged to develop their own applications which demonstrate that
they understand and can apply what has been learned.
• Project work is the essence of this phase of the 4MAT Model
Objective: “Messing Around” (Adding Something of Themselves)
• Encourage tinkering with ideas/relationships/connections.
• Set up situations where students have to find information not readily available in school texts.
• Provide opportunity for students to design their own open-ended explorations of the concept.
• Require students to organize and synthesize their learning in some personal, meaningful way.
• Require students to begin the process of planning how their project will be evaluated,
identifying their own criteria for excellence.
Evaluation: Students on-task behaviour and engagement in their chosen options

Step Seven — Quadrant 4 Left
• to critically examine the place of the newly acquired knowledge and experience in his/her
existing world view.
• Working alone or preferably in pairs and triads, refine their work.
• The teacher’s role here is to guide the refinement of the old schema and encourage the formation of a
more complete perspective.
Objective: Evaluating for Usefulness and Application
• Give guidance and feedback to students’ plans, encouraging, refining, and helping them to be
responsible for their own learning.
• Help students analyze their use of the learning for meaning, relevance, and originality.
• Maintain high expectations for completion of chosen options.
• Help mistakes to become learning opportunities.
• Summarize by reviewing the whole, bringing students “full circle” to the experience with which the
learning began.
Evaluation: Students’ willingness and ability to edit, refine, rework, analyze, and complete their own work

Step Eight — Quadrant 4 Right
• integration, celebration and closure.
• the learner returns to the place where he/she began, the self, and integrates the learning experience
• This is the step where presentations are given, where letters are mailed and research reports submitted.
• The teacher’s role is to join in the celebration and facilitate entry into the next unit of study.
Objective: Doing it Themselves and Sharing What They Do with Others
Suggestions for teachers :
• Support students in learning, teaching, and sharing with others.
• Establish a classroom atmosphere that celebrates the sharing of learning.
• Have opportunity for students to practice new learnings.
• Make student learning available to the larger community, i.e. books students write are shared with other
classes; students report in school paper; student work is displayed throughout the school; etc
• Leave students wondering (creatively) about further possible applications of the concept, extending the
“what ifs” into the future.
Evaluation: Students ability to report and demonstrate what they have learned. Expressions of student
enjoyment in the sharing of their learning. Quality of student final products.
Relate the following activities with McCarty 's 4 Mat system
Suggest I gave Learning Management system to students to expose them with e-learning technologies
students experienced the use of LMS and fascinated about the system benefits
Students relate and differentiate the LMS with other e-learning technologies i.e. mentor
Students told to their friends and colleagues about the benefits of the system
Students used the system to prepare course for their students
Students expand the use of the system for their families and communities to discuss about their families and communities
Students deliver the how to use the system for other students

Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory Model

1. Concrete Experience - (a new experience of situation is encountered, or a
reinterpretation of existing experience).
2. Reflective Observation (of the new experience. Of particular importance
are any inconsistencies between experience and understanding).
3. Abstract Conceptualization (Reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a
modification of an existing abstract concept).
4. Active Experimentation (the learner applies them to the world around
them to see what results).

Kolb’s Learning Styles:
It's often easier to see the construction of Kolb's learning styles in terms of a
two-by-two matrix:
Doing (Active
Experimentation
- AE)
Watching (Reflective
Observation
- RO)
Feeling (Concrete
Experience - CE)
Accommodating (CE/AE) Diverging (CE/RO)
Thinking (Abstract
Conceptualization
- AC)
Converging (AC/AE) Assimilating (AC/RO)

Kolb’s Learning Styles
1. Diverging (feeling and watching - CE/RO):
• These people looks the things from different perspectives. They are
sensitive. They prefer to watch rather than do, tending to gather
information and use imagination to solve problems.
• Kolb called this style 'diverging' because these people perform better in
situations that require ideas-generation, for example, brainstorming.
• People with the diverging style prefer to work in groups, to listen with an
open mind and to receive personal feedback.

2. Assimilating (watching and thinking - AC/RO):
• The Assimilating learning preference is for a concise, logical approach.
Ideas and concepts are more important than people. These people require
good clear explanation rather than practical opportunity.
• People with this style are more attracted to logically sound theories than
approaches based on practical value.
• This learning style is important for effectiveness in information and science
careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer
readings, lectures, exploring analytical models

3. Converging (doing and thinking - AC/AE)
• can solve problems and will use their learning to find solutions to practical
issues. They prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned with people and
interpersonal aspects.
• are best at finding practical uses for ideas and theories. They can solve
problems and make decisions by finding solutions to questions and
problems.
• more attracted to technical tasks and problems than social or
interpersonal issues. People with a converging style like to experiment with
new ideas, to simulate, and to work with practical applications.

4. Accommodating (doing and feeling - CE/AE)
• It is 'hands-on', and relies on intuition rather than logic. These people use
other people's analysis, and prefer to take a practical, experiential
approach. They are attracted to new challenges and experiences, and to
carrying out plans.
• They commonly act on 'gut' instinct rather than logical analysis. People
with an accommodating learning style will tend to rely on others for
information than carry out their own analysis.
Audience
Authors
Movie Makers
Theater players
Directors

Learning Theories

Learning Theories
Behaviorism
• Equates learning with behaviors that can be observed and measured.
• Strong emphasis on the stimulus, the response and the relationship
between them

Learning Theories
Behaviorism
• Does not prepare the learner for problem solving or creative thinking
• Learner do what they have been told to do and do not take an initiative to
change the things
• Prepared to recall of basic facts, automatic responses or performing tasks
Examples and Applications
• Repetitive Practice
• Bonus Points ( providing an incentive to practice)
• Participation points( providing an incentive to participate)
• Verbal Reinforcement (saying “Good job”)
• Establishing Rules

Learning Theories
Cognitivism
• Cognitivism focuses on the inner mental activities – opening the
“black box" of the human mind is valuable and necessary for
understanding how people learn.
• Mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-
solving need to be explored.
• Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions.
• Pays more attention on what goes on inside the learners head and
focuses on mental processes rather than observable behavior

Learning Theories
Cognitivism
Examples and Applications:
• Classifying information
• Linking concepts ( associate new content with something known)
• Providing structure ( organizing your lecture in efficient and meaningful ways)
• Real world examples
• Discussions
• Problem solving
• Analogies
• Proving images/pictures

Learning Theories
Constructivism
• The theory suggests that humans construct knowledge and
meaning from their experiences.
• Create novel and situation-specific understandings by
"assembling" knowledge from diverse sources appropriate to
the problem at hand (flexible use of knowledge)

Learning Theories
Constructivism
Examples and Applications:
• Case studies
• Research Projects
• Problem based learning
• Brainstorming
• Collaborative learning/group work
• Discovery learning
• Simulations

Elaboration Theory details a general model of organizing
instruction from a simple to more complex structure.
Features of the Model (Ragan & Smith, 1996):
1. An epitome at the beginning of the instruction
2. A learning-prerequisite sequence within each level of elaboration
3. A learner-control format
4. The use of analogies, summarizers and synthesizers.
Learning Theories

Elaboration Theory :
Courses can have 3 different structuring which are based on the
goals of the course.
1. Conceptual: A course structure that is based upon concepts. There
are three types: parts, kinds and matrices
2. Procedural: A course structure where learning/teaching is based on
knowing the procedures for how to do something. There are two
different kinds of procedural knowledge: procedural order and
procedural decision.
3. Theoretical: A course structure where learning/teaching is based on
theory. There are two types: theory that describes a natural
phenomena (descriptive) and those that affect a desired outcome
(prescriptive).
Learning Theories

Nine events of Instruction
(Ragan & Smith, 1996)
1. Gain Attention
2. Inform the learner of the
objective
3. Stimulate recall of prior
knowledge
4. Present stimulus material
5. Provide learning guidance
6. Elicit performance
7. Provide feedback
8. Assess performance
9. Enhance retention and transfer
Learning Theories

Component Display Theory: classifies learning objectives in two
dimensions: performance level (remember, use or find) and
content type (facts, concepts, principles, or procedures) (Ragan &
Smith, 1996).
Learning Theories

Component Display Theory
Fact Concept Procedure Principle
Find
Use
Remember
Learning Theories

• Primary Presentation Forms: Content (generality or instance) and
Approach (expository or inquisitory)
• Secondary Presentation Forms: Prerequisites, context, helps,
representation, mnemonics, feedback.
“According to the theory, instruction is more effective when it
contains all of the necessary primary and secondary presentation
forms.”
Learning Theories

Learning Theories
• Principles (Kearsley, 1998):
1. Instruction will be more effective if all three primary performance
forms are present.
2. Primary forms can be presented by either an explanatory or
inquisitory learning strategy.
3. The sequence of primary forms is not critical provided they are all
present.
4. Students should be given control over the number of instances or
practice items they receive.

Learning Process

Three Representational Modes
All information that is perceived via the senses passes through three
processors that encode it as linguistic, nonlinguistic, or affective
representations.

Linguistic :
• Grabbed the most attention from the learning standpoint
• Includes verbal communication, reading, watching (e.g. learn the rule
of chess through observation), etc.
• Basically, the linguistic processor encodes our experiences as abstract
propositions.
• The propositions are primary bearer of truth and falsity and they
represent the things we know and doubt.

Non-Linguistic :
• This includes the smell, audio, kinesthetic, mental pictures, etc. These
act and function in a permanent manner, i.e. the things we
experience get stored in our memory.
• E.g. When we taste sugar sweet taste of it stores in our taste buds
and when we see anything sweet, instantly we can imagine the taste
of it.

Affective
• This is the essence of our emotions, feelings, etc. Feelings are the
internal physiological state of one at any point in time.
• Thus, thoughts and feelings together form the emotion, and emotions
become mood over a period of time

Self, Metacognition, Cognition, and Knowledge
systems
describe the domains of knowledge

Self, Metacognition, Cognition and Knowledge
systems
We receive information linguistically, non-linguistically, and affectively through
our senses. This information or presenting task then passes through four human
thought processing systems:
• Self System — The self-system is an interconnected network of beliefs that
helps a person to make sense of the world and decide what goals and tasks to
pursue
• Metacognitive System — This system helps us to plan, set time lines, and
allocate resources. It also designs strategies for accomplishing the presenting
task. How do we go about solving a complicated task?
• Cognitive & Knowledge System — This process includes the effective
execution of steps for problem solving and creates novel ideals for the
construction of new concepts. Uses knowledge to accomplish specific tasks.

Arousal
• Arousal is a major aspect of many learning theories as it is closely related
to other concepts, such as attention, motivation, agitation, anxiety, and
stress.
• The arousal level may be thought of as how much emotional capacity you
have available to work with.
• One finding with respect to arousal is the Yerkes-Dodson law, which
predicts an inverted U-shaped function between arousal and performance
(Yerkes, Dodson, 1908)
• For example, an algebra or software programming class requires a high
level of engagement on the cognitive level, thus, arousal must be kept low
as you need the learners' full attention on the subject matter as too much
arousal overloads them.

Arousal

Feedback
• Feedback is a fundamental learning and teaching activity that has a
significant impact on student learning and achievement, and as such
is an important function of assessment.
• While feedback is an incredibly helpful tool, there are instances in
which the feedback that is provided is not as effective as is needed for
positive student growth. The most effective type of feedback is high
personalized and highly relevant to the subject area being assessed.

Feedback
Here are a few guidelines regarding the best use of feedback:
• Goal-oriented. Feedback should be tied to specific, measurable learning
goals, objectives, or standards. When giving feedback, link your comments
to the expectations laid out in the assignment prompt and rubric. Directly
reference the prompt and rubric components, using similar language
where possible. Help students understand where they are in relation to the
stated goals.
• Prioritized. Feedback should be concise and focused on the areas of
strength and growth that will have the greatest impact on the student's
learning. It isn't feasible or advisable to provide feedback on every aspect
of student work. Concise, prioritized feedback is more digestible for
students and easier to internalize and implement. You will have to make
judgement calls on where to focus.

Feedback
• Actionable. Feedback should be so specific that the student immediately knows
how to take action. Your comments should clearly describe their successes and
shortfalls and directly reference the student's work in order to point the student
to their next steps. To advance students' metacognition and enable them to self-
assess their work, ask probing questions that will spark thoughtful reflection and
a new understanding for how to develop their work.
• Student-Friendly. Feedback should be personalized and engaging to ensure it
reaches the student. To aid student acceptance of feedback, respond like a reader
who is seeking to understand what the student has written. An encouraging,
positive tone will go far in helping students accept your feedback and apply it to
future work. Be sure to use language that is clear and not too technical.
• Ongoing, Consistent and Timely. To be effective, feedback must also be ongoing,
consistent, and timely. This means that students need ample opportunities to use
feedback and that feedback must be accurate, trustworthy and stable. When
feedback isn’t timely, students are disengaged and demotivated. It’s important to
build regular feedback loops into your teaching practice.

Domains of Learning
A. Cognitive Domain
The cognitive domain involves the development of our mental skills and the acquisition of
knowledge. The six categories under this domain are:
• Knowledge: the ability to recall data and/or information. Example: A child recites the English
alphabet.
• Comprehension: the ability to understand the meaning of what is known. Example: A teacher
explains a theory in his own words.
• Application: the ability to utilize an abstraction or to use knowledge in a new situation. Example:
A nurse intern applies what she learned in her Psychology class when she talks to patients.
• Analysis: the ability to differentiate facts and opinions. Example: A lawyer was able to win over a
case after recognizing logical fallacies in the reasoning of the offender.
• Synthesis: the ability to integrate different elements or concepts in order to form a sound pattern
or structure so a new meaning can be established. Examples: A therapist combines yoga,
biofeedback and support group therapy in creating a care plan for his patient.
• Evaluation: the ability to come up with judgments about the importance of concepts. Examples: A
businessman selects the most efficient way of selling products

Domains of Learning
B. Affective Domain
The affective domain involves our feelings, emotions and attitudes. This domain is
categorized into 5 subdomains, which include:
• Receiving Phenomena: the awareness of feelings and emotions as well as the
ability to utilize selected attention. Example: Listening attentively to a friend.
• Responding to Phenomena: active participation of the learner. Example:
Participating in a group discussion.
• Valuing: the ability to see the worth of something and express it. Example: An
activist shares his ideas on the increase in salary of laborers.
• Organization: ability to prioritize a value over another and create a unique value
system. Example: A teenager spends more time in her studies than with her
boyfriend.
• Characterization: the ability to internalize values and let them control the
person`s behavior. Example: A man marries a woman not for her looks but for
what she is.

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