3. Definition
• Is the sociological study of life and human interaction in
metropolitan areas.
• It is a normative discipline of sociology seeking to study
the structures, processes, changes and problems of an
urban area and by doing so provide inputs for planning
and policy making.
3
4. Continued
• In other words, it is the sociological study of cities and
their role in the development of society.
• Like most areas of sociology, urban sociologists use
statistical analysis, observation, social theory, social
research methods to study a range of topics, including
• migration and demographic trends, economics,
poverty, race relations and economic trends.
4
5. Continued
• Urban sociology is a branch of sociology, which
focuses of urban living of people in groups and social
relationships in urban social circumstance.
• urban sociology concerns itself with the social and
cultural forms assumed by the urban phenomenon in
the past and in the present as well as the worldviews of
the various cultures that have produced cities, and the
coherence or incoherence with which these worldviews
have been given concrete form.
5
6. Continued
Urban sociology emerged as a branch of sociology in
the early 20th c following the social upheaval caused
by the industrial revolution.
The discipline was inspired by the works of University
of Chikago scholars namely Park, Burgess, and
McKenzi.
these scholars sought to understand how increase in
urbanizm during Industrial Revolution contributed to
the social problems afflicting urban communities.
6
7. continued
• The scope of urban sociology is vast.
• under it, besides the general urban sociology, the
development of towns, social disorganizations, we also
study the problems of urban life and town planning.
• it also makes a study of the interaction between the
urban environment and the development of human
personality.
7
8. Continued
• it also studies such features of social
disorganization as crimes, juvenile delinquency,
prostitution, beggary, unemployment, disease,
populations slums, gambling dens, recreation
centers, bars, clubs and night lifes.
8
9. 1.2 The Subject Matter of Urban Sociology
• Urban sociology is a branch of sociology that deals with
the impact of city life on social action, social relations,
social institutions, and the types of civilization derived
from urban mode of life.
• It examines a great deal of issues including:
– The socio-cultural and behavioral peculiarities of urban
residents and the urban community.
– Ecological organization and socio geographic
differentiation of cities, spatial distribution and
structure of cities.
9
10. Continued
– Social and cultural changes in the organizational
structure and functioning of the different sub areas of
the city.
– Causes and consequences of social change.
– History of urbanization to provide perspectives and
comparative materials on earlier urbanization.
– Urban demographic characteristics including
population size distribution etc.
10
11. Continued
• Urban sociology draws upon information from
different sources and disciplines:
• such as education, health, courts, police, etc.
economics, public administration, social
psychology, history, etc.
11
12. Urbanization
• Urbanization is the process of population
concentration in urban areas.
• It involves the movement of people particularly
from rural areas to urban areas.
• There are two simple measures of urbanization:
1. Level of urbanization growth
2. Rate of urbanization
12
13. Continued
Level of urbanization =
urban population = ratio
Rural population
Level of urbanization =
urban population x 100 =%
rural population
13
15. Sociologists see urbanization as resulting from
three interrelated factors
1. Significant increase in the population of a given geographic
area.
2. The corresponding increase in social density resulting from
the population increase.
3. The increasing heterogeneity of people as more and more
diverse people are drawn to the grown urban settlement.
From these three factors arise a number of organizational
consequences the most important of which is the social
division of labor in economic activities.
15
16. Approaches to define urban settlement
Urban settlement: defining the concept urban settlement is not an
easy task. There is no single definition to which every body agrees.
Thus, different approaches have been developed to define the
concept “urban settlement”
A. Demographic definition:
Urban settlements are those settlements that have certain number
of population.
This certain number varies from country to country.
For example in: Botswana ≥5000
Ethiopia ≥3000
USA ≥2500
16
17. Cont...
B. Administrative definition (legal):
• Declaration (charter granting) by authorities.
C. Economic Definition:
focuses on occupation.
The majority of the inhabitants are engaged in
other than agriculture
It has to mean that agriculture is not dominant.
D. Social Relation Definition:
defines urban, as a locality:
large, and the inhabitants do not know one another.
The chance of people to know each other is low.
17
18. Cont...
• E. Multiple factors definition: since no single definition
gives us sufficient meanings for urban settlement.
• In this regard, Alvin Boskoff defines an urban locality as a
community characterized by:
Dominance of commercial ,industrial and service
occupations, and extensive division of labor
Social complexity;
High density of population and
The development of coordination and social control on
non-kinship basis.
18
19. UN-Definition
• For the purpose of international comparison, the
UN has tried to develop its own definition
particularly.
• The UN has identified 3 categories of urban
settlements based on demographic factors:
Big city = has at least 0.5 million population
City = has at least 100,000 population
Urban locality=has at least 20,000 population
19
20. Types of Urban settlement
We can think of an urban settlement as being composed
of three functionally interrelated and distinct parts:
cities, suburbs, and exurbs.
• Cities: The definition of what constitutes a city,
changes from time to time and place to place. The
United Nations has recommended that places with
more than 20,000 inhabitants living close. Still the
nations compile their statistics on the basis of many
different standards. 20
21. Cont...
• Suburbs are settlements which develop around
the city. These are adjacent to the city and are
established for different purposes; commercial,
industrial, residential, etc. Such suburbs together
with the city are referred to as metropolitan
center.
• Metropolitan city: is a kind of city where a
major city center becomes surrounded by a
complex of suburban communities densely
populated and economically integrated.
21
22. Cont..
• Exurbs are recent phenomena which came after
suburbanization.
• Exurbs refer to those settlements beyond the suburbs.
• Such communities are found with in 50 to 80 kms
away from the city center.
• Exurbs are part of the urban pattern since their
inhabitants have the same lifestyle to the residents of
the city.
• They work in the city or in adjacent suburbs.
• Exurbs are particularly common experience of
developed countries.
• The spread of exurbs is very much connected with
private vehicles and advanced road facilities.
22
23. Why sociologists are interested in urban
phenomenon:
Urbanization has been increasing.
Urban mode of life is a recent phenomenon in the history of
mankind.
Industrialization being one of the major pulling factors for urban
growth.
• According to Kingsely Davis, the percentage of urban population…
• Year % of Urban Population
1900 14%
1950 28%
1980 45%
2000 55%
2025 64%
23
24. Continued
• Urbanization has brought revolutionary changes in the
whole pattern of social life.
• It tends to affect every aspect of human life, social
institutions, production systems, transportation etc.
• Urban centers tend to be centers of power and influence
throughout the whole society.
• The most important economic activities such as trade,
communication administration are concentrated in urban
areas.
24
25. Why..
• The process of urbanization is still occurring and its
direction is uncertain
• Cities are the engines of development influencing
economic, political, social and technological
innovations and adaptations
• The contemporary social problems are essentially
urban born problems.
– To mention some, urban poverty, sanitation problem,
family breakdowns, streetism, drug addictions, crime and
delinquency among the major urban born problems.
25
26. Why..
• The effort in this course is also to discuss the scholarship
that has sought to capture new trends in large cities in
their urban shape.
• Most of social life in emerging large cities do not
corresponds to urban continuing and familiar trends.
• If one were confined to traditional concepts of urban
sociology, one would overlook or underestimate critical
aspects of major new trends coming together in a
growing number of cities.
26
27. Importance…
Multiple globalization processes assume concrete
localized forms, electronic networks intersect with thick
environments (whether financial centers or activist
meetings), and new subjectivities arise from the
encounters of people from all around the world.
Thus, today’s large cities have emerged as a strategic site
for a whole range of new types of operations, some
pertaining to the global economy and others to political,
cultural, and subjective domains.
27
28. Importance…
• Either way, it suggests that cities are a type of place where
we can carry out detailed ethnographies, surveys, or other
types of empirical studies about several of today’s major
processes that are global at least in some of their
dimensions.
• It is one of the nexuses where the new types of trends
materialize and assume real forms that can be constituted
as objects of study.
28
29. Urbanism
It refers to the cultural component associated
with urbanization.
It includes a range of beliefs, values and rules of
behavior which are assumed to be associated with
urbanization.
NB: While urbanization is the state of population
concentration in urban areas, Urbanism is the way
of life of people living in urban areas.
29
30. Continued
Louis Wirth has given four characteristics of
urbanism.
Transiency: An urban inhabitant's relation with
others last only for a short time; he tends to forget his
old acquaintances and develop relations with new
people. Since he is not much attached to his neighbors’
members of the social groups, he does not mind
leaving them.
30
31. Continued
Superficiality: An urban person has the limited
number of persons with whom he interacts and
his relations with them are impersonal and
formal. People meet each other in highly
segmental roles. They are dependent on more
people for the satisfaction of their life needs.
31
32. Continued
Anonymity: Urbanities do not know each other
intimately. Personal mutual acquaintance between
the inhabitants which ordinarily is found in a
neighborhood is lacking.
Individualism: People give more importance to
their own vested interests.
32
33. Characteristics of Urban and Urbanization
• The urban society is heterogeneous known for its diversity
and complexity.
• It is dominated by secondary relations.
• Formal means of social control such as law, legislation,
police, and court are needed in addition to the informal
means for regulating the behavior of the people.
• The urban society is mobile and open.
33
34. Cont...
• It provides more chances for social mobility.
• The status is achieved than ascribed.
• Occupations are more specialized. There is widespread
division of labor and specialization opportunities for
pursuing occupations are numerous.
• Family is said to be unstable. More than the family
individual is given importance. Joint families are
comparatively less in number.
34
35. Cont...
• People are more class-conscious and progressive
• They welcome changes.
• They are exposed to the modern developments in
the fields of science and technology.
• Urban community is a complex multi-group
society.
• The urban community replaced consensus by
dispenses.
35
36. Cont...
• The social organization is atomistic and ill-defined.
• It is characterized by disorganization, mental illness
and anomie.
• Mass education is widespread in the city increasing
democratization of the organizations and institutions
demand formal education.
36
37. Urban Growth vs Urbanization
• Clarification of the terms of urban growth and
urbanization is essential. The former means an
increase in the number of people living in urban
settlements.
• It is one form of urbanization.
• Urbanization, “on the other hand, refers to a rise in
the proportion of a total population that is
concentrated in urban settlements”.
37
38. Cont...
• The critical difference between the two concepts
lies in the fact that urbanization can be seen as
incorporating rural growth if that growth ever
results in an area later attaining urban status.
38
39. Urban Sociology: Origin and Development as a
Branch of Sociology
• As sociology itself is of recent origin urban
sociology is much younger than sociology.
• Urban sociology as a systematic study saw its
development in the 20th century in America.
39
40. Cont...
• The dominance of the city, especially of the great
city’, wrote Louis Wirth in 1938, ‘may be regarded as
a consequence of the concentration in cities of
industrial, commercial, financial, and administrative
facilities and activities, theaters, libraries, museums,
concert halls, operas, hospitals, colleges, research and
publishing centers, professional organizations, and
religious and welfare institutions.’
40
41. Cont...
• The 1930s sub-urbanization process was one of
the tremendous forces behind the emergence of
urban sociology.
• By the 1970s, major cities across America were in
crisis.
• Unemployment, homelessness, crime, pollution,
substandard housing, inadequate public
transportation and infrastructure had become the
trademarks of inner cities and downtown districts
throughout the USA.
41
42. Cont...
• Economic, social and cultural changes have taken place
in the last few decades.
• Many social scientists refer to these changes in the urban
landscape as the post-modern or post-suburb.
• All these works were carried out first in the USA.
• Studies were conducted by Lyndssays, Sorokin and
Zimmerman and thereby by 1930 urban sociology
developed as a specialized field of enquiry within the
formal discipline of sociology.
42
43. Cont...
• Urban Sociology as a distinct branch of the sociology
discipline emerged around early 20th century.
• Even though cities existed even in earlier times too
the social changes caused by the Industrial
Revolution and consequent massing of people in the
cities attracted social scientists to make the city the
subject matter of study.
43
44. Cont...
• The focus of urban sociology study in the
beginning was to analyze the impact of
urbanization on the integrity of the preexisting
forms of social organization.
• Later on there was significant expansion of the
scope of the discipline.
44
45. Cont...
• The birth of urban sociology has a close association with
the expansion of Chicago city.
• Rapid commercialism and industrialization of the city
occurred in later 19th century.
• There was the influx of migrants from places like,
Europe, France, Sweden, Germany, Czechoslovakia etc.
and the city became more and more complex as it
became multi cultural, multilingual and with unequal
distribution of wealth
45
46. Cont...
• By 1920s the Chicago School found that the natural areas could be
significantly studied in two aspects:
a) The spatial Patterns: topography of the local community and the
physical arrangement which not only include land space but also the
structures that the people constructed, that sheltered the inhabitants and
provided the places of work and play.
b)The cultural life: The modes of living and customs and standards.
• The spatial aspect gave rise to ecological studies, all that could be
mapped; the distribution, physical structures, institutions, groups and
individuals over an area.
46
47. Section 2:Orgion and Evolution of Cities
• The births of cities have been traced back from the
beginning old stone age.
• During this age, human beings led nomadic life.
People were primarily food gatherers and hunters.
• The limited supply of wild food permitted only
very small number of regions to exist in a given
area.
47
48. Cont...
• With the Neolithic period man discovered, among
other things, how to domesticate plants and animals.
• This was a remarkable change in human mode of life.
• Once he adopted agriculture he had to live near the
farm. It is at this time that settlement began.
• These villages were initially small due to the low
productivity of agriculture.
48
49. Cont...
• The first cities seem to have appeared during the
metal age.
• There is no agreement on the exact time when early
urban settlements emerged.
• Sociologists are interested more on the factors which
are responsible for the emergence of early urban
settlements rather than in determining the exact time
of urban emergence.
49
50. Cont...
• Different explanations have been given for the
emergence of early urban settlements.
• For our purpose, we will consider three
approaches
50
51. Factors for Urbanization
1. Philip M. Hauser: identified four preconditions for the emergence of
urban settlements.
• Significant increase in the population of a given geographic area and the
corresponding increase in social density resulting from the population
increase as well as the increasing heterogeneity of people as more and
more diverse people are drawn to the grown urban settlement;
• The control of the natural environment;
• Technological development; and
• Developments in social organization
51
52. Cont...
Gideon Sjoberg (urban sociologist) identified three
preconditions for the emergence of cities, which
are similar with the conditions proposed by Philip
M. Hauser.
• Favorable ecological base
• An advanced technology
• Complex social organization
52
53. The Rise and Emergence of Urban Life Cont...
• Urbanization, or the building of and living in
compact densely populated places, appeared in
early 10, 000 years ago.
• Continuously used, densely populated settlements
can be found in the Middle East that date back
over 6,000 years and in the Indus Valley in India
that date back over 4,000 years.
53
54. Cont...
• More specifically, the first urban centers (towns)
were believed to be established about 5,000 years
ago.
• The earliest towns were around the Mediterranean
Sea and Babylon was one of the oldest recorded
towns.
• Urbanization was a significant way of life in the
Western World .
54
55. Cont...
• But it has only been in the last 200 years with the
advent and spread of industrialization and with the
global population rising at an exponential rate that
cities have grown significantly in size and number.
• Before the industrial revolution, most towns were
small and mainly commercial centers and seaports.
55
56. 56
Period Time Mode of life
1. Paleolithic
(Old Stone Age)
Before 10,000
years
Nomadic
2. Neolithic
(New Stone Age)
8 to 10, 000
years
The beginning of settlement
or Neolithic villages
3. Metal age
(4th millennium)
3500 BC ago Emergence of early urban
settlements as , , Babylon
etc
57. `157
4. Early
Christian
period
600Bc to
400AD
Establishment of famous
cities-Greeco-Roman
cities (, cartage, )
5. Middle
ages
B/n4th to
16thc
Establishment of pre-
industrial cities- cities of
feudal
Europe (, , , , etc.)
6. Modern
period
B/n 18
and 20th c
Industrial revolution
occurred. Industrial and
commercial life style
flourished (e.g. , .)
Growth of metropolitan
cities, mega polis
58. • During the Old Stone Age, human beings lead
nomadic life.
• People were primarily food gatherers and hunters
• With the Neolithic period man discovered, among
other things, how to domesticate plants and
animals.
• The earliest cities were located in river valleys
and alluvial plains.
58
59. Distinct Phases of Urbanization
We can identify three phases of urbanization:
1. Pre industrial cities
2. Industrial and modern cities
3. Post industrial cities
59
60. Preindustrial Cities
• The preindustrial cities can further be divided in to
three phases:
Ancient
Greco-roman and
Medieval cities.
60
61. A, Ancient Cities
• It is estimated that, beginning about 10,000 B.C.,
permanent settlements emerged.
• The world’s first cities appeared about 3500 B.C,
in the river valleys of the Nile in Egypt, the Tigris
and Euphrates in what is now Iraq, and the Indus
in what is today Pakistan.
61
62. They Were Characterized By
Status was usually based on ascribed characteristics.
Few thousand people living within its borders.
Closed class system and limited mobility
All the residents relied on farming.
They were small walled areas surrounded by agricultural
hinter.
Why Ancient Cities Were Small?
62
63. Why Ancient Cities Were Small?
Kingsley Davis
• Reliance on animal power (both humans and beasts of
burden) as a source of energy for economic production.
• Modest level of surplus produced by the agricultural
sector.
• Problems in transportation and storage of food and
other goods.
63
64. Cont....
• Political limitations: the difficulty of communication
and transport and the existence of multi-furious local
tribal cultures made the formation of large national units
virtually impossible.
• Hardships of migration to the city. For many peasants,
migration was both physically and economically
impossible.
• Dangers of city life. Concentrating a society’s population
in a small area left it open to attack from outsiders, as
well as more susceptible to extreme damages from
plagues and fires.
64
65. Cont....
• Lack of scientific medicine which make urban
living deadly.
• The absence of large scale manufacturing
• The bureaucratic control of the peasantry which
stifled free trade in hinterland.
• The traditionalism and religiosity of all classes
which hampered technological and economic
advance.
65
66. B. The Greco-roman Cities
• The second phase in the history of urban centers
was observed in Europe.
• This took place approximately between 600BC
and 400AD.
• Roughly it covered about 1000 years. For
instance, Athens had a population of about 120 to
180 thousand inhabitants during the 5th century
BC.
• The economy of Greco-roman cities was
agricultural
66
67. Major Stimulating Factors for The Development
of Urban Center
Improvements in iron tools and weapons.
Improvements in sail boats, better and bigger ships
were produced.
Production of cheap coins to facilitate exchange of
goods and services.
Heavy and perishable exchange materials were
replaced by coins.
The development of alphabetic writing: pictorial
writing systems were replaced by alphabetic writing
and this had facilitated communication.
Emergence of more democratic institutions.
67
68. Cont...
• All of the above factors helped to increase
production, stimulate trade, expand effective
political unit and political control in spite of the
fact that Greco-roman cities had several
thousands of population, they were conquered by
the less urbanized outsiders( barbarians or
Germans).
• The collapse of Greco roman cities brought about
the period commonly known as “the dark age”
which extended from 5th to 10th century.
68
69. C, Medival Period
• With the end of the dark ages, cities began to develop
once again.
• Pre-industrial cities refer to medieval European
cities; they were simply cities of feudal Europe.
• Many of these cities are now quite large and become
metropolitan centers. For instance:
i. Florence had 90,000 populations in 1339
ii. Venice had 119,000 populations in 1322
iii. London had 30,000 populations in 1377
iv. Frankfurt had 20,000 populations in 1440
69
70. Cont...
• Gideon Sjoberg, in his article “the pre-
industrial city” analyzed medieval cities in
terms of their:
i. Ecological Organization
ii. Economic Organization and
iii. Social Organization.
70
71. I. Ecological Organization
• Pre-industrial cities were centers of marketing, manufacturing
activities.
• In addition they perform religious, political and educational
functions.
• The proportion of urbanites relative to peasants was small and
most of them were not more than 10%.
Distinct ethnic and occupational groups like goldsmiths, live in
special sections.
Carts were used as a means of transport.
Buildings were short and crowded together.
No such urban planning practice.
No functional specialization of land use.
Outcast groups live on the periphery.
Most streets of the cities were narrow.
71
72. II. Economic Organization
Dependence on animate source of energy.
Little specialization of work.
Non standardization of products.
Work is performed at home or in the near by shop.
Occupational groups such as smiths are organized in
guilds.
72
73. III. Social Organization
• Literate elite controlling and depending for its
existence upon the mass of the populace.
• The literate elite class is composed of individuals
holding positions in the governmental, religious
and/or educational institutions.
• They belong to the “correct” families and enjoy
power, property and certain highly valued personal
attributes.
73
74. Cont...
• Their position is legitimized by sacred writings.
• Social mobility is minimal and outcaste groups
such as slaves and beggars are not an integral
part of the dominant social system.
• The formal government was closely related with
educational and religious institutions.
74
75. Cont….
• The principal functions of the government were:
a) Extracting tribute to support the activities
of the elite group and
b) Maintain law and order.
• The kinship and familial organization displays some
rigid patterns of sex and age differentiation.
• Marriage is a prerequisite to adult status and
arranged between families rather than somatically
by individuals.
• Mechanism of social control among siblings and the
eldest son is privileged.
75
76. 2. Industrial cities
• The factory system that developed during the
industrial revolution led to a much more refined
division of labor than was evident in early
preindustrial cities.
• The factory new occupations that were created
produced a complex set of relationships among
workers.
• Thus, the industrial city was not merely more
populous than its preindustrial predecessors; it was
also based on very different principles of social
organization.
76
77. Cont...
• With the coming of industrialization new means of
transportation were introduced. The horse is
replaced by the vehicle.
• The walls around cities were no more important.
New arms and defense instrument were facilitated.
• The advancing production technology and the
development of the factory system created rising
demands for waged labors.
77
78. Cont…
• This led to massive immigration of people to the
growing urban centers.
• In comparison with preindustrial cities, industrial
cities have a more open class system and more
mobility.
• After initiatives in industrial cities by women’s
rights groups, labor unions and other political
activists, formal education gradually became
available to many children from poor and
working class families.
78
79. Futures of Industrial Cites
Relatively low segregation.
Good transportation and communication.
A manufacturing, finance and coordinating centre of an
industrial society.
A fluid class structure.
A large middle class.
Wealth by salaries, fees, investment.
Time important and regular work schedule.
Standardization of process and quality.
Formal public opinion with a bureaucracy based on
technical criteria.
Technical and secular education for the masses.
79
80. 3.Postindustrial City
• In the latter part of the 20th century, a new type of urban
community emerged.
• The postindustrial city is a city in which global finance
and the electronic flow of information dominate the
economy.
• Production is decentralized and often takes place outside
of urban centers, but control is centralized in
multinational corporations whose influence transcends
urban and even national boundaries.
• Social change is a constant feature of the postindustrial
city.
80
81. 3.Postindustrial City
• In the latter part of the 20th century, a new type of
urban community emerged.
• The postindustrial city is a city in which global
finance and the electronic flow of information
dominate the economy.
• Production is decentralized and often takes place
outside of urban centers, but control is centralized in
multinational corporations whose influence transcends
urban and even national boundaries.
• Social change is a constant feature of the
postindustrial city.
81
82. Functional Classification Cities
It is possible to categorize urban centers based on
the major activities they carry out.
1. Economic centers.
2. Political centers.
3. Cultural centers.
4. Residential centers.
5. Recreation centers.
6. Symbolic center.
7. Diversified centers.
82
83. 1. Economic Centers
a) Centers of primary production mining, oiling,
fishing towns like ziway, Arba Minch, Adda.
b) Manufacturing centers kality, Wonji, Akaki.
c) Trade centers national or international trade centers.
d) Transport centers sports and train centers.
e) Service centers financial service like banking
insurance
83
84. 2. Political Centers:
• Political strategic centers at international, national and
regional levels e.g. Washington DC, London, Paris
Geneva, Addis Ababa, Bahirdar, Awassa, Mekele etc.
• Most of Ethiopian centers are of political nature.
• Their major function is administration
• Under political centers we have military centers
including fortress bases and training centers. E.g.
Debrezeit, holeta, jijiga.
84
85. 3. Cultural Centers
• Are towns where the majority of their activities are
basically cultural and/or religious.
• Religious cultural centers include cities like Jerusalem
Meka, Lalibela and Axum.
• Secular cultural centers are centers of teaching and
educational centers like Haroemaya.
• Museum centers where visitors are attracted and cities
where films and videos are produced are also cultural
centers. E.g. Holly wood
85
86. .
4. Recreational Centers
• Towns where recreation facilities attract people.
• It is difficult to identify such a center in Ethiopia.
In more developed countries, there are many of
them because people spend part of their time in
recreation centers.
• Transportation facility and income level of the
population determine the existence of such
centers.
86
87. 5. Residential Centers
• Dormitory suburbs, retirement centers where
residents work some where else.
6. Symbolic Centers:
• Towns that are unique symbols of a country.
• Rome is a symbolic city of Italy
• Bethlehem in Israel is symbolic for Christians of
the world
• Meka for Saudi Arabia and the Muslim world
87
88. 7. Diversified Centers
• At times it becomes difficult to classify urban
centers in to a specific category due to the absence
of one dominant activity.
• Then we group such urban centers as diversified
centers
88
