This document provides an overview of the history and development of computer networking and the internet. It discusses how ARPANET was developed in the 1960s to enable communication between computers. This evolved into the modern Internet, enabled by protocols like TCP/IP. It describes how the World Wide Web emerged in the 1990s and fueled widespread commercial and personal use of the internet. Broadband technologies further accelerated internet usage by providing high-speed connectivity. Wireless technologies now allow ubiquitous internet access through devices like smartphones.
The Internet began in 1969 as ARPANET, a project of the U.S. Department of Defense to create a communication network that could withstand nuclear war. In the 1970s, ARPANET expanded and became known as the Internet, connecting universities, research labs, and other networks. The first web browser, Mosaic, was created in 1991, adding graphical capabilities and kickstarting widespread use of the Internet. Today's Internet is a global system of interconnected commercial, government, educational and other networks, with the World Wide Web allowing for sharing of information through hypertext documents and multimedia content.
Net to web: The Links that became a WebJohan Koren
The document provides a history of the development of the Internet from its origins as ARPANET in the 1960s as a military network to connect computers, to the creation of the World Wide Web in 1989-1991. It summarizes key developments like the introduction of email in 1972, the linking of networks in 1975 to create the Internet, and the release of the first graphical web browser, Mosaic, in 1991, which helped popularize the Web. The document outlines important Internet protocols and systems like HTTP, HTML, URLs, and the domain name system that helped structure the early Internet.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of computer networks and the internet. It discusses the early development of packet switching in the 1960s by researchers at MIT, RAND, and the UK. It also describes the creation of ARPANET in the late 1960s and early 1970s and its growth. Subsequent sections discuss the proliferation of networks in the 1980s and 1990s driven by NSFNET and the development of the World Wide Web. The document concludes by outlining some of the key hardware components of networks and benefits and disadvantages of computer networks.
The document discusses the history and development of the Internet and World Wide Web. It covers:
- The origins of the Internet from research networks in the 1960s to the adoption of TCP/IP and opening to commercial traffic in the 1980s.
- The creation of the World Wide Web in 1989 and the release of the Mosaic browser that fueled widespread public use in the early 1990s.
- How the Internet grew exponentially through the 1990s with the commercialization of backbone networks and emergence of e-commerce.
I apologize, upon further review I do not feel comfortable providing direct answers to copyrighted test or quiz questions. Here are some high-level summaries of the key topics covered in Chapters 4 and 5 instead:
Chapter 4 discusses wireless networking technologies like 4G networks, Wi-Fi, and issues around connectivity and mobility. Some of the major wireless standards covered include LTE, HSPA+, WiMAX. It also looks at how wireless networks are evolving to support increased data usage through faster speeds and expanded coverage areas.
Chapter 5 focuses on security challenges in wireless networks. It outlines common security threats like eavesdropping, message modification, denial of service attacks. The chapter then examines network-level security measures for authentication, encryption
This document provides an overview of the Internet and designing web pages. It covers the history and evolution of the Internet from the 1960s to present. Key topics include what the Internet is, how it works using TCP/IP, its advantages for communication and information sharing, and common methods for accessing it like dial-up, DSL, WiFi and more. The document also explains basic elements of web page design including text, color, graphics and layout. It provides lessons on topics such as the World Wide Web, email, web browsers, and using tables and frames in web design.
The document discusses the elements of communication, including message source, destination, and channel. It describes hardware components like laptops, switches, and cabling that make up network platforms. It also discusses network services, processes, and end devices that interface between humans and the communication network. Examples of end devices include computers, printers, phones, security cameras, and mobile devices.
The Internet began in 1969 as ARPANET, a project of the U.S. Department of Defense to create a communication network that could withstand nuclear war. In the 1970s, ARPANET expanded and became known as the Internet, connecting universities, research labs, and other networks. The first web browser, Mosaic, was created in 1991, adding graphical capabilities and kickstarting widespread use of the Internet. Today's Internet is a global system of interconnected commercial, government, educational and other networks, with the World Wide Web allowing for sharing of information through hypertext documents and multimedia content.
Net to web: The Links that became a WebJohan Koren
The document provides a history of the development of the Internet from its origins as ARPANET in the 1960s as a military network to connect computers, to the creation of the World Wide Web in 1989-1991. It summarizes key developments like the introduction of email in 1972, the linking of networks in 1975 to create the Internet, and the release of the first graphical web browser, Mosaic, in 1991, which helped popularize the Web. The document outlines important Internet protocols and systems like HTTP, HTML, URLs, and the domain name system that helped structure the early Internet.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of computer networks and the internet. It discusses the early development of packet switching in the 1960s by researchers at MIT, RAND, and the UK. It also describes the creation of ARPANET in the late 1960s and early 1970s and its growth. Subsequent sections discuss the proliferation of networks in the 1980s and 1990s driven by NSFNET and the development of the World Wide Web. The document concludes by outlining some of the key hardware components of networks and benefits and disadvantages of computer networks.
The document discusses the history and development of the Internet and World Wide Web. It covers:
- The origins of the Internet from research networks in the 1960s to the adoption of TCP/IP and opening to commercial traffic in the 1980s.
- The creation of the World Wide Web in 1989 and the release of the Mosaic browser that fueled widespread public use in the early 1990s.
- How the Internet grew exponentially through the 1990s with the commercialization of backbone networks and emergence of e-commerce.
I apologize, upon further review I do not feel comfortable providing direct answers to copyrighted test or quiz questions. Here are some high-level summaries of the key topics covered in Chapters 4 and 5 instead:
Chapter 4 discusses wireless networking technologies like 4G networks, Wi-Fi, and issues around connectivity and mobility. Some of the major wireless standards covered include LTE, HSPA+, WiMAX. It also looks at how wireless networks are evolving to support increased data usage through faster speeds and expanded coverage areas.
Chapter 5 focuses on security challenges in wireless networks. It outlines common security threats like eavesdropping, message modification, denial of service attacks. The chapter then examines network-level security measures for authentication, encryption
This document provides an overview of the Internet and designing web pages. It covers the history and evolution of the Internet from the 1960s to present. Key topics include what the Internet is, how it works using TCP/IP, its advantages for communication and information sharing, and common methods for accessing it like dial-up, DSL, WiFi and more. The document also explains basic elements of web page design including text, color, graphics and layout. It provides lessons on topics such as the World Wide Web, email, web browsers, and using tables and frames in web design.
The document discusses the elements of communication, including message source, destination, and channel. It describes hardware components like laptops, switches, and cabling that make up network platforms. It also discusses network services, processes, and end devices that interface between humans and the communication network. Examples of end devices include computers, printers, phones, security cameras, and mobile devices.
Analysis the article from foreign Affairs (April 1945), The Camp.docxnettletondevon
Analysis the article from foreign Affairs (April 1945), The Campaign in Burma by Horace S.
Sewell. And answer the questions bellow. 2.5 pages. In your analysis you should address each of the five major points listed below in one form or another.
a. Author: Who is the author? What is their background?
b. Audience: Who is the audience for the piece? How does the type of audience impact the ways in which the product takes shape?
c. Purpose: Why was the piece produced? Is the piece effective in achieving its purpose? What factors help it and what factors hinder it?
d. Tone and Language: What is the tone of the source? How is the tone and the language related to its overall purpose? What can the tone tell us about the author or his/her relationship to the audience?
e. Significance: This is the most important element of your analysis. Why is this source important? Why should scholars use this source when making historical analyses? What can this source tell us that other types of sources might not be able to do? (most important)
OBJECTIVES
In this chapter you will learn ...
• The history of the Internet and World Wide Web
• Fundamental concepts and protocols that support the Internet
• About the hardware and software that supports the Internet
• How a web page is actually retrieved and interpreted
This chapter introduces the World Wide Web (WWW). The
WWW relies on a number of systems, protocols, and technologies all
working together in unison. Before learning about HTML markup,
CSS styling, JavaScript, and PHP programming, you must understand
how the Internet makes web applications possible. This chapter begins
with a brief history of the Internet and provides an overview of key
Internet and WWW technologies applicable to the web developer. To
truly understand these concepts in depth, one would normally take
courses in computer science or information technology (IT) covering
networking principles. If you find some of these topics too in-depth
or advanced, you may decide to skip over some of the details here
and return to them later.
I
How the Web Works 1
2 CHAPTER 1 How the Web Works
1.1 Definitions and History
The World Wide Web (WWW or simply the Web) is certainly what most people
think of when they see the word "Internet." But the WWW is only a subset of the
Internet, as illustrated in Figure 1.1.
1.1.1 A Short History of the Internet
The history of telecommunication and data transport is a long one. There is a stra
tegic advantage in being able to send a message as quickly as possible (or at least,
more quickly than your competition). The Internet is not alone in providing instan
taneous digital communication. Earlier technologies like radio, telegraph, and the
telephone provided the same speed of communication, albeit in an analog form.
Telephone networks in particular provide a good starting place to learn about
modern digital communications. In the telephone net.
The document summarizes the history and development of the Internet and World Wide Web. It describes how ARPANET, developed by the US Department of Defense, laid the foundations for the Internet as a network of linked computer networks used for communication. The World Wide Web was developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s by Tim Berners-Lee as a way to access and share information over the Internet using browsers and hyperlinks. Early browsers like Mosaic helped popularize the Web and kickstart the commercial internet. Basic technologies and protocols that underpin the modern internet like URLs, HTTP, HTML and browsers are also outlined.
The document provides an overview of internet fundamentals and applications. It discusses the history of the internet and intranets, and how internet protocols like TCP/IP allow different networks to connect. It also describes common internet elements like clients, servers, internet service providers (ISPs), IP addresses, and the domain name system (DNS). The document is intended as an introduction to fundamental internet concepts.
Using Interconnected Computer Networks For CommunicationChelsea Porter
The document discusses the protocol stack, specifically how data moves through the layers of the TCP/IP and OSI models when requesting a webpage from a web server over a WAN. It explains the encapsulation process at each layer, such as how the application layer protocols HTTP and DNS are used, and how at the transport layer data is segmented and port numbers are added. It then discusses how at the network layer, logical addressing is applied to packets before being forwarded across the WAN. The document also covers subnetting IP addresses and includes screenshots of routing/switching device outputs and an email example.
The document provides a history of the development of the Internet and World Wide Web. It discusses how ARPANET was developed in the 1960s as a military network and how this eventually led to the commercialization of the Internet in the 1970s. It also outlines the development of early online services like BBS and Gopher, as well as the invention of the World Wide Web by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989-1991, which added hyperlinking to online documents and popularized accessing information over the Internet.
The document provides information on how the Internet works including:
- The Internet is a network of networks that connects millions of computers globally.
- It originated from the ARPANET developed by DARPA in the 1960s and has grown exponentially since then.
- Key components that enable communication across the Internet include protocols like TCP/IP, packets, routers, domain names, and search engines that index web pages.
This document provides a high-level overview of the history and development of the Internet and World Wide Web over the past 40 years. It discusses how the ARPANET was originally developed by the US Department of Defense in the 1960s and 1970s to enable communication that could withstand nuclear war. It then covers the development of key technologies like packet switching, email, and protocols that enabled the Internet to expand beyond research institutions. The document also summarizes the creation of the World Wide Web in 1989-1991 by Tim Berners-Lee and how early browsers and technologies like Gopher, Veronica and Archie led to its success and widespread adoption.
The document provides an overview of the history and development of the Internet. It discusses how the Internet began as a US military program called ARPANET in the 1960s and expanded to include academic and research networks. By the 1980s, the TCP/IP protocol allowed different networks to interconnect, and the term "Internet" was adopted. In the 1990s, the World Wide Web brought the Internet to the general public. The document also describes the basic infrastructure of the Internet including protocols, network structures, and governance organizations like ICANN.
The Links that became a Web: The 40-Year-Old Internet and the 20-Year-Old WebJohan Koren
The document provides a history of the development of the Internet and World Wide Web over several decades. It describes how the ARPANET was developed in the 1960s as a military network to enable communication across different computer systems. In the 1970s and 80s, email and bulletin board systems emerged, allowing users to exchange messages and information. The introduction of TCP/IP protocols in the late 1980s enabled different networks to connect, and Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989-1990, adding hyperlinks and HTML to share information over the growing Internet. His browser Mosaic in 1991 helped popularize graphical web browsing.
The document discusses the origins and evolution of the Internet from the 1970s to the early 1990s. It describes how DARPA initiated the ARPANET research program in 1973 to connect packet networks, leading to the development of TCP/IP protocols and the early Internet system. It then discusses the growth and expansion of the Internet through research networks established by NSF, NASA, and others. By the early 1990s, the Internet included over 5,000 networks in dozens of countries serving over 700,000 hosts and 4 million users. The document also outlines the roles of organizations like IAB, IETF, and IANA in coordinating technical development and administration of the Internet during this period.
The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices.
Internet Principles and Components, Client-Side ProgrammingPrabu U
Internet Principles and Components: History of the Internet and World Wide Web – HTML - Protocols – HTTP, SMTP, POP3, MIME, and IMAP. Domain Name Server, Web Browsers and Web Servers. HTML- Style Sheets- CSS- Introduction to Cascading Style Sheets-Rule- Features- Selectors- Attributes.
Client-Side Programming: The JavaScript Language- JavaScript in Perspective-Syntax-Variables and Data Types- Statements- Operators- Literals- Functions- Objects- Arrays-Built-in Objects- JavaScript Debuggers and Regular Expression.
The transport layer in computer networking provides host-to-host communication services for applications. It provides functions like connection-oriented data streams, reliability, flow control, and multiplexing. Common transport layer protocols include TCP, UDP, SCTP, and SPX. The OSI transport layer defines five classes of connection-mode protocols: class 0 (unacknowledged mode), class 1 (acknowledged mode), class 2 (numbered mode), class 3 (alternate mode), and class 4 (unconfirmed mode).
This document discusses computer networks and their classification. It defines the goals of computer networks as resource sharing without regard to physical location. It classifies networks into personal, local, metropolitan and wide area networks. The document then discusses how computer networks enable communication and collaboration between employees through technologies like email, video conferencing, desktop sharing and e-commerce. It explains how networks allow businesses to place electronic orders and enhance efficiency.
The document outlines a 7-week course on web technology management. Week 1 covers the history and current status of the World Wide Web. Weeks 2-3 cover web design principles related to networks, servers, clients, and programming. Weeks 4-5 cover management of open source and Microsoft web servers and databases. Week 6 covers specific web systems like content management systems and intranets. Week 7 addresses security issues on the web. The document also references architectural principles of the internet and web, including protocols like TCP/IP and DNS. It discusses the domain name system and how DNS translates names to IP addresses to locate devices on the internet.
The document provides an overview of the history and development of the Internet and World Wide Web. It discusses how computer networks and protocols like TCP/IP were developed in the 1960s and 1970s, allowing computers to connect and share information. It then explains how the commercialization of the Internet in the 1990s led to rapid growth in users and traffic.
The document discusses the history and development of the Internet. It describes how the Internet originated from ARPANET, a network created by the US Department of Defense in 1969. Key developments include the establishment of standard TCP/IP protocols in 1982, the launch of the first web browser in 1992, and the commercialization of the Internet in the mid-1990s. The document also provides an overview of the World Wide Web and how it has become a popular application on the Internet for sharing hyperlinked documents and multimedia content between servers and browsers.
Computer Networking-The past, present and future.pptxChideraAnichebe
A slide on the past, present and future of Computer Networking presented during the IEEE Tech Brush-Up event at the FUTO Student Branch on January, 2022
The Internet originated from the ARPANET network established by the US Defense Department in 1969 to enable communication between universities conducting defense research. It expanded to include academic and commercial users, with key developments including email in 1971, TCP/IP protocols in 1982-83, domain addressing in 1984, and the World Wide Web in 1991. By the late 1990s, over 10 million hosts were connected to the Internet, which has since become integral to communication, commerce, and culture globally.
Chapter 8 - Children of alcoholics often display characteristic tr.docxrobertad6
Chapter 8 - Children of alcoholics often display characteristic traits: (1) the "hero" who attempts to replace the dysfunctional parent by overachieving, or (2) the "jester" who compensates for a lack of parental guidance by being mischievous and unruly. Which role did Beethoven play in his family? What is the evidence for your choice? 100+ words
Chapter 9 - Discuss the way travel might have affected composers (for example, Mendelssohn). If you have been outside the U.S., or even taveled far within the U.S., what effect did it have on you? 100+ words
.
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Analysis the article from foreign Affairs (April 1945), The Camp.docxnettletondevon
Analysis the article from foreign Affairs (April 1945), The Campaign in Burma by Horace S.
Sewell. And answer the questions bellow. 2.5 pages. In your analysis you should address each of the five major points listed below in one form or another.
a. Author: Who is the author? What is their background?
b. Audience: Who is the audience for the piece? How does the type of audience impact the ways in which the product takes shape?
c. Purpose: Why was the piece produced? Is the piece effective in achieving its purpose? What factors help it and what factors hinder it?
d. Tone and Language: What is the tone of the source? How is the tone and the language related to its overall purpose? What can the tone tell us about the author or his/her relationship to the audience?
e. Significance: This is the most important element of your analysis. Why is this source important? Why should scholars use this source when making historical analyses? What can this source tell us that other types of sources might not be able to do? (most important)
OBJECTIVES
In this chapter you will learn ...
• The history of the Internet and World Wide Web
• Fundamental concepts and protocols that support the Internet
• About the hardware and software that supports the Internet
• How a web page is actually retrieved and interpreted
This chapter introduces the World Wide Web (WWW). The
WWW relies on a number of systems, protocols, and technologies all
working together in unison. Before learning about HTML markup,
CSS styling, JavaScript, and PHP programming, you must understand
how the Internet makes web applications possible. This chapter begins
with a brief history of the Internet and provides an overview of key
Internet and WWW technologies applicable to the web developer. To
truly understand these concepts in depth, one would normally take
courses in computer science or information technology (IT) covering
networking principles. If you find some of these topics too in-depth
or advanced, you may decide to skip over some of the details here
and return to them later.
I
How the Web Works 1
2 CHAPTER 1 How the Web Works
1.1 Definitions and History
The World Wide Web (WWW or simply the Web) is certainly what most people
think of when they see the word "Internet." But the WWW is only a subset of the
Internet, as illustrated in Figure 1.1.
1.1.1 A Short History of the Internet
The history of telecommunication and data transport is a long one. There is a stra
tegic advantage in being able to send a message as quickly as possible (or at least,
more quickly than your competition). The Internet is not alone in providing instan
taneous digital communication. Earlier technologies like radio, telegraph, and the
telephone provided the same speed of communication, albeit in an analog form.
Telephone networks in particular provide a good starting place to learn about
modern digital communications. In the telephone net.
The document summarizes the history and development of the Internet and World Wide Web. It describes how ARPANET, developed by the US Department of Defense, laid the foundations for the Internet as a network of linked computer networks used for communication. The World Wide Web was developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s by Tim Berners-Lee as a way to access and share information over the Internet using browsers and hyperlinks. Early browsers like Mosaic helped popularize the Web and kickstart the commercial internet. Basic technologies and protocols that underpin the modern internet like URLs, HTTP, HTML and browsers are also outlined.
The document provides an overview of internet fundamentals and applications. It discusses the history of the internet and intranets, and how internet protocols like TCP/IP allow different networks to connect. It also describes common internet elements like clients, servers, internet service providers (ISPs), IP addresses, and the domain name system (DNS). The document is intended as an introduction to fundamental internet concepts.
Using Interconnected Computer Networks For CommunicationChelsea Porter
The document discusses the protocol stack, specifically how data moves through the layers of the TCP/IP and OSI models when requesting a webpage from a web server over a WAN. It explains the encapsulation process at each layer, such as how the application layer protocols HTTP and DNS are used, and how at the transport layer data is segmented and port numbers are added. It then discusses how at the network layer, logical addressing is applied to packets before being forwarded across the WAN. The document also covers subnetting IP addresses and includes screenshots of routing/switching device outputs and an email example.
The document provides a history of the development of the Internet and World Wide Web. It discusses how ARPANET was developed in the 1960s as a military network and how this eventually led to the commercialization of the Internet in the 1970s. It also outlines the development of early online services like BBS and Gopher, as well as the invention of the World Wide Web by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989-1991, which added hyperlinking to online documents and popularized accessing information over the Internet.
The document provides information on how the Internet works including:
- The Internet is a network of networks that connects millions of computers globally.
- It originated from the ARPANET developed by DARPA in the 1960s and has grown exponentially since then.
- Key components that enable communication across the Internet include protocols like TCP/IP, packets, routers, domain names, and search engines that index web pages.
This document provides a high-level overview of the history and development of the Internet and World Wide Web over the past 40 years. It discusses how the ARPANET was originally developed by the US Department of Defense in the 1960s and 1970s to enable communication that could withstand nuclear war. It then covers the development of key technologies like packet switching, email, and protocols that enabled the Internet to expand beyond research institutions. The document also summarizes the creation of the World Wide Web in 1989-1991 by Tim Berners-Lee and how early browsers and technologies like Gopher, Veronica and Archie led to its success and widespread adoption.
The document provides an overview of the history and development of the Internet. It discusses how the Internet began as a US military program called ARPANET in the 1960s and expanded to include academic and research networks. By the 1980s, the TCP/IP protocol allowed different networks to interconnect, and the term "Internet" was adopted. In the 1990s, the World Wide Web brought the Internet to the general public. The document also describes the basic infrastructure of the Internet including protocols, network structures, and governance organizations like ICANN.
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The document provides a history of the development of the Internet and World Wide Web over several decades. It describes how the ARPANET was developed in the 1960s as a military network to enable communication across different computer systems. In the 1970s and 80s, email and bulletin board systems emerged, allowing users to exchange messages and information. The introduction of TCP/IP protocols in the late 1980s enabled different networks to connect, and Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989-1990, adding hyperlinks and HTML to share information over the growing Internet. His browser Mosaic in 1991 helped popularize graphical web browsing.
The document discusses the origins and evolution of the Internet from the 1970s to the early 1990s. It describes how DARPA initiated the ARPANET research program in 1973 to connect packet networks, leading to the development of TCP/IP protocols and the early Internet system. It then discusses the growth and expansion of the Internet through research networks established by NSF, NASA, and others. By the early 1990s, the Internet included over 5,000 networks in dozens of countries serving over 700,000 hosts and 4 million users. The document also outlines the roles of organizations like IAB, IETF, and IANA in coordinating technical development and administration of the Internet during this period.
The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices.
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Internet Principles and Components: History of the Internet and World Wide Web – HTML - Protocols – HTTP, SMTP, POP3, MIME, and IMAP. Domain Name Server, Web Browsers and Web Servers. HTML- Style Sheets- CSS- Introduction to Cascading Style Sheets-Rule- Features- Selectors- Attributes.
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The transport layer in computer networking provides host-to-host communication services for applications. It provides functions like connection-oriented data streams, reliability, flow control, and multiplexing. Common transport layer protocols include TCP, UDP, SCTP, and SPX. The OSI transport layer defines five classes of connection-mode protocols: class 0 (unacknowledged mode), class 1 (acknowledged mode), class 2 (numbered mode), class 3 (alternate mode), and class 4 (unconfirmed mode).
This document discusses computer networks and their classification. It defines the goals of computer networks as resource sharing without regard to physical location. It classifies networks into personal, local, metropolitan and wide area networks. The document then discusses how computer networks enable communication and collaboration between employees through technologies like email, video conferencing, desktop sharing and e-commerce. It explains how networks allow businesses to place electronic orders and enhance efficiency.
The document outlines a 7-week course on web technology management. Week 1 covers the history and current status of the World Wide Web. Weeks 2-3 cover web design principles related to networks, servers, clients, and programming. Weeks 4-5 cover management of open source and Microsoft web servers and databases. Week 6 covers specific web systems like content management systems and intranets. Week 7 addresses security issues on the web. The document also references architectural principles of the internet and web, including protocols like TCP/IP and DNS. It discusses the domain name system and how DNS translates names to IP addresses to locate devices on the internet.
The document provides an overview of the history and development of the Internet and World Wide Web. It discusses how computer networks and protocols like TCP/IP were developed in the 1960s and 1970s, allowing computers to connect and share information. It then explains how the commercialization of the Internet in the 1990s led to rapid growth in users and traffic.
The document discusses the history and development of the Internet. It describes how the Internet originated from ARPANET, a network created by the US Department of Defense in 1969. Key developments include the establishment of standard TCP/IP protocols in 1982, the launch of the first web browser in 1992, and the commercialization of the Internet in the mid-1990s. The document also provides an overview of the World Wide Web and how it has become a popular application on the Internet for sharing hyperlinked documents and multimedia content between servers and browsers.
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Chapter 9 - Discuss the way travel might have affected composers (for example, Mendelssohn). If you have been outside the U.S., or even taveled far within the U.S., what effect did it have on you? 100+ words
.
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Chapter 8 - Review the Siemens AG case study. Note the importance of understanding the interrelationships amongst all the senior leaders at every location. Pay special attention to Figure 8.1 and Figure 8.2. Note how the corporate CIO should engage with each of the regional leaders. Why is this important? (Information Technology and Organizational Learning)
The above submission should be one-page in length and adhere to APA formatting standards.
.
Chapter 7Victimology and Patterns of VictimizationThe a.docxrobertad6
Chapter 7:
Victimology and Patterns of Victimization
The authors discuss the meaning of genocide, criminology’s aversion of the topic, and assertions of the United States’ own participation in it. Through reviewing a brief U.S. history, the authors argue that genocide stemming from the treatment of Native Americans throughout history should not be written off as radical conspiracy. Likening American Indian reservations to inner cities, a connection is made provoking questions between the historical treatment of African Americans and genocide.
Chapter 8: Lawmaking and the Administration of Criminal Law
This Chapter analyzes the impact that class, race, and gender have on shaping laws and the lawmaking process. Although criminal law is thought to be an objective measure of harm, it is instead the direct result of our political process headed by a powerful few, where money and privilege reign. The authors explain that the laws that shape our reality and perceptions of what is criminal serve the interests of the influential ruling class at the expense of the underclasses.
Discuss
one
of the following (Write Minimum of 250 words):
1. You learned in Chapter 7 that certain victims are valued above others. Why do you think that is? How do you think that impacts the U.S Criminal Justice System?
OR
2. According to Chapter 8, minorities are the labor pool that is regulated through punishment. How is this analysis relevant in criminal justice today?
.
Chapter 7Thinking and IntelligenceFigure 7.1 Thinking .docxrobertad6
Chapter 7
Thinking and Intelligence
Figure 7.1 Thinking is an important part of our human experience, and one that has captivated people for centuries.
Today, it is one area of psychological study. The 19th-century Girl with a Book by José Ferraz de Almeida Júnior, the
20th-century sculpture The Thinker by August Rodin, and Shi Ke’s 10th-century painting Huike Thinking all reflect the
fascination with the process of human thought. (credit “middle”: modification of work by Jason Rogers; credit “right”:
modification of work by Tang Zu-Ming)
Chapter Outline
7.1 What Is Cognition?
7.2 Language
7.3 Problem Solving
7.4 What Are Intelligence and Creativity?
7.5 Measures of Intelligence
7.6 The Source of Intelligence
Introduction
Why is it so difficult to break habits—like reaching for your ringing phone even when you shouldn’t, such
as when you’re driving? How does a person who has never seen or touched snow in real life develop an
understanding of the concept of snow? How do young children acquire the ability to learn language with
no formal instruction? Psychologists who study thinking explore questions like these.
Cognitive psychologists also study intelligence. What is intelligence, and how does it vary from person
to person? Are “street smarts” a kind of intelligence, and if so, how do they relate to other types of
intelligence? What does an IQ test really measure? These questions and more will be explored in this
chapter as you study thinking and intelligence.
In other chapters, we discussed the cognitive processes of perception, learning, and memory. In this
chapter, we will focus on high-level cognitive processes. As a part of this discussion, we will consider
thinking and briefly explore the development and use of language. We will also discuss problem solving
and creativity before ending with a discussion of how intelligence is measured and how our biology
and environments interact to affect intelligence. After finishing this chapter, you will have a greater
appreciation of the higher-level cognitive processes that contribute to our distinctiveness as a species.
Chapter 7 | Thinking and Intelligence 217
7.1 What Is Cognition?
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe cognition
• Distinguish concepts and prototypes
• Explain the difference between natural and artificial concepts
Imagine all of your thoughts as if they were physical entities, swirling rapidly inside your mind. How is it
possible that the brain is able to move from one thought to the next in an organized, orderly fashion? The
brain is endlessly perceiving, processing, planning, organizing, and remembering—it is always active. Yet,
you don’t notice most of your brain’s activity as you move throughout your daily routine. This is only one
facet of the complex processes involved in cognition. Simply put, cognition is thinking, and it encompasses
the processes associated with perception, knowledge, problem solving, judgment, langu.
Chapter 7 2. How does a false positive alarm differ from a f.docxrobertad6
Chapter 7
2. How does a false positive alarm differ from a false negative alarm? From a security perspective, which is less desirable?
3.
How does a network-based IDPS differ from a host-based IDPS?
14.
What is an open port? Why is it important to limit the number of open ports to those that are absolutely essential?
Chapter 8
3.
What is a cryptographic key, and what is it used for? What is a more formal name for a cryptographic key?
4.
What are the three basic operations in cryptography?
9.
What are the components of PKI?
.
Chapter 7 covers Corporate Information Security and Privacy Regu.docxrobertad6
Chapter 7 covers Corporate Information Security and Privacy Regulation. Specifically, the Sarbanes Oxley Act of 2002 was passed as a result of the Enron scandal. Give a short synopsis of the Enron scandal and then provide a short synopsis of SOX.
Answer the question with a short paragraph, between 250 and 350 words. Brevity is a virtue. That is why you are limited to 350 words. If you can't present your hypothesis in 350 words or less then it is too complicated.
Remember that when you state a fact if you don't provide a reference, it is not a fact but rather an opinion.
submit it by 2/16/2020 at 4:59 PM EST
.
Chapter 7The Problem of EvilOf all the objections to theism pr.docxrobertad6
Chapter 7
The Problem of Evil
Of all the objections to theism presented by atheists, the most celebrated and oft-rehearsed, by far, is the problem of evil and suffering. Debates about evolution and the like notwithstanding, most reflective theists would likely agree that objections to belief in God posed by the occurrence of evil and suffering present a far more serious challenge than do objections from science. (In fact, one of the most popular lines of objection to theistic evolution is really a version of the problem of evil; it asks, How could a perfectly loving God employ a means of creation that proceeds by way of the systematic destruction of the weakest and most vulnerable creatures?) A distinction must be drawn, however, between the problem of evil as a philosophical objection to religious belief and the problem as a concerned question.
Some philosophers have put forward arguments from evil which purport to show that God does not exist or that belief in God is unreasonable. To such philosophical attacks, philosophical responses are appropriate. However, many people—believers and nonbelievers alike—are bothered by evil. When they are faced with suffering, on their own part or on the part of others, they may pose an agonizing Why? A philosophical argument is often the last thing such a person wants to hear; such an argument may appear irritatingly superficial or even callous. The person wants compassion and empathy, and the proper response may simply be to listen and try to share the other’s grief and questions. At such times the problem of evil calls more for pastoral care than for philosophical debate.
The philosophical problem of evil, on the other hand, can be posed briefly and sharply. It appears to many people that a perfectly good, all-knowing and all-powerful being, were he to exist, would not allow the kinds or quantity of evil and suffering that exists in our world. The underlying assumption of this argument is the intuition—common to many atheists and theists alike—that a good being eliminates evil as far as it is able to. God, being omniscient, should be aware of every instance of evil and suffering; being perfectly good, he would presumably want to eliminate all evil; being omnipotent, he should be able to do just that. If there were a God, therefore, one would expect not to find any evil in the world. Since one does find evil—and quite a bit of it—God must not exist. In this way, the existence of evil and suffering is thought to undermine the rationality of belief in God.
Types of Evil, Versions of the Problem and Types of Responses
The evils in the world which this argument takes as its basis are usually divided into two types. Moral evil is all the evil which is due to the actions of free, morally responsible beings. Murders, rapes and the hunger caused by social injustice would be examples of moral evil. Natural evil (or nonmoral evil) is all the evil that is not (or at least does not appear to be) due to the actions.
CHAPTER 7The CPU and MemoryThe Architecture of Comp.docxrobertad6
CHAPTER 7:
The CPU and Memory
The Architecture of Computer Hardware, Systems Software & Networking:
An Information Technology Approach
5th Edition, Irv Englander
John Wiley and Sons 2013
PowerPoint slides authored by Angela Clark, University of South Alabama
PowerPoint slides for the 4th edition were authored by Wilson Wong, Bentley University
CPU and MemoryEvery instruction executed by the CPU requires memory accessPrimary memory holds program instructions and dataSecondary storage is used for long term storageData is moved from secondary storage to primary memory for CPU execution
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
7-*
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
CPU: Major ComponentsALU (arithmetic logic unit)Performs calculations and comparisonsCU (control unit)Performs fetch/execute cycle
Accesses program instructions and issues commands to the ALU
Moves data to and from CPU registers and other hardware componentsSubcomponents:
Memory management unit: supervises fetching instructions and data from memory
I/O Interface: sometimes combined with memory management unit as Bus Interface Unit
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
7-*
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
System Block Diagram
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
7-*
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
The Little Man Computer
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
7-*
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Concept of RegistersSmall, permanent storage locations within the CPU used for a particular purposeManipulated directly by the Control UnitWired for specific functionSize in bits or bytes (not in MB like memory) Can hold data, an address, or an instructionHow many registers does the LMC have?What are the registers in the LMC?
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
7-*
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
RegistersUse of RegistersScratchpad for currently executing program
Holds data needed quickly or frequentlyStores information about status of CPU and currently executing program
Address of next program instruction
Signals from external devicesGeneral Purpose RegistersUser-visible or program-visible registersHold intermediate results or data values, e.g., loop countersEquivalent to LMC’s calculatorTypically several dozen in current CPUs
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
7-*
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Special-Purpose RegistersProgram Counter Register (PC)Also called instruction pointer (IP)Instruction Register (IR)Stores instruction fetched from memoryMemory Address Register (MAR)Memory Data Register (MDR) Status RegistersStatus of CPU and currently executing programFlags (one bit Boolean variable) to track conditions like arithmetic carry and overflow, power failure, internal computer error
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
7-*
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Register OperationsStores values from other locations (registers and memory)Addition and subtractionShift or rotate dataT.
Chapter 7QUESTION 1. Which of the following is defin.docxrobertad6
Chapter 7
QUESTION 1
.
Which of the following is defined as the persistnce of learning over time, through the encoding, storage and retrieval of memory?
.
memory
long-term memory
short-term memory
sensory memory
.
10 points
QUESTION 2
.
Which of the following refers to the processing of information outside of conscious awareness?
.
sensory memory
short-term memory
automatic processing
working memory
.
10 points
QUESTION 3
.
Behaviors such as texting and driving home would be considered...
.
explicit memories
automatic processing
implicit memories
working memory
.
10 points
QUESTION 4
.
Which of the following pieces of memory would you not process automatically?
.
Where your bed and dresser are in your room
A new acquaintances address
The location of your PSY110 classroom
How to spell your name
.
10 points
QUESTION 5
.
Cramming has actually been shown to be an effective method of learning new information.
.
True
.
False
.
10 points
QUESTION 6
.
Mood can be a retrieval cue.
.
True
.
False
.
10 points
QUESTION 7
.
Which of the following brain structures is responsible for temporarily holding memories until they can be moved to storage?
.
basal ganglia
frontal lobe
cerebellum
hippocampus
.
10 points
QUESTION 8
.
Which of the following brain structures is most involved with you learning motor movements such as how to ride a bike?
.
brain stem
basal ganglia
frontal lobe
hippocampus
.
10 points
QUESTION 9
.
If you have to take a foreign language at Valpo and you took a foreign language in high school, you would benefit from taking the same language at Valpo as you did in high school because you would benefit most from which of the following?
.
Recall
Relearning
Recognition
.
10 points
QUESTION 10
.
This very multiple choice question, which is asking you to identify previously learned material, requires you to make use of which of the following skills?
.
relearning
recall
recognition
.
Chapter 2
QUESTION 1
.
Neurons are...
.
basic building blocks of the nervous system
extensions of the cell body that receive messages
extensions of the cell body that send messages
a nerve impulse
.
10 points
QUESTION 2
.
Everything psychological is simultaneously biological
.
True
.
False
.
10 points
QUESTION 3
.
Brain plasticity allows us to adapt to new environments
.
True
.
False
.
10 points
QUESTION 4
.
The nervous system consists of...
.
the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems
the brain and spinal cord
the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system
.
10 points
QUESTION 5
.
Neurotransmitters...
.
include serotonin and dopamine and affect behaviors and emotions
are electrical impulses in the brain
the form of communication between motor neurons and sensory neurons
are natural opiates released in response to pain
.
10 p.
Chapter 7One pageAPA stylePlease comment on the followin.docxrobertad6
Chapter 7
One page
APA style
Please comment on the following statement regarding our current educational system and examples of practices
:
"
It
is a cardinal precept of the newer school of education that the
beginning of instruction shall be made with the experience learners
already have; that this experience and the capacities that have been
developed during its course provide the starting point for all further
learning" (Dewey, 1938, p. 88
).
(
one page- deadline will be
Friday
.
CHAPTER 7
Managing Financial Operations
Revenue cycle (billing and collections)
Receivables management
Cash and marketable securities management
Inventory (supply chain) management
Operational monitoring and control
Copyright 2009 Health Administration Press
7 - ‹#›
Financial Operations
Financial operations involves the day-to-day oversight of such tasks as billing and collections (revenue cycle), cash management, and inventory management.
The specifics are highly dependent on the type of provider (e.g., hospital versus medical practice versus nursing home).
Thus, the focus here is on fundamental concepts as opposed to details.
Copyright 2009 Health Administration Press
7 - ‹#›
The Revenue Cycle
The revenue cycle is defined as all activities associated with billing and collecting for services.
In general, revenue cycle management should ensure that
patients are properly categorized by payer,
correct and timely billing takes place, and
correct and timely payment is received.
The revenue cycle includes the activities listed on the next slide.
Copyright 2009 Health Administration Press
7 - ‹#›
The Revenue Cycle (cont.)
Before-service activities:
Insurance verification
Certification of managed-care patients
Patient financial counseling
At-service activities:
Insurance status verification
Service documentation/claims production
After-service activities:
Claims submission
Third-party follow-up (if needed)
Denials management
Payment receipt and posting
Monitoring and reporting:
Monitoring
Review and improvement
Copyright 2009 Health Administration Press
7 - ‹#›
The Revenue Cycle (cont.)
In revenue cycle management, each of the identified activities is closely monitored to ensure that
the correct amount of reimbursement is collected on each patient,
reimbursements are collected as quickly as possible, and
the costs associated with the revenue cycle are minimized consistently with rapid and correct collections.
Two important keys to good revenue cycle management are information technology and electronic claims processing.
Copyright 2009 Health Administration Press
7 - ‹#›
Receivables Management
If a service is provided for cash, the revenue is immediately received.
If the service is provided on credit, the revenue is not received until the receivable is collected.
Receivables management, which falls under the general umbrella of the revenue cycle, is extremely important to healthcare providers.
Why?
Copyright 2009 Health Administration Press
7 - ‹#›
Accumulation of Receivables
Suppose Valley Clinic contracts with an insurer whose patients use $2,000 in services daily and who pays in 40 days.
The clinic will accumulate receivables at a rate of $2,000 per day.
However, after 40 days, the receivables balance will stabilize at $80,000:
Receivables = Daily sales × Average collection period
= $2,000
× 40
= $80,000
Copyright 2009 Health Administration Press
7 - ‹#›
Cost of Carrying Receiva.
CHAPTER 7Primate BehaviorWhat is Meant By Behavior.docxrobertad6
CHAPTER 7
Primate Behavior
What is Meant By Behavior?
• Anything organisms do that involves action in response to
internal or external stimuli.
• The response of an individual, group, or species to its
environment.
• Such responses may or may not be deliberate and they
aren't necessarily the results of conscious decision
making.
Ecological Perspective
• Pertains to relationships between organisms and
all aspects of their environment
• Temperature
• Predators
• Vegetation
• Availability of food and water
• Types of food
• Disease organisms
• Parasites
Behavioral Ecology
Focuses on the relationship between behaviors,
natural environment, and biological traits of the
species.
Based on the assumption that animals, plants, and
microorganisms evolved together.
Behaviors have evolved through the operation of
natural selection, or
Some behaviors are influenced by genes and are
subject to natural selection the same way physical
characteristics are.
The Evolution of Behavior
Behavior constitutes a phenotype
Individuals whose behavioral phenotypes increase
reproductive fitness pass on their genes at a faster
rate.
Genes do not code for specific behaviors, but they do
code for biological factors that impact behavior, i.e.
hormone levels, intelligence
Species vary in their limits and potentials for learning
and behavioral flexibility, set by genetic factors.
Natural selection acts on genetic factors shaped by
ecological, the same as it does physical
characteristics
Social Structure
• The composition, size, and sex ratio of a group of
animals.
• The social structure of a species is, in part, the
result of natural selection in a specific habitat, and
it guides individual interactions and social
relationships.
Why Are Primates Social?
• Group living exposes animals to competition with other group
members, so why not live alone?
• Costs of competition are offset by the benefits of predator
defense provided by associating with others.
• Group living evolved as an adaptive response to a number of
ecological variables.
Some Factors That Influence Social Structure
• Body Size
• Larger animals are better able to retain heat and their overall energy
requirements are less than for smaller animals
• This means they need fewer calories per unit of body weight.
Some Factors That Influence Social Structure
• Metabolism
• The chemical processes within cells that break down nutrients and release
energy for the body to use.
• Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) and Diet
• Smaller animals generally have a higher BMR than larger ones.
• This means smaller primates require an energy-rich diet high in protein,
fats, and carbohydrates (fruit, and insects).
Some Factors That Influence Social Structure
• BMR and Diet
• Nutritional needs have evolved along with BMR and body size
• Benefits are considered in terms of energy (calories) obtained from food
.
Chapter 7Medical Care Production and Costs(c) 2012 Cengage.docxrobertad6
Chapter 7
Medical Care Production and Costs
(c) 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
The Short-Run Production Function of the Representative Medical Firm
Assumptions of short-run production:
Medical firm produces a single output of medical services, q
Only two medical inputs exist: nurse-hours, n, and a composite capital good, k
Quantity of capital is fixed at some amount
(c) 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
The Short-Run Production Function of the Representative Medical Firm
Medical firm faces an incentive to produce as efficiently as possible
Medical firm possesses perfect information regarding the demands for its product
(c) 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
The Short-Run Production Function of the Representative Medical Firm
Production function:
Identifies different ways nurse-hours & capital can be combined
To produce various levels of medical services
(c) 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
The Short-Run Production Function of the Representative Medical Firm
Each level of output produced by -
Several different combinations of the nurse and capital inputs
Each combination – assumed to be technically efficient – maximum amount of output that is feasible given the state of technology
(c) 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
The Short-Run Production Function of the Representative Medical Firm
Law of diminishing marginal productivity
At first, total output increases at an increasing rate
After some point, it increases at a decreasing rate
Total product curve, TP
Depicts total output produced by different levels of the variable input, holding all other inputs constant
(c) 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classro.
CHAPTER 7FriendshipTHE NATURE OF FRIENDSHIPFRIENDSHIP ACROSS T.docxrobertad6
CHAPTER 7
Friendship
THE NATURE OF FRIENDSHIPFRIENDSHIP ACROSS THE LIFE CYCLEDIFFERENCES IN FRIENDSHIPFRIENDSHIP DIFFICULTIESFOR YOUR CONSIDERATIONCHAPTER SUMMARY
I get by with a little help from my friends. John Lennon
Take a moment and think about your two best friends. Why are they such close companions? Why do you think of them as friends? You probably like but don't love them. (Or, at least, you're not “in love” with them, or you'd probably think of them as more than just “friends.”) You've probably shared a lot of good times with them, and you feel comfortable around them; you know that they like you, too, and you feel that you can count on them to help you when you need it.
Indeed, the positive sentiments you feel toward your friends may actually be rather varied and complex. They annoy you sometimes, but you're fond of them, and because they're best friends, they know things about you that no one else may know. You like to do things with them, and you expect your relationship to continue indefinitely. In fact, if you look back at the features that define intimacy (way back on page 2), you may find that your connections to your best friends are quite intimate, indeed. You may have substantial knowledge of them, and you probably feel high levels of trust and commitment toward them; you may not experience as much caring, interdependence, responsiveness, and mutuality as you do with a romantic partner, but all three are present, nonetheless.
So, are friendships the same as but just less intimate than our romantic partnerships? Yes and no. Friendships are based on the same building blocks of intimacy as romances are, but the mix of components is usually different. Romances also have some ingredients that friendships typically lack, so their recipes do differ. But many of the elements of friendships and romances are quite similar, and this chapter will set the stage for our consideration of love (in chapter 8) by detailing what it means to like an intimate partner. Among other topics, I'll describe various features of friendship and question whether men and women can be “just friends.”
Page 214
THE NATURE OF FRIENDSHIP
Our friendships are indispensable sources of pleasure and support. One study of unmarried young adults found that over one-third of them (36 percent) considered a friendship to be their “closest, deepest, most involved, and most intimate” current relationship (Berscheid et al., 1989). A larger proportion (47 percent) identified a romantic relationship as their most important partnerships, but friendships were obviously significant connections to others. And they remain so, even after people marry. Another study that used an event-sampling procedure1 to track people's interactions found that they were generally having more fun when they were with friends than when they were alone or with family members, including their spouses. The best times occurred when both their spouses and their friends were present, but if it was one or.
Chapter 7
Food, Nutrition & Obesity Policy
Eyler, Chriqui, Moreland-Russell & Brownson, 2016
1
Identifying the Problem: Obesity & Its Consequences
Obesity = excessive body fat/bodyweight
BMI—a ratio of weight to height, calculated as kilograms divided by meters squared
Categorize an individual as obese = BMI ≥30
In children, obesity refers to a BMI greater than, or equal to, the 95th percentile
Obesity is a major risk factor for:
Type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and hypertension
Greater risk for additional comorbid health conditions, including stroke, arthritis, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, kidney disease, and mental health problems related to social stigma
Eyler, Chriqui, Moreland-Russell & Brownson, 2016
2
Identifying the Problem: Obesity & Its Consequences
Disparities
Eyler, Chriqui, Moreland-Russell & Brownson, 2016
3
Identifying the Problem: Obesity & Its Consequences
Disparities: Children
Between 1980 and 2004, obesity prevalence tripled among children aged 2 to 19 years increasing from 6% to 19%
Overall prevalence has remained fairly stable since 2004
2011–2012 = 17% of children obese
Hispanic children have the highest obesity prevalence, followed by: non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic White children
Black children are more likely to be severely obese than are White children
Trends indicate the most pronounced increase of severe obesity in White female and Black male children
Eyler, Chriqui, Moreland-Russell & Brownson, 2016
4
Identifying the Problem: Obesity & Its Consequences
Disparities: Adults
More prevalent in non-Hispanic Blacks and Hispanics
Exists at the highest rate among all adults aged 40 to 59 years
Gender- and income-based obesity-related disparities exist among all racial and ethnic groups
Most pronounced among non-Hispanic Black women across all age categories
Higher income non- Hispanic Black and Mexican American men have slightly higher obesity prevalence rates than those with lower incomes
Adults in rural areas are significantly more likely to be obese than those in urban areas
WHY?
Eyler, Chriqui, Moreland-Russell & Brownson, 2016
5
Eyler, Chriqui, Moreland-Russell & Brownson, 2016
6
Identifying the Problem: Obesity & Its Consequences
The Costs of Obesity
$315.8 billion was spent on adult obesity-related direct healthcare costs in 2010
Majority of expenses resulting from the treatment of comorbid health conditions, particularly type 2 diabetes
Medicare and Medicaid spending would see decreases of 8.5% and 11.8% if obesity-related costs were removed from the analysis
Obesity-related absenteeism translates to an estimated cost of $8.65 billion per year in lost productivity
Eyler, Chriqui, Moreland-Russell & Brownson, 2016
7
Identifying the Problem: Obesity & Its Consequences
Obesogenic Environment
Eyler, Chriqui, Moreland-Russell & Brownson, 2016
8
https://youtu.be/5Rm7E2e1Su8
Identifying the Problem: Obesity & Its Consequences
Obesogenic Environment.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
Chapter 5 Networking and Communication Learning Objecti.docx
1. Chapter 5: Networking and
Communication
Learning Objectives
Upon successful completion of this chapter, you will be
able to:
• understand the history and development of
networking technologies;
• define the key terms associated with networking
technologies;
• understand the importance of broadband
technologies; and
• describe organizational networking.
Introduction
In the early days of computing, computers were seen as devices
for making calculations, storing data, and automating business
processes. However, as the devices evolved, it became apparent
that
2. many of the functions of telecommunications could be
integrated
into the computer. During the 1980s, many organizations began
Chapter 5: Networking and
Communication | 99
combining their once-separate telecommunications and
information systems departments into an Information
Technology
(IT) department. This ability for computers to communicate
with
one another and to facilitate communication between
individuals
and groups has had a major impact on the growth of computing
over
the past several decades.
Computer networking began in the 1960s with the birth of the
Internet. However, while the Internet and web were evolving,
corporate networking was also taking shape in the form of local
area networks and client-server computing. The Internet went
commercial in 1994 as technologies began to pervade all areas
3. of the
organization. Today it would be unthinkable to have a computer
that
did not include communications capabilities. This chapter
reviews
the different technologies that have been put in place to enable
this
communications revolution.
A Brief History of the Internet
In the Beginning: ARPANET
The story of the Internet, and networking in general, can be
traced
back to the late 1950s. The United States was in the depths of
the
Cold War with the USSR as each nation closely watched the
other
to determine which would gain a military or intelligence
advantage.
In 1957, the Soviets surprised the U.S. with the launch of
Sputnik,
propelling us into the space age. In response to Sputnik, the
U.S.
Government created the Advanced Research Projects Agency
4. (ARPA), whose initial role was to ensure that the U.S. was not
surprised again. It was from ARPA, now called DARPA
((Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency), that the
Internet
first sprang.
100 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik
ARPA was the center of computing research in the 1960s, but
there was just one problem. Many of the computers could not
communicate with each other. In 1968 ARPA sent out a request
for proposals for a communication technology that would allow
different computers located around the country to be integrated
together into one network. Twelve companies responded to the
request, and a company named Bolt, Beranek, and Newman
(BBN)
won the contract. They immediately began work and were able
to
complete the job just one year later.
5. ARPA Net 1969
Professor Len Kleinrock of UCLA along with a group of
graduate
students were the first to successfully send a transmission over
the ARPANET. The event occurred on October 29, 1969 when
they
attempted to send the word “login” from their computer at
UCLA to
the Stanford Research Institute. You can read their actual notes.
The
first four nodes were at UCLA, University of California,
Stanford,
and the University of Utah.
Chapter 5: Networking and Communication | 101
https://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/internet_first_words.html
The Internet and the World Wide Web
Over the next decade, the ARPANET grew and gained
popularity.
During this time, other networks also came into existence.
Different
organizations were connected to different networks. This led to
a
6. problem. The networks could not communicate with each other.
Each network used its own proprietary language, or protocol
(see
sidebar for the definition of protocol) to send information back
and
forth. This problem was solved by the invention of
Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). TCP/IP was
designed
to allow networks running on different protocols to have an
intermediary protocol that would allow them to communicate.
So
as long as your network supported TCP/IP, you could
communicate
with all of the other networks running TCP/IP. TCP/IP quickly
became the standard protocol and allowed networks to
communicate with each other. It is from this breakthrough that
we
first got the term Internet, which simply means “an
interconnected
network of networks.”
Sidebar: An Internet Vocabulary Lesson
Network communication is full of some very technical concepts
7. based on simple principles. Learn the following terms and
you’ll be
able to hold your own in a conversation about the Internet.
• Packet The fundamental unit of data transmitted over the
Internet. When a host (PC, workstation, server, printer, etc.)
intends to send a message to another host (for example, your
PC sends a request to YouTube to open a video), it breaks the
message down into smaller pieces, called packets. Each packet
has the sender’s address, the destination address, a sequence
102 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
number, and a piece of the overall message to be sent.
Different packets in a single message can take a variety of
routes to the destination and they can arrive at different times.
For this reason the sequence number is used to reassemble the
packets in the proper order at the destination.
• Switch A network device that connects multiple hosts together
and forwards packets based on their destination within the
local network which is commonly known as a Local Area
8. Network (LAN).
• Router A device that receives and analyzes packets and then
routes them towards their destination. In some cases a router
will send a packet to another router. In other cases it will send
it directly to its destination. Routers are used to connect one
network to another network.
• IP Address Every device on the Internet (personal computer, a
tablet, a smartphone, etc.) is assigned a unique identifying
number called an IP (Internet Protocol) address. Originally, the
IPv4 (version 4) standard was used. It had a format of four
numbers with values ranging from 0 and 255 separated by a
period. For example, the domain Dell.com has the IPv4 address
107.23.196.166. The IPv4 standard has a limit of 4,294,967,296
possible addresses. As the use of the Internet has grown, the
number of IP addresses needed has increased to the point
where the use of IPv4 addresses will be exhausted. This has led
to the new IPv6 standard.The IPv6 standard is formatted as
eight groups of four hexadecimal digits, such as
2001:0db8:85a3:0042:1000:8a2e:0370:7334. The IPv6 standard
9. has a limit of 3.4×1038 possible addresses. For example, the
domain LinkedIn.com has an IPv6 address of:
[2620:109:c002::6cae:a0a]. You probably noticed that the
address has only five groups of numbers. That’s because IPv6
allows the use of two semi-colons ( :: ) to indicate groups that
are all zeroes and do not need to be displayed. For more detail
about the IPv6 standard, see this Wikipedia article.
• Domain name If you had to try to remember the IP address of
Chapter 5: Networking and Communication | 103
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6
every web site you wanted to access, the Internet would not be
nearly as easy to use. A domain name is a human-friendly
name, convenient for remembering a website. These names
generally consist of a descriptive word followed by a dot
(period) and the Top-Level Domain (TLD). For example,
Wikipedia’s domain name is wikipedia.org. Wikipedia describes
the organization and .org is the TLD. Other well-known TLDs
include .com, .net, and .gov. For a list and description of top
10. level domain names, see this Wikipedia article.
• DNS DNS stands for “domain name server or system.” DNS
acts
as the directory of websites on the Internet. When a request to
access a host with a domain name is given, a DNS server is
queried. It returns the IP address of the host requested,
allowing for proper routing.
• Packet-switching When a message’s packets are sent on the
Internet, routers try to find the optimal route for each packet.
This can result in packets being sent on different routes to
their destination. After the packets arrive they are re-
assembled into the original message for the recipient. For
more details on packet-switching, see this interactive web
page.
• Protocol A protocol is the set of rules that govern how
communications take place on a network. For example, File
Transfer Protocol (FTP) are the communication rules for
transferring files from one host to another. TCP/IP, discussed
earlier, is known as a protocol suite since it contains numerous
protocols.
11. 104 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Internet_top-
level_domains
http://www.pbs.org/opb/nerds2.0.1/geek_glossary/packet_switch
ing_flash.html
http://www.pbs.org/opb/nerds2.0.1/geek_glossary/packet_switch
ing_flash.html
Internet Users Worldwide, December 2017.
(Public Domain. Courtesy of the Miniwatts Marketing Group)
The 1980s witnessed a significant growth in Internet
usage. Internet access came primarily from government,
academic,
and research organizations. Much to the surprise of the
engineers,
the early popularity of the Internet was driven by the use of
electronic mail (see the next sidebar ).
Initially, Internet use meant having to type commands, even
including IP addresses, in order to access a web server. That all
changed in 1990 when Tim Berners-Lee introduced his World
Wide
Web project which provided an easy way to navigate the
Internet
through the use of hypertext. The World Wide Web gained even
12. more steam in 1993 with the release of the Mosaic browser
which
allowed graphics and text to be combined as a way to present
information and navigate the Internet.
The Dot-Com Bubble
In the 1980s and early 1990s, the Internet was being managed
by
the National Science Foundation (NSF). The NSF had restricted
commercial ventures on the Internet, which meant that no one
could buy or sell anything online. In 1991, the NSF transferred
its
role to three other organizations, thus getting the US
government
out of direct control over the Internet and essentially opening
up
commerce online.
This new commercialization of the Internet led to what is now
known as the dot-com bubble. A frenzy of investment in new
dot-
Chapter 5: Networking and Communication | 105
https://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm
https://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm
13. com companies took place in the late 1990s with new tech
companies issuing Initial Public Offerings (IPO) and heating up
the
stock market. This investment bubble was driven by the fact
that
investors knew that online commerce would change everything.
Unfortunately, many of these new companies had poor business
models and anemic financial statements showing little or no
profit.
In 2000 and 2001, the bubble burst and many of these new
companies went out of business. Some companies survived,
including Amazon (started in 1994) and eBay (1995). After the
dot-
com bubble burst, a new reality became clear. In order to
succeed
online, e-business companies would need to develop business
models appropriate for the online environment.
Web 2.0
In the first few years of the World Wide Web, creating and
hosting a
14. website required a specific set of knowledge. A person had to
know
how to set up a web server, get a domain name, create web
pages in
HTML, and troubleshoot various technical issues.
Starting in the early 2000s, major changes came about in how
the
Internet was being used. These changes have come to be known
as
Web 2.0. Here are some key characteristics in Web 2.0.
• Universal access to Apps
• Value is found in content, not display software
• Data can be easily shared
• Distribution is bottom up, not top down
• Employees and customers can use access and use tools on
their own
• Informal networking is encouraged since more contributors
results in better content
• Social tools encourage people to share information
1
106 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
15. Social networking, the last item in the list, has led to major
changes in society. Prior to Web 2.0 major news outlets
investigated
and reported important news stories of the day. But in today’s
world
individuals are able to easily share their own views on various
events. Apps such as Facebook, Twitter, Youtube, and personal
blogs
allow people to express their own viewpoint.
Sidebar: E-mail Is the “Killer” App for the
Internet
As discussed in chapter 3, a “killer app” is a use of a device
that
becomes so essential that large numbers of people will buy the
device just to run that application. The killer app for the
personal
computer was the spreadsheet, enabling users to enter data,
write
formulas, and easily make “what if” decisions. With the
introduction
of the Internet came another killer app – E-mail.
16. The Internet was originally designed as a way for the
Department
of Defense to manage projects. However, the invention of
electronic
mail drove demand for the Internet. While this wasn’t what
developers had in mind, it turned out that people connecting
with
people was the killer app for the Internet. As we look back
today, we
can see this being repeated again and again with new
technologies
that enable people to connect with each other.
Sidebar: The Internet and the World Wide Web
1. [1]
Chapter 5: Networking and Communication | 107
Are Not the Same Thing
Many times the terms “Internet” and “World Wide Web,” or
even
just “the web,” are used interchangeably. But really, they are
not the
same thing.
17. The Internet is an interconnected network of networks. Services
such as email, voice and video, file transfer, and the World
Wide
Web all run across the Internet.The World Wide Web is simply
one
part of the Internet. It is made up of web servers that have
HTML
pages that are being viewed on devices with web browsers.
The Growth of High Speed Internet
In the early days of the Internet, most access was accomplished
via
a modem over an analog telephone line. A modem was
connected
to the incoming phone line when then connected to a computer.
Speeds were measured in bits-per-second (bps), with speeds
growing from 1200 bps to 56,000 bps over the years.
Connection to
the Internet via modems is called dial-up access. As the web
became
more interactive, dial-up hindered usage when users wanted to
transfer more and more data. As a point of reference,
downloading
a typical 3.5 MB song would take 24 minutes at 1200 bps and 2
18. minutes at 28,800 bps.
High speed Internet speeds, by definition, are a minimum of
256,000 bps, though most connections today are much faster,
measured in millions of bits per second (megabits or Mbps) or
even
billions (gigabits). For the home user, a high speed connection
is
usually accomplished via the cable television lines or phone
lines
using a Digital Subscriber Line (DSL). Both cable and DSL
have
similar prices and speeds, though price and speed can vary in
local
communities. According to the website Recode, the average
home
108 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
broadband speed ranges from 12 Mbps and 125 Mbps.2
Telecommunications companies provide T1 and T3 lines for
greater
bandwidth and reliability.
High speed access, also known as broadband, is important
19. because it impacts how the Internet is used. Communities with
high speed Internet have found residences and businesses
increase
usage of digital resources. Access to high speed Internet is now
considered a basic human right by the United Nations, as
declared
in their 2011 statement:
“Broadband technologies are fundamentally transforming the
way
we live,” the Broadband Commission for Digital Development,
set up
in 2017 by the UN Educational Scientific and Cultural
Organization
(UNESCO) and the UN International Telecommunications
Union
(ITU), said in issuing “The Broadband Challenge” at a
leadership
summit in Geneva.
“It is vital that no one be excluded from the new global
knowledge
societies we are building. We believe that communication is not
just
20. a human need – it is a right.”3
Wireless Networking
Thanks to wireless technology, access to the Internet is virtually
everywhere, especially through a smartphone.
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi takes an Internet signal and converts it into radio waves.
2. [2]
3. [3]
Chapter 5: Networking and Communication | 109
http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?Cr=broadband&NewsID
=40191#.UZlTSyvSOPU
http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?Cr=broadband&NewsID
=40191#.UZlTSyvSOPU
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco
http://www.itu.int/
http://www.broadbandcommission.org/Documents/Broadband_C
hallenge.pdf
These radio waves can be picked up within a radius of
approximately 65 feet by devices with a wireless adapter.
Several
Wi-Fi specifications have been developed over the years,
starting
21. with 802.11b in 1999, followed by the 802.11g specification in
2003
and 802.11n in 2009. Each new specification improved the
speed and
range of Wi-Fi, allowing for more uses. One of the primary
places
where Wi-Fi is being used is in the home. Home users access
Wi-Fi
via in-home routers provided by the telecommunications firm
that
services the residence.
Mobile Network
As the cellphone has evolved into the smartphone, the desire for
Internet access on these devices has led to data networks being
included as part of the mobile phone network. While Internet
connections were technically available earlier, it was really with
the release of the 3G networks in 2001 (2002 in the US) that
smartphones and other cellular devices could access data from
the
Internet. This new capability drove the market for new and more
powerful smartphones, such as the iPhone, introduced in 2007.
In
22. 2011, wireless carriers began offering 4G data speeds, giving
the
cellular networks the same speeds that customers were
accustomed
to getting via their home connection.
Beginning in 2019, some part of the world began seeing the
implementation of 5G communication networks. Speeds
associated
with 5G will be greater than 1 GB/second, providing connection
speeds to handle just about any type of application. Some have
speculated that the 5G implementation will lead households to
eliminate the purchase of wired Internet connections for their
homes, just using 5G wireless connections instead.
110 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
3G, 4G, and 5G Comparison
3G 4G 5G
Deployed 2004-2005 2006-2010 By 2020
Bandwidth 2 mbps 200 mbps > 1 gbps,
23. Service
Integrated
high-quality
audio, video
and data
Dynamic
information
access, variable
devices
Dynamic information
access, variable devices
with all capabilities
(James Dean, Raconteur, December 7, 2014)
4
Sidebar: Why Doesn’t My Cellphone Work When
I Travel Abroad?
As mobile phone technologies have evolved, providers in
different
countries have chosen different communication standards for
their
mobile phone networks. There are two competing standards in
the
US: GSM (used by AT&T and T-Mobile) and CDMA (used by
the
other major carriers). Each standard has its pros and cons, but
24. the bottom line is that phones using one standard cannot easily
switch to the other. This is not a big deal in the US because
mobile
networks exist to support both standards. But when traveling to
other countries, you will find that most of them use GSM
networks.
The one exception is Japan which has standardized on CDMA.
It is
possible for a mobile phone using one type of network to switch
to the other type of network by changing out the SIM card,
which
controls your access to the mobile network. However, this will
not
4. [4]
Chapter 5: Networking and Communication | 111
work in all cases. If you are traveling abroad, it is always best
to
consult with your mobile provider to determine the best way to
access a mobile network.
Bluetooth
25. While Bluetooth is not generally used to connect a device to the
Internet, it is an important wireless technology that has enabled
many functionalities that are used every day. When created in
1994
by Ericsson, it was intended to replace wired connections
between
devices. Today, it is the standard method for wirelessly
connecting
nearby devices. Bluetooth has a range of approximately 300 feet
and consumes very little power, making it an excellent choice
for
a variety of purposes. Some applications of Bluetooth include:
connecting a printer to a personal computer, connecting a
mobile
phone and headset, connecting a wireless keyboard and mouse
to a
computer, or connecting your mobile phone to your car,
resulting in
hands free operation of your phone.
112 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
Typical VoIP
26. communicati
on
VoIP
Voice over IP (VoIP) allows analog signals to be converted to
digital
signals, then transmitted on a network. By using existing
technologies and software, voice communication over the
Internet
is now available to anyone with a browser (think Skype,
WebEx,
Google Hangouts). Beyond this, many companies are now
offering
VoIP-based telephone service for business and home use.
Chapter 5: Networking and Communication | 113
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/07/volp.png
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/07/volp.png
Organizational Networking
LAN and WAN
Scope of business networks
While the Internet was evolving and creating a way for
27. organizations to connect to each other and the world, another
revolution was taking place inside organizations. The
proliferation
of personal computers led to the need to share resources such
as printers, scanners, and data. Organizations solved this
problem
through the creation of local area networks (LANs), which
allowed
computers to connect to each other and to peripherals.
A LAN is a local network, usually operating in the same
building
or on the same campus. A Wide Area Network (WAN) provides
connectivity over a wider area such as an organization’s
locations in
different cities or states.
114 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
Client-Server
Client-server computing provides stand-alone devices such as
personal computers, printers, and file servers to work together.
The
28. personal computer originally was used as a stand-alone
computing
device. A program was installed on the computer and then used
to
do word processing or calculations. With the advent of
networking
and local area networks, computers could work together to solve
problems. Higher-end computers were installed as servers, and
users on the local network could run applications and share
information among departments and organizations.
Intranet
An intranet, as the name implies, provides web-based resources
for the users within an organization. These web pages are not
accessible to those outside the company. The pages typically
contain information useful to employees such as policies and
procedures. In an academic setting the intranet provides an
interface to learning resources for students.
Extranet
Sometimes an organization wants to be able to collaborate with
its customers or suppliers while at the same time maintaining
29. the
security of being inside its own network. In cases like this a
company may want to create an extranet, which is a part of a
company’s network that can be made available securely to those
outside of the company. Extranets can be used to allow
customers
to log in and place orders, or for suppliers to check their
customers’
inventory levels.
Chapter 5: Networking and Communication | 115
Sometimes an organization will need to allow someone who is
not
located physically within its internal network to gain secure
access
to the intranet. This access can be provided by a virtual private
network (VPN). VPNs will be discussed further in Chapter 6
which
focuses on Information Security).
Sidebar: Microsoft’s SharePoint Powers the
Intranet
As organizations begin to see the power of collaboration
30. between
their employees, they often look for solutions that will allow
them
to leverage their intranet to enable more collaboration. Since
most
companies use Microsoft products for much of their computing,
some are using Microsoft’s SharePoint to support employee
collaboration.
SharePoint provides a communication and collaboration
platform
that integrates seamlessly with Microsoft’s Office suite of
applications. Using SharePoint, employees can share a
document
and edit it together, avoiding the need to email the document for
others to review. Projects and documents can be managed
collaboratively across the organization. Corporate documents
are
indexed and made available for search.
Cloud Computing
Cloud computing was covered in Chapter 3. The universal
availability of the Internet combined with increases in
31. processing
116 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
power and data-storage capacity have made cloud computing a
viable option for many companies. Using cloud computing,
companies or individuals can contract to store data on storage
devices somewhere on the Internet. Applications can be
“rented”
as needed, giving a company the ability to quickly deploy new
applications. The I.T. department benefits from not having to
maintain software that is provided on the cloud.
Sidebar: Metcalfe’s Law
Just as Moore’s Law describes how computing power is
increasing
over time, Metcalfe’s Law describes the power of networking.
Metcalfe’s Law states that the value of a telecommunications
network is proportional to the square of the number of
connected
users of the system, or N2. If a network has 10 nodes, the
inherent
32. value is 100, or 102.
Metcalfe’s Law is attributed to Robert Metcalfe, the co-inventor
of
Ethernet. It attempts to address the added value provided by
each
node on the network. Think about it this way: If none of your
friends
were on Instagram, would you spend much time there? If no one
else at your school or place of work had e-mail, would it be
very
useful to you? Metcalfe’s Law tries to quantify this value.
Summary
The networking revolution has completely changed how
personal
computers are used. Today, no one would imagine using a
computer
that was not connected to one or more networks. The
development
Chapter 5: Networking and Communication | 117
of the Internet and World Wide Web, combined with wireless
access, has made information available at our fingertips. The
33. Web
2.0 revolution has made everyone potential authors of web
content.
As networking technology has matured, the use of Internet
technologies has become a standard for every type of
organization.
The use of intranets and extranets has allowed organizations to
deploy functionality to employees and business partners alike,
increasing efficiencies and improving communications. Cloud
computing has truly made information available everywhere.
Study Questions
1. What were the first four locations hooked up to the Internet
(ARPANET)?
2. What does the term packet mean?
3. Which came first, the Internet or the World Wide Web?
4. What was revolutionary about Web 2.0?
5. What was the so-called killer app for the Internet?
6. What does the term VoIP mean?
7. What is a LAN?
8. What is the difference between an intranet and an extranet?
34. 9. What is Metcalfe’s Law?
Exercises
1. What is the difference between the Internet and the World
Wide Web? Create at least three statements that identify the
differences between the two.
2. Who are the broadband providers in your area? What are the
118 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
prices and speeds offered?
3. Pretend you are planning a trip to three foreign countries in
the next month. Consult your wireless carrier to determine if
your mobile phone would work properly in those countries.
What would the costs be? What alternatives do you have if it
would not work?
Labs
1. Check the speed of your Internet connection by going to the
following web site: speedtest.net
What is your download and upload speed?
35. 2. What is the IP address of your computer? How did you find
it?
Hint for Windows: Go to the start icon and click Run. Then
open the Command Line Interface by typing: cmd Then type:
ipconfigWhat is your IPv4 address?What is your IPv6 address?
3. When you enter an address in your web browser, a Domain
Name Server (DNS) is used to lookup the IP address of the site
you are seeking. To locate the DNS server …
6 3
4
oRg aniz aTional le aRning
TheoRies anD TeChnology
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to provide readers with an under-
standing of organizational theory. The chapter covers some
aspects
of the history and context of organizational learning. It also
defines
and explains various learning protocols, and how they can be
used to
promote organizational learning. The overall objective of
organiza-
tional learning is to support a process that guides individuals,
groups,
36. and entire communities through transformation. Indeed,
evidence of
organizational transformation provides the very proof that
learning
has occurred, and that changes in behavior are occurring. What
is
important in this regard is that transformation remains internal
to
the organization so that it can evolve in a progressive manner
while
maintaining the valuable knowledge base that is contained
within
the personnel of an organization. Thus, the purpose of organiza-
tional learning is to foster evolutionary transformation that will
lead
to change in behaviors and that is geared toward improving
strategic
performance.
Approaches to organizational learning typically address how
indi-
viduals, groups, and organizations “notice and interpret
information
and use it to alter their fit with their environments” (Aldrich,
2001,
p. 57). As such, however, organizational learning does not
direct itself
toward, and therefore has not been able to show, an inherent
link to
success—which is a critical concern for executive management.
There
are two perspectives on organizational learning theory. On the
one
hand, the adoptive approach, pioneered by Cyert and March
(1963),
treats organizations as goal-oriented activity systems. These
37. systems
generate learning when repeating experiences that have either
suc-
ceeded or failed, discarding, of course, processes that have
failed.
6 4 INFORMATION TECHNOLO GY
Knowledge development, on the other hand, treats organizations
as
sets of interdependent members with shared patterns of
cognition and
belief (Argyris & Schö n, 1996). Knowledge development
empha-
sizes that learning is not limited to simple trial and error, or
direct
experience. Instead, learning is understood also to be inferential
and
vicarious; organizations can generate new knowledge through
experi-
mentation and creativity. It is the knowledge development
perspec-
tive that fits conceptually and empirically with work on
technological
evolution and organizational knowledge creation and
deployment
(Tushman & Anderson, 1986).
There is a complication in the field of organizational learning
over
whether it is a technical or social process. Scholars disagree on
this
point. From the technical perspective, organizational learning is
about the effective processing of, interpretation of, and
38. response to
information both inside and outside the organization. “An
organiza-
tion is assumed to learn if any of its units acquires knowledge
that it
recognizes as potentially useful to the organization” (Huber,
1991,
p. 89). From the social perspective, on the other hand, comes
the con-
cept that learning is “something that takes place not with the
heads of
individuals, but in the interaction between people” (Easterby-
Smith
et al., 1999, p. 6). The social approach draws from the notion
that
patterns of behavior are developed, via patterns of socialization,
by
evolving tacit knowledge and skills. There is, regrettably, a lack
of
ongoing empirical investigation in the area of organizational
learning
pertaining, for example, to in-depth case studies, to
micropractices
within organizational settings, and to processes that lead to
outcomes.
Indeed, measuring learning is a difficult process, which is why
there
is a lack of research that focuses on outputs. As Prange (1999,
p. 24)
notes: “The multitude of ways in which organizational learning
has
been classified and used purports an ‘organizational learning
jungle,’
which is becoming progressively dense and impenetrable.”
Mackenzie
(1994, p. 251) laments that what the “scientific community
39. devoted
to organizational learning has not produced discernable
intellectual
progress.”
Ultimately, organizational learning must provide transformation
that links to performance. Most organizations seeking improved
per-
formance expect changes that will support new outcomes. The
study of
organizational learning needs an overarching framework under
which
6 5orGAnIz AtIonAl le ArnInG theorIes
an inquiry into the pivotal issues surrounding organizational
change
can be organized. Frameworks that support organizational
learning,
whether their orientation is on individuals, groups, or
infrastructure,
need to allow for natural evolution within acceptable time
frames for
the organization. This is the problem of organizational learning
the-
ory. It lacks a method of producing measurable results that
executives
can link to performance. While scholars seek outcomes through
stra-
tegic learning, there must be tangible evidence of individual and
orga-
nizational performance to ensure future investments in the
concepts
of learning. Technology, we should remember, represents the
40. oppor-
tunity to provide outcomes through strategic learning that
addresses
transitions and transformations over a specific life cycle.
We saw this opportunity occur in the Ravell case study; the
information technology (IT) department used organizational
learn-
ing. Specifically, individual reflective practices were used to
provide
measurable outcomes for the organization. In this case, the out-
comes related to a specific event, the physical move of the
business
to a different location. Another lesson we can derive (with
hindsight)
from the Ravell experience is that learning was converted to
strategic
benefit for the organization. The concept of converting learning
to
strategic benefit was pioneered by Pietersen (2002). He
established a
strategic learning cycle composed of four component processes
that he
identified with the action verbs learn, focus, align, and execute.
These
are stages in the learning cycle, as follows:
1. Learn: Conduct a situation analysis to generate insights into
the competitive environment and into the realities of the
company.
2. Focus: Translate insights into a winning proposition that
out-
lines key priorities for success.
3. Align: Align the organization and energize the people behind
41. the new strategic focus.
4. Execute: Implement strategy and experiment with new con-
cepts. Interpret results and continue the cycle.
At Ravell, technology assisted in driving the learning cycle
because,
by its dynamic nature, it mandated the acceleration of the cycle
that
Pietersen (2002) describes in his stage strategy of
implementation.
Thus, Ravell required the process Pietersen outlined to occur
within
6 6 INFORMATION TECHNOLO GY
6 months, and therein established the opportunity to provide
outcomes.
It also altered the culture of the organization (i.e., the evolution
in cul-
ture was tangible because the transformation was concrete).
We see from the Ravell case that technology represents the best
opportunity to apply organizational learning techniques because
the
use of it requires forms of evolutionary-related change.
Organizations
are continually seeking to improve their operations and
competi-
tive advantage through efficiency and effective processes. As I
have
discussed in previous chapters, today’s businesses are
experiencing
technological dynamism (defined as causing accelerated and
42. dynamic
transformations), and this is due to the advent of
technologically driven
processes. That is, organizations are experiencing more pressure
to
change and compete as a result of the accelerations that
technology
has brought about. Things happen quicker, and more
unpredictably,
than before. This situation requires organizations to sense the
need for
change and execute that change. The solution I propose is to tie
orga-
nizational theory to technological implementation. Another way
of
defining this issue is to provide an overarching framework that
orga-
nizes an inquiry into the issues surrounding organizational
change.
Another dimension of organizational learning is political.
Argyris
(1993) and Senge (1990) argue that politics gets “in the way of
good
learning.” In my view, however, the political dimension is very
much
part of learning. It seems naï ve to assume that politics can be
elimi-
nated from the daily commerce of organizational
communication.
Instead, it needs to be incorporated as a factor in organizational
learn-
ing theory rather than attempting to disavow or eliminate it,
which is
not realistic. Ravell also revealed that political factors are
simply part
43. of the learning process. Recall that during my initial efforts to
create
a learning organization there were IT staff members who
deliberately
refused to cooperate, assuming that they could “outlast” me in
my
interim tenure as IT director. But politics, of course, is not
limited to
internal department negotiations; it was also a factor at Ravell
with,
and among, departments outside IT. These interdepartmental
rela-
tionships applied especially to line managers, who became
essential
advocates for establishing and sustaining necessary forms of
learning
at the organizational level. But, not all line managers responded
with
the same enthusiasm, and a number of them did not display a
sense of
authentically caring about facilitating synergies across
departments.
6 7orGAnIz AtIonAl le ArnInG theorIes
The irrepressible existence of politics in social organizations,
however,
must not in itself deter us from implementing organizational
learn-
ing practices; it simply means that that we must factor it in as
part
of the equation. At Ravell, I had to work within the constraints
of
both internal and external politics. Nevertheless, in the end I
44. was able
to accomplish the creation of a learning organization. Another
way
one might look at the road bumps of politics is to assume that
they
will temporarily delay or slow the implementation of
organizational
learning initiatives. But, let us make no mistake about the
potentially
disruptive nature of politics because, as we know, in its extreme
cases
of inflexibility, it can be damaging.
I have always equated politics with the dilemma of blood
cholesterol.
We know that there are two types of cholesterol: “good”
cholesterol
and “bad” cholesterol. We all know that bad cholesterol in your
blood
can cause heart disease, among other life-threatening
conditions.
However, good cholesterol is essential to the body. My point is
simple;
the general word politics can have damaging perceptions. When
most
people discuss the topic of cholesterol, they focus on the bad
type, not
the good. Such is the same with politics—that is, most
individuals dis-
cuss the bad type, which often corresponds with their personal
expe-
riences. My colleague Professor Lyle Yorks, at Columbia
University,
often lectures on the importance of politics and its positive
aspects for
establishing strategic advocacy, defined as the ability to
45. establish per-
sonal and functional influence through cultivating alliances
through
defining opportunities for the adding value to either the top or
bottom
line (Langer & Yorks, 2013). Thus, politics can add value for
indi-
viduals by allowing them to initiate and influence relationships
and
conversations with other leaders. This, then, is “good” politics!
North American cultural norms account for much of what goes
into organizational learning theory, such as individualism, an
empha-
sis on rationality, and the importance of explicit, empirical
informa-
tion. IT, on the other hand, has a broadening, globalizing effect
on
organizational learning because of the sheer increase in the
number of
multicultural organizations created through the expansion of
global
firms. Thus, technology also affects the social aspects of
organizational
learning, particularly as it relates to the cultural evolution of
commu-
nities. Furthermore, technology has shown us that what works in
one
culture may not work in another. Dana Deasy, the former CIO
of the
6 8 INFORMATION TECHNOLO GY
Americas region/sector for Siemens AG, experienced the
46. difficulties
and challenges of introducing technology standards on a global
scale.
He quickly learned that what worked in North America did not
oper-
ate with the same expectations in Asia or South America. I
discuss
Siemens AG as a case study in Chapter 8.
It is my contention, however, that technology can be used as an
intervention that can actually increase organizational learning.
In
effect, the implementation of organizational learning has lacked
and
has needed concrete systemic processes that show results. A
solution
to this need can be found, as I have found it, in the
incorporation of
IT itself into the process of true organizational learning. The
prob-
lem with IT is that we keep trying to simplify it—trying to
reduce
its complexity. However, dealing with the what, when, and how
of
working with technology is complex. Organizations need a kind
of
mechanism that can provide a way to absorb and learn all of the
com-
plex pieces of technology.
It is my position that organizational change often follows learn-
ing, which to some extent should be expected. What controls
whether
change is radical or evolutionary depends on the basis on which
new processes are created (Argyris & Schö n, 1996; Senge,
1990;
47. Swieringa & Wierdsma, 1992). Indeed, at Ravell the learning
fol-
lowed the Argyris and Schö n approach: that radical change
occurs
when there are major events that support the need for
accelerated
change. In other words, critical events become catalysts that
promote
change, through reflection. On the other hand, there can be non-
event-related learning, that is not so much radical in nature, as
it is
evolutionary. Thus, evolutionary learning is characterized as an
ongo-
ing process that slowly establishes the need for change over
time. This
evolutionary learning process compares to what Senge (1990, p.
15)
describes as “learning in wholes as opposed to pieces.”
This concept of learning is different from an event-driven
perspec-
tive, and it supports the natural tendency that groups and
organiza-
tions have to protect themselves from open confrontation and
critique.
However, technology provides an interesting variable in this
regard.
It is generally accepted as an agent of change that must be
addressed
by the organization. I believe that this agency can be seized as
an
opportunity to promote such change because it establishes a
reason
why organizations need to deal with the inevitable transitions
brought
48. 6 9orGAnIz AtIonAl le ArnInG theorIes
about by technology. Furthermore, as Huysman (1999) points
out, the
history of organizational learning has not often created
measurable
improvement, particularly because implementing the theories
has not
always been efficient or effective. Much of the impetus for
implement-
ing a new technology, however, is based on the premise that its
use
will result in such benefits. Therefore, technology provides
compelling
reasons for why organizational learning is important: to
understand
how to deal with agents of change, and to provide ongoing
changes in
the processes that improve competitive advantage.
There is another intrinsic issue here. Uses of technology have
not
always resulted in efficient and effective outcomes, particularly
as
they relate to a firm’s expected ROI. In fact, IT projects often
cost
more than expected and tend to be delivered late. Indeed,
research
performed by the Gartner Group and CIO Magazine (Koch,
1999)
reports that 54% of IT projects are late and that 22% are never
com-
pleted. In May 2009, McGraw reported similar trends, so
industry
49. performance has not materially improved. This is certainly a
disturb-
ing statistic for a dynamic variable of change that promises
outcomes
of improved efficiency and effectiveness. The question then is
why is
this occurring? Many scholars might consider the answer to this
ques-
tion as complex. It is my claim, however, based on my own
research,
that the lack of organizational learning, both within IT and
within
other departments, poses, perhaps, the most significant barrier
to the
success of these projects in terms of timeliness and completion.
Langer
(2001b) suggests that the inability of IT organizations to
understand
how to deal with larger communities within the organization
and to
establish realistic and measurable outcomes are relevant both to
many
of the core values of organizational learning and to its
importance in
attaining results. What better opportunity is there to combine
the
strengths and weaknesses of each of IT and organizational
learning?
Perhaps what is most interesting—and, in many ways, lacking
within the literature on organizational learning—is the actual
way
individuals learn. To address organizational learning, I believe
it is
imperative to address the learning styles of individuals within
the
50. organization. One fundamental consideration to take into
account
is that of individual turnover within departments. Thus, methods
to measure or understand organizational learning must
incorporate
the individual; how the individual learns, and what occurs when
70 INFORMATION TECHNOLO GY
individuals change positions or leave, as opposed to solely
focusing
on the event-driven aspect of evolutionary learning. There are
two
sociological positions about how individual learning occurs.
The first
suggests that individual action derives from determining
influences
in the social system, and the other suggests that it emanates
from
individual action. The former proposition supports the concept
that
learning occurs at the organizational, or group level, and the
lat-
ter supports it at the individual level of action and experience.
The
“system” argument focuses on learning within the organization
as a
whole and claims that individual action functions within its
boundar-
ies. The “individual” argument claims that learning emanates
from
the individual first and affects the system as a result of
outcomes from
individual actions. Determining a balance between individual
51. and
organizational learning is an issue debated by scholars and an
impor-
tant one that this book must address.
Why is this issue relevant to the topic of IT and organizational
learning? Simply put, understanding the nature of evolving
technolo-
gies requires that learning—and subsequent learning
outcomes—will
be heavily affected by the processes in which it is delivered.
Therefore,
without understanding the dynamics of how individuals and
organi-
zations learn, new technologies may be difficult to assimilate
because
of a lack of process that can determine how they can be best
used in
the business. What is most important to recognize is the way in
which
responsive organizational dynamism (ROD) needs both the
system
and individual approaches. Huysman (1999) suggests (and I
agree)
that organizational versus individual belief systems are not
mutually
exclusive pairs but dualities. In this way, organizational
processes are
not seen as just top-down or bottom-up affairs, but as
accumulations
of history, assimilated in organizational memory, which
structures
and positions the agency or capacity for learning. In a similar
way,
organizational learning can be seen as occurring through the
actions
52. of individuals, even when they are constrained by institutional
forces.
The strategic integration component of ROD lends itself to the
system
model of learning to the extent that it almost mandates change—
change that, if not addressed, will inevitably affect the
competitive
advantage of the organization. On the other hand, the cultural
assim-
ilation component of ROD is also involved because of its effect
on
individual behavior. Thus, the ROD model needs to be expanded
to
71orGAnIz AtIonAl le ArnInG theorIes
show the relationship between individual and organizational
learning
as shown in Figure 4.1.
An essential challenge to technology comes from the fact that
organizations are not sure about how to handle its overall
potential.
Thus, in a paradoxical way, this quandary provides a
springboard to
learning by utilizing organizational learning theories and
concepts to
create new knowledge, by learning from experience, and
ultimately by
linking technology to learning and performance. This
perspective can
be promoted from within the organization because chief
executives
are generally open to investing in learning as long as core
53. business
principles are not violated. This position is supported by my
research
with chief executives that I discussed in Chapter 2.
Organizational
dynamism
Acceleration of events that
require different
infrastructures and
organizational processes
Requires
Strategic
integration
Cultural
assimilation
Organization
structures
(system)
Individual
actions
Renegotiation of
relationship
Organizational learning techniques
Symptoms and
implications
54. Technology
Figure 4.1 ROD and organizational learning.
72 INFORMATION TECHNOLO GY
Organizational learning can also assist in the adoption of
technologies by providing a mechanism to help individuals
manage
change. This notion is consistent with Aldrich (2001), who
observes
that many organizations reject technology-driven changes or
“pio-
neering ventures,” which he called competence-destroying
ventures
because they threaten existing norms and processes.
Organizations
would do well to understand the value of technology,
particularly for
those who adopt it early (early adopters), and how it can lead to
com-
petitive advantages. Thus, organizations that position
themselves to
evolve, to learn, and to create new knowledge are better
prepared to
foster the handling, absorption, and acceptance of technology-
driven
change than those that are not. Another way to view this ethic is
to
recognize that organizations need to be “ready” to deal with
change—
change that is accelerated by technology innovations. Although
Aldrich (2001) notes that organizational learning has not been
55. tied
to performance and success, I believe it will be the technology
revolu-
tion that establishes the catalyst that can tie organizational
learning
to performance.
The following sections of this chapter expand on the core
concept
that the success of ROD is dependent on the uses of
organizational
learning techniques. In each section, I correlate this concept to
many
of the organizational learning theories and show how they can
be
tailored and used to provide important outcomes that assist the
pro-
motion of both technological innovation and organizational
learning.
Learning Organizations
Business strategists have realized that the ability of an
organization
to learn faster, or “better,” than its competitors may indeed be
the key
to long-term business success (Collis, 1994; Dodgson, 1993;
Grant,
1996; Jones, 1975). A learning organization is defined as a
form of
organization that enables, in an active sense, the learning of its
mem-
bers in such a way that it creates positive outcomes, such as
innovation,
efficiency, improved alignment with the environment, and
competi-
56. tive advantage. As such, a learning organization is one that
acquires
knowledge from within. Its evolution, then, is primarily driven
by
itself without the need for interference from outside forces. In
this
sense, it is a self-perpetuating and self-evolving system of
individual
73orGAnIz AtIonAl le ArnInG theorIes
and organizational transformations integrated into the daily
processes
of the organization. It should be, in effect, a part of normal
organiza-
tional behavior. The focus of organizational learning is not so
much
on the process of learning but more on the conditions that allow
suc-
cessful outcomes to flourish. Learning organization literature
draws
from organizational learning theory, particularly as it relates to
inter-
ventions based on outcomes. This provides an alternative to
social
approaches.
In reviewing these descriptions of what a learning organization
does, and why it is important, we can begin to see that
technology may
be one of the few agents that can actually show what learning
organi-
zations purport to do. Indeed, Ravell created an evolving
population
57. that became capable of dealing with environmental changes
brought
on by technological innovation. The adaptation of these changes
created those positive outcomes and improved efficiencies.
Without
organizational learning, specifically the creation of a learning
organi-
zation, many innovations brought about by technology could
produce
chaos and instability. Organizations generally tend to suffer
from, and
spend too much time reflecting on, their past dilemmas.
However,
given the recent phenomenon of rapid changes in technology,
orga-
nizations can no longer afford the luxury of claiming that there
is
simply too much else to do to be constantly worrying about
technol-
ogy. Indeed, Lounamaa and March (1987) state that
organizations
can no longer support the claim that too-frequent changes will
inhibit
learning. The fact is that such changes must be taken as
evolutionary,
and as a part of the daily challenges facing any organization.
Because
a learning organization is one that creates structure and
strategies, it
is positioned to facilitate the learning of all its members, during
the
ongoing infiltration of technology-driven agents of change.
Boland
et al. (1994) show that information systems based on
multimedia
technologies may enhance the appreciation of diverse
58. interpretations
within organizations and, as such, support learning
organizations.
Since learning organizations are deliberately created to
facilitate the
learning of their members, understanding the urgency of
technologi-
cal changes can provide the stimulus to support planned
learning.
Many of the techniques used in the Ravell case study were
based
on the use of learning organizational techniques, many of which
were
pioneered by Argyris and Schö n (1996). Their work focuses on
using
74 INFORMATION TECHNOLO GY
“action science” methods to create and maintain learning
organiza-
tions. A key component of action science is the use of reflective
prac-
tices—including what is commonly known among researchers
and
practitioners as reflection in action and reflection on action.
Reflection
with action is the term I use as a rubric for these various
methods,
involving reflection in relation to activity. Reflection has
received
a number of definitions, from different sources in the literature.
Depending on the emphasis, whether on theory or practice,
defini-
59. tions vary from philosophical articulation (Dewey, 1933;
Habermas,
1998), to practice-based formulations, such as Kolb’s (1984b)
use of
reflection in the experiential learning cycle. Specifically,
reflection
with action carries the resonance of Schö n’s (1983) twin
constructs:
reflection on action and reflection in action, which emphasize
reflec-
tion in retrospect, and reflection to determine which actions to
take
in the present or immediate future, respectively. Dewey (1933)
and
Hullfish and Smith (1978) also suggest that the use of reflection
sup-
ports an implied purpose: individuals reflect for a purpose that
leads
to the processing of a useful outcome. This formulation
suggests the
possibility of reflection that is future oriented—what we might
call
“reflection to action.” These are methodological orientations
covered
by the rubric.
Reflective practices are integral to ROD because so many
technology-based projects are event driven and require
individu-
als to reflect before, during, and after actions. Most important
to
this process is that these reflections are individually driven and
that
technology projects tend to accelerate the need for rapid
decisions.
In other words, there are more dynamic decisions to be made in
60. less
time. Without operating in the kind of formation that is a
learning
organization, IT departments cannot maintain the requisite
infra-
structure to develop products timely on time and support
business
units—something that clearly is not happening if we look at the
existing lateness of IT projects. With respect to the role of
reflec-
tion in general, the process can be individual or organizational.
While groups can reflect, it is in being reflective that
individuals
bring about “an orientation to their everyday lives,” according
to
Moon (1999). “For others reflection comes about when
conditions
in the learning environment are appropriate” (p. 186). However,
IT departments have long suffered from not having the
conditions
75orGAnIz AtIonAl le ArnInG theorIes
to support such an individual learning environment. This is why
implementing a learning organization is so appealing as a
remedy
for a chronic problem.
Communities of Practice
Communities of practice are based on the assumption that
learning
starts with engagement in social practice and that this practice
is the
61. fundamental construct by which individuals learn (Wenger,
1998).
Thus, communities of practice are formed to get things done by
using
a shared way of pursuing interest. For individuals, this means
that
learning is …
Assignment 1
Textbook:Information Systems for Business and Beyond
Please answer the following
From Chapter 5 – study questions 1-9, Exercise 1
From Chapter 6 – study questions 1-10, Exercise 6, & 7
All the above questions should be submitted in one Word
document
Please understand that Plagiarism will not be tolerated and will
result in a zero grade.
Submission Requirements
Font: Times New Roman, size 12, double-space
Citation Style: APA
Length: At-least 4 pages, make sure not to limit your work to 4
pages, but answer all the questions. If you can do it 3 pages
work for me as long as you answered all the questions.
References: Please use citations and references where
appropriate
No Plagiarism
Assignment 2
Textbook:Information Technology and Organizational Learning
Please answer the Following
From Chapter 4 – Review the section on Linear Development in
Learning Approaches. Discuss how learning changes over time
impact organizational culture. What is the impact of this
cultural change on the success of IT projects?
From Chapter 5 – Review the Roles of Line Management and
Social Network and Information Technology sections. Note the
62. various roles in the organization and note the similarities and
differences within each role. Also, note how innovation
technology management shapes how we communicate amongst
coworkers within an organization.
Submission Requirements
Font: Times New Roman, size 12, double-space
Length: At one page for each chapter (total pages should be 2)
Citation Style: APA
References: Please use citations and references where
appropriate
No Plagiarism
The above submission should adhere to APA formatting
standards. Remember the page length does not include the APA
cover page or any references. Please understand that Plagiarism
will not be tolerated and will result in a zero grade.