Chapter 12 discusses various research techniques including observation, focus groups, expert panels, and content analysis, detailing their advantages and challenges. It outlines methods for organizing focus groups and expert panels, as well as conducting observational research and content analysis effectively. Key terms, benefits, and best practices for coding and recording data within these methodologies are also highlighted.

1. Planning an
Applied Research
Project
Chapter 12 – Research Techniques:
Observation, Focus Groups, and Other
Techniques
© 2014 John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Learning Objectives
» Explain the advantages of observations, focus
groups, expert panels, and content analysis
» Explain the challenges of conducting objective
observations
» Conduct a research observation
» Organize a focus group
» Develop an expert panel research design
» Conduct a content analysis research design
» Develop a coding system
© 2014 John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

3. Key Terms
» Coding
» Coding manual
» Coding schedule
» Content analysis
» Delphi panel
» Descriptive observation
» Detached observer
» Disposition
» Evaluative observation
» Facilitator
» Focus group
» Inferential observation
» Inter-rater reliability
» Latent content
» Manifest content
» Observer drift
» Outside observer
» Participant observer
» Perceptual flooding
» Pilot observation
» Research blindness
» Selective attention
» Skilled facilitator
» Time frame
» Units of behavior
» Units of observation
© 2014 John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

4. Benefits of Observational
Research
» Objective way to record and notice behavior of
other people
» Non obtrusive way to gather information with limited
involvement of the persons being observed
» Structured and objective model
» Numbers can be analyzed using statistical
techniques
© 2014 John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5. Challenges in Conducting
Observations
» Observer drift
» Obtaining permission
» Deciding on observer role
» Perceptual flooding
» Recording accurately using a coding scheme
» Selecting units of behavior and time frame
» Selective attention
© 2014 John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

6. Observational Roles
» Outside observer
» Participant observer
» Observer as participant
» Mystery shopper
© 2014 John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

7. Benefits of Focus Groups
» Gathering many opinions
» Collecting new ideas
» Sampling opinions of select participants
» Enabling reactions of participants to each others’
ideas
» Follow up on opinions possible
» Inclusion of verbal and non-verbal behavior
» Saves time and money and staff time
© 2014 John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

8. Organizing Focus Groups
» Clarifying the purpose of the focus group
» Deciding on incentives or stipends
» Selecting and inviting participants
» Developing the questions to be asked in the focus
group
» Determining recording systems
» Developing a plan for the facilitator – who will do it
and why?
© 2014 John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

9. Organizing Focus Groups
(cont’d)
» Selecting a place to hold the focus group
» Creating the process for recording the conversation,
both verbal and non-verbal
» Reminding all the participants of the time and
location
» Conducting the focus group
» Thanking them after the group
» Analyzing the recording
© 2014 John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10. Expert Panels
» Group of people who are chosen for their expertise,
wisdom, or experience and who operate as a group
to help solve a problem, provide insight or create
predictions for the future
» Effective method to collect a lot of information from
professionals who do not meet but conduct their
work by email and other forms of communication
» A Delphi Panel is one form
© 2014 John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11. Expert Panels (cont’d)
» No communication among the participants
» A tight time table
» Careful review and editing of what you receive
» The value of clear questions to start the process
» The need for participants to commit to a promote
review and retune of documents
» How electronic communication helps the process
© 2014 John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

12. Content Analysis
» Objective and careful analysis of words and/or
phrases in a series of documents, videos,
magazines, periodicals, or in order to determine
what the evidence shows
» Content analysis can uncover cultural assumptions
about the ways words or images are used
» Content analysis can provide insights about how
organizations or individuals use language, phrases
or symbols to convey meaning
© 2014 John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

13. Steps in Content Analysis
» Selection of software (if being used)
» Development of coding schedule
» Coding manual
» Careful training of people involved
» Careful selection of documents
» Clear plan of how to analyze the results
© 2014 John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

14. Coding in Content Analysis
» Process of recording what is in a document or set of
images in a consistent and replicable manner
» Requires:
˃ Determination of unit of analysis
˃ coding schedule
˃ Coding manual
˃ Training coding persons
© 2014 John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

15. Review of Class Session
» Anything unclear?
» One thing that fascinates me about the topics in this
class is …
© 2014 John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.