Chapter 1

PROGRAMMING
OVERVIEW
Chapter 1

Programming Languages
its a various languages for expressing a set of detailed instructions for a
digital computer. Such instructions can be executed directly when they are in the
computer manufacturer-specific numerical form known as machine language,
after a simple substitution process when expressed in a corresponding assembly
language, or after translation from some “higher-level” language.

Kinds of Programming Language
• Machine and assembly
languages
• Algorithmic languages
• Business-oriented languages
• Education-oriented languages
• Object-oriented Languages
• Declarative Languages
• Scripting Languages
• Document formatting languages
• World Wide Web display
languages

• Machine and Assembly Languages
consists of the numeric codes for the operations
that a particular computer can execute directly. The codes
are strings of 0s and 1s, or binary digits “bits”, which are
frequently converted both from and to hexadecimal base 16
for human viewing and modification.
Machine language instructions typically use some bits to represent operations, such as addition, and
some to represent operands, or perhaps the location of the next instruction.
Machine language is difficult to read and write, since it does not resemble conventional mathematical
notation or human language, and its codes vary from computer to computer.
 MACHINE LANGUAGE

 ASSEMBLY LANGUAGES
• Machine and Assembly Languages
is one level above machine language. It uses
short mnemonic codes for instructions and allows the
programmer to introduce names for blocks of memory that hold
data. One might thus write “add pay, total” instead of
“0110101100101000” for an instruction that adds two numbers.
Assembly language is designed to be easily translated into machine language. Although blocks
of data may be referred to by name instead of by their machine addresses, assembly language does not
provide more sophisticated means of organizing complex information. Like machine language,
assembly language requires detailed knowledge of internal computer architecture. It is useful when
such details are important, as in programming a computer to interact with peripheral devices printers,
scanners, storage devices, and so forth.

• Algorithmic languages
are designed to express mathematical or
symbolic computations. They can express algebraic
operations in notation similar to mathematics and
allow the use of subprograms that package
commonly used operations for reuse. They were the
first high-level languages.
 Fortran -Its control structures included conditional IF statements, repetitive loops (so-called DO loops),
and a GOTO statement that allowed nonsequential execution of program code.
Algol-Introduced block structure, in which a program is composed of blocks that might contain both data
and instructions and have the same structure as an entire program.
C-It uses a compact notation and provides the programmer with the ability to operate with the addresses of data
as well as with their values.
 Types of Algorithmic languages

 COBOL
(common business oriented language)
uses an English-like notation novel when
introduced. Business computations organize
and manipulate large quantities of data, and
COBOL introduced the record data structure
for such tasks. A record
clusters heterogeneous data such as a name,
an ID number, an age, and an address into a
single unit. This contrasts with scientific
languages, in which homogeneous arrays of
numbers are common. Records are an
important example of “chunking” data into a
single object, and they appear in nearly all
modern languages.

 SQL (structured query
language)
is a language for specifying the organization
of databases collections of records. Databases
organized with SQL are called relational, because
SQL provides the ability to query a database for
information that falls in a given relation.
For example a query might be “find all records with both last name Smith and city New York.”
Commercial database programs commonly use an SQL like language for their queries.

• Education-oriented languages
Pascal
was one of the most widely used languages for programming
instruction. It was available on nearly all computers, and, because
of its familiarity, clarity, and security, it was used for
production software as well as for education.
Hypertalk
was designed as “programming for the rest of us” by Bill
Atkinson for Apple’s Macintosh. Using a simple English-like
syntax, Hypertalk enabled anyone to combine text, graphics,
and audio quickly into “linked stacks” that could be navigated
by clicking with a mouse on standard buttons supplied by the
program.

Procedure Oriented High-Level Languages
• High-level languages like C and Pascal are also known as procedural languages. They allow the
writing of procedures and functions for code modularity, often dividing the work into
separate actions.
• Object-oriented languages, like C++ and Java, take this a step further and encapsulate their data and procedures
together in units called objects, which contain more than just functions actions, often representable by
verbs. These languages make items modular as well objects, or things representable by nouns. Object-oriented
languages are also high-level languages, more readable for people, and needing translation for the machine by a
compiler or interpreter.
 Classes and Objects:
•Object -- an encapsulation of data and functions that act upon that data. The three aspects of an object:
• Name -- the variable name we give it
• Attributes (member data) -- the data that describes the what the object is
• Behavior (member functions) -- behavior aspects of the object functions that describe what the object does
•Class -- a blueprint for objects. A class is a user-defined type that describes what a certain type of object will look like.
A class description consists of a declaration and a definition usually split into separate files.
•An object is a single instance of a class.
You can create many objects from the same class type, in much the same way that you can create many houses from the
same blueprint.

Program Development Life Cycle (PDLC)
is a systematic way of developing quality software. It provides an organized plan for breaking
down the task of program development into manageable chunks, each of which must be successfully
completed before moving on to the next phase.
The program development process is divided into
the steps:
1.Defining the Problem –
The first step is to define the problem. In
major software projects, this is a job for
system analyst, who provides the results
of their work to programmers in the form
of a program specification. The program
specification defines the data used in
program, the processing that should take
place while finding a solution, the format
of the output and the user interface.
2. Designing the Program –
Program design starts by focusing on the main
goal that the program is trying to achieve and
then breaking the program into manageable
components, each of which contributes to this
goal.

the steps:
3. Coding the Program –
Coding the program means translating an
algorithm into specific programming language.
The technique of programming using only well
defined control structures is known as Structured
programming. Programmer must follow the
language rules, violation of any rule
causes error. These errors must be eliminated
before going to the next step.
4. Testing and Debugging the Program –
After removal of syntax errors, the program will
execute. However, the output of the program may
not be correct. This is because of logical error in
the program. A logical error is a mistake that the
programmer made while designing the solution to a
problem. So the programmer must find and correct
logical errors by carefully examining the program
output using Test data. Syntax error and Logical
error are collectively known as Bugs. The process
of identifying errors and eliminating them is known
as Debugging.

the steps:
5. Documenting the Program –
After testing, the software project is almost complete.
The structure charts, pseudocodes,
flowcharts and decision tables developed during the
design phase become documentation for others who are
associated with the software project. This phase ends by
writing a manual that provides an overview of the
program’s functionality, tutorials for the beginner, in-depth
explanations of major program features, reference
documentation of all program commands and a thorough
description of the error messages generated by the
program
6. Deploying and Maintaining the
Program –
In the final phase, the program is
deployed (installed) at the user’s site.
Here also, the program is kept under
watch till the user gives a green signal to
it.
Even after the software is completed, it
needs to be maintained and evaluated
regularly. In software maintenance, the
programming team fixes program errors
and updates the software.

Visual Studio 2010 History
is an integrated development environment (IDE) from Microsoft. It is used to develop computer
programs, as well as websites, web apps, web services and mobile apps. Visual Studio uses Microsoft
software development platforms such as Windows API, Windows Forms, Windows Presentation
Foundation, Windows Store and Microsoft Silverlight. It can produce both native code and managed
code.
Visual Studio supports 36 different programming
languages and allows the code editor and debugger to
support (to varying degrees) nearly any programming
language, provided a language-specific service exists.
Built-in languages include C, C++, C++/CLI, Visual Basic
.NET, C#, F#,
JavaScript, TypeScript, XML, XSLT, HTML, and CSS.
Support for other languages such as Python,
Ruby, Node.js, and M among others is available
via plug-ins. Java were supported in the past.

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