Case Studies for Assignment 3

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Volume 4 Case Study 5
IN SPORT MANAGEMENT
Case STUDIES
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Getting Clipped: An Evaluation of Crisis Management
and the NBA’s Response to the Actions of Donald Sterling
Megan Beth Shreffler, Gin Presley, and Samuel Schmidt
University of Louisville
In 1981, Donald Sterling became the owner of the San Diego Clippers, an ownership that would prove
troublesome for the National Basketball Association (NBA). During his 33 years as an owner of the Clippers,
Sterling had four major lawsuits for racial discrimination filed against him and was accused of running the
organization with the vision of a “southern plantation-type structure.” On April 25, 2014, the allegations of
racist behavior were taken to a new level when Sterling was recorded by his girlfriend, V. Stiviano, proclaim-
ing racist statements toward minorities. The audio recording was put online for the world to hear (mere hours
after the conversation) leading to extensive public backlash. Sterling’s comments ultimately led to his demise
in the NBA, as NBA Commissioner Adam Silver announced, 4 days after the incident, that Sterling received
a $2.5 million fine and was banned from the Clippers organization and the NBA for life. Given the immediacy
of the spreading of information on the incident, the NBA and Commissioner Silver knew they had to manage
the crisis as swiftly as possible. This case examines Sterling’s involvement with the NBA, his history with
racism, and the NBA’s responses to the leaked recording. Multiple models for crisis management and deci-
sion making are discussed to help readers develop their own plan for working through organizational crises.
Keywords: crisis management, decision making, Donald Sterling,Adam Silver, National BasketballAssociation
In 1981, the owner of the Los Angeles Lakers, Jerry Buss, encouraged Donald T. Sterling to purchase the San
Diego Clippers. Sterling, a real estate tycoon, purchased the underperforming team for a mere $13 million (Zirin, 2014).
Throughout his 33 years of ownership, Sterling repeatedly made poor management choices hurting the Clipper image and
his own. Between the 1981 and 1982 seasons, Sterling hired a model with no basketball knowledge to be the assistant
general manager for his team. The Clippers stated that her duties were not basketball-related (Lidz, 2000). Sterling’s
reputation as an owner was further compromised after he released an open letter to the fans of the Clippers stating,
“I’m in San Diego to stay and committed to making the city proud of the Clippers. I’ll build the Clippers through the
draft, free agency, trades, spending, whatever it takes to make a winner” (Lidz, 2000, p. 4), but didn’t exhibit actions
to support this statement and keep these promises. Sterling relocated the San Diego Clippers to Los Angeles without
National Basketball Association (NBA) approval in 1984, 2 years after his letter. This move earned him a $25 million
fine, which Sterling fired back by suing the league for $100 million. David Stern reduced Sterling’s fine to $6 million,
which he took out of the Clipper’s expansion fees (Witz, 2014). The early 2000s were also troublesome for Sterling as
lawsuits against him would surface. Sterling’s ultimate demise came in April of 2014 when he was banned from ever
attending an NBA game again following the release of an audio recording of him making racist statements.
On the court during Sterling’s tenure as owner, the Clippers were considered the worst franchise in the NBA. In
his first 7 years of ownership, Sterling managed the Clippers to a last place or second to last place finish in six seasons.
The 1990s and 2000s were bleak for Sterling’s team as they made the NBA playoffs only four times in 20 years. A
Megan Beth Shreffler, Gin Presley, and Samuel Schmidt are with the Department of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Lou-
isville, Louisville, KY. Address author correspondence to Megan Shreffler at megan.shreffler@louisville.edu.
http://www.dx.doi.org/10.1123/cssm.2014-0027

Shreffler, Presley, & Schmidt
change occurred during the 2011 season, when Sterling’s Clippers started to experience success. Since the 2011 season,
the Clippers have had three playoff appearances and have won two division titles (Los Angeles Clippers Franchise
Index, 2014). One player who has had a positive impact on the team’s recent shift to success is team captain Chris
Paul, whom David Stern, then commissioner of the NBA, gifted to Donald Sterling in 2011. Stern blocked a trade that
would have sent Chris Paul from the New Orleans Pelicans to the Los Angeles Lakers, but allowed the trade from the
Pelicans to the Los Angeles Clippers (Jenkins, 2014). Stern received harsh criticism for his decision to block the trade
of Paul from the Pelicans to the Lakers. As ESPN’s Ian O’Connor (2011) wrote, “In the alleged best interests of the
league, in the supposed name of competitive balance, the Commissioner decided the big-market Lakers would be too
strong too soon after the lockout” (para. 14). However, another team in the same big-market that was not too strong
was Sterling’s Los Angeles Clippers.
The addition of Paul to the Clippers roster that also included Blake Griffin, the first overall selection of the 2009
NBA draft, seemingly flipped the script that traditionally ended with disappointing finishes each season. The impact
of the duo was illustrated in their first season together, as they had the highest winning percentage in franchise his-
tory, sold out every home game, and led the league in road attendance (Heimer, 2012). Beyond the court, the winning
dynamic seemed to pervade the front office as well with the hiring of new management. This positivity was particularly
important as front office distractions had plagued the organization in previous seasons (Heimer, 2012). Despite these
positive changes within the organization, one problem continued to plague its existence: Sterling.
History of Racism
Donald Sterling’s legal troubles for discrimination against minorities began in 2001. Sterling was sued by the city of
Santa Monica, California for harassment and threatening to evict eight tenants under rent control in three of his low-
income housing properties. The alleged offense that led to Sterling’s actions was the placement of potted plants on
balconies by the tenants (Zirin, 2014). The tenants claimed that Sterling wrote them threatening letters falsely claim-
ing that they did not pay rent, entered tenants’ apartments without prior notice, harassed them, and tried to evict them
multiple times. Ultimately, Sterling’s behaviors were so unwarranted that the city of Santa Monica won their case
against Sterling (Zirin, 2014).
In 2003, Sterling elevated his racist tendencies which caused him to be sued by 19 tenants living in his complexes
and the Housing Rights Center for discrimination (Doyel, 2014). The tenants accused Sterling of not renting to Hispan-
ics because they “smoke, drink, and just hang around the building” (Doyel, 2014, para. 6). He also was accused of not
renting to African-Americans because they “smell and attract vermin” (Doyel, 2014, para. 6). Sterling was, however,
favorable to renting to Korean-Americans because they “will live in whatever conditions he gives them and still pay the
rent without complaint” (Doyel, 2014, para. 6). The lawsuit ended in 2005 with Sterling paying $7 million in damages
and legal fees with no punishment from the NBA or the public.
By 2006, another lawsuit was presented to Donald Sterling by the U.S. Department of Justice. Sterling and his wife,
Shelly, allegedly discriminated againstAfrican-Americans and Latinos once again. The couple was accused of “refusing
to rent to non-Koreans in the Koreatown section of Los Angeles County and turning away families with children from
its properties” (Shoichet, 2014, para. 7). The case concluded after 3 years and resulted in Sterling paying $3 million in
damages. Even after the settlement, Sterling denied these accusations.
More recently, in 2009, Elgin Baylor, the Los Angeles Clipper’s General Manager from 1986–2008, filed a civil
lawsuit for wrongful termination against Donald Sterling. Baylor claimed he experienced discrimination based on race
and age in his 22 years with the Clippers. Baylor accused Sterling of creating a “southern plantation-type structure”
within the Clipper’s organization. Sterling allegedly wanted a team “composed of poor Black boys from the South and a
White head coach” (Fenno, 2014, para. 6).Allegations also arose suggesting that Sterling had an ongoing racist attitude
toward Danny Manning, the number one overall pick for the Clippers in 1988 (Lidz, 2014). Baylor claimed that Sterling
said, “I’m [Sterling] offering you [Manning] a lot of money for a poor Black kid” (Fenno, 2014, para. 5). Sterling treated
the White head coach, Mike Dunleavy, far better than the Black coach, Baylor. Baylor claimed his salary was frozen at
$350,000, while “the Caucasian head coach was given a 4 year, $22-million contract” (Fenno, 2014, para. 6). Baylor
ultimately was unsuccessful with the discrimination case in 2011 after the jury ruled in favor of Sterling. The jury felt

Crisis Management in Sport 30
the Clippers had not performed any action that would be considered discrimination against Baylor, and Sterling never
said racist remarks toward Baylor personally. In March of the same year, the Clippers created a new advertisement for
Black History Month. This advertisement brought about many critiques for a few reasons. First, the celebration was
scheduled for March, when Black History Month is celebrated in February. Secondly, the advertisement featured the
player Blake Griffin, who was born to a Black father and a White mother. Finally, the advertisement publicized the
Clippers were giving free tickets to 1,000 “underprivileged” children. The message being sent by Sterling was “under-
privileged” equated to Black. It is important to note that Sterling’s face was on the cover of the advertisement, linking
him directly to the message (Nischelle & Brayton, 2011).
Over his 33 years of ownership, Sterling showed multiple times that his views were detrimental to the league. On
the court, he was accused of creating a racist “southern plantation” culture with the Clippers organization. Off the court,
he had multiple lawsuits against him for harassing nonwhite tenants. As Mark Berman (2014) of the Washington Post
stated, “These are not one or two examples taken out of context over his decades as a public figure. These are things that
have long been known to sports fans, a record of behavior that has cost him millions and been the subject of lawsuits and
criticism” (para. 7). Commissioner Stern and the public refused to hold this man accountable for his actions; a decision
that would bring the NBA under fire in 2014 when Sterling faced his most highly publicized, racially-related incident.
The Straw That Broke the Billionaire’s Back
On April 25, 2014, TMZ.com released an audio recording of a private conversation between Donald Sterling and his
girlfriend, V. Stiviano. The 9 min and 26 s audio recording started with Sterling asking Stiviano, “Why are you broad-
casting . . . Why are you taking pictures with minorities?” (TMZ, 2014, 0:37). Sterling went on to tell Stiviano that
taking pictures with minorities does not coincide with the culture in which he lives. Sterling proclaimed that he has to
live within this culture, and there is no getting out of it. He continued this set-in-stone paradigm about culture as he
stated, “People feel certain things, Hispanics feel a certain way about Blacks. Blacks feel certain things towards other
groups. It’s been that way historically, and it will always be that way” (TMZ, 2014, 1:07).
As the conversation progressed, Sterling’s tone became angered and more depressed. Stiviano showed another
glimpse of the culture that Sterling lives in by stating, “People call you and tell you that I have Black people on my
Instagram, and it bothers you” (TMZ, 2014, 2:58). Sterling responded with, “Yeah, it bothers me a lot that you want
to promote . . . broadcast that you’re associated with Black people. Do you have to?” (TMZ, 2014, 2:58). Once again,
Sterling used the word “broadcast” to describe Stiviano’s actions. Sterling allegedly did not wish for her to stop asso-
ciating with minorities completely, but told her not to broadcast it in public. Instead, he told her to love them privately.
Sterling asked, “But why publicize it on the Instagram and why bring it to my games?” (TMZ, 2014, 3:57).
Shortly after he asked this question, Sterling stated that he did not want to talk about it and that the situation “may
cause our relationship to just break apart” (TMZ, 2014, 4:18). Stiviano responded with, “I’m sorry that you still have
people around you that are full of racism and hate in their heart. I’m sorry that you’re still racist in your heart.” (TMZ,
2014, 4:28). It is at this moment than critics of Stiviano say that she was provoking him to say more racially insensitive
comments on tape. Sterling tried to end the conversation numerous times after that point.
The next four minutes of the conversation between the two were filled with accusations and apologies. The discus-
sion digressed until Stiviano revealed that the minority she was taking a picture with on her Instagram account that was
the topic of the current conversation was Earvin “Magic” Johnson. Magic Johnson was the Hall of Fame basketball
player for the cross town rival, Los Angeles Lakers. Sterling exclaimed to her, “I think the fact that you admire him–
I’ve known him well, and he should be admired. And I’m just saying that it’s too bad you can’t admire him privately,
and during your ENTIRE F***** LIFE, your whole life–admire him, bring him here, feed him, F*** HIM, I don’t
care.You can do anything. But don’t put him on an Instagram for the world to have to see so they have to call me. And
don’t bring him to my games. Ok?” (TMZ, 2014, 8:39).
Both parties became quiet as Sterling asked Stiviano to leave him alone. He stated, “You can never make me feel
better.You’re just a fighter and you want to fight” (TMZ, 2014, 9:20). Shortly after the private conversation ended, the
audio was submitted to TMZ.com. The astonishing story of Sterling’s racist rant would spread over the Internet and
social media in a matter of seconds.

Punishment
It took NBA CommissionerAdam Silver 4 days to determine a punishment for Donald Sterling’s remarks. OnApril 29,
2014, Silver announced that Sterling would receive a fine of $2.5 million and a permanent life ban from the Clippers
and the NBA. The Commissioner also would urge the NBA Board of Governors to force Sterling to sell the Clippers
(Shelburne, 2014a). Silver felt his punishment needed to be swift and harsh due to the efforts of the NBA to get rid of
racism in the league. In his final statement before taking questions, Silver stated, “We stand together in condemning
Mr. Sterling’s views. They simply have no place in the NBA” (Shelburne, 2014a, para. 6).
Sterling was not the only person who suffered from the repercussions of this incident. The Clippers organization
lost nine sponsors either temporarily or permanently. As early as April 29, sponsors such as Sprint, CarMax, State
Farm Insurance, Kia MotorsAmerica,VirginAmerica,AQUAHydrate, Red Bull,Yokohama Tires, and Mercedes-Benz
pulled their sponsorship initially in protest of Sterling’s comments (Moore, 2014).Adidas and Samsung also suspended
their sponsorship, but quickly reinstated the sponsorship when the NBA punished Sterling. Many of the other sponsors
claimed they were willing to reinstate their sponsorship if the Clippers would change ownership (Lobosco, 2014).
Shortly after the Clippers started to lose their sponsors, the NBA initiated a charge to terminate Sterling’s owner-
ship of the Clippers. The league felt that Sterling’s comments and behaviors were significantly undermining the NBA’s
efforts to promote diversity; damaging the NBA’s relationships with its fans; harming NBA owners, players, and
Clippers team personnel; and impairing the NBA’s relationship with marketing and merchandising partners (Golliver,
2014b). With the pressure of the NBA to terminate his ownership of the team, Sterling surrendered control to his wife
to resolve the dispute. Shelly would have much more credibility and leverage with the NBA to negotiate the sale of
the Clippers (Devine, 2014).
On May 30, Shelly Sterling announced that the Clippers would be sold to the former CEO of Microsoft Steve
Ballmer for $2 billion (Golliver, 2014b). Donald Sterling, who paid $13 million for the team in 1981, would receive
the $2 billion from the sale. Andy Dolich, who had held management positions in all four major U.S. sports leagues
leading up to the sale of the Clippers stated:
Never in the course of sports purchases has complete idiocy led to a price that will definitely raise the value of
every single NBA team. The next major focal point will be on the amount of money that was paid to a guy that
pulled the pin on his own hand grenade while holding it. (Schilken, 2014, para. 3)
Donald Sterling continued the fight against the NBA on and off for the next few weeks. On the same day that
Shelly had sold the Los Angeles Clippers, Sterling brought a lawsuit against the NBA for damages for an additional
$1 billion. His attorney, Max Blecher, stated that the charges were for “the invasion of Sterling’s constitutional rights,
violation of anti-trust laws, and breach of fiduciary duty associated with the NBA’s lifetime ban and termination charges”
(Mahoney, 2014a, para. 2). However, just a week after his announcement to sue the league, Sterling and his attorneys
dropped the lawsuit against the NBA. By dropping the lawsuit, Sterling had seemingly given his blessing on the sale
of the Clippers to Ballmer (Mahoney, 2014b).
At this time, it appeared the Sterling saga was over. Donald Sterling seemed as if he was going to live out his
remaining days away from the NBA. However, on June 9, Sterling continued his antics by changing his mind again
and deciding to press on with the $1 billion lawsuit against the NBA. On top of the lawsuit, Sterling also announced
he would not sign off on the sale of the Clippers and he would fight for control of the team again (Shelburne, 2014b).
The news of this lawsuit broke just days after Sterling had been diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease, which he may
have had for up to 5 years. It is this disease that deemed him mentally unfit to make decisions for the Sterling Family
Trust, including decisions on the selling of the Los Angeles Clippers (Shelburne, 2014b).
Reaction
When news of Sterling’s comments reached the public, many were infuriated. The Clippers players gave one of the
most powerful responses to Sterling without saying a word. On April 26, the Clippers were warming up for Game 4 of
the NBA Western Playoffs against the Golden State Warriors. Led by Chris Paul and Blake Griffin, the Clippers players

removed their warmup jerseys with the Clippers logo on the front and discarded them in a pile on the floor. The players
proceeded to warm up in clothes that were inside out, to not reveal the Clippers logo (Golliver, 2014a). It was an act
of solidarity by the team to show protest to their owner that his statements would not be tolerated.
Around the NBA, current and former players spoke their minds about Sterling and his comments. Using his Twit-
ter account, @Baron_Davis, former Clippers player Baron Davis stated “That’s the way it is . . . He is honest about
what he believes in . . . Been going on for a long time, Hats off 2 the Team . . . 4 playin about it all.” Kobe Bryant, star
of the crosstown Los Angeles Lakers used his Twitter handle (@kobebryant) to simply state “I couldn’t play for him
[Sterling].” Magic Johnson (@MagicJohnson), who was talked about in the conversation between Sterling and Stiviano,
also took to social media to proclaim, “LA Clippers owner Donald Sterling’s comments about African Americans are
a black eye for the NBA” (ESPN.com, 2014). While few players initially reacted to Sterling’s comments, many more
let their voices be heard about Adam Silver’s lifetime ban on Sterling.
LeBron James, the NBA’s most popular player took to Twitter to applaud Adam Silver’s decision. James (@
KingJames) said, “Commissioner Silver thank you for protecting our beautiful and powerful league!! Great leader!!
#BiggerThanBasketball #StriveForGreatness.” Jason Collins, the NBA’s first openly gay player used his Twitter handle
(@jasoncollins34) to say, “Commissioner of the @NBA just showed us how he drops the hammer on ignorance. #life-
timeban for Donald Sterling. The ultimate #gonefishing.” Sterling’s fellow NBA owner, Mark Cuban (@mcuban) of
the Dallas Mavericks, used Twitter to say, “I agree 100% with Commissioner Silver’s findings and the actions taken
against Donald Sterling” (Payne, 2014, para. 2). Many more players and associates of the NBA vocalized their opinions
about Silver’s punishment on Donald Sterling. Some people, however, have come to believe that Sterling’s girlfriend
V. Stiviano is to blame for this incident.
While few have come out to directly support Sterling, many have stated disapproval for the context which led to his
ban. Business tycoon Donald Trump and NBA Hall of Famer Kareem Abdul-Jabbar both publicly criticized Stiviano
for releasing the private conversation. Trump was quoted as saying, “It’s terrible; he got set up by a very bad girlfriend.
She was baiting him, and she’s a terrible human being” (Griffith, 2014, para. 12). KareemAbdul-Jabbar made a similar
statement about Stiviano saying, “She blindfolded him and spun him around until he was blathering all sorts of incoher-
ent racist sound bites . . .” (Abdul-Jabbar, 2014, para. 3). Many people emphasize the personal conversation between
Sterling and Stiviano. Others, however, have taken this incident to a grander stage to show the societal implications of
the words and actions of these two individuals.
President Barack Obama, the first Black U.S. president, condemned Sterling for his racist remarks. Obama took
the topic to a larger scale by saying, “The United States continues to wrestle with the legacy of race and slavery and
segregation that’s still there, the vestiges of discrimination” (Pace, 2014, para. 6). President Obama focused on the
issue of race, slavery, and segregation which has plagued this nation for centuries. Jeff Jacoby, columnist for the Boston
Globe, picked an issue that has been at the forefront of everyone’s minds since the invention of the smartphone: privacy.
Jacoby did not defend Sterling, but warned his readers that “. . . the most alarming part of this story has less to do with
basketball or the racial prejudices of an 80-year-old plutocrat than with what it says about the rapidly disappearing
presumption that things we say in our personal lives will stay personal” (Jacoby, 2014, para. 4). He goes on to say
that in many states it is illegal to record a private conversation. States do this because “they reflect a value critical to a
free society: Private lives and private thoughts aren’t meant to be everyone’s business” (Jacoby, 2014, para. 6). Also,
both President Obama and Jeff Jacoby reminded their listeners that professional sports have a major impact on today’s
societal issues.
In an attempt to save face from the public backlash, Stiviano, Donald, and Shelly welcomed national televised
interviews, separately. Stiviano was the first to accept an interview with BarbraWalters, claiming Donald was not a racist,
but stated that the conversation she recorded was one of many conversations they had frequently (Effron, Ghebremedhin,
& Siversten, 2014). Donald, whose interview with CNN’s Anderson Cooper aired on May 12, took the opportunity to
apologize for those that were hurt by his comments (Estrada & Shoichet, 2014). Even while he was apologizing and
asking for forgiveness from those he hurt, Donald stood staunchly behind the notion that he was baited into making
those comments by Stiviano. Sterling, in the interview, even criticized Magic Johnson (who was mentioned on the
recording by Stiviano) saying “What kind of guy goes to every city, has sex with every girl, then he goes and catches
HIV? Is that someone we want to respect and tell our kids about? I think he should be ashamed of himself . . .And what

does he do for Black people? He hasn’t done anything” (Boren, 2014, para. 5). Shelly Sterling, who interviewed with
Barbara Walters on ABC News, defended herself and her controlling stake in the Clippers that the NBA would have to
react to (Rothman, 2014). Shelly defiantly claimed that she and her husband are not racist, and she was shocked that
he would say racist remarks. She added that she would not sell the team without a fight and declined to comment when
asked if she agreed with the punishment her husband received from the NBA (Rothman, 2014).
The entire Sterling incident put league officials in a difficult position, as the public was closely scrutinizing how
they responded to the situation. While it is challenging, if not impossible, to anticipate the types of crises that may occur
within an organization, decision makers must be proactive in their preparation and responses to problematic predica-
ments. In an effort to analyze the Sterling scenario and how the NBA responded to it, a closer examination into crisis
management in a business setting is necessary.
Crisis Management
Many definitions have been used to define crises. For instance, Fearn-Banks (1996) described a crisis as a situation
that disrupts normal business operations with an uncertain and potentially negative outcome. Later, Croombs (1999)
defined a crisis as something that challenges or embarrasses the character of an organization that requires an explana-
tion. More recently, Moore (2013) defined a crisis as “any unexpected event, real or rumored, that has the potential to
damage your organization’s reputation” (p. 32). Regardless of the particular definition employed, it is clear that crises
have the potential to drastically affect the operating of organizations who encounter them.
Establishing the reputation of an organization and its brand may take years of work to successfully accomplish.
However, this task is essential, as one of the key goals of branding an organization is to create a strong impression in
the minds of consumers in a manner so that when they see or hear something that includes a brand’s name or see its
logo, marks, or colors, the consumers experience intense positive feelings (Mullin, Hardy, & Sutton, 2014). Once an
organization achieves a strong image in the consumers’ minds, brand equity, or a set of assets and liabilities links to a
brand, is realized (Mullin et al., 2014). Although much work goes into the establishment of the positive reputation of
a brand, that work can be destroyed in mere minutes though a crisis because of the immediacy of information to con-
sumers through avenues such as social media. In the instance of the Sterling incident, a recorded conversation spread
quickly in a short period of time because of the instantaneous and escalating nature of social media. Due to the power
of social media, organizations must be prepared to immediately respond to crises as they occur. Understanding how
to handle crises is important not only to protect the assets of an organization, but also because crises that are handled
well provide organizations with the opportunity to demonstrate their strengths during difficult times. In the instance of
the Sterling debacle, the crisis can be categorized as a sudden crisis, as it was not one that the NBA could have seen
coming. While it was unexpected, those within positions of power at the league level had a responsibility to address
the situation, as it had spread like wildfire causing a domino effect of responses. Addressing the situation is important,
as the manner in which organizations respond to crises directly impacts the consequences that result from crisis situ-
ations. Moore (2013) identified three outcomes to any crisis: the organization can be destroyed, the organization can
make it through but lose trust, or the organization can come out better.
In order for an organization to survive a crisis and rehabilitate or rescue any damage that has been done to the brand,
Moore (2013) recognized the following crisis management principles: (1) tell the truth; (2) be prepared; and (3) act in
smart, calculated ways to preserve organizational credibility. Moore suggested that the cover-up is usually what gets
people in trouble, and as a result the truth should be an obvious practice for an organization facing a crisis. She also
suggested that if a crisis occurs, you should not spin the story or blame others, as these actions can cause an organiza-
tion to lose trust and credibility. Rather than lying about the situation, it is best for companies to accept responsibility
for their role in the crisis, create a strategic plan to implement, and move forward. The second principle, preparation,
requires organizations to be proactive in their planning for potential crises. Proper preparation allows organizations to
execute a crisis management plan in a well-thought, strategic manner. Moore (2013) suggested the following steps in
the preparation phase of crisis management: (a) create a crisis team who will be tasked with handling the crisis once it
occurs; (b) appoint a spokesperson that can authoritatively speak on behalf of your organization; (c) establish systems

of communication to the public and media; and (d) develop a process for your company’s response to crises. The final
crisis management principle identified by Moore requires organizations to act in smart, calculated ways. To complete
this task, Moore suggested that organizations do the following:
• Gather as much information about the situation as you can (i.e., get the facts).
• Alert members of the crisis team.
• Assign tasks and continue fact finding.
• Respond to the problem directly.
• Implement your solution; solve the problem.
• Communicate what you are doing.
• Review the actions, messages, and ultimate outcomes (p. 36).
In addition to the principles outlined above, there are a number of models that can be used to understand the factors
that those facing crises must address to be successful in crisis management. For instance, Fink (1986) is credited with
creating a four stage crisis management model that identifies a crisis as an extended event that is preceded by warning
signs. The first stage in his model is the prodromal stage, which requires crisis management professionals to be proactive
and attempt to identify potential crises. The second stage, the acute stage, is when the actual crisis begins with some sort
of trigger. The second stage relies heavily on the progress made during the prodromal stage, as proactive involvement
during the first stage can reduce the impact of the crisis in the acute stage and failed recognition may cause a reactive
situation. In the chronic stage, the third stage of Fink’s model, the lasting effects of the crisis are considered. It is during
this stage that many questions about the crisis may arise, leading to its continued visibility in the public eye. The final
stage, resolution, identifies an end to the crisis. As organizations view this stage as the goal of crisis management, it is
important that the other stages are successfully worked through to ensure that the crisis does not resurge.
A crisis management model developed by John Ramee incorporates three categories: preparation, management,
and review (Brewton, 1987). The preparation stage requires organization managers to be prepared in the anticipation of
potential crises. This task can be accomplished by looking for warning signs such as customer complaints and employee
grievances, watching industry competitors for crises and responses to crisis situations, considering contingencies, and
selecting a crisis management team. The management of the crisis, the second category in Ramee’s crisis management
model, begins immediately following the onset of a crisis. During this stage, it is crucial for organizations to establish
open, two-way communication channels with the media and public. To ensure that appropriate and consistent informa-
tion is being released, an official spokesperson should be named. Decisions during this stage should be made quickly
with as much information as possible guiding the action (Brewton, 1987). The final stage of this crisis management
model is the postcrisis review. During this stage, organizational managers investigate what occurred from the onset
of the crisis to its end. This phase allows the organization to learn from the incident, as it requires the recognition of
what happened and what could have been done to prevent the crisis from occurring in the first place (Brewton, 1987).
In a later crisis research, Burnett (1998) identified four factors that contribute to crisis: time pressure, control
issues, threat level concerns, and response option constraints. He suggested that it is only after these factors have been
addressed that the strategic management of the crisis can begin. In addition to each of these tasks, Burnett’s model
consists of three tasks, identification, confrontation, and reconfiguration, which must be recognized in his model of
crisis management. Within his model, the identification step is set to prepare for potential crises through goal formation
and environmental analysis. The confrontation step requires strategies to be formed and evaluated, and occurs once
the organization is already in the crisis. The reconfiguration step involves the implementation of the chosen strategy
and strategic control. Each of these models is essential to understanding the process of maintaining credibility and
managing crisis within an organization. Sport managers need to take responsibility for the problems they face and
work to restore the public image by making effective decisions. In response to crisis, sport managers are often faced
with uncertainty and a basic understanding of crisis management and the steps in the decision making process can help
managers maintain strategic control of the organization.

NBA Response
As is evidenced in the Sterling case, the importance of decision making in organizations requires sport managers, such as
Commissioner Silver, to have a comprehensive understanding of the process of managerial decision making especially
in times of crisis (Chelladurai, 2009). The NBA and Adam Silver were quick to recognize the importance of decision
making in this crisis situation. At the time of the incident, Mr. Silver was approaching the end of his third month as the
Commissioner of the NBA. He was introduced as David Stern’s replacement and started the role officially on February
1, 2014. Silver began working for the NBA in 1992 as a special assistant to Commissioner David Stern and has been
with the NBA ever since. Some of Silver’s contributions to the league are the incorporation of team websites in 1995,
the launch of the cable network in 1999, and assisting in ending the NBA player lockout in 2011 (Jenkins, 2014). In
addition, Silver played an instrumental role in the growth and the development of the NBA and recognized the sensitive
nature of this incident and these accusations on the NBA. A recent Sport Illustrated article on the incident stated, “For
decades Silver, and his colleagues had defended the NBA from coded racist attacks: complaints about afros, then corn-
rows, then tattoos. This wasn’t an outsider taking shots, these references come from within” (Jenkins, 2014, para. 20).
It only took Silver 4 days to institute the punishment for Mr. Sterling and the Clippers. Silver was very explicit with
his words and was clear in the message, “Effective immediately, I am banning Mr. Sterling for life from any associa-
tion with the Clippers organization or the NBA” (Chase, 2014, para. 3). The league felt that Sterling’s comments and
behaviors were significantly undermining the NBA’s efforts to promote diversity; damaging the NBA’s relationships
with its fans; harming NBA owners, players, and Clippers team personnel; and impairing the NBA’s relationship with
marketing and merchandising partners (Golliver, 2014b). Adam Silver’s decision was communicated very success-
fully by the NBA league office. The NBA responded publicly to each move the Sterling family made and was quick
to respond with legal updates and announcements. “Transparency was more than a strategy. It was, for Silver, a new
standard operating procedure” (Shelburne, 2014c, para. 37).
Discussion Questions
1. How would you define the problem in the Sterling case?
2. What was the image of the (NBA) league at the time of the case? Was there a perception of racism in the NBA?
Explain your answer.
3. Which of the three outcomes of crisis do you think the NBA accomplished with their handling of the Sterling
situation? Explain your answer.
4. Describe how Moore’s three principles could be applied to the Sterling situation.
5. Think about previous crises in sport in the past. Where, in respect to Moore’s Crisis Management principles, did
the organization go wrong?
6. How was the NBA prepared for this type of crisis? What portion of Moore’s principles did the NBA have in place?
7. Explain how Adam Silver as the decision maker for the NBA could have known the outcome of each of his
alternatives in this case.
8. Several crisis management models are discussed in this case. Choose one and discuss how it applies to the Sterling
situation.
9. What were the likely alternatives in this case for Adam Silver?
10. How has Adam Silver controlled the results of his decision?
Student Research or Additional Assignment Options
1. Evaluate the effectiveness of the NBA (Adam Silver’s) response to the crisis by researching the opinions of NBA
owners, players, and fans.

2. If you were the Public Relations Coordinator for the NBA, how would you have handled the situation differently?
What would have been your first response to the “leaked tape?” What steps in the decision making process might
you change? How? Why?
3. What other crises or similar incidents have happened in professional sports? What could the NBA have learned
from these previous incidents?
4. Research other crisis management models and discuss how they differ from those discussed in the case.
References
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Berman, M. (2014,April 28).Why the world finally noticed Donald Sterling’s appalling history. Washington Post. Retrieved from http://
www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2014/04/28/why-the-world-finally-noticed-donald-sterlings-appalling-history/.
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Griffith, J. (2014, April 28). Donald Sterling’s alleged racist remarks: Celebs react. NJ.com. Retrieved from http://www.nj.com/
entertainment/index.ssf/2014/04/donald_sterling_clippers_los_angeles.html.
Golliver, B. (2014a,April 27). Clippers hold silent protest against owner Donald Sterling before Game 4. Sports Illustrated. Retrieved
from http://nba.si.com/2014/04/27/donald-sterling-clippers-silent-protest-game-4-warriors/.
Golliver, B. (2014b, May 30). Shelly Sterling announces agreement to sell Clippers to Steve Ballmer. Sports Illustrated. Retrieved
from http://nba.si.com/2014/05/30/shelly-sterling-sells-clippers-steve-ballmer-microsoft/.
Heimer, J. (2012,April 11). Chris Paul flipped the Clippers script. ESPN. Retrieved from http://espn.go.com/los-angeles/nba/story/_/
id/7799332/los-angeles-clippers-chris-paul-flipped-clippers-script.
Estrada, I., & Shoichet, C.E. (2014, May 12). Donald Sterling tells Anderson Cooper: I was ‘baited’ into ‘a terrible mistake’. CNN.
com. Retrieved from http://www.cnn.com/2014/05/11/us/donald-sterling-interview/.

Jacoby, J. (2014, April 30). Sterling’s racism is ugly, but the loss of privacy will be even worse. The Boston Globe. Retrieved from
http://www.bostonglobe.com/opinion/2014/04/29/sterling-racism-ugly-but-loss-privacy-will-even-worse/b91202r8anGXFqe-
S3iQSmI/story.html.
Jenkins, L. (2014, April 27). David Stern, NBA validated Donald Sterling with Chris Paul trade. Sports Illustrated. Retrieved from
http://www.si.com/nba/2014/04/27/nba-donald-sterling-chris-paul-clippers-david-stern.
Lidz, F. (2000,April 17). Up and down in Beverly Hills. Sports Illustrated. Retrieved from http://www.si.com/vault/2000/04/17/278523/
up-and-down-in-beverly-hills-eccentric-multimillionaire-donald-sterling-has-been-a-flaming-success-as-an-la-real-estate-mogul-
and-a-dismal-failure-as-the-owner-of-the-clippers.
Lidz, F. (2014, April 30). Clippers owner Donald Sterling’s offensive behavior was no secret. Sports Illustrated. Retrieved from
http://www.si.com/nba/2014/04/30/donald-sterling-clippers-owner-nba-ban.
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com/2014/04/29/news/companies/clippers-sponsors.
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Retrieved from http://www.si.com/2014/05/30/donald-sterling-suing-nba-1-billion-clippers.
Mahoney, R. (2014b, June 4). Donald Sterling to drop lawsuit against NBA, agree to sale of Clippers. Sports Illustrated. Retrieved
from http://www.si.com/2014/06/04/donald-sterling-sell-clippers-drop-lawsuit-nba/.
Moore, D. (2014, April 29). Sponsors pulling support of Los Angeles Clippers. USA Today. Retrieved from http://www.usatoday.
com/story/sports/nba/clippers/2014/04/28/clippers-sterling-state-farm-carmax-withdraw-sponsorship/8413967/.
Moore, M. (2013). Crisis management: When bad things happen to good companies. The Journal of Active Aging, 12(5), 30-36.
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from http://www.nbclosangeles.com/news/local/Clipper-Black-History-Ad-Causes-Controversy-117289633.html..
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story/_/id/7333659/david-stern-blocking-chris-paul-trade-mistake-outrageous-proportion.
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chicago.suntimes.com/?p=166710.
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www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/early-lead/wp/2014/04/29/nba-players-reporters-and-officials-react-to-sterlings-punishment/.
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donald-sterling-slumlord-billionaire#.

1
IN SPORT MANAGEMENT
Case STUDIES
TEACHING NOTES
To Run or Not to Run? A Community in Crisis Teaching Notes
Whitney W. Marks,Tiesha R. Martin, and Stacy Warner
East Carolina University
This case focuses on the New York City (NYC) Mayor Michael Bloomberg’s decision to cancel the 2012 ING NYC
Marathon. One week before the Sunday scheduled event, Mayor Bloomberg ordered evacuations in low-lying areas
of NYC and public school closures due to Hurricane Sandy. NYC transportation, including train, air, and bus options,
were also shut down. On Wednesday, 4 days before the scheduled race, the New York Stock Exchange was reopened
after being shut down for 2 days (first time since 1888 that it was closed due to weather) and a few flights had begun
to land at the John F. Kennedy International Airport. However, New York’s LaGuardia Airport and Newark Liberty
International Airport, presumably major points of entry for many of marathon participants, remained closed due to
storm damage. At 4:30 p.m. that Wednesday, Mayor Bloomberg announced the Sunday race would occur citing the
need for a moral and economic boost to the area.After 2 days of harsh public outcry and an estimated 40,000 registered
runners already arriving in the city, Mayor Bloomberg reversed his decision and canceled the marathon Friday evening.
Learning Objectives
This case is intended for use with both undergraduate and graduate level students in event management, sport ethics,
and/or public relations courses. Instructor use of this case including ancillary readings, discussion questions, and sug-
gested activities are provided. After successfully completing this case and the suggested assignments, students will be
able to the following:
• Summarize the factors involved in the decision to cancel the 2012 NYC Marathon.
• Identify the key stakeholders whose position must be considered before a decision to continue or cancel an event.
• Discuss, from a public relations, events management, or ethics viewpoint, if the decision to cancel the 2012 NYC
Marathon was the right decision.
• Describe the importance of sport and event managers being well-versed in crisis management and public relations.
• Analyze the impact of political and economic pressure on the hosting of sporting events.
Instructor Use
Event Management, Ethics, and Political Pressure
For courses and lectures concerned with ethics and decision-making, it is suggested that Hums, Barr, and Gullion (1999)
be assigned as a prerequisite reading for students. This article provides an overview of ethical issues leaders face in the
sport industry and would help guide a discussion on the ethics behind the decision to cancel the 2012 NYC Marathon.
Furthermore, in the article, Hums and colleagues suggest an adaption of Zinn’s (1993) ethical decision-making model
for sport industry members to consider. If assigned as a required reading, this guide will likely enrich the discussion
of the timing and eventual reversal of Mayor Bloomberg’s decision.
WhitneyW. Marks, Tiesha R. Martin, and StacyWarner are with the Department of Kinesiology, East Carolina University, Greenville,
NC. Address author correspondence to Stacy Warner at stacymwarner@gmail.com.
http://www.dx.doi.org/10.1123/cssm.2015-0022

2 Marks, Martin, & Warner
The case suggests that political pressure played a role in Mayor Bloomberg’s decision. For instructors that wish
to focus more on the role of politics in sport and/or events decisions, the case provides an ideal backdrop to engage
students in a discussion regarding the political tensions and implications of a political figure’s decision. Because an
elected official, Mayor Bloomberg, had the ultimate authority on whether to hold the 2012 NYC Marathon, the case
gives students the opportunity to consider and possibly even debate the role political pressure played on the initial
decision to continue with the event. The case highlights that Mayor Bloomberg may have actually gained some politi-
cal ground with NYC voters after the storm. Although his approval rating was the best it had been in 2 years, it was
only at 34% (Quinnipiac University Polling Institute, 2012). With an event of this magnitude, the political implications
are not only local, but also at the state and national level. In addition, the pressure placed on the police departments,
fire departments, and emergency medical services provide students an opportunity to discuss ethics related to politi-
cal decisions. The NYC Marathon is event that puts New York on a national stage. Diverting police departments, fire
departments, and emergency medical services to such an event may give the city greater political clout, but it may not
be the best way to serve its resident given the destruction caused by Hurricane Sandy.
Crisis Management and Public Relations
Along with supplementing lectures on ethics and decision-making, instructors also will find the crisis management
and the public relations aspects of the case useful in further engaging students. The work of Coombs (1995; 2007) on
crisis management would be excellent prerequisite readings for students to consider before reading this case. Coombs
(1995) puts forth various crisis-response strategies, while Coombs (2007) places emphasis on the Situational Crisis
Communication Theory and stakeholders’ likely reactions to various strategies. Both readings offer students guide-
lines for considering and selecting among the different crisis management strategies while promoting critical thinking
in light of the case. Benoit (1997) is also an appropriate prerequisite reading to this case as it discusses strategies for
image restoration after a crisis. For instructors that prefer more sport-specific readings, the work of Stoldt, Dittmore,
and Branvold (2012) offers a specific chapter on communicating during a crisis, which may also be an ideal ancillary
reading to the case.
Assignment and Evaluation
The following discussion questions and suggested assignment can be used to initiate a more in-depth discussion and/
or evaluate student learning and application.
1. What are the most important factors Mayor Bloomberg had to consider when making the decision to hold or cancel
the marathon? Which do you think had the biggest impact on his ultimate decision?
2. Other than Mayor Bloomberg, who else should be involved in making the decision? Why?
3. What should Mayor Bloomberg have done before making the decision to cancel the race? (Students are encouraged
to consider Zinn’s (1993) ethical decision-making model.)
4. Did Mayor Bloomberg make the right decision to cancel the marathon?What compromises could Mayor Bloomberg
have made as opposed to just canceling it?
5. When (if at all) should the announcement have been made to the public about the cancellation?
6. Other than the 9/11 terrorist attacks, are there any other occurrences that Mayor Bloomberg could have drawn from
to make his decision?
7. How did Mayor Bloomberg’s decision to cancel the race affect him politically?
8. According to Situational Crisis Communication Theory (Coombs, 2007), what type of crisis did Hurricane Sandy
create for the New York Road Runners (NYRR) and Mayor Bloomberg? What crisis cluster does it fall under?
What is the likely public reaction to this type of crisis? What impact does this type of crisis have on the reputation
of the organization?

2012 NYC Marathon 3
9. What should NYRR and the Mayor do after the announcement is made to appease disgruntled marathon participants
and to restore the potentially damaged image of the NYRR and the marathon?
Discussion Questions’ Analysis
1. What are the most important factors Mayor Bloomberg had to consider when making the decision to hold
or cancel the marathon? Which do you think had the biggest impact on his ultimate decision?
Mayor Bloomberg had to consider the victims of the storm, the marathon runners, the economic impact, and
political pressures when making the decision to hold or cancel the marathon. Key points on the impact of each of
these are given here:
Victims of the storm: As mentioned in the case, having the race so soon after so many NYC residents’ lives had
been devastated by the storm could be viewed as insensitive. In addition, providing food, water, lodging, security,
and so on for the marathon runners would take those resources away from the victims of the storm.
Marathon runners: Mayor Bloomberg had to consider if it would be fair to cancel the race after all runners paid
a nonrefundable registration fee and some runners trained for many months and traveled thousands of miles to
run the marathon.
Economic impact: Mayor Bloomberg had to consider both the economic impact the storm had on NYC and the
economic impact that not having the race would have on the city. As mentioned in the case study document, Sandy
was the most costly hurricane in the city’s history, causing an estimated $50 billion in damages. The estimated
$340 million in local revenue earned by the marathon could help pay for some of those damages.
Political pressures: Although Mayor Bloomberg was not running for reelection the following year, political pres-
sures played a role in his decision. Making the wrong decision could impact his political legacy and the view of
his affiliated party in the eyes of NYC voters.
2. Other than Mayor Bloomberg, who else should be involved in making the decision? Why?
MaryWittenberg could have played a larger role in deciding whether to cancel the race or to hold it.As the President
and CEO of the NYRR, the decision would have a large impact on her, as it directly relates to her job function.
In addition, representatives from the NewYork Police Department (NYPD) and the Fire Department of NewYork
(FDNY) should have had open lines of communication about the marathon due to their involvement in the event
and responsibilities during natural disasters. While the public eye was on Mayor Bloomberg for his decision and
how it was made, the backlash of the runners would likely be aimed toward the NYRR organization.
3. What should Mayor Bloomberg have done before making the decision to cancel the race?
Students should consider Zinn’s (1993) ethical decision-making model.
The first thing Bloomberg should do is to identify the problem that needs to be solved. The problem in this case is
whether the NYC Marathon should be held in wake of the Superstorm Sandy. The second step would be to gather
all of the information pertinent to the decision. This information would include how many people were displaced
by the storm, how many people are scheduled to come into the city for the race, etc. Next, Mayor Bloomberg would
need to explore codes of conduct and/or precedents. How did other politicians handle similar situations? Next, he
should consider his own personal values and beliefs, and then he should consult with peers or other people with
experience making similar decisions. He should then list all of the possible decisions while looking for the best
possible solution. This is where he should consider compromises. Finally, he should take the time to think about
the decision and not rush the process.
4. Did Mayor Bloomberg make the right decision to cancel the marathon? What compromises could Mayor
Bloomberg have made as opposed to just canceling it?
As mentioned in the case, a possible compromise would have been to cancel the prerace events like the opening
ceremony and the 5K Dash to the Finish Line race, which were scheduled for Friday and Saturday, and hold the race
on Sunday as planned. In addition, Staten Island was the most damaged leg of the race while the other boroughs
of NYC were not hit as hard. Instead of running the race through all five boroughs, an appropriate compromise

4 Marks, Martin, & Warner
could have been to remove the Staten Island portion or to just run the entire race in Central Park. Finally, Mayor
Bloomberg could have postponed the race until most of the damages were repaired or at least until people regained
their electricity.
5. When (if at all) should the announcement have been made to the public about the cancellation?
Answers will vary, but students should consider the timeline of events leading up to the cancellation of the marathon.
The marathon could have been canceled on Monday, Oct. 29, when the storm made landfall or the next day when
NewYork was declared to be in a state of major disaster by President Obama. Students should note that the timing
of Mayor Bloomberg’s decision (2 days before the scheduled race) was problematic considering the number of
participants and spectators that had already come into the city for the race. An earlier announcement might have
prevented these individuals from traveling to the city, sped up the cleanup efforts, and also helped avoid the poor
public relations that resulted from an untimely decision.
6. Other than the 9/11 terrorist attacks, are there any other occurrences that Mayor Bloomberg could have
drawn from to make his decision?
Students could consider the 1941 Pearl Harbor attack and its effect on the 28th Annual Rose Bowl; the 1963
assassination of President John F. Kennedy and its effect on NFL and AFL games the following Sunday; and 2005
Hurricane Katrina’s effect on the games played by the New Orleans Saints, New Orleans Hornets, and the various
collegiate institutions in and around the New Orleans metro area.
7. How did Mayor Bloomberg’s decision to cancel the race affect him politically?
The decision to cancel the race did not seem to have a negative impact on the way New Yorkers viewed Mayor
Bloomberg’s overall response to the storm. Approximately, 75% of New York residents felt he did an “excellent”
or “good” job responding to the storm. In addition, his approval rating after Hurricane Sandy was the highest it
had been in 2 years.
8. According to Situational Crisis Communication Theory (Coombs, 2007), what type of crisis did Hurricane
Sandy create for the NYRR and Mayor Bloomberg? What crisis cluster does it fall under? What is the
likely public reaction to this type of crisis? What impact does this type of crisis have on the reputation of
the organization?
Hurricane Sandy was a natural disaster, which falls under the victim cluster. The public and other victims of the
crisis should not expect much from the organization in terms of attribution. The crisis should not threaten the orga-
nization’s reputation, especially if there is not much history of crisis within the organization and if the reputation
of the organization was generally favorable before the crisis. Since this marked the first time in marathon history
that the event had been canceled, it can be assumed that there is not much history of crisis.
9. What should NYRR and the Mayor do after the announcement is made to appease disgruntled marathon
participants and to restore the potentially damaged image of the NYRR and the marathon?
Students should consider Benoit’s (1997) Image Restoration Strategies and Situational Crisis Communication
Theory crisis response strategies (Coombs, 2007). An effective crisis response/image restoration strategy would
be to provide compensation to the marathon participants. The NYRR implemented this strategy by offering par-
ticipants a full refund of their registration fee or entry into one of the next three marathons. Another strategy sug-
gested by Benoit would be to evade responsibility in the form of provocation. Mayor Bloomberg could argue that
the decision to cancel the race was made in response to the natural disaster. Drawing from the Situational Crisis
Communication Theory (Coombs, 2007), Mayor Bloomberg and the NYRR could use the victimage strategy by
reminding the public that they are victims of the storm, too.

2012 NYC Marathon 5
Suggested Activities
Students should research other large participatory events that have been impacted by weather-related events and write
a synopsis of (a) what led to the decision to cancel or postpone the event, (b) how the sport organization handled
communicating this to participants, and (c) if it offered any refunds or incentives to participants. The instructor
can then lead a discussion on tactics often used to respond to the public and consumers.
Using this case as the backdrop, instructors can ask students to role play how to handle the phone calls the NYRR might
receive in the wake of the event cancellation to practice the handling of dissatisfied customer complaints. Instructors
are encouraged to emphasize the tips offered by Forbes (http://www.forbes.com/sites/thesba/2013/08/02/7-
steps-for-dealing-with-angry-customers/) or Fox Business (http://smallbusiness.foxbusiness.com/marketing-
sales/2012/07/20/10-ways-to-handle-difficult-customers/). Both sources include tips such as (a) remain calm, (b)
use your best listening skills, (d) do not take the customer’s anger personally, (d) actively sympathize with the
customer, (e) apologize to customer, (f) find a solution to the customer’s problem, and (g) follow up with the customer.
Students can be asked to prepare a memo with talking points for Mayor Bloomberg that could have been used during
his announcement of the cancellation of the marathon. Or, students could be asked to prepare a press release
announcing either the cancellation and/or that race entry refunds will be issued.
Instructors can assign students to a stakeholder group (marathon runners, corporate sponsors who invested in the event,
NYC residents who are still without power). The instructor can then organize a debate. Each group can be given 5
min to present their position on whether the event should be held; the groups should then be encouraged to debate
one another.
Students (individually or in groups) can research and report on the social media tactics used by various stakeholders to
support their positions. For example, students could research creating Facebook groups and utilizing http://www.
change.org.The instructor can then lead a discussion about the relationship between social media and public pressure.
References
Benoit, W. (1997) Image repair discourse and crisis communication. Public Relations Review, 177-186.Coombs, W. T. (1995).
Choosing the Right Words The Development of Guidelines for the Selection of the “Appropriate” Crisis-Response Strategies.
Management Communication Quarterly, 8 (4), 447-476.
Coombs, W.T. (1995). Choosing the right words: The development of guidelines for the selection of the ‘appropriate’ crisis-response
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IN SPORT MANAGEMENT
Case STUDIES
Peter Han, Mark Dodds, Tara Mahoney, and Justin Lovich are with the Sport Management Department at SUNY Cortland, Cortland,
NY. Kristi Schoepfer is with the Sport Management Department at Winthrop University, Winthrop, SC. Address author correspon-
dence to Peter Han at hanp@cortland.edu.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/cssm.2014-0020
Regulating Student-Athlete’s
Inappropriate Social Media Usage
Peter Han, Mark Dodds,Tara Mahoney
SUNY Cortland
Kristi Schoepfer
Winthrop University
Justin Lovich
SUNY Cortland
Social media platforms, such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram,YouTube, and Snapchat, have become extremely
popular; they serve as tools to connect individuals in a public forum. However, collegiate student-athletes
use social media to send messages that may reflect poorly on their educational institutions. For example,
student-athletes have posted profanity, obscene messages, compromising photographs, and even threatened
the President of the United States while using social media. These messages create negative publicity for the
college since athletics and student-athletes are a visible aspect of the institution. As such, inappropriate social
media use has become a major concern with college athletic departments. Because the NCAA requires member
institutions to adequately and consistently monitor social networking activity, colleges have responded to the
actions by disciplining student-athletes that use social media negatively to voice their opinions; in some cases,
this punishment has been as severe as actually dismissing the student-athlete from his or her team. But, how
does this action impact the public relations of the athletic department? Further, does it subject the college to
possible legal action?
Keywords: social media, student-athletes, public relations, college sports, law, technology
Case Study
The world is changing fast for Homer Monroe, the long-time athletic director at the College of NewYork (CNY). During
his 27 years at the small Division III school located in upstate NewYork, Monroe has seen just about everything. Three
years ago, Monroe was told by the president of CNY,Virgil Solon, to market the athletic department using social media.
This was Monroe’s first exposure to social media. To comply with this new directive, Monroe created a senior-year
internship position for Etna Locke. Locke did such a great job as an intern that Monroe hired her as an assistant athletic
director, responsible for the athletic department’s social media marketing program. Her duties included promoting the
school’s athletic schedule via various social media outlets including Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and YouTube. She
leveraged these platforms to communicate stories about the teams, coaches, and players, and support activation tactics
for the athletic department sponsors.
7

Han et al.
To prepare for her new role, Locke did significant research regarding the impact of social media. She discovered the
tremendous use of social media use on the Internet. For example, the social media giant Facebook claims 936 million
daily active users and 798 million mobile daily active users (Facebook, 2015). Further, subscribers in North America
only account for less than 20% of total users worldwide, highlighting the global reach of the platform (Pring,
2012). Beyond Facebook, Locke learned that many other social media platforms also attract millions of users,
such as Twitter with 500 million tweets a day (Twitter, 2014), Google+ with 300 million monthly active users
(Smith, 2015), LinkedIn with more than 364 million members in over 200 countries (LinkedIn, 2015), Pinterest
with 72.8 million monthly active visitors (Mangalindan, 2015), SnapChat with 60 million total users (Shontell,
2013), YouTube with more than 1 billion total users (YouTube, 2014) and Instagram with an average of 70 million
pictures posted daily (Instagram, 2015). In addition, Locke was not surprised to find that consumers frequently access
social media platforms with smart phones. Facebook recorded 604 million active monthly users accessing the platform
via mobile devices as of September 2012, an increase of 61% from the prior year (Olanoff, 2012). Through Locke’s
research on social media, it became very clear these new forms of communication have become a considerable part of
our society (Pring, 2012).
In addition to larger societal adoption of social media, Locke was curious about social media user rates for college
students, specifically student-athletes. Upon further investigation, she discovered a recent study which indicated that in
2012, 93.5% of student-athletes had a Facebook account, 72.2% of student-athletes had Twitter accounts, and 64.8%
had an Instagram account (DeShazo, 2013). One of the most important findings of this study, however, is the frequency
with which student-athletes interact on such platforms; 99% of Facebook users, 97% of Twitter users, and 94% of
Instagram users post content to the respective platforms daily (DeShazo, 2013). As an athletic program administrator,
Locke was concerned with the personal content some of CNY’s student-athletes posted on their social media accounts
(Steinbach, 2012). However, Locke had not anticipated the inappropriate use of social media by a student-athlete that
created a major issue for her athletic department.
During the most recent football season at CNY, a number of football players posted pictures on their personal
Facebook sites that depicted alcohol consumption by minors (including high school football recruits), as well as
numerous references to illegal drug use. CNY’s Judicial Affairs office brought numerous charges against the players
for violations of the Student Code of Conduct. Two of the players were dismissed from school for receiving their third
alcohol violation; another player was arrested by the local police for serving alcohol to minors and was also dismissed
from school. The high school players in the photos were no longer recruited by the football team.
This occurrence created a negative image of both the school and athletic department that prompted administrative
action. The local television stations and newspapers ran multiple angles of this story for weeks; the media portrayed
all involved parties in a negative light. Further, the local mayor expressed his displeasure of the ‘party school’ appear-
ance of the town; the registrar noticed a decrease in applications; and the institutional advancement office indicated
a reduction in donations to CNY. As a result of the media scrutiny and negative impacts, President Solon instructed
Monroe to monitor the student-athletes’ use of social media. Monroe thought it would be best to put Locke in charge
of this task because of her responsibilities operating the athletic department’s official social media platforms. Monroe
gave Locke two weeks to address President Solon’s concerns, while at the same time protecting the school and athletic
department against possible litigation.
Locke remembered discussing the First Amendment in Professor Pete Jordan’s Sport Law class and wondered if
censoring the student-athletes might be a violation of their freedom of speech guaranteed by the First Amendment.
Locke met with Professor Jordan to discuss this issue. Jordan reminded Locke that state actors must provide consti-
tutional guarantees and that students do not relinquish those rights when they “enter the schoolhouse gate” (Tinker v.
Des Moines Independent Community School District, 1969). Professor Jordan instructed Locke to review current social
media restrictions from other athletic departments and examine them for possible constitutional challenges.
Locke found that other university athletic departments had employed various methods to regulate and govern
student-athlete social media use. Several college teams have enacted bans on social media use by student-athletes.
Specifically, basketball programs, including Mississippi State University and New Mexico State University, and sev-
eral football teams, such as the University of South Carolina, Boise State University, the University of Iowa, and the
University of Kansas, have banned student-athletes from using social media completely (Gay, 2012). Often, the ban

Regulating Student-Athlete’s Social Media Usage 9
would last the duration of the team’s season. In addition, Locke found examples of athletic programs, such as the Uni-
versity of Michigan and the University of North Carolina, where a coach or administrator would have access and
regularly monitor team members’ social media activity (Walsh, 2011). In such instances, the athletic department
might compel student-athletes to divulge their username and password, thereby granting the athletic official access
to the student-athlete’s account. Alternatively, the student-athlete might be forced to include the administrator as
part of the student-athlete’s social network, revealing all content to the administrator, including that which would be
restricted from public view.
Finally, Locke also found examples of colleges using monitoring software systems such as Varsity Monitor,
UDiligence, Centrix, and Fieldhouse Media that identify keywords on student-athlete social media accounts that may
tarnish the reputation of the student-athlete, team, or university. Specifically, these athletic departments had purchased
a software system and required its installation on all student-athletes computers, tablets, and cell phones. By prede-
termining a list of problematic keywords and word variations, the software allows universities and individual teams to
tailor the monitoring functions to their wants and needs. For example, “The University of Louisville flags 406 words
or slang expressions that have to do with drugs, sex, or alcohol. The University of Kentucky flags a similar number,
of which 370 are sports agents’ names” (Boxley, 2012, para. 3). When a student-athlete used a flagged word on one
of their social media accounts, that message will be emailed to the monitoring software account manager (e.g., coach,
compliance member). While student-athletes voluntarily subscribe to such monitoring software, Locke is concerned
with potential legal challenges.
In addition to negatively impacting the athletic department’s brand or image, Locke also found that NCAA compli-
ance issues could result from student-athlete social media use. On June 19, 2010, the NCAA conducted an investiga-
tion of the football program at the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill (UNC). This investigation was triggered
by Twitter messages (tweets) from Marvin Austin, a member of the football team at UNC, about his personal trips
to Washington D.C. and Miami. Austin tweeted about taking these expensive trips with shopping sprees and visits to
night clubs while also complaining about his lack of income. After a year-long investigation, the NCAA sent UNC a
notice of allegations regarding potential major violations of NCAA policy (Giglio, 2010; Smith, 2012; UNC, 2011).
The NCAA released the UNC Public Infractions Report on March 12, 2012, detailing the infractions committed by the
university1 and the NCAA’s severe sanctions.2 Importantly, in its report, the NCAA cited UNC for failing to monitor
student-athletes’ activities on their social networking websites. The Report, however, also stated that it “declines to
impose a blanket duty on institutions to monitor social networking sites” (NCAA, 2012, p. 11).
Given the severity of the UNC situation, Locke gathered as much information as possible regarding the effects
on the UNC athletic program. Specifically, the NCAA investigation produced significant changes to UNC’s football
program, as well as the entire athletic department, including the dismissal of those football players, members of the
coaching staff, and administrators involved in the allegations. In addition to the sanctions, UNC also dealt with negative
publicity surrounding the football program, the athletic department, and the university. Locke further discovered that
after the NCAA sanctions, UNC introduced a newly revised student-athlete social media policy, which stated that “each
team must identify at least one coach or administrator who is responsible for having access to, regularly monitoring
the content of, and/or receiving reports about team members’ social networking sites and postings (“team Monitor”)”
(Department of Athletics at the University of North Carolina, n.d.).
1 According to the NCAA, UNC committed the following violations: (1) academic fraud and impermissible benefits to student-athletes;
(2) the delivery of improper benefits to student-athletes; and (3) “unethical conduct” committed by a former member of the coaching
staff.
2 UNC sent a response letter to the NCAA on September 19, 2011, offering to self-impose sanctions for these “potential violations” addressed
in the notice. The penalties offered by UNC included (1) a $50,000 fine; (2) disassociation of two individuals involved in the allegations; (3)
vacation of wins in the 2008 and 2009 season; and (4) a reduction of nine scholarships over a three-year period (McHugh, 2012; Parsons,
2012). In addition, the NCAA imposed the following sanctions on UNC’s football program: (1) reduction of six additional scholarships;
(2) three-year probation beginning March 2012; (3) public reprimand and censure; (4) restrictions on recruiting; and (5) a ban from post
season games for the 2012 season (Barinka, 2012; McHugh, 2012; Parsons, 2012).

Han et al.
Locke was surprised by the severity of the circumstances at UNC; however, she discovered that was just one of
many other severe cases. Specifically, Locke also discovered the following:
• In 2006, four female student-athletes on the San Diego State University soccer team were penalized after posting
alcohol- and party-related photos on their personal Facebook pages (Schrotenboer, 2006). The student-athletes
were suspended from the team.
• In 2006, Catholic University suspended its women’s lacrosse team after photos showing hazing were posted on
Facebook (Epstein, 2012).
• In November 2008, the football program at the University of Texas-Austin released Buck Burnette from the team
for posting a racial slur about newly elected President of the United States on his Facebook page. (Brinson, 2008;
Weir, 2008).
• In February 2010, Chip Kelly, the head football coach at the University of Oregon, dismissed receiver Jamere
Holland from the team for posting expletive-filled messages on his Facebook page (Goe, 2010; Holland, 2010;
Oregon, 2010)
• In 2011, Ryan Spadola, a top wide receiver at Lehigh University, was suspended from the football team after
retweeting an inappropriate message from his former high school teammate (Brewer, 2011; Tweet, 2011).
• In 2011, the University of Florida football player, Will Hill, went undrafted in the 2011 NFL Draft mainly due to
a series of tweets that highlighted his immature behavior and use of illegal drugs during his time with the Gators
(Gators, 2011; Samuel, 2012; Silverstein, 2012a; Silverstein, 2012b). The tweets, especially about illegal drug
use, had the potential to tarnish the reputation of an athletic department and impact recruiting or enrollment to
the institution.
• In January 2012, the University of Michigan decided to withdraw its football scholarship offer to Yuri Wright
after he was dismissed from high school for his inappropriate racial and sexual postings on Twitter (Priest, 2012;
Williams, 2013).
• In March and April 2012, athletic departments at the Universities of Michigan, Notre Dame, and Minnesota were
found to have committed secondary violations of the NCAA policy on social networking websites such as Twitter.
The violations resulted from members of the athletics staff and/or student-athletes communicating with or con-
gratulating potential football recruits via social media (Krammer, 2012). In addition, after three football recruits
posted information concerning a visit to a local strip club on Facebook during their official visit, Mississippi State
University self-reported secondary violations. The football program lost seven future official visits (Broccoli, 2011).
• In February 2014, Kent State University suspended indefinitely redshirt sophomore wrestler Sam Wheeler for a
series of tweets which included gay slurs (Nichols, 2014; Ridenour, 2014). The first tweet related to the popular
media discussion of Michael Sam, the openly gay football player from the University of Missouri who would be
drafted by the St. Louis Rams: “I can’t even watch [ESPN] SportsCenter today cause all they are talking about
is Marcus Smart or that [slur] from Mizzou . . . ” (Ridenour, 2014). In subsequent tweets, Wheeler responded to
commenters with slurs: “Don’t tweet me you [slur]” (Nichols, 2014) and “O gees I got all these [slur] boys mad
at me now” (Ridenour, 2014). In announcing the disciplinary action, Kent State University Director of Athletics
Joel Nielson and wrestling coach Jim Andrassy released a joint statement. Andrassy stated, “I have spoken to Sam
personally, and while he is remorseful, he will be suspended indefinitely while we determine the best course of
action moving forward” (Ridenour, 2014). Nielsen stated, “We are aware of the insensitive tweets by one of our
student-athletes. On behalf of Kent State University, we consider these comments to be ignorant and not indica-
tive of the beliefs held by our university community as a whole. This is an educational opportunity for all of our
student-athletes” (Nichols, 2014).
After compiling these specific examples of the potential consequences of student-athletes’ social media use, along
with how other college athletic programs monitor such use, Locke met with CNY President Monroe. She wanted to
discuss drafting specific language for the social media policy, as well as potential punishments for the social media
infractions. Monroe suggested that low-level infractions might result in warnings and a major infraction could result in

a suspension or dismissal of the student-athlete from the team. In her notes, Locke wrote down a reminder to check if
a suspension or dismissal might create liability for the school if a student-athlete who was anticipating a professional
sport career sued the college. In addition, she suggested creating a social media usage educational program for student-
athletes as a proactive measure to prevent violations of the given policy.
1. What social media platforms do you use? If you were an athletic administrator, what best practice suggestions
would you give to coaches and student-athletes?
2. What is the best method to monitor the student-athlete’s social media accounts? Who should have the ultimate
responsibility to monitor social media accounts: the athletic department or the school?
3. Many states are creating “anti-snooping” laws that prohibit a school or employer from monitoring another person’s
social media accounts. Do you agree or disagree with this type of law? Why?
4. Which monitoring tactic limits CNY’s legal liability?
5. Are there any legal differences depending on whether CNY is a public or private school?
6. Would a Division I college be able to revoke a player’s scholarship based on social media usage? Are there any
additional social media concerns between Divisions I, II, or III?
7. Can a student-athlete be dismissed from college for violating a social media policy? Would that student-athlete
have a legal claim against the school if he/she was anticipating a future professional sport career?
8. Should a college monitor every student social media behavior?
9. How can a violation of an institution’s social media policy impact a student-athlete’s potential professional career?
10. How restrictive of a ban could an athletic department use against social media behavior? What are the legal, social,
and monetary advantages and disadvantages of the different restrictive policies?
11. Because the NCAA is not a state actor, is it right to impose regulations that might be impossible for public schools
to implement?
12. What potential topics should be included in a student-athlete social media educational program?
13. How can a posting on a social media website lead to NCAA sanctions?
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