Case s 1

Walden University
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
This is to certify that the dissertation by
Ludmila V. Ellis
has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects,
and that any and all revisions required by
the review committee have been made.
Review Committee
Dr. Peter Serdyukov, Committee Chairperson, Education Faculty
Dr. Mary I. Dereshiwsky, Committee Member, Education Faculty
Dr. Amie A. Beckett, Committee Member, Education Faculty
Chief Academic Officer
Denise DeZolt, Ph.D.
Walden University
2008

ABSTRACT
Writing Instruction and Learning Strategies in a Hybrid EAP Course: A Case Study with
College-Bound ESL Students
by
Ludmila Ellis
M.S., SUNY New Paltz, 1998
B.A., Rostov Pedagogical Institute, 1987
Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Education
Walden University
Walden University
July 2008

ABSTRACT
This case study addressed the problem of increasing effectiveness of English for
Academic Purposes (EAP) courses by combining in-class and online writing instruction.
The purpose of this case study was to describe the changes in writing skills, evidence of
self-directedness, and the use of learning strategies in a hybrid learning format. The
research was grounded in the social learning theory perspectives of Vygotsky and
Bandura and pedagogically structured according to Scardamalia and Bereiter’s model of
computer-supported learning environments. Writing assignments, weekly self-
evaluations, and responses to biweekly questionnaires and interviews were obtained from
four participants attending evening and Saturday EAP classes. Changes in writing
performance were described based on organization and language use. Weekly and
biweekly questionnaires and interviews were analyzed for evidence of self-directedness
and use of learning strategies. Cross-case and cross-method synthesis triangulated these
data into overarching conclusions that were then discussed with the participants and
colleagues to ensure credibility. It was found that learners who consistently used the Web
site improved the organization and content of their writing, regulated their learning, and
used more strategies online than in class. The results also showed that lack of motivation
can have a negative effect on overall performance. Overall, the research demonstrated
that, for learners who seek increased engagement and higher academic performance, the
hybrid format offers more effective ways to advance writing and prepare for mainstream
programs. This study advances positive social change by informing adult education of
strategies that target new immigrant communities to develop individuals that are better
prepared for work and citizenship, thus benefiting economic prosperity of the country.

Writing Instruction and Learning Strategies in a Hybrid EAP Course: A Case Study with
College-Bound ESL Students
by
Ludmila Ellis
M.S., SUNY New Paltz, 1998
B.A., Rostov Pedagogical Institute, 1987
Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Education
Walden University
July, 2008

3330384
3330384
2008
Copyright 2008 by
Ellis, Ludmila
All rights reserved

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am deeply grateful to all the people who have given me practical and emotional
support for the past four years while I was trying to cope with professional, academic,
and health-related challenges. As a PhD student, I had the opportunity to meet many
dedicated professionals whose influence has been truly inspirational.
I had the privilege to complete my doctoral studies under the mentorship of Dr.
Serdyukov, whose guidance helped me grow as a researcher and to whom I owe much of
the success of this project.
I am also indebted to Dr. Dereshiwsky and Dr. Beckett, who guided my research
work as members of my dissertation committee. Their expert advice and attention to all
the aspects of my research ensured the quality of my work.
I thank my friend and colleague Professor Aslanian, who had encouraged me to
start the PhD program at Walden University and provided an expert review of my data
analyses.
I am sincerely grateful to the administration of the English Language Institute at
Westchester Community College, whose involvement as the community partner made it
possible to conduct this study.
I also express my gratitude to the students in my EAP classes, who volunteered to
take part in this project and maintained their commitment to see it completed.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................................vii
LIST OF FIGURES ...............................................................................................................ix
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY.............................................................1
Present-Day Immigrant Education.........................................................................................2
Factors Affecting Academic Success in Community College Programs...............................5
Current Trends in ESL Writing Instruction ...........................................................................9
Problem Statement.................................................................................................................11
Nature of Study......................................................................................................................12
Research Questions ...............................................................................................................13
Purpose of Study....................................................................................................................13
Conceptual Framework..........................................................................................................14
Social Learning Theory..............................................................................................14
Concept of Self-Efficacy............................................................................................15
Language Learning Strategies....................................................................................17
Concept of Computer-Supported Learning Environment..........................................19
Hybrid Learning.....................................................................................................................20
Definitions of Terms..............................................................................................................25
Scope and Limitations............................................................................................................26
Significance of Study.............................................................................................................28
Implications for Positive Social Change................................................................................28
Transition Statement..............................................................................................................30
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW...............................................................................33
Research on Traditional Writing Instruction .........................................................................34
Characteristics of Technology as Educational Tool ..............................................................40
Research on Web-Based Writing Instruction ........................................................................43
Research on Hybrid Writing Instruction................................................................................50
Comparison of Classroom and Online Writing .....................................................................52
Summary................................................................................................................................53
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY.........................................................................................55
Research Design.....................................................................................................................56
Research Paradigm and Strategy for Investigation....................................................56
Role of the Researcher...............................................................................................57
Research Questions....................................................................................................59
Context for the Study.............................................................................................................60
Setting and Population...............................................................................................60
Access to the Participants ..........................................................................................62
Selection Criteria .......................................................................................................64
Sample Size................................................................................................................65
Profiles of the Participants.........................................................................................65
Hybrid Course Design............................................................................................................68

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Data Collection Instruments ..................................................................................................72
Changes in the Writing Skills ....................................................................................72
Intake Questionnaire..................................................................................................74
Weekly Self-Evaluation Questionnaire......................................................................75
Biweekly Learning Experiences Questionnaire.........................................................75
Online Reading and Writing Skills............................................................................76
Combining Classroom and Online Experience..........................................................76
Use of Learning Strategies.........................................................................................77
Biweekly In-Person Interview ...................................................................................77
Data Collection Procedures....................................................................................................78
Treatment of the Data ............................................................................................................79
Validity and Reliability..........................................................................................................80
Summary................................................................................................................................82
CHAPTER 4: DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS................................................................83
Collection and Treatment of the Data....................................................................................84
Overview of the Hybrid EAP Course ....................................................................................88
First Impressions........................................................................................................88
Hybrid Course Organization......................................................................................90
Feedback throughout the Course ...............................................................................92
Summary........................................................................................................94
Case Studies...........................................................................................................................95
Case 1: Yana “The Team Player”..........................................................................................95
Hybrid Course through the Eyes of the Team-Player................................................96
Evidence and Discussion of Changes in Yana’s Writing Skills ................................99
Summary of Changes in Yana’s Writing.......................................................103
Evidence and Discussion of Yana’s Self-Directedness in Learning..........................104
Summary of Yana’s Self-Directedness..........................................................109
Evidence and Discussion of Yana’s Use of Learning Strategies...............................110
Memory strategies..........................................................................................111
Cognitive Strategies.......................................................................................112
Compensation Strategies................................................................................114
Social Strategies.............................................................................................116
Comparison of Yana’s Use of Learning Strategies....................................................118
Summary of Case 1....................................................................................................119
Case 2: Gio “The Outsider”...................................................................................................120
Hybrid Course through the Eyes of the Outsider.......................................................122
Evidence and Discussion of Changes in Gio’s Writing Skills...................................124
Summary of Changes in Gio’s Writing .........................................................129
Evidence and Discussion of Gio’s Self-Directedness in Learning............................130
Summary of Gio’s Self-Directedness ............................................................135
Evidence and Discussion of Gio’s Use of Learning Strategies .................................136
Memory Strategies.........................................................................................137

v
Comparison of Gio’s Use of Learning Strategies......................................................143
Summary of Case 2....................................................................................................144
Case 3: Joe “The Leader” ......................................................................................................145
The Hybrid Course through the Eyes of the Leader ..................................................147
Evidence and Discussion of Changes in Joe’s Writing Skills ...................................150
Summary of Changes in Joe’s Writing..........................................................155
Evidence and Discussion of Joe’s Self-Directedness in Learning.............................157
Summary of Joe’s Self-Directedness.............................................................162
Evidence and Discussion of Joe’s Use of Learning Strategies..................................163
Comparison of Joe’s Use of Learning Strategies.......................................................171
Summary of Case 3....................................................................................................172
Case 4: Jang “The Follower”.................................................................................................173
The Hybrid Course through the Eyes of the Follower...............................................174
Evidence and Discussion of Changes in Jang’s Writing Skills .................................178
Summary of Changes in Jang’s Writing........................................................184
Evidence and Discussion of Jang’s Self-Directedness in Learning...........................186
Summary of Jang’s Self-Directedness...........................................................191
Evidence and Discussion of Jang’s Use of Learning Strategies................................193
Comparison of Jang’s use of learning strategies........................................................201
Summary of Case 4....................................................................................................203
Cross-Case Examination........................................................................................................205
Research Question 1 ..................................................................................................205
Case 1: Yana “The Team Player”..................................................................208
Case 2: Gio “The Outsider”...........................................................................209
Case 3: Joe “The Leader” ..............................................................................210
Case 4: Jang “The Follower”.........................................................................210

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Results of Cross-Case Examination.......................................................................................220
Evidence of Quality ...............................................................................................................220
Summary................................................................................................................................222
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION.................................................................................................224
Interpretations of the Findings...............................................................................................226
Role of the Conceptual Framework ...........................................................................226
Research Questions................................................................................................................229
Changes in the Writing Skills ....................................................................................229
Evidence of Self-Directedness...................................................................................232
Use of Learning Strategies.........................................................................................233
Summary of Findings.................................................................................................236
Limitations of the Study.........................................................................................................236
Implications for Social Change..............................................................................................239
Recommendations for Actions...............................................................................................241
Recommendations for Further Study.....................................................................................244
Reflections on the Teaching and Research Experiences........................................................247
Teaching Experience..................................................................................................247
Research Experience..................................................................................................252
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................256
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................258
APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................267
APPENDIX A: Hybrid Course Documents...........................................................................267
APPENDIX B: Data Collection Tools...................................................................................270
APPENDIX C: Participants’ Writing Samples......................................................................281
APPENDIX D: Samples of Participants’ Weekly Self-Evaluations......................................301
APPENDIX E: Letter of Cooperation from a Community Research Partner........................305
CURRICULUM VITAE........................................................................................................306

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Comparison of the Use of Technology in Traditional and Web-based
Instruction ..............................................................................................................................41
Table 2. Relation of Data Collection Tools to Research Questions ......................................74
Table 3. Comparison of Yana’s Writing in First and Last Quarters......................................100
Table 4. Changes in Yana’s Writing throughout the Course.................................................103
Table 5. Summary of Yana’s Experiences, Self-Evaluation, and Writing Progress..............108
Table 6. Yana’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Memory Strategies ..........................111
Table 7. Yana’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Cognitive Strategies ........................113
Table 8. Yana’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Compensation Strategies.................114
Table 9. Yana’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Social Strategies ..............................116
Table 10. Comparison of Gio’s Writing in First and Last Quarter........................................125
Table 11. Changes in Gio’s Writing throughout the Course .................................................129
Table 12. Summary of Gio’s Experiences, Self-Evaluation, and Writing Progress..............134
Table 13. Gio’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Memory Strategies...........................137
Table 14. Gio’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Cognitive Strategies.........................139
Table 15. Gio’s Bi-weekly Evaluations of the Use of Compensation Strategies ..................140
Table 16. Gio’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Social Strategies...............................142
Table 17. Comparison of Joe’s Writing in First and Last Quarters.......................................151
Table 18. Changes in Joe’s Writing throughout the Course..................................................156
Table 19. Summary of Joe’s Experiences, Self-Evaluation, and Writing Progress...............161
Table 20. Joe’s Bi-weekly Evaluations of the Use of Memory Strategies ............................164
Table 21. Joe’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Cognitive Strategies .........................166
Table 22. Joe’s Bi-weekly Evaluations of the Use of Compensation Strategies...................168

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Table 23. Joe’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Social Strategies ...............................170
Table 24. Comparison of Jang’s Writing in First and Last Quarters.....................................179
Table 25. Changes in Jang’s Writing throughout the Course................................................185
Table 26. Summary of Jang’s Experiences, Self-Evaluation, and Writing Progress.............190
Table 27. Jang’s Bi-weekly Evaluations of the Use of Memory Strategies ..........................194
Table 28. Jang’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Cognitive Strategies .......................196
Table 29. Jang’s Bi-weekly Evaluations of the Use of Compensation Strategies.................198
Table 30. Jang’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Social Strategies .............................200
Table 31. Summary of Changes in the Participants’ Writing at the End of the Semester.....206
Table 32. Summary of the Differences in Average Writing Volume and Grades
throughout the Semester ........................................................................................................208
Table 33. Summary of Evidence of Self-Directedness Found in the Hybrid Course............211
Table 34. Comparison of the Use of Individual Strategies in Class and Online ...................217

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Diagram showing organization of the hybrid EAP course.....................................91
Figure 2. Line graph showing changes in Yana’s weekly self-evaluations during
the hybrid course....................................................................................................................107
Figure 3. Bar graph showing changes in Yana’s use of memory strategies in class and
online......................................................................................................................................112
Figure 4. Bar graph showing changes in Yana’s use of cognitive strategies in class and
online......................................................................................................................................113
Figure 5. Bar graph showing changes in Yana’s use of compensation strategies in class
and online...............................................................................................................................115
Figure 6. Bar graph showing changes in Yana’s use of social strategies ..............................117
Figure 7. Bar graph showing differences in Yana’s use of strategies in the hybrid
format.....................................................................................................................................118
Figure 8. Line graph showing changes in Gio’s weekly self-evaluations during
Figure 9. Bar graph showing changes in Gio’s use of memory strategies in class and
online......................................................................................................................................138
Figure 10. Bar graph showing changes in Gio’s use of cognitive strategies in class and
online......................................................................................................................................140
Figure 11. Bar graph showing changes in Gio’s use of compensation strategies in class
and online...............................................................................................................................141
Figure 12. Bar graph showing changes in Gio’s use of social strategies in class and
online......................................................................................................................................143
Figure 13. Bar graph showing differences in Gio’s use of strategies in the hybrid
format.....................................................................................................................................144
Figure 14. Line graph showing changes in Joe’s weekly self-evaluations during
Figure 15. Bar graph showing changes in Joe’s use of memory strategies in class and
Online.....................................................................................................................................165
Figure 16. Bar graph showing changes in Joe’s use of cognitive strategies in class and

x
online......................................................................................................................................167
Figure 17. Bar graph showing changes in Joe’s use of compensation strategies in class
and online...............................................................................................................................169
Figure 18. Bar graph showing changes in Joe’s use of social strategies in class and
online......................................................................................................................................171
Figure 19. Bar graph showing differences in Joe’s use of strategies in the hybrid
format.....................................................................................................................................172
Figure 20. Line graph showing changes in Jang’s weekly self-evaluations during
Figure 21. Bar graph showing changes in Jang’s use of memory strategies in class and
online......................................................................................................................................195
Figure 22. Bar graph showing changes in Jang’s use of cognitive strategies in class and
online......................................................................................................................................197
Figure 23. Bar graph showing changes in Jang’s use of compensation strategies in class
and online...............................................................................................................................199
Figure 24. Bar graph showing changes in Jang’s use of social strategies in class and
online......................................................................................................................................201
Figure 25. Bar graph showing differences in Jang’s use of strategies in the hybrid
format.....................................................................................................................................202
Figure 26. Bar graph showing differences in the average writing volume and grades..........207
Figure 27. Bar graph showing comparison of overall use of strategies by the participants ..216
Figure 28. Diagram of conceptual framework.......................................................................227

CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
Implementing a hybrid course design in English as a Second Language (ESL)
writing instruction was called for by three main factors: the analysis of the present-day
state of immigrant education in the US, the instructional practices and needs analysis of
the adult college-bound learners at Westchester Community College, and the review of
the current literature in the area of writing skills development. All three factors indicate
that preparing students for academic study in American colleges is a laborious task whose
success and failure depend on specific resources and methodology. By giving learners a
chance to receive professional training, success of the ESL programs ultimately benefits
both the learners and the nation.
The issue boils down to the difficulties in writing skills development which are
partially due to the students’ lack of time and experiences allowed by the traditional ESL
instruction. This situation can be amended by the use of educational technology,
particularly Web-based instructional tools which offer ample opportunities for
developing these skills through text-based communication. One of the perspective
paradigms in the technology-based instruction is a combination of the traditional
classroom learning with online components (Dziuban, Hartman, & Moskal, 2004).
Therefore, it was the intention of this study to investigate the hybrid or blended format of
course design which would combine in-class and online writing instruction and increase
the amount of time and writing practice within a regular semester time. Specifically, the
study focused on the features which characterize changes in the writing skills acquired in

2
this format. Other areas of investigation included learners’ positive and negative
experiences, the evidence of self-efficacy, and the use of learning strategies.
Present-Day Immigrant Education
A growing influx of immigrants into the American society constitutes one of the
most urgent social issues. As a social phenomenon, multiculturalism is not simply a
matter of ethnic diversity but a serious cultural and linguistic challenge for educators. The
complexity of social and educational problems associated with immigration is based on
such common traits as lack of general education and vocational training received in the
home country, low work skills, and low income. This problem can be illustrated by the
statistics revealed by the US Census Bureau (2002) for the year of 2000, which show
that, compared to the native population, foreign-born adults of 25 years old and over fell
behind in high school completion by 20%. Likewise, the average poverty rate was six
percent higher among the immigrant families than among native families. With
immigrants accounting for 10% of the nation’s population in the year 2000 (US Census
Bureau, 2002), these figures present a serious cause for concern. Moreover, the
projections of the US Census Bureau indicate that the Hispanic population alone will
increase more than twice by the year 2050 (US Census Bureau, 2004).
As the immigrant population continues to grow, the need for adult English
language and vocational training will inevitably require more social efforts. Given the
large number of second language learners in the country and the projected rapid growth
of immigration in the nearest future, it is important to search for the optimal educational
solutions in order to maintain the nation’s social and economic sustainability. With this
respect, the issue of accelerated English learning and faster assimilation of immigrants

3
into the society is of great importance to successful implementing positive social change
in this country.
At first glance, the decision of adult ESL students to continue education in credit
programs often comes as a result of the need for personal and occupational changes.
However, since education and economy are closely related, there is no doubt that having
a better-trained workforce is of great advantage form the economic point of view.
Statistics shows that low education and work skills cannot provide sufficient income for
the immigrant families; as a result, they increase the number of welfare recipients. Rector
(2006) quotes $89,000 as an average government expense for each immigrant without a
high school diploma. Given that among the poor population 8.7 million were first
generation immigrants, it leaves no doubt that education is in the best economic interests
for the new residents as well as for the country.
Although the challenges of educating immigrants may lie heavily on the country’s
economy, they are greatly outweighed by the long-term social benefits which are
twofold: on the one hand, an educated population can strengthen economic and cultural
assets of local communities (De Baca et al., 2006); on the other, a stronger economy will
raise more capital for developing an educational base. Last but not least, one cannot
underestimate the significance of education for immigrant families. Just as uneducated
immigrant parents are likely to be poor, children in immigrant families are likely to lack
education and live in poverty too. Educating adults will be beneficial for children not
only from the economic perspective but also through parent involvement in their school
and extracurricular activities.

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Education of immigrant adults often begins with the English language instruction.
At present, a number of schools and government institutions offer ESL classes, which are
focused on a variety of skills. However, most of them are designed for the traditional
classroom instruction and cannot accommodate those working adult students who are
pressed for time in reaching their academic and professional goals due to multiple job and
family responsibilities. This situation is exacerbated by the fact that learning is often
slowed down due to low literacy and general education levels of the students. As a result,
many programs, particularly government-funded ones, limit their educational efforts to
providing basic second language literacy instruction to immigrant adults. For instance,
among the most common programs reviewed at the National Symposium on Adult ESL
Research and Practice initial literacy, functional literacy, media literacy, and social
literacy received the most attention (Condelli & Wrigley, 2001).
However, even the above-mentioned respectable forum admitted that few adult
ESL programs were successful. Not surprisingly though, since focusing on a single aspect
of ESL instruction—literacy—does not meet the growing needs of the adult ESL
learners. Additionally, unlike regular adult basic education classes, ESL instruction is
expected to pursue more than providing literacy skills. Specific needs of ESL students
include both oral and written communication skills, as well as information processing
skills applied in a variety of social contexts. Evidently, the complexity of issues involved
in educating immigrant population requires a search for new and more effective
approaches and methodologies that could increase second language acquisition.
Social factor is another significant barrier that prevents successful second
language acquisition. In the past, education was not only the measure of success in the

5
new land but also the conduit for acculturation. In contrast, nowadays immigrants are
able “to maintain greater linguistic and cultural ties with their countries of origin, and
thus they may not seek assimilation as it historically been understood” (Curry, 2004, p.
51). Minority cultures tend to be socially cohesive, which is evident in the life of many
ethnic communities around the country. The natural tendency to gravitate toward familiar
language, values, and social interactions limits learners’ opportunities for meaningful use
of English. Leaving the classroom, most students find themselves surrounded by their
families and ethnic communities where the English language is not spoken. As a result,
the new skills and knowledge have little use and support in real life.
Since language is fundamental for the development of new concepts and cognitive
skills, such educationally restricted environment is detrimental not only for the English
acquisition but also for learning the new culture and integrating into the American
society. Often, these problems are accompanied by negative attitude towards learning
English which comes as a result of socially constructed belief about the importance of
education. Brittain (2005) points out that although being part of the familiar environment
is safe and accepting, it creates peer pressure to conform to the standards and values of
the majority of co-natives. This involves views on education and academic achievements.
Thus, in addition to being isolated from meaningful interactions with native speakers of
English, immigrants continue to be influenced by their cultural views on education and
fail to achieve significant level of English proficiency and life standards.
Factors Affecting Academic Success in Community College Programs
It would not be an exaggeration to point out the fact that community colleges with
their low-cost continuing education programs and public-oriented services carry a large

6
part of ESL instruction. According to the National Center for Educational Statistics, 9.6%
of student body enrolled in credit classes at two-year colleges in the fall of 2005
consisted of Hispanic, Asian, and other foreign-born minorities (Knapp, Kelly-Reid,
Whitmore, & Miller, 2007). It is necessary to bear in mind that this figure reflects only
the result of transition from skill development classes to degree programs. It is impossible
to estimate the total number of students attending noncredit classes across the country
due to lack of statistical data. However, it has been reported that the annual noncredit
ESL enrollment can vary from a few hundred to a few thousand per college averaging 1.2
million in publicly funded programs nationwide (Chrisman & Crandall, 2007). Only 10-
15% of noncredit enrollees attempt to enter credit programs when they reach sufficient
level of English proficiency (Chrisman & Crandall). Compared with the number of those
students who successfully move on to academic study, noncredit enrollees present a
sizable group. This indicates that noncredit ESL learners require a serious educational
effort.
Trying to tailor to the different needs of the ESL population, community colleges
face a number of challenges. Unlike adult literacy programs, they typically offer ESL
life-skill instruction focused on speaking, listening, reading, and writing in beginning
through advanced levels of proficiency. Although many students progress in the
proficiency level, their actual mastery of the language, particularly written
communication skills and information processing, leaves a reason for concern. Chrisman
and Crandall (2007) point out an alarming fact that low levels present an overwhelming
majority of noncredit enrollees while the proficiency of students who are placed in the
advanced classed is not sufficient either.

7
To remedy this situation, the ESL services are often augmented by a few
specialized academic courses such as English for Academic Purposes (EAP), which help
advanced learners in transition from noncredit to credit programs. However, the fact that
the proportion of students who continue education in credit programs is rather small
indicates that there may be a number of issues hindering their learning progress. One of
them is the number of the semesters spent in the noncredit ESL: most students do not
continue attending classes after the first two semesters. Moreover, there is a serious class
time deficit. As Chrisman and Crandall (2007) report, an average person requires 100
hours of instruction to move to the next level of proficiency and up to 1000 hours to learn
basic communication provided that the native language literacy had been acquired earlier.
Therefore, a typical 12-week course that meets three to six hours per week cannot satisfy
the need for faster language acquisition, particularly in those programs that are designed
to develop academic language skills.
Another issue is the difference in academic standards between ESL and credit
courses. Placed in the ESL writing course, students are evaluated by the progress they
make in grammar, style, and general language use. Although their English language
proficiency may be sufficient to proceed to the highest level in the ESL program, it does
not guarantee success when the students are judged by the mainstream standards. As a
result, students fail and have to return to the ESL programs (Valdes, 1992). Thus,
increasing the number of class hours per semester may prove to be an inadequate measure
without raising the course requirements.
Arguably, lack of English literacy is one of the main factors contributing to
academic failure. However, there are a number of other problems that prevent students

8
from completing the course or making sufficient improvements and being placed in the
mainstream courses. Socioeconomic and affective factors are among the most common
ones. Song (2006, p. 417) points out that these factors intertwined with internal problems
such as “lack of interest, effort or motivation, insufficient target-language use, and
deficient first-language literacy” lead to failure in the course. These issues are further
compounded by lack of support system for ESL students who have to face the language
barrier along with different academic requirements on their own. Following their cultural
expectations of education and teacher-student relationships, they find it difficult to adjust
to the American academic standards which emphasize constructive learning and student
initiative (Rubenstein, 2006).
From the point of view of instructional design, the traditional classroom
instruction has a number of limitations which negatively affect the academic success of
adult learners who have to attend to numerous personal and professional obligations
besides course requirements. In addition to the insufficient class time, there is no
opportunity for self-management and flexibility in the use of material and acquisition of
knowledge. Students are required to be present in class in order to work on their English
skills. Although student-centered instruction and real-life application of skills are
emphasized in some approaches, the process of language acquisition remains slow due to
the class time boundaries and dependence on the instructor and the textbooks. This issue
made some researchers look for new forms of instruction (e.g., accelerated, intensive,
compressed or short-term) where online technologies could be utilized to enhance and
accelerated learning (Serdyukov & Serdyukova, 2006). Moreover, the traditional design
of the ESL instruction is focused on skills rather than learners and does not take into

9
account the most essential principles of adult education learning: self-directedness,
learners’ experiences, the need to learn, and immediate application of knowledge
(Knowles, 1980). Due to the fact that students’ learning experiences are limited to
classroom interactions, it is very difficult to incorporate these aspects into the traditional
instruction.
In addition to a more learner-centered instruction, preparing students for academic
study requires a pedagogy that goes beyond the traditional grammar-oriented activities
and describing personal experiences fit for a regular 3-hour session (Curry, 2004).
Although personal experiences and prior knowledge are undeniably important in using
reading and writing as teaching strategies (Skinner, 1994), they are of little value where
formal language and writing conventions are concerned. Not only these conventions may
be different from those in the students’ native languages (Beckett, Gonzalez, & Schwartz,
2004), they may also be unknown to learners due to insufficient prior education. Thus,
acquiring the use of formal language is not simply a matter of a different content but also
a different social environment which immigrants typically have little exposure to.
Current Trends in ESL Writing Instruction
In more detail, the review of literature is presented in the following chapter.
However, it is necessary to introduce some recent issues and findings which point to the
benefits of using an online component in the traditional instruction. Most of them directly
relate to the challenges of specialized ESL courses in creating the curricula that could
embrace various socio-cultural realia and academic disciplines. According to Curry
(2004), developing academic literacy includes linguistic, content, and cognitive
knowledge. This position is supported by Beckett, Gonzalez, and Schwartz (2004), who

10
place content knowledge, conceptual understanding, and critical thinking skills among
the priorities of ESL writing curriculum design. In order to achieve this goal, these
authors propose to merge the EAP course with one of the credit courses taught in college.
This option appears to be promising even though it is difficult to design due to
organizational differences in continuing education and degree programs. As a
department, the ESL writing is viewed as a remedial discipline and is placed outside the
mainstream courses (Blumenthal, 2002). This creates “ghettoization” of ESL students
which contributes to the difficulties in student preparation for academic study since one
cannot become a better writer without expanding conceptual framework and content
knowledge (Melles, Millar, Morton, & Fegan, 2005).
Although the above-mentioned issue is not directly related to the presented study,
it certainly points to the need for exploring other possibilities of improving academic
ESL courses. Among the approaches to expanding learning opportunities for ESL
students, some researchers propose workplace and industry training, cooperative
programs, and community learning (Kinberg & Serdyukov, 2006; Elwell & Bean, 2001).
Adding an online component which offers reading and discussion in the typically
required college disciplines deserves attention as a better alternative to skills-oriented
ESL classes, which do not provide sufficient support in subject areas and writing skills
development. Some possibilities include adding content material to the topics suggested
by the course textbook; internalizing content-specific vocabulary; utilizing hyperlinks
connections (Chen Wang & Sutton, 2002) and negotiation techniques (De la Fuente,
2003); providing guidance and monitoring learning progress (Salomon, Globerson, &

11
Guterman, 1989); improving computer skills and research strategies which are an asset
for any college student (Goodfellow, 2004).
The nature of the online learning environment promotes language acquisition
through immersion in subject-related context which stimulates language processing and
engages students in a continuous writing discourse. Among the most important features
of online knowledge construction, Serdyukov and Hill (2004, para. 5) mention “academic
depth, length of postings (volume of written products), expressiveness, collaboration,
self-management, retention, and use of resources.” Undoubtedly, using discipline-
oriented approach requires a close collaboration between college faculty and ESL
instructors (Melles, Millar, Morton, & Fegan, 2005). Online environment makes it
possible to bring content and EAP staff together and promote a professional exchange
that can be greatly beneficial to the students.
Problem Statement
The problem of the study originates from the need to raise effectiveness of the
traditional classroom instruction in providing optimal conditions for writing skills
development. The attempts to find the best way to improve writing skills have resulted in
a number of teaching methods which vary from the traditional ones with emphasis on
conceptual knowledge, coding/decoding skills, and knowledge of specific writing and
grammar conventions, to innovative techniques which view writing as the extension of
speaking and are not concerned with grammatical accuracy, spelling, and punctuation
(Jarvis, 2002). However, neither of them seems to be fast and efficient enough to
adequately prepare learners for the challenges of academic study in a reasonably short
time. These models are designed for traditional learners based on the American

12
educational values, which stress learner responsibility and presume that learning
continues outside of classroom.
For adult ESL learners, there are several pitfalls in this design. First of all, many
of them come from cultures with a strong oral tradition. This creates lack of coding and
decoding skills that could be transferred onto the second language. In addition to failing
in reading and writing, there is typically inadequate educational background, which
results in lack of general knowledge and understanding of concepts necessary to create
internal speech and produce it in writing, as well as various learning skills. Embedded in
the problem of writing skills development, there is grammar deficiency which also
complicates learning process. Overall, these issues make writing instruction a strenuous,
time-consuming effort and need constant reinforcement which in-class instruction cannot
provide. Unaccustomed to writing discourse and grammatical system of the language,
learners often require additional resources, support, and a more flexible class schedule.
Failure to achieve affects their motivation and decision to continue education.
Current research on combining traditional and online instruction indicates that a
hybrid course design can be beneficial for the development of writing skills of adult ESL
students (Al-Jarf, 2002; Diamond, 2000). However, success depends on a number of
factors including collaborative knowledge construction (Bender 2003; Serdyukov & Hill,
2003; Milam, 2001); functionality of the software and interface design (Deubel, 2003;
Kitto & Higgins, 2003); and self-directedness of students (Partee, 2002). Most of these
studies investigate effectiveness of computer-mediated communication (CMC) in
educational settings in general. Yet little research has been done concerning hybrid
course design specifically in the area of ESL writing instruction. Specifically, current

13
research literature does not explain the changes in writing skills that may occur as a result
of hybrid learning and students’ needs to adjust their learning and self-directive
strategies.
Nature of the Study
This research project was designed as a semester-long case study with multiple
participants. The choice of a qualitative study design was dictated by the goal of the study
to carry out an in-depth investigation of individual learning experiences in a hybrid
course environment. This tradition best allows for conducting an investigation within a
specific context and applying various research strategies (Yin, 2003). Therefore, it was
chosen as best serving the purpose of studying the changes in the participants’ writing
progress, their self-directedness, and the use of learning strategies in an in-depth manner.
Personal interviews, questionnaires, and writing samples of compositions and online
posts were used to collect the data. Necessary adjustments in the instructional design and
procedures are recommended based on the results of the study.
Research Questions
In order to fulfill the purpose of the study, the investigation was seeking answers
to the following research questions: (a) What features characterize changes in the writing
of ESL students in hybrid courses? (b) What evidence of self-directedness is present in
the hybrid program? (c) Which learning strategies (memory, cognitive, compensation, or
social) do students prefer to use more in this type of environment?
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate individual learning experiences in
hybrid instructional design, which combines classroom and online learning formats. The

14
primary goal of the study was to follow the changes in writing skills development and the
overall improvement in composition skills through creating and applying new concepts in
online reading and discussion. The specific nature of the hybrid learning also called for
investigating the growth of self-directedness as a result of offering students the tools for
setting academic goals and performing self-evaluation. Last but not least, the study
compared the use of learning strategies in-class and online. The results of the study
contribute to better understanding of the pedagogical and social factors that contribute to
creating a successful hybrid course, as well as developing new methodological
approaches and instructional means to improve ESL writing skills. The application of the
results of the study in teaching academic ESL courses at community colleges as well as
other schools and environments will hopefully increase learning outcomes.
Conceptual Framework
Social Learning Theory
In order to address the above-mentioned aspects in one study, it is essential to
view writing in its connection with the learner’s conceptual structure, most of which has
been created in a different cultural and linguistic reality and is expressed through
different communication patterns. This requires a theoretical foundation that allows for
approaching writing from social, psychological, and cognitive perspectives. Vygotsky’s
(1962; 1978) social learning theory, particularly its aspect of thought and language
formation, was used as the background for investigating the process of development of
inner speech through acquiring new concepts and its reflection in writing. The main
premise of this theory is that writing requires a highly developed inner speech
representing the person’s thought pattern and level of abstraction. Importantly, according

15
to Vygotsky (1962, p. 51), “thought development is determined by language…and by the
socio-cultural experience.” Thus, success in mastering writing in a second language
depends on the amount of linguistic, cultural, and overall learning experience which
students have been exposed to.
Following this premise, the hybrid writing course was designed to provide
opportunities for expanding general knowledge through supplementary reading and
academic modules along with instruction in specific language forms and writing
conventions. The social aspect of Vygotsky’s theory provided an opportunity to view
writing as a collaborative experience of constructing knowledge through continuing
written exchange which required highly developed skills in processing and producing the
language. This was accomplished by using the blog section of the course Web site, where
reading and writing topics were changed weekly in order to maintain constant peer
interaction. As a form of social software, the blog also allowed for proximal
development, which, according to Vygotsky, refers to observing the use of new models
and learning from more experienced peers. Since interaction and thought expression are
important aspects of online learning, Vygotsky’s theory played a foundational role in the
study.
Concept of Self-Efficacy
Designed as a case study, this research project focused on individual learning
experiences in the hybrid course. In order to receive a complete account of positive and
negative factors of the hybrid model, it was necessary to reflect learners’ needs, goals,
and learning skills in the purpose and design of the course. Therefore, in addition to
studying the process of writing skills development, learners’ self-directedness and the use

16
of learning strategies were specifically addressed throughout the investigation. Although
these are important factors in any form of education, they become strongly emphasized in
blended learning due to the amount of time allocated for independent work. This aspect
of research was based on Bandura’s (1986) theory of social cognition—namely its
concept of self-efficacy in determining the course of action—and Oxford’s (1990)
Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL).
Bandura (1986) defined self-efficacy as the human ability to determine the course
of actions based on their convictions, values, and perception of the upcoming experience.
Being able to judge their own abilities and to make decisions based on their self-beliefs,
people create programs of “self-development, adaptation, and change at different stages
of life” (Bandura, Caprara, Barbarnelli, Gerbino, & Pastorelli, 2003, p. 769). This
involves not only self-awareness and realization of one’s potential and limitation, but also
the capacity for self-regulation, which refers to willing to act, knowing how to act, and
having skills and resources to act. Bandura identified three main processes involved in
the self-regulatory mechanism: self-monitoring, self-judging, and self-evaluation. Each
process requires an objective look at one’s own performance and critical analysis of the
action, the situation in which the action takes place, and the result of the action.
As a psychological construct, self-efficacy is not an inborn quality; it develops
throughout lifetime and can be affected by such factors as “performance
accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and psychological states”
(Bandura, 1977, p. 191). Therefore, all mechanisms involved in self-efficacy are products
of learning, whether it is learning from observations or from personal experiences. From
the educational perspective, self-efficacy determines the level of student achievement:

17
students who see themselves as high-achievers usually get better results than those who
doubt their abilities (Bandura 1986). This is possible due to the strong connection
between self-efficacy and self-directedness which enables learners to set goals and
estimate the effort and perseverance necessary to perform the task.
Language Learning Strategies
The self-regulatory mechanism implies that learners reflect on their learning
progress and plan their learning activities. According to Oxford (1990), these actions
represent metacognitive strategies—organizing, evaluating, and planning—which allow
learners to exercise control over their learning. Therefore, there is a strong connection
between self-directedness and learning strategies. However, a specific learning
environment may require different practical skills and resources. Thus, in addition to
metacognitive strategies, learners have to resort to strategies that “directly involve the
target language” (Oxford, 1990, p.37) in manipulating the information, processing and
producing new language, making inferences, and interacting. The four groups of
strategies, which were addressed in this study, were borrowed from Oxford’s (1990)
strategy classification system and modified for the given learning format.
1. Cognitive strategies involve learning activities which help internalize new
material through critical thinking skills such as analyzing, summarizing, and
recognizing patterns.
2. Memory strategies allow for the retention of the new material by associating,
reviewing, and using imagery, symbols, and keywords.

18
3. Compensation strategies help overcome limitations in understanding the material
by using clues, switching to the native language, and using communication in
order to get help or adjust the message.
4. Social strategies involve direct interaction with peers while pursuing a learning
task and include asking for clarification and correction, cooperating,
communicating, and developing cultural awareness.
Hybrid learning requires a well-developed sense of self-directedness and learning
strategy inventory. Assuming that up to 79% of the study time is spent in the online
environment, these constructs play a decisive role in learners’ academic success. While
the former maintains the vision of the result of the learning task and the motivation to
perform it well, the latter allows for the choice of the tools to accomplish it. One might
argue that these elements apply to face-to-face and hybrid learning alike. However,
studying in the traditional classroom environment, learners are able to see the model of
the performance and receive feedback to their actions immediately; they are required to
follow directions, but they are not responsible for planning their performance. In the
online environment, they function as co-participants of knowledge construction, which
requires self-discipline, time-management skills, and the ability to carry out the task
without the immediate feedback from the instructor. Therefore, it is impossible to make
progress without being in control of one’s own learning and applying the most effective
strategies to approach the assignment. Through its online component, the hybrid learning
format provides opportunities for developing self-directedness and learning strategies by
encouraging learners to become independent and take responsibility for their success.

19
Concept of Computer-Supported Learning Environment
Equally important for this study is the place of technology in the acquisition of
writing skills. Since it is impossible to isolate writing from overall language acquisition
and knowledge-building discourse, a modified version of Scardamalia and Bereiter’s
(1994) model of computer-supported intentional learning environment (CSILE) was used
as the framework for the hybrid course design. In this model, the authors emphasize that
learners must be “actively trying to achieve cognitive objectives—as distinct from simply
trying to do well on school tasks and activities” (Scardamalia and Bereiter, para. 4)).
Intentional learning is characterized by utilizing learners’ entire potential, thus leading to
gaining expertise which the authors view as a process rather than an accomplished state.
Both intentional learning and process expertise require the presence of a supportive social
environment; hence, the authors point to the necessity to transform schools into
knowledge-building communities. However, they rightly state that once the initial stage
of adaptation to a new learning situation is over, the progress slows down and individuals
simply follow a routine. A true knowledge-building community should continuously
present new challenges and focus on collective knowledge which comes from
contributions of all members. This is congruent with the idea of social learning which
was implemented in the presented study through the hybrid design allowing for
collaboration and team work in class and online.
The first two components of Scardamalia and Bereiter’s model have a natural fit
with the hybrid course as they require learners’ active involvement in processing and
producing the language which can lead to a higher level of proficiency and writing
expertise. However, since this research project did not involve the entire organization, the

20
concept of the knowledge-building community was restricted to the group of students
taking the course. The concept of the hybrid learning format is explained in detail further.
Hybrid Learning
Although the term hybrid (blended) learning or mixed-mode instruction is fairly
new in research literature, this instructional model has been used for a few decades. In
practice, it refers to combining traditional classes with various forms of out-of-class
course delivery (Dziuban, Hartman, & Moskal, 2004). However, it is with the
proliferation of student-centered teaching approach and the online technologies that
hybrid learning was noticed by researchers and classified as a unique educational
phenomenon. Presently, blended learning is known as “a hybrid of traditional face-to-
face and online learning so that instruction occurs both in the classroom and online, and
where the online component becomes a natural extension of traditional classroom
learning” (Rovai & Jordan, 2004, Blended learning section, para. 1). Some researchers
distinguish blended learning from other types of web-enhanced or online instruction by
the proportion of content delivered online. According to Allen, Seaman, and Garrett
(2007), a blended program is one where between 30% and 79% of the program content is
delivered online.
Due to its face-to-face and online characteristics, there is no agreement as to
whether hybrid learning should be viewed as “Web-enhanced classroom instruction or
classroom-enhanced online instruction” (Dziuban, Hartman, & Moskal, 2004, p. 2). Some
researchers reject the very concept of blending applied to instructional format as poorly
conveying what actually takes places from the point of view of pedagogy (Oliver &
Trigwell, 2005). They claim that academic improvements as a result of the hybrid method

21
can be explained from the position of the variation theory, according to which “for
learning to occur, variation must be experienced by the learner” (Oliver & Trigwell, p.
22). In other words, it is not the format that makes a difference in students’ learning
progress, but the increase in choice of the learning activities and the novelty of the
experience. Since the hybrid method is still a developing phenomenon in education, it
would be too soon to take sides on this issue. The fact remains that each model—face-to-
face and online—makes a significant addition to the other by providing learning
opportunities which its counterpart cannot offer alone. Specifically, the characteristics of
hybrid learning can be summarized as follows:
1) Convenience and flexibility of delivery
2) Variety of learning experiences
3) Student-centered instruction
4) Reduction of time spent in-class or online when necessary
5) Increased student participation and interaction
6) Increased student learning outcomes
In spite of the great advantages of the hybrid format, it does not come without
challenges. First of all, there is a misconception about the place of blended learning
among academic courses. Some educators erroneously view it as the transitional stage
from the traditional to fully online programs (Allen, Seaman, & Garrett, 2007). This
approach does not allow for a truly creative combination of the face-to-face and online
formats. The second problem involves the school infrastructure since blended learning
requires a technology base and skills in instructional design and online technologies. This
indicates that schools should be prepared to allocate funds and resources to create the

22
necessary conditions and implement hybrid courses successfully. It also places new
requirements on the faculty whose responsibilities will include facilitating learning in and
out of class, as well as meeting the challenge of designing their courses in “active
learning environments” (Dziuban, Hartman, & Moskal, 2004, p. 10). Two things are
critical in the hybrid method: the time necessary to design and maintain the course and
understanding of ways to bring the best of the traditional and online models into one.
Both are impossible without commitment from the faculty. Perhaps this is the reason why
hybrid learning is not growing as fast as fully online course offerings. In fact, Allen,
Seaman, and Garrett (2007) report that the number of blended courses decreased slightly
between 2003 and 2005 while online course offerings grew.
An integral part of the hybrid course design is the type of online communication.
Based on the purpose of the instruction and the technical base of the program, the
electronic discourse can take place synchronously or asynchronously (Sotillo, 2000).
Synchronous interaction allows all participants to collaborate simultaneously in real time.
Some examples are live chats and video conferences. Asynchronous interactions occur in
a delayed manner as, for example, in threaded discussions and Web logs. Each has a
specific effect on learning. Although collaboration and teacher facilitation are present in
both types, asynchronous discussions allow for deeper analyses and integration of
material, which is evident in the length of postings and expressiveness of the language
(Serdyukov & Hill, 2004). This can be explained by the principal differences between the
two types of online interaction. Synchronous discussions require fast responses thus
limiting the time “to search for information, to produce extended explanations, to
evaluate information thoroughly, to ask elaborated questions and so on” (Veerman &

23
Veldhuis-Diermanse, n.d.). Therefore, asynchronous mode appears to be more suitable
for the purpose of time management and quality of responses.
One of the most challenging aspects of blended learning is embracing the dialectic
nature of computer-mediated learning community which implies a different role
distribution among students and teachers; a different view on learning as phenomenon
situated in a particular time and space; and a different communication style. In order to
successfully combine online and classroom instruction, hybrid learning requires a
pedagogy that is based on co-construction of knowledge and makes learners equal
participants in the process. Thus, the hybrid model, as a partially online model, limits
teacher-control and emphasizes facilitation rather than direct instruction. Finally, like any
online language-based community, hybrid learning requires a specific form of electronic
or computer-mediated communication (CMC), which has evolved as a result of
technological advances. Although CMC has developed its own features, it should not be
confused with a linguistic phenomenon. Defining CMC, one has to refer to a mode of
communication, either synchronous or asynchronous, used specifically in the online
environment. Examples of CMC are discussion forums, chat room, e-mail
correspondence, Web logs (blogs), etc. In more detail, the use of CMC in the ESL field
will be discussed in chapter 2.
The fact that many educational institutions are cautious about introducing hybrid
learning in their programs indicates that more research is needed in order to explore the
possibilities of its use in education. Currently, its situation appears to be in flux even
though research has shown that blending instructional formats has a great potential in
content delivery and student-centered pedagogy. Therefore, the present study was based

24
on the assumption that the use of hybrid learning in an EAP course would allow for
improvement in students’ writing skills by enhancing conceptual structure and fluency of
written expression achieved through intensive online reading and communication
activities. The hybrid EAP course was designed to offer six hours of traditional class
instruction and unlimited access to the course Web site www.esl-page.com, which
provided additional resources in reading, writing, and grammar, as well as supplementary
materials in content areas used throughout the course. The asynchronous CMC ensured
learner control of the time and resources necessary to internalize the new information.
The most essential part of the hybrid course design is the choice of the
communication software that can allow for ongoing text-based interaction conducted
asynchronously with maximum learner control. Online self-organizing social systems
(OSOSS) appear to best serve these purposes (Wiley & Edwards, n.d.). One of the forms
of OSOSS, blogs, has gained popularity as the form of social software providing easy
access and interaction. It was chosen as the online communication platform for this study.
The infrastructure of the blog was instrumental in facilitating collaborative online
learning. Each week students were required to complete the reading selection and
participate in the blog discussion at least four times during the week, which included
responses to the discussion questions and comments on peers’ posts. The blogging
technique allowed students to become familiar with the topic and collect ideas for the
weekly writing assignments. A second blog site was used to provide access to peer
editing section, where students were required to post their first drafts of compositions for
group review. Thus, the hybrid design of the course created opportunities for social
learning through continuing online communication.

25
Definitions of Terms
Asynchronous interaction or asynchronous discussion: an online discussion that
takes place in a delayed manner; it does not require simulatenious interaction of all
participants.
Blended (hybrid) learning: a type of learning that combines both classroom-based
and online instructional components.
Blog: a type of social software which is used for online reading and discussion.
Blogging: text-based online interaction using the blog space and format.
Computer-mediated communication (CMC): text-based communication via
telecommunication networks which can happen synchronously or asynchronously.
Course Web site: online class component which serves as an extension of the in-
class activities and contains additional grammar and writing resources and home
assignments.
Hybrid course: a course in which class intsruction is complemented by an online
component which provides additional content material, a blog discussion forum, and self-
study resources for students’ independent learning and online interactions with the class.
Learning strategies: specific “techniques that [people] employ to solve
“problems” posed by second language input and output” (Brown, 1994, p. 114) which
include memory, cognitive, compensation, or social activities.
Level of English proficiency: a degree of fluency in producing and processing the
language which is based on a combination of practical language skills and understanding
of grammar.

26
Online instruction: instructional format which involves Web-based instructor-
students and students-students interactions and uses online resources and communication.
Self-efficacy: the ability to determine the course of actions based on personal
convictions, values, and perception of the upcoming experience which involves self-
awareness, self-realization, and self-regulation (Bandura, 1986).
Self-directedness: the ability to set and achieve goals based on motivation, self-
management, and critical evaluation of one’s own needs and skills in the learning
progress (Knowles, 1984).
Social software: Web-based software used for communication among people
which is characterized by self-organizing infrastructure and open user access.
Synchronous interaction or synchronous discussion: online discussion that takes
place simulateniously among all participants.
Traditional instruction: teaching method which takes place in class and requires
the presence on both the instructor and the students.
Scope and Limitations
The investigation was limited to the target population of college-bound ESL
students attending EAP course at Westchester Community College. Although the scope
of the study involved this particular setting, the results can be applicable to EAP courses
offered at any post-secondary institution due to similarities in ESL instructional
methodology and academic requirements of the mainstream programs.
Central to this study was the investigation of the development of writing skills,
associated learning strategies, and self-directedness in learning. Reading was included as
supporting factor but was not reflected in the results of the study. The study did not

27
pursue the purpose of comparing the whole wide variety of course delivery systems
available at the present time; therefore, a Web site with two blog components for
discussion and first draft demonstration was designed specifically for this study. The
blogs were linked to the Web site from the outside providers www.blogger.com and
www.blog.com.
Other limitations of the study included participants’ cultural inhibitions toward
the use of technology for educational purposes as well as their cultural bias to sharing
thoughts and opinions with a group of peers. Another area where limitations were
expected to occur was prior exposure to academic language and familiarity with the
English grammar.
The participants were selected for this study based on the following criteria:
1. Students had Level 6 or higher of English proficiency based on the Combined
English Language Skills Assessment test (CELSA).
2. Students’ minimal educational background was high school level.
3. Students had at least basic familiarity with computers (elementary keyboarding,
basic Internet searches and navigation skills).
These criteria created the basis for the assumptions of the study regarding the
participants’ skills and general knowledge. It was assumed that Level 6 proficiency
would be sufficient to fulfill communicative and writing requirements of the course. The
vocabulary and reading skills at this level were expected to provide the necessary
foundation for the academic growth. The course assignments were given based on the
assumption that the participants had at least high school education and, therefore, their
general knowledge would allow them to understand the concepts included in the course

28
reading, writing, and discussion assignments. Since the participants were not tested for
computer skills, it was assumed from their responses on the intake questionnaire that they
knew how to perform basic operations on the computer. These included keyboarding
skills and the use of the Internet and e-mail.
Significance of the Study
The study continued the current research on writing instruction while focusing on
the improvement of writing skills of the participants through hybrid learning and
positively affecting their overall ESL learning progress. Guided by the lifelong learning
principle, this study emphasized the importance of knowledge construction through CMC
as a tool of self-directed learning. The significance of the study is enhanced by the fact
that it allows for understanding of learners’ experiences in the hybrid learning format and
learning strategies associated with the use of CMC. From the practical perspective, the
study is beneficial to ESL college-bound students and helpful to the faculty in increasing
the efficiency of instruction through technology applications which promote student-
centered learning. The results of the study will hopefully help interested ESL
professionals to address the issues which adult students typically deal with when entering
academic programs. As an innovative approach to teaching and learning, it offers a valid
contribution to the development of the ESL writing and research methodology and
demonstrates a practical application of the underlying theories of social learning and
thought and language formation.
Implications for Positive Social Change
New immigrants to the United States constitute inalienable part of human capital.
Their education, work skills, and general wellbeing are linked to the economic prosperity

29
of the nation. Higher levels of education allow individuals to become more self-reliant as
employees and members of society. Better professional skills help them become more
competitive in the job market, maintain higher living standards, and contribute more to
social development. As was discussed earlier, the majority of immigrants find themselves
among the poorest strata. Confined to their ethnic communities and low-paid jobs, they
lack many social, cultural, and economic benefits that education has to offer. However,
for the immigrant population, education begins with acquiring the English language
skills. The faster they master the language, the better their chances are at improving their
education and obtaining professional employment. The hybrid format of learning is
designed to provide opportunities for accelerated language learning and, therefore, faster
transition to academic study. The present research deserves additional attention as it
includes a course which targets the development of academic skills which most ESL
courses do not offer.
Besides the economic aspect, positive social change addresses the issue of equal
rights and opportunities for all members of society. This democratic principle must be
maintained in order for the country to function as a multicultural union. Based on this
principle, it is wrong to regard education as the privilege of the elite; it must be accessible
to any willing member who has the potential and the motivation for self-improvement.
Providing educational opportunities to the minorities is the first step to bridging the social
divide. It is also an important act toward ensuring the country’s future since education is
not only necessary for economic stability of individuals but also for their understanding
of true democracy. Given that the ethnic map of the U.S. will continue to grow as a result
of immigration, social processes involving both economic and political aspects will be

30
impossible without educating immigrants. Thus, ESL programs, especially the ones that
lead to academic study, give a tremendous contribution to positive social change.
Transition Statement
The discussion presented in this chapter indicates that the multitude of problems
in educating immigrant adults involves the following spheres:
1. The social problems include cultural cohesiveness; cultural isolation; and beliefs
about the importance of education.
2. The economic problems include low work skills and income among the majority
of immigrants; lack of government funds for adult education; and rapidly
increasing immigrant population requiring welfare and work training.
3. The educational problems include low literacy and general education level among
immigrants; ineffectiveness of government-funded adult literacy programs;
insufficient number of class hours in the ESL programs; and limitations of
traditional classroom instruction.
The first step to resolution of these problems can be made by providing ESL
learners with tools for self-efficacy. This issue suggests the need for more accessible,
flexible, and efficient second language instruction which would enable learners to
continue their academic and professional development. Creating such instruction implies
expanding learning beyond classroom and providing opportunities for meaningful
language use regardless of the community restrictions. From this perspective, the blended
or hybrid method, which allows for a combination of the traditional and online
instruction, deserves close attention due to its capacity to bring ESL instruction to a
higher level. Specifically for college-bound adult ESL students, it offers such important

31
aspects as flexibility in scheduling learning and content delivery, time management, and
environment conducive to social learning. However, it remains largely unexplored at
present, and is, therefore, uncommon in the ESL profession. The problem lies in the lack
of research data that could guide practitioners in their efforts to implement the hybrid
method. Combining face-to-face and online formats raises many questions regarding this
type of learning and its compatibility with the traditional ESL writing methodology. The
questions that were raised at the beginning of the study and became central to this
investigation were as follows:
1. Are writing skills which are acquired throught hybrid learning characterized by
specific features?
2. Is there evidence of self-directedness in the hybrid learning format?
3. Do learners use the same learning strategies in both learning environments?
In order to present a full account of the investigation of these aspects of the hybrid
learning model, the rest of the discussion contains the following sections:
Chapter 2, Literature Review, discusses current research in the area of ESL
writing. Since the current ESL methodology has been based on the traditional format of
instruction, this chapter highlights the differences between ESL writing in class and
online. A special section provides an overview of technological tools that are used in both
learning environments. This chapter also presents the most recent studies investigating
the development of writing skills in the hybrid format and specific forms of CMC used to
facilitate learning.
Chapter 3, Methodology, addresses the methodology of the study. It begins with
an overview of research design which includes the explanation of the choice of

32
qualitative paradigm and justification of the case study as a research strategy. The role of
the research and the research questions are also given in this section. The target
population, the program, and the method of selection of the participants and their profiles
are described as part of the context of the study. This chapter also presents the data
collections instruments and procedures involved in collecting and treating the data.
Finally, there is a discussion of the strategies that were used to ensure validity and
reliability of the study.
Chapter 4, Description and Analysis, gives a detailed account of data collection
and treatment. It includes an overview of the hybrid EAP course and presents its design
and organization. The major part of this chapter is given to the discussion of the evidence
obtained in response to the research questions. Each case study is presented individually
and in cross-case analysis. The chapter ends with the conclusions drawn from the
discussion of the data and a shor summary of the chapter.
Chapter 5, Discussion, includes interpretations of the findings pertaining to the
research questions and their practical implications. It also addresses limitations of the
conducted case study and gives recommendations for further research. The reflections on
teaching the hybrid course while conducting research complete the discussion of this case
study.

CHAPTER 2:
LITERATURE REVIEW
This research project was called for by the growing need for developing new
teaching methods in the field of ESL writing instruction that could enhance writing skills
acquisition and prepare learners for the challenges of academic study. Because traditional
classroom ESL instruction does not fully satisfy the growing requirements for essential
academic skills, more and more educators resort to technology in order to augment the
traditional methodology. This situation justified the primary purpose of the present study
to investigate the hybrid design of an EAP course and the changes in writing skills of
students in this learning format. In order to identify the current trends in research on ESL
writing within the chosen conceptual framework and understand the principal differences
between traditional and online writing instruction, it was necessary to address the areas
embracing both learning formats in this literature review. Furthermore, it was important
to follow the transition from separating these instructional formats to blending them in
the form of hybrid instruction. Thus, each section of the literature review shows current
views on writing from different pedagogical perspectives and addresses the areas that are
pertinent to both technology and development of writing skills:
1. Research on traditional writing instruction
2. Characteristics of technology as an educational tool
3. Research on Web-based writing instruction
4. Research on hybrid writing instruction
5. The comparison of classroom and online writing

34
Research on Traditional Writing Instruction
Teaching ESL writing varies according to the purpose and the overarching
approach of the instruction. Although a large body of research literature points to the
importance of writing in the second language instruction, there is no unanimous approach
to writing as a mode of language acquisition. Cumming (1990, p. 483) suggests that
“composing might function broadly as a psycholinguistic output condition wherein
learners analyze and consolidate second language knowledge that they have
previously…acquired.” Since writing becomes possible upon acquiring vocabulary and
grammar rules that are sufficent for self-expression and requires utilizing all the language
structures known to the learner, it can be viewed as both a means and a product of
language learning. As such, it allows for distinguishing between two different purposes of
writing instruction: writing as a learning process and writing as a demonstration of the
result of learning. The process-oriented approach regards writing as a socio-cognitive
activity and is, therefore, concerned with psychological and cognitive processes that take
place during writing skills acquisition. The product writing approach targets the
acquisition of language forms and uses writing practice as an instructional tool to achieve
the mastery of the language use.
From the psycholinguistic perspective, writing offers an opportunity to analyze
learners’ language skills and cognitive development. In both cases, writing functions as a
productive learning mode (Williams, 2005). It is important to mention that the success in
writing in the second language is often based on the level of writing skills in the first
language. This notion is part of the broader schema theory, which states that a person’s
knowledge base makes it possible “to relate incoming information to already known

35
information” (Singhal, 1998, Types of schema section, para. 1). However, as Gagnè
(1965, p. 235) rightly points out, “something must first be learned before it can be
transferred.” Since writing requires highly developed cognitive constructs, this implies
far more than writing mechanics. Teich (1987) argues that even advanced writing skills
do not automatically transfer to situations that involve unfamiliar content.
Writing as a cognitive activity involves generating ideas and internal speech
based on familiarity with various content areas. For ESL students, this signifies the
ability to generalize and apply previously acquired knowledge using the forms and
structures of a second language. According to Singhal (1998, Types of schema section,
para. 3), this process requires “formal schemata [which] cover discourse level items [and]
linguistic or language schemata [which] include the decoding features needed to
recognize words and how they fit together in a sentence.” Therefore, when investigating
the process of composing in English, it is necessary to keep in mind that writing skills do
not always transfer in a mirror-reflection manner; they require formal and language
schemata in both languages. Moreover, in situations that involve specific knowledge, the
transfer requires content schemata and higher-order thinking skills.
Referrring to writing as a critical thinking activity, it is important to mention its
connection with reading. As Heaney (2006) points out, critical thinking skills become
first internalized through reading, and are later reflected in writing. This connection sheds
light on the difficulties with academic writing which requires analysis of the problem and
developing argumentation. If the habit of reading was not formed prior to entering a
college program, writing presents a tremendous challenge. This is especially obvious in
case of adult ESL students who come from low-literacy backgrounds. Another important

36
aspect of reading and writing connection is the transfer of one skill onto the other.
Brooks-Harper and Shelton (2003) indicate that writing and reading are two sides of the
same process and, while practicing writing, learners acquire reading skills and vice versa.
Thus, on the one hand, reading gives support to writing by developing conceptual
knowledge and setting standards of writing conventions. On the other, by composing
messages, learners perform a transactional activity involving both reading and writing
and enhance both skills.
The two approaches to writing—process vs. product—have been in the center of a
debate for a number of years. The proponents of product writing see it as another way of
improving grammar skills, which explains their focus on grammar and syntax forms. On
the other hand, process writing is more concerned with the meaning and thought
expression than with the form thus leading “to a more authentic learning experience for
second language learners” (Smith, 2003, p. 3). The aspect of self-analysis mentioned by
Cumming (1990) bears significance for both approaches to writing. Whether applied in
the process of writing or in its revising stage, self-analysis indicates that the learner is
capable of making decisions regarding the correctness of the written text and thus allows
for establishing his or her actual language knowledge. Thus while process writing targets
what is being communicated, product writing is oriented at how the message is presented
in language forms. This suggests that the two approaches are mutually supportive;
therefore, it is more beneficial to use elements of product and process writing together in
order to achieve higher academic standards.
Process-oriented studies appear to dominate the current field of ESL writing
research. Since it promotes learner autonomy and self-expression, process writing is

37
congruent with the student-centered principles of constructive learning (Jones, 2004).
This approach allows for investigating learners’ perspective on their academic process as
well as finding new teaching methodologies. Thus, the view on writing as a process
raised interest in learners’ experiences which revealed that writing follows a recursive
pattern and not a linear one as was traditionally assumed by the product writing approach
(Witte, 1985). Quesada’s (2004) study of revising strategies of ESL writing students
showed that the revision stage does not happen when the essay is completed but
interrupts the writing process as often as learners find necessary. It was also clear that the
focus of revision is selected by the learners according to their understanding of the task
and their perception of writing standards and their own weaknesses as writers. This
aspect of the study is especially important in the field of ESL academic writing since it
suggests that similar language proficiency of students does not guarantee similar levels of
writing skills or awareness of academic demands.
Although writing is mainly an individual enterprise, process writing research
brought evidence that learners achieve better results when writing is accompanied by
conversational interaction which has “the capacity to advance, broaden, and clarify our
understandings” (Strauss & Xiang, 2006, p. 359). The interactions in this study were
conducted in the form of writing conferences where students of an ESL basic writing
course were involved in group analyses of their compositions at the stage of planning,
drafting, and revising. The dialogic format of these conferences resulted in better clarity
of thought expression and essay organization, which allowed the authors to conclude that
verbal interaction in the writing discourse increases understanding of the task and the
steps involved in its completion as well as the ability to locate and solve problems by

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