2. Lawrence KohlbergLawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg identifies three stages ofLawrence Kohlberg identifies three stages of
moral development:moral development:
1.1. Preconventional – moral reasoning is tied toPreconventional – moral reasoning is tied to
feelings of pleasure and avoidance of painfeelings of pleasure and avoidance of pain
2.2. conventional – specific cultural normsconventional – specific cultural norms
dominate moral reasoningdominate moral reasoning
3.3. Postconventional – more abstract ethicalPostconventional – more abstract ethical
principles are involvedprinciples are involved
3. Carol GilliganCarol Gilligan
Research focuses on a systematic comparisonResearch focuses on a systematic comparison
of moral development for females and males.of moral development for females and males.
Her work indicates that the moral reasoning ofHer work indicates that the moral reasoning of
girls and boys is different.girls and boys is different.
1.1. Girls tend to use a care and responsibilityGirls tend to use a care and responsibility
perspectiveperspective
2.2. boys tend to use a justice perspective.boys tend to use a justice perspective.
An important question is whether theAn important question is whether the
differences are the result of nature or nurture.differences are the result of nature or nurture.
4. Kohlberg’s stages of moralKohlberg’s stages of moral
developmentdevelopment
Preconventional Level - childhood to middle schoolPreconventional Level - childhood to middle school
Stage 1: Heteronymous Morality - Ethics ofStage 1: Heteronymous Morality - Ethics of
Punishment and obediencePunishment and obedience
Good is simply based on rules and avoidingGood is simply based on rules and avoiding
punishment without considering whether thepunishment without considering whether the
rules themselves are good.rules themselves are good.
Stage 2: Instrumental purpose - Ethics of marketStage 2: Instrumental purpose - Ethics of market
exchangeexchange
Good is what is good for the individual, or whatGood is what is good for the individual, or what
you can trade for by doing favors in the moment.you can trade for by doing favors in the moment.
5. Kohlberg’s stages…Kohlberg’s stages…
Conventional Level—adolescence andConventional Level—adolescence and
adulthood (many never go past this level)adulthood (many never go past this level)
Stage 3: Interpersonal conformity—ethicsStage 3: Interpersonal conformity—ethics
of peer opinionof peer opinion
Good is what the peer group approves ofGood is what the peer group approves of
Stage 4: Social system orientation—Stage 4: Social system orientation—
ethics of law and orderethics of law and order
Good conforms to social rules, laws andGood conforms to social rules, laws and
customs—similar to stage 3, but broadercustoms—similar to stage 3, but broader
6. Kohlberg’s stages…Kohlberg’s stages…
PostconventionalPostconventional
Stage 5: Social contract orientationStage 5: Social contract orientation
Good is what conforms to procedures regulatingGood is what conforms to procedures regulating
agreement and disagreement (see Utilitarian andagreement and disagreement (see Utilitarian and
Deontology ethics)Deontology ethics)
Stage 6: Ethics of self-chosen universalStage 6: Ethics of self-chosen universal
principlesprinciples
Good is consistent with personally identified andGood is consistent with personally identified and
chosen moral principleschosen moral principles
7.
8. Carol Gilligan:Carol Gilligan:
As we have listened for centuries to the voices ofAs we have listened for centuries to the voices of
men and the theories of development that theirmen and the theories of development that their
experience informs, so we have come more recentlyexperience informs, so we have come more recently
to notice not only the silence of women but theto notice not only the silence of women but the
difficulty in hearing what they say when they speak.difficulty in hearing what they say when they speak.
Yet in the different voice of women lies the truth ofYet in the different voice of women lies the truth of
an ethic of care, the tie between relationship andan ethic of care, the tie between relationship and
responsibility, and the origins of aggression in theresponsibility, and the origins of aggression in the
failure of connection .failure of connection .
The failure to see the different reality of women'sThe failure to see the different reality of women's
lives and to hear the differences in their voices stemslives and to hear the differences in their voices stems
in part from the assumption that there is a singlein part from the assumption that there is a single
mode of social experience and interpretation (seemode of social experience and interpretation (see
moral pluralism).moral pluralism).
9. What is Care Ethics…What is Care Ethics…
A family of beliefs about the way values should beA family of beliefs about the way values should be
manifested in character and in behaviormanifested in character and in behavior
Unified by shared concerns and commitments and by theUnified by shared concerns and commitments and by the
rejection of the traditional philosophical view that ethicsrejection of the traditional philosophical view that ethics
can be adequately represented by rules and principlescan be adequately represented by rules and principles
In her work with women, she came to the conclusion thatIn her work with women, she came to the conclusion that
she was hearing a different voice from the traditional ethicalshe was hearing a different voice from the traditional ethical
theory “male” voicetheory “male” voice
When women are presented with cases of moral conflict,When women are presented with cases of moral conflict,
they focus on the details of the people involved in thethey focus on the details of the people involved in the
situation and their personal relationshipsituation and their personal relationship
10. What this meansWhat this means
There is an attempt to, as much as is possible, satisfy the interestsThere is an attempt to, as much as is possible, satisfy the interests
of everyone concerned and cause the least amount of harmof everyone concerned and cause the least amount of harm
This means there is preparation for compromise and aThis means there is preparation for compromise and a
willingness to find points of agreement, to be flexible in theirwillingness to find points of agreement, to be flexible in their
demands, and to take novel approaches to find resolutions thatdemands, and to take novel approaches to find resolutions that
are acceptableare acceptable
11. Ethic of Care vs. Ethic of justiceEthic of Care vs. Ethic of justice
Women – ethic of careWomen – ethic of care
Men – ethic of justiceMen – ethic of justice
She does not consider this a perfect correlation between theShe does not consider this a perfect correlation between the
gendersgenders
Ideally, moral agents should employ both approaches in moralIdeally, moral agents should employ both approaches in moral
decision makingdecision making
There is room for both and a need for both and GilliganThere is room for both and a need for both and Gilligan
recognizes thisrecognizes this
12. What this means
Rules are inappropriate and unnecessary where
certain human relationships are concerned
Care ethics denies that abstract principles can
capture everything relevant to making moral
decisions
We can’t just slap a rule onto every situation
We must instead have an understanding of the
complexities of the particular situation in which a
moral problem has occurred
We need a deep and detailed understanding of
the people, their interests and feelings. And
only with this is it possible to sensitively respond
to their problem
13. Intelligence and Empathy
This requires intelligence – grasp relationships and
details about the people, circumstances, and the
problem
We must also use empathy to understand the
concerns and feelings of the people involved (must
identify with them)
We must realize what they consider to be at stake,
ascertain their worries and concerns
The point is not to find out who is wrong and right, but
to find a way out of the conflict that takes into account
the concerns and feelings of all those involved
14. Inappropriate and Mistaken
Traditional values placed emphasis on
disinterestedness, detachment, and dispassionate
objective judging. Gilligan says this is inappropriate
and mistaken
Why?
Because it excludes the very values that are most
relevant to moral situations and most important to the
people involved
This means we must make an effort to develop
individuals who respond appropriately to moral
situations (recognize importance of personal
relationships, respect others and accept
responsibility)
15. DifficultiesDifficulties
Gilligan’s claims about the differences between the moralGilligan’s claims about the differences between the moral
reasoning of women and men do not stand up to thereasoning of women and men do not stand up to the
challenge of more recent datachallenge of more recent data
However, these claims are not crucial to care ethics. It isHowever, these claims are not crucial to care ethics. It is
enough to demonstrate the importance of values thatenough to demonstrate the importance of values that
belong to the ethic of care by showing how they play abelong to the ethic of care by showing how they play a
role in the moral life of individuals and societyrole in the moral life of individuals and society
Care ethics can be seen as a part of the traditionalCare ethics can be seen as a part of the traditional
enterprise of philosophical ethics (act so as to promoteenterprise of philosophical ethics (act so as to promote
the good of others)the good of others)
If this is so, then care ethics is a part of the traditionalIf this is so, then care ethics is a part of the traditional
enterprise of ethics (it does not necessarily stand as anenterprise of ethics (it does not necessarily stand as an
alternative to a moral theory)alternative to a moral theory)
